All rights mztrttcd with Fut1iahTc:tthuok Board. Lahtwc.

Appmvud by tht: Federal Minis-‘try t;:['E,|;1u|:;|Ii0r|_ [5I;g|1-;aI;t3d_

‘Vida Letter I'~lt:|-I-'.lIi-4-I'Zl]'|]21' b-.5) dalmzl IT May, 2003
_ __ Guftarnmenl 0|" Pttltislan. Islamabad-

Sr. Ha. Chgpter |=-Q9;

12. Electrctstattcs 1
13. C‘.-urre nt Electrictty 3,1
14. Electra-magnetism 55
15. . Electromagnetic lnductiflfl E1
15. Altemating Current 111
1?. Physics of Solids 135
13. Electmnics 154
19. Dawn uf Mun‘-arn Physics 1 T5
20. Atomic Spectra 3433
-21. Nuclear Physics 219
1. Glossary 360
ii. Btbliu-grap hy ' 25.4
iii. Index 255
"--- - . __ .

PM Br. llln. l"dI1'.i| Saint-mi mt. Mnhdnmnd Mi-Silhid

_ Eillrl-I-|l11lil-L|h'|..'\:-'t~FaI:ct:ht. I-:1:-i-F|¢p¢lg|
Pm-I. Dr. M-Ttl1,g]1I-1-lrn1|ll:
I-lltrin Btttt mt. Sh. Allah nttma tum.)
Fmf. Nu-nr Aland QIu1'r.1hl{ll|d.| Pnul‘. 5. H.Altl1lnr[Rld'.j
Pmll IHIIII-tltrll-d Niflr Prof. Dr. ljn Mujubn Ghuri
l"rnf- Dr. Muhammad Fllfiq Dr. Muhammad lhflq S:hl{RI:|.]
PI'fl|'- Muhammad l"itI\~"lr Khan

Pmfl Yl'lttl1ltluIld.|l|.l_iSl1:hid |'*.ruI. 5l1_.I|.l't|i1-.~\l1m|-d {ll'.ld.j|

l:u.1'.~|-F|.au:¢||| _
. Prqt Bf. Mn. I"u-tlzil Sllulni
S";-ll‘!-i-|fl1|I-lLI|'iil'rir|:I.i‘.|2Ili'|I '
- \-I. |'|.1ttr§-|tt.\. J’
fllliscrfillccrn
Putalllhnl by: Mum-II Brdl:l'IirlJlhIum. I; ,1 :1 - _ I
Prin-tldhyrz Zahid BI:hlt'F'I'|l‘|lfl'l'! I_ahm- " " ' "
flflqgflidrllng Euluu-n Imptld-1-|dII\ Nu-fllfirpill PI'lfl'
“H mu, " 151 1-1,. noon mm
 12
_- --_
—
Attlreehdofflrlc dreptertheshrdsnlswllhedale to:

Understand and d-ee-clibe C~eu|r.trmb'e lew.

' Deccrl-hetl1ert__achergehesal‘lelrle1tcroeeieundit.
Uniderslendfietcsofllkeandunlllteclurges.
-.‘ "£" '!"'-":!"‘ rec-lehlh ' 'leef' ‘t ‘nlsrssncl rtctcstsl ‘eras-ens llcetlenot‘
filroateflophenernenfipnmme'. Inna D" p mm pp
Etrplcinflteelectrtclnteneltylnalreeepeoeend In other media.
. ‘Slate end prove Gs-|.|ss's law. _' '
Appreoletelheepplice1icnsctGsuss'slew. _
‘F'l‘*F" "!-"' heleclrtc t‘ let '|' rerrneotwcrkrioneInl:' ' eunllcoslllve
mcrgeaph hcmlnfinpltE,r‘t.r;1fl[|?atpe?nf.°m m mama
9- Fteleteelectric field strerrgthencl potential gradient.
1|}. Ftnd Expression [DI potentislste lil'fliI'll!d|.|e!.c1a pcinlcharge.
11. Elsscrih-s and ccrivethe value o1eleo1ric_r':herge by Millil-tan's met:-ice,
12. Cielrnalatc the cspscitanceof parallel plate capacitor.
11 Reccgnlzclhie elfect eldielectriccnthecapccllsncecilpereltel plate capecilier.
14, Llnderstartrt and cleectihe electric pelerizelion ofdielerzhic.
' 15, gacw mergtrgaegfinefacgtaefigggralmd discharging c1 e cececltor through e resistance

