INTRODUCTION

Radio frequency integrated circuit (RFIC) design is an exciting area for research or product development.
Technologies are constantly being improved, and as they are, circuits formerly implemented as discrete solutions
can now be integrated onto a single chip. In addition to widely used applications such as cordless phones and cell
phones, new applications continue to emerge. Examples of new products requiring RFICs are wireless local-area
networks (WLAN), keyless entry for cars, wireless toll collection, Global Positioning System (GPS) navigation,
remote tags, asset tracking, remote sensing, and tuners in cable modems. Thus, the market is expanding, and with
each new application there are unique challenges for the designers to overcome. As a result, the field of RFIC
design should have an abundance of products to keep designers entertained for years to come.

This huge increase in interest in radio frequency (RF) communications has resulted in an effort to provide
components and complete systems on an integrated circuit (IC). In academia, there has been much research aimed
at putting a complete radio on one chip. Since complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) is required for
the digital signal processing (DSP) in the back end, much of this effort has been devoted to designing radios using
CMOS technologies[1–3]. However, bipolar design continues to be the industry standard because it is a more
developed technology and, in many cases, is better modeled. Major research is being done in this area as well.
CMOS traditionally had the advantage of lower production cost, but as technology dimensions become smaller,
this is becoming less true.

The objective of a radio is to transmit or receive a signal between source and destination with acceptable quality
and without incurring a high cost. From the user’s point of view, quality can be perceived as information being
passed from source to destination without the addition of noticeable noise or distortion. Cost can be seen as the
price of the communications equipment or the need to replace or recharge batteries. Low cost implies simple
circuits to minimize circuit area, but also low power dissipation to maximize battery life.

RF vs MICROWAVE
RF or Radio Frequency is a term that is often used to describe the number of times per second or oscillation of an
electromagnet radiation. Anything between 3Hz and 300GHz is still refered to as RF waves, but they are
subdivided depending on the actual frequency. Microwave is the general term used to describe RF waves that
starts from UHF (Ultra High Frequency) to EHF (Extremely High Frequency) which covers all frequencies
between 300Mhz to 300GHz, lower frequencies are refered to as radio waves while higher frequencies are called
millimeter waves.

People have found a lot of uses for radio frequency waves, most of which are in the field of communications.
Radio waves are generally used for AM/FM radio stations due to the relative ease of using these types of waves.
Microwaves which occupy the upper spectrum of RF waves have an even wider range of applications. Starting
from the common microwave oven that uses microwaves to heat and cook our food, to military weapons that can
heat the skin of enemy forces. But the most common use of microwaves are still in communications.
The most common devices that we often use without even knowing that they are using microwaves are the WiFi
routers and cards that we use to connect to our networks wirelessly. They utilize 2.4 or 5GHz RF waves to
transmit data to and from our devices. Aside from that, microwave links are also used by internet service
providers to transmit data from one point to another. Despite the introduction and adoption of fiber optic cables
for this purpose. Microwave transmitters and receivers are still in use today in some areas. Microwaves are also
being studied by some scientists today due to its capability to transmit power over the air. It is now being
considered as a viable transmission method for harvesting solar power from space.
IEEE Radar Bands
Frequency bands in the microwave range are designated by letters. This convention began
around World War 2 with military designations for frequencies used in radar, which was the
first application of microwaves. Unfortunately there are several incompatible naming systems
for microwave bands, and even within a given system the exact frequency range designated by
a letter may vary somewhat between different application areas. One widely used standard is
the IEEE radar bands established by the US Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.

Radar-frequency bands according to IEEE standard[4]

Band Frequency range Explanation of meaning of letters
Designatio
n
HF 0.003 to 0.03 GHz High Frequency[5]
VHF 0.03 to 0.3 GHz Very High Frequency[6]
UHF 0.3 to 1 GHz Ultra High Frequency[6]
L 1 to 2 GHz Long wave
S 2 to 4 GHz Short wave
C 4 to 8 GHz Compromise between S and X
X 8 to 12 GHz Used in WW II for fire control, X for cross (as in crosshair).
Exotic.[6]
Ku 12 to 18 GHz Kurz-under
K 18 to 27 GHz Kurz (German for "short")
Ka 27 to 40 GHz Kurz-above
V 40 to 75 GHz
W 75 to 110 GHz W follows V in the alphabet
mm or G 110 to 300 GHz[note Millimeter[4]
1]
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
Radio-frequency identification (RFID) uses electromagnetic fields to automatically identify
and track tags attached to objects. The tags contain electronically-stored information. Passive
tags collect energy from a nearby RFID reader's interrogating radio waves. Active tags have a
local power source (such as a battery) and may operate hundreds of meters from the RFID
reader. Unlike a barcode, the tag need not be within the line of sight of the reader, so it may be
embedded in the tracked object. RFID is one method of automatic identification and data
capture (AIDC).[7]
RFID tags are used in many industries. For example, an RFID tag attached to an automobile
during production can be used to track its progress through the assembly line; RFID-tagged
pharmaceuticals can be tracked through warehouses; and implanting RFID microchips in
livestock and pets enables positive identification of animals.
Since RFID tags can be attached to cash, clothing, and possessions, or implanted in animals and
people, the possibility of reading personally-linked information without consent has raised
serious privacy concerns.[8] These concerns resulted in standard specifications development
addressing privacy and security issues. ISO/IEC 18000 and ISO/IEC 29167 use on-
chip cryptography methods for untraceability, tag and reader authentication, and over-the-air
privacy. ISO/IEC 20248 specifies a digital signature data structure for RFID
and barcodes providing data, source and read method authenticity. This work is done
within ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 31 Automatic identification and data capture techniques Tags can also
be used in shops to expedite checkout, and to prevent theft by customers and employees.
In 2014, the world RFID market was worth US$8.89 billion, up from US$7.77 billion in 2013
and US$6.96 billion in 2012. This figure includes tags, readers, and software/services for RFID
cards, labels, fobs, and all other form factors. The market value is expected to rise to US$18.68
billion by 2026.[9]

RFID Tags
RFID is a contactless identification technology based on the transmission of radio frequency
waves. Its advantage over its predecessor, the barcode system, is its increased range and
increased data storage capacity. The typical RFID system consist of three main components, the
transponder (or tag), the reader, and the application.
The tag is the data storage component. The tags we will use in this project will be passive tags,
meaning they do not have an internal power supply. The reader activates, powers, and
communicates with the tag using electromagnetic waves. Once activated, the tag will respond to
the reader with the information that is stored in its memory. The reader extracts this information
and sends it the application component for processing.

A radio-frequency identification system uses tags, or labels attached to the objects to be

identified. Two-way radio transmitter-receivers called interrogators or readers send a signal to
the tag and read its response.[10] RFID tags can be either
(1) Passive Tags
A passive tag is cheaper and smaller because it has no battery; instead, the tag uses the radio
energy transmitted by the reader. However, to operate a passive tag, it must be illuminated with a
power level roughly a thousand times stronger than for signal transmission. That makes a
difference in interference and in exposure to radiation.
(2) Active or Battery-assisted passive Tags
An active tag has an on-board battery and periodically transmits its ID signal. A battery-assisted
passive (BAP) has a small battery on board and is activated when in the presence of an RFID
reader. Tags may either be read-only, having a factory-assigned serial number that is used as a
key into a database, or may be read/write, where object-specific data can be written into the tag
by the system user. Field programmable tags may be write-once, read-multiple; "blank" tags may
be written with an electronic product code by the user.
(3) Semi Passive Tags
Semi Passive tags are battery-powered. They do not transmit active signals. They can monitor
things in a container, such as climate or security breaches. They range from $10 to $50 in price.
A semi-passive tag is an RFID tag that has a battery but communicates with a reader using back
scatter, like a passive tag without a battery. The battery is usually used to power a sensor, and to
run the circuitry on the chip. That allows more energy from the reader antenna to be reflected
back to the interrogator, thereby giving semi-passive tags a longer read range than
ordinary passive tags.
Semi-active tags have made their mark in the identification of container tampering and tracking
of high valued merchandise.