1B- Find energyerrereeeierrefecherged capacitor. '

!~|e study of electric charges at rest under the ectien of electric forces is ltrrctrm as
ec1rcstalics.An electric leroe is the force which holds the peoilive end negative charges-
lhal matte up atoms and molecules. The human body is composed entirety ol etcms sntl
rrtolecutes.tl'tuswe owe cur ettislencclolhe electric force. '
 We l-tnow that there are two l-tinds ot charges. namely,
positive and negative charges. The charge on an electron is
assumed to be negative and charge on a proton is positive.
Moreover. we also learnt that lilte charges rep-al each other
and urllilte charges attract each ether. Now we investigate
the quantitative nature of these forces. The first
measurement ol the loroe between electric charges was
made in 1BTtl- AD by Charles Coulomb. El Frert-tat military
engineer. Clrt the basis ol these measurements, he deduced
slew ltnowrt as C‘-oulorrtt:|'s law. it statesthat
.n teen-in-|; nun :
'1- .*.'¢.
!_‘l.l|-._- 'F.":'...-.-. '-
I -f1‘I- --—I'-r*---'-
_;.____1.t-._..,|_,_|t
it . i. '
I-+ l-4!,-:3-I '.-- -. . -, ". .- . -. .1-
,
-.-.| I‘... -_.-t_
'-it-_T---;".i.r1:r_;'["_§_g-i": ‘5?T;.=;.ii=-._-is :.'.".'L.,"rt-'.'.‘-.'-.'-',,-=-'{?.f!'1.--- -151

- :.:- ,- :1-r
' E7-;'- _--..t_-._ital.._ -.15
.F.:,.e|_-:_i-r:_,'€.;:‘-rf_|_.__ _L,__-_F_-_._I-_f all-I-.-__—_--||t'd.|_i.t:-._---. .-_ ._
t_t:.--:_.1"itsI
..;-.1.--E‘-1-I-cl-t';'l,,{.‘1;_flfi.'-§.F-:1*1..";'E: "1 ' -
;.j_-;._ L:

_ ...I_.'.-.j-'-t.rj
it--' ;.u_..---|.-' .--.-.-_-;1, _ 7 __ _ '- ,_
Fetiiigl er F.._t¢@ ........ -. 112.1;
F
Where F is the magnitude of the mutual loro-E that acts on
F,‘ "It. ‘II. F_
each cri the two pcrnt charges qr, , q_. and r is the distance
-l—-I ---- -~-3--l~ between them. The torce F alwatrs acts along the line joining
r" the two point charges (Fig. 12.11, lr is the constant til
i=-r- “ """ ' '1' orooortionalittr. its value depends upon the nature oi medium
betweorl the two charges and system oi units in which F, q
r=,, |=,, and r are rneasured. It the medium between the two point
‘It. j_§.----.q_-J-c. charges is tree sea-so and the system of units is SI, then it is
-t------------> represented as
|t:.
it
F. 121 tlt lhoulutvtt hrou _ 5"]; ........ .. [t2.2i
bttilirltt llltl cltlriel Ind [hit
lltmthe lttteto ltehveert unlit:
dun-on where t:_ 15 an elactrtcal constant known as |;t-err'n|tt|~.'|t;,r of
tree space in 5| units. its value is B B5 I 113" hlt't't'C'
Eubslttuttngtha value of: the constant

it 4% =s=-=1o*r~.|m-t:-

Thus Cctutornlzfs force in free space is

F H ____i__ 951 ........ .. nae;

em, '\
tu

'1
er-
-he stated eainier. l1o|.tlomtis‘ force is mutual force. it means
Ihel it ti. eiterts at foroe on o,. than q, also etterts an equal and
opposite force on o.. lfvre denote the force cttertedoncghy e.
arsF_.. and thaloncharge o. dueto e_.as F.,. then
F,--t=,, {tat} t.
The magnitude ol both these two lioroes is the same ani:t is ‘Li
given by Eg. 12.3- To represent the direction ol these forces I
J

we introduce unit vector-s.'lf |'-,, isthe urtitv-actor directed from -'