RFID tags contain at least three parts:

an integrated circuit that stores and processes information and that modulates and demodulates
radio frequency (RF) signals; a means of collecting DC power from the incident reader signal;
and an anteena for receiving and transmitting the signal. The tag information is stored in a non-
volatile memory. The RFID tag includes either fixed or programmable logic for processing the
transmission and sensor data, respectively.

An RFID reader transmits an encoded radio signal to interrogate the tag. The RFID tag receives
the message and then responds with its identification and other information. This may be only a
unique tag serial number, or may be product-related information such as a stock number, lot or
batch number, production date, or other specific information. Since tags have individual serial
numbers, the RFID system design can discriminate among several tags that might be within the
range of the RFID reader and read them simultaneously.

RFID systems can be classified by the type of tag and reader. A Passive Reader Active
Tag (PRAT) system has a passive reader which only receives radio signals from active tags
(battery operated, transmit only). The reception range of a PRAT system reader can be adjusted
from 1–2,000 feet (0–600 m), allowing flexibility in applications such as asset protection and
supervision.
An Active Reader Passive Tag (ARPT) system has an active reader, which transmits
interrogator signals and also receives authentication replies from passive tags.
An Active Reader Active Tag (ARAT) system uses active tags awoken with an interrogator
signal from the active reader. A variation of this system could also use a Battery-Assisted
Passive (BAP) tag which acts like a passive tag but has a small battery to power the tag's return
reporting signal.
Fixed readers are set up to create a specific interrogation zone which can be tightly controlled.
This allows a highly defined reading area for when tags go in and out of the interrogation zone.
Mobile readers may be hand-held or mounted on carts or vehicles.

PRODUCTS which use RFID Technology

(1) Vehicle Access and Identification

The ability to identify a vehicle and access information about it by reading its RFID tag is a
beneficial for companies like car rental agencies, car dealerships, and even car wash
facilities. With the addition of software, these companies can pull up car records or
purchases by just reading the car’s unique RFID tag. Rental companies and dealerships
could have several cars on the lot that are nearly identical, so the unique RFID tag provides
them with vehicle identification without trying to find and compare multiple VINs. Car
washes (and other companies using car servicing as a business model) can use RFID to
uniquely identify cars to enhance loyalty programs and automate transactions. Additionally,
states and localities use RFID systems to automate tolling charges and keep traffic flowing
more smoothly for those participating in the program.
(2) Toll Collection System
RFID based toll collection system is used as a technology for fast and efficient collection
of toll at the toll booths. This is possible for the vehicles passing through the toll plaza need not
stop to pay toll and the payment automatically is deducted from the account of the driver.

(3) Shopping Complexes

RFID uses electromagnetic fields to automatically identify and track tags attached to objects. The
tags contain electronically-stored information. RFID is one method of automatic identification
and data capture (AIDC).
(4) Logistics & Supply Chain Visibility.
Winning in the supply chain means increasing efficiency, reducing errors, and improving
quality. In chaotic manufacturing, shipping, and distribution environments, real-time data
on the status of individual items provides insights that turn into actionable measures. With
the visibility provided by RFID, you’ll be on your way to Six Sigma Master Black Belt
status in no time.

(5) Item level inventory tracking.

Tracking assets on the item level is beneficial across a broad cross-section of industries,
but the retail sector has one of the highest ceilings in terms of opportunity from the use of
RFID. As mentioned above, tracking items through the supply chain is wonderful, but now
think about tracking items through the supply chain all the way to the point of sale. With a
well designed inventory system sharing data across all business units, you’ll have a
treasure trove of actionable data. One last added benefit — store employees can count
inventory in a matter of minutes with a handheld RFID reader.

(6) Race timing

Timing marathons and races are one of the most popular uses of RFID, but often race
participants never realize they’re being timed using RFID technology, and that’s a
testament to RFID’s ability to provide a seamless consumer experience.
(7) Attendee Tracking
With an RFID attendee solution, we can eliminate the need for registration lines at
entrances.

(8) Access Control

Certain areas require an expected level of security and access. From doors to parking
lots, RFID access control tags restrict access to only those pre-approved.

(9) Materials management.

In construction and other related industries, materials are often the largest project
expenditure. On large job sites, simply finding materials can be problematic. RFID
solutions like Jovix take the guess work out of the equation.

(10) IT Asset Tracking

IT assets such as server blades, laptops, tablets, and other peripherals are costly
investments for any company, not to mention that information stored on those items could
prove detrimental in the wrong hands. IT asset tags give your IT team the ability to quickly
do an inventory count and make sure everything is in place.
(11) Tool Tracking
For industries that rely on a large variety of tools, fasteners, and other items, managing the
availability of those assets is a frustrating process. Depending on the level of
complexity, RFID tool tracking systems track which tools have been grabbed, which
employees have taken resources, and which resources haven’t been returned to the tool crib.

(12) Library Systems

An RFID library solution improves the efficiency of circulation operations. While barcodes
require line of sight, RFID tags can be read from multiple angles which means the checkout
and check-in process is significantly faster. Also, as noted above in the retail section,
taking inventory of books on the shelf is dramatically faster.

(13) Laundry Management

Large companies like casinos often manage thousands of employee uniforms. With
an RFID laundry management system, operations can track which uniforms were assigned
to specific employees, the age of uniforms, the number of times washed, and identify
missing uniforms. RFID laundry tags provide a new level of visibility for laundry
management.

(14) Interactive Marketing

RFID in marketing brings a certain level of interaction to campaigns. Whereas traditional
advertising campaigns push a message onto the consumer, interactive campaigns invite the
consumer to engage with the brand. Here’s a list of RFID & NFC marketing examples.

(15) RTLS (Real Time Location System)

In some applications, you need to track the real-time location of assets, employees, or
customers. Whether you’re measuring the efficiency of worker movements, the
effectiveness of a store floor plan, or tracking the location of valuable resources, RFID
systems provide visibility in any number of locations.

RFIC USES
The growth of smaller, more power-sensitive wireless-communication products has fueled the
explosive development of RF integrated circuits (RFICs). Highly integrated RF components now
populate ICs, replacing the hybrid circuits that used discrete semiconductor devices. As a result,
RFICs can be found in applications that blanket the wireless space, ranging from cellular to
wireless LANs and everything in between.
Implementing traditional RF devices on ICs presents many unique problems. These issues
include the design of single-chip transceivers, active and passive devices on an IC, and power
and noise considerations. To complicate matters, today's wireless engineer must be
knowledgeable in the design, simulation, and layout of wireless-communication RFIC chips.
Such expertise necessitates the use of sophisticated RF/microwave computer-aided-design
(CAD) tool suites, such as Agilent EEsof's ADS and IC layout software and Cadence's Virtuoso.
Applied Wave Research's (AWR) Microwave Office 2002 provides RFIC designers with another
simulation and layout design toolset. This one includes electromagnetic (EM) analysis
capabilities. For the full-chip RFIC verification of wireless applications, many designers turn to
Mentor Graphic's Eldo RF simulator.

The development of intermediate-frequency (IF) direct-conversion technology is one of the most

recent successful applications of RFICs. In this technology, RF signals are converted directly to
baseband signals. Perhaps most noticeable in this arena is Parker Vision's Direct2Data (D2D)
technology. This company's PV-1000Hb, for example, is a single-chip RF-transceiver IC used in
802.11 applications. The chip provides high-quality, superheterodyne level RF-to-baseband
conversions. Several other RFIC vendors provide direct-conversion or Zero IF chip sets of
varying performance levels. Among these chips sets are Qualcomm's RadioOne, Analog Device's
Othello, and Infineon Technologies' Single-chip Multi Advanced Radio Transceiver IC Direct
Conversion, or SMART DC.