_." r
F
ti
r.]I,toe,ar'|t:l|i,,istl1aunitve~ctori:Hreote'dfro|nq,tog,.flten
qt 1". r J‘ -
_ 1 g .
_ t=,, -Etta,-r-r._., 12.51:} §
If I
ll-lit qt ,"

so t=,,-;—;;5f_§1ie taste}
J
The tproes F,. and F._.are shown in Fig.12.2 l_a 8. D]. ltcan he '||
tot
seen that i,. =-i.,,scEqe.12.sras cisnewit-lat ng :2 :r
For = ' Fl:

The sign cl the charges in Eqs. 12-5 ta 8- ti] determine

whether the forces are attractive or repiulsive.
We shell now consider the ettect oi medium oetweenthe me Iii E |:,.
charges upon the Coulomb's force- ll the medium l5 an

ii
insulator. it is usually retened as dielectric. It has been fflqmfi vnctun ' 1
that the presence or a dielectric always reduces the I .tH'1I It'll] I ‘l.{IIfl-

electrostatic loroe as compared with that tl'l tree space by e I2-35

5-1-B
certain lactor which is a constant for the given dielectric. This Bllttilttrl 2.28-I
constant is ttrtown as relative penhitlivity and is represemed 't'iilt'|'ltIit.|tt't 1!
bye. The values ofrelalirve permittivityo-‘i difierent dietectncs 31: '.-‘Mu
are given in Table 12.1 him 3-1.5
P-itfl paper E
Thus the Coutcmtzrs loroe in a medium cl relative permittivity Flltllfll 5.-ll}
c, ls given by Flttttiillt‘ 2.9!
Tilttti 2.1
F =LEt
‘fl¢,Ef ri
.......... "2 E}
. Tfitfl‘ H
't\'ii|rllflIcl|
2.1
I'll

ltcan be seenin the tabtethel r._ forairls 1.tZiiJtZti;'i. This valuets

so close to one that with negligible error. the Eq. 12-3 gives
the electric toroeln air.
!h'It1th11fl: t2l'ugecq,=1DlIl_pl3mdq,f5Dpt3at'e
lomldhtry-phtedpctilornr, =10] u'ii:lr,=-it.tItltmier:-firttly.

3
 nlrerefliedialmseseremeaeumdinmelresfiaiuflateflwe
ferceer\e,[Fig.12.3}. "
3-fill-I’flen: q,é100|.1C. q,=50|.|G
Feaiticrrvqrserefcirelefivelfler
=r,,Ir,-r.I-4-l-Bl _ _
.r=n1egnltud|eh',.I J =.'5n1
\,\ .I. is -

-- ME.‘ i':||:|!—-“Ina:
MEI 5

F n1q.-
- »r~\
Q. _ *- 4--=..-f -
‘H
"
~ ‘Q1

hl|l lil|,""
r,l~l.0l 3 _9_:r ie'_r~r_|ifc:'-’ 1_ rec I111‘ cs ms 1e"c 1 4 r- s 1
- .-\.
DI-_- - 1*;

Fla 1:: F" ' rs in?’ s

' .-. at

=1-rHi-'l.lJBi
"ins-;,|i1r|u<issr|§,.=F=,,lr| .-14; ’ + r-r-es]»' = |.s er:

DlreclicnefF,.= tan" -3T"wilh:r-axis

_ I, 1.44; , I: -

Han-ten's urivsrsal gs-uitaliensl law and C-eulen'|l:'s law

enable us ie calculele the magniluee as well as the clireciisns
eflhe grerritetierral and eleclricferces. respect?-sly. Hewaver
one may q|.|es1ien. ta} W'ha1 are the eriglns cf lhese fercee?
{bl Haw are these [areas lransmlttec frem ene mesa le-
anelrisrnrlrern ens snargsle anether?
The ansn-er‘ In [is] is slil unimmvn: lhe eirlslense of lhese
forces is accepted as il is. Thal is wlw ll'ie{|' are called basic
fereesefnslure.
Te describe Ilia mecnanlsm by which electric ferce is
iransmlliacl, Michael Faraday [1?91-186?} lntrerlucecl the
eense|:tefanaisr:|risfis|d.Ai:sereinglehlslrierir1r.ltls1he
iruiinaiserepertyelnelurelrrataneiscuicfisidsisstshflne
space erer.mn:l err electric charge. This electric field la
censiceredteb-eafereefieltllhelexeriaefereeenefliar
charges plecercl In that lleld. Fer example. e charge e
preeusee an electrlr: field in the space surreunting ii. This