The convergence of various wireless networks—from both the datacom and telecom camps—has
driven the need for radios that support multiple protocol standards. More often than not, this calls
for RFICs that resist interference. Take the typical case of a device that simultaneously operates
Bluetooth WPAN and IEEE 802.11b WLAN radios. Because both of these technologies operate
in the 2.4-GHz unlicensed band, there is a significant chance of data collisions. Several
manufacturers have developed RFIC chip sets that will allow these protocols to coexist in
varying degrees of simultaneous operation. Examples include Mobilian's TrueRadio and
Blue802, which resulted from the Intersil/Silicon Wave collaboration.

Of course, RFICs already maintained a large market share as a major component of any cellular
handset. Many vendors produce RFICs that support the major 2G, 2.5G, and 3G cellular network
protocols. Skyworks Solutions, which was formed out of the recent merger of Alpha Industries
and Conexant Systems' wireless businesses, provides a family of RFIC subsystems for 2G and
3G Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) digital cellular handsets.
Now, however, the success of Wi-Fi products another name for 802.11b compliant systems has
caught the attention of major telecom vendors and carriers. Multiband, multimode, and multi-
protocol RFICs are being developed that will permit cell phones or laptop PCs to connect to
either GSM/GPRS or Wi-Fi networks. For example, T-Mobile (formerly VoiceStream) is
working with both Nokia and Cisco to bring network integration technology and multimode PC
modem cards to market.

A space also is opening up for GPS radio ICs, now that the U.S. Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) mandates e-911 capabilities in all new cell phones. Many vendors, such as
Tality, Maxim, Analog Devices, Motorola, and Texas Instruments, have developed GPS RFICs.
Some, like SiGe Semicon-ductor, have developed such a chip set using a silicon-germanium
BiCMOS process. The company's SE4100 GPS Radio IC enables a range of wireless devices
with global-positioning capabilities. They range from e-911-enabled cell phones to embedded
devices in motor vehicles.

As the cellular industry moves to next-generation networks like 3G, GPS radio ICs will become
even more prevalent. Motorola's Personal Communications Sector recently announced that it will
integrate SiRF Technologies' GPS chip sets into its 3G devices. The SiRF radio ICs will provide
European and Asian markets with location-based capabilities. RFIC technology can also be
found in everything from RF power amplifiers and micro electromechanical-systems (MEMS)
switches to RF-identification (RFID) systems and pagers. Obviously, the growth of wireless
devices will only hasten the development of new RFIC technologies and products.

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REFERENCES
[1] Lee, T. H., The Design of CMOS Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits, Cambridge, England:
Cambridge University Press, 1998.

[2] Razavi, B., RF Microelectronics, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998.

[3] Crols, J., and M. Steyaert, CMOS Wireless Transceiver Design, Dordrecht, the Netherlands:
Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997.

[4] IEEE Std 521-2002 Standard Letter Designations for Radar-Frequency Bands

[5] Table in [4]

[6] Norman Friedman (2006). The Naval Institute Guide to World Naval Weapon Systems.
Naval Institute Press. pp. xiii. ISBN 978-1-55750-262-9.

[7] Automatic Identification and Data Collection (AIDC) Archived May 5, 2016, at the Wayback
Machine.

[8]^ Angell, I., Kietzmann, J. (2006). "RFID and the end of cash?" (PDF). Communications of
the ACM. 49 (12): 90–96. doi:10.1145/1183236.1183237. Archived from the original(PDF) on
2014-02-24. Retrieved 9 November 2013.

[9]^ "RFID Forecasts, Players and Opportunities in 2014–2024". IDTechEx.

[10]^"RFID-Tag". Behance. Retrieved 15 July 2018.