4
field exists whether the ether charges are present in space er
ncil. Huweuer, the presence el field cannpt be tested until
anelher charge q_, is l:irciug1'i| irtte the field. Thus the field of
charge e interacts with qi, lie prccluce an electrical farce. The
interactlen between g and g, is accomplished in twp stepe:
{at the charge e produces a field and lb) the field interacts
with charge g,_te preduce a leree Fen cu. These tiuesleps are
illustrated in Flg. 12.4.
In this figure the density cl clets is prep-nttienal te the strength
crl the field at the --arieus paints. We may define electric field [Ill
etrenglherelectric field intensity-Ealanp peintinthefield as
E--|=
qp l12.1 I
where F is the farce eitperlencecl by a peslllire test charge pi, _,'. ' --. F=I-c|_E
placed at the pcilnt. The test charge -rt, has te be uergismalse
trial itrnay net dlslertlhefield which ilhaslc measure.

llll tilt
Since electric field intensity is tcrce per unit charge, it is
mee5t.tre-cl in newton perceutemlzi i1 SI units. lt is a vector-
quantity and its directien is lhesameasthatefthe fierce F. H
The fence BlqJBl'iEl'lCE'l1l by a lest charge c, placed in the field _ 1:I}miI_—'I.I'I*'fl-!
cl‘ a charge g in vacuum is given by Eu. £12.33.
Eq. 12.? n be used tc evaluate electric intanslty due tci a
paint charge g ata peint distant rt'rcijn IL Place a peeitivetest
charge qr, at this paint. The C.‘-eutnrnl:i's Terce that this charge
will experience due llci q is

F =_"_‘?'l'
‘mu ?-P-r' .......... rthet
whereiis aunll -recterdlrected tremlne pelntchargeg te the
test point where qr, has been placed. l-e., the petnl where the
electric intensilyis teheevaluated- By Eq. 12.?
F 1 qq . 1 t g.
Eiqaflinc F39-rlqiihzn Fit’ ........ .. H19}

:_-I.--'..".~
_'_____ _ --,3;-'--..-. -'—'- -.
___..._.._:,. . --.-.
. . _ -,..
_ .. .. '-..-
:_ 2:11-. ,. '1];

-__'. -|u='.-;=. -1 _ 5 -5--4 Iu _-|— '15-‘!-2:‘

I-.t-1-: 1'.‘
-; Q. "al F
.¢. em
..!i"=‘,-‘l1'l'-,.""'T. I"'.'i;I'_T!§",I‘. ,' -. - -_t "- |1'i!'tT_'IL‘J'*! i-5' 41"---2]-.I}n-t----'ll'
:- -l-ti-' Ir ._._, , .P- |- In.‘ .__ -I
I-lI|-u-|_ --.15 ‘-. 1
sures
.?#-:1:
. P7‘'III:J". .- ‘l Iii--=5-lei. .'.=.*.*l~'tl.'-rd
_,_
{I1-.'l—' ' : II:-. |l L -1'! |';:t.-J:-TI|l':l l I:
__l|t~|E-l‘ -_ ll.- 1'5
'l'lI." -I I :-I- I ;-|'
'l--fI:"' 1 -1|---ll-Ir 1-» “I I I

5
 relfievnerelecteelit-eeclcieoiaelltthiilhifite
Flg.t2.5.iettrtedIstencedtPtrorng,bert.-- It =1-;;
.1I~\ sta- ii,’
'l -u
ME E_nEh |||.qj{|;lil|'|-'!_|;l_|gg1j'|qr| .:§5 ;'§:t' tiitt
.f-.-‘HQ!
.-55 " t q‘, =1‘ ‘it -q '-F‘ '==‘.=:i-TE
J
r
*¢| "
'l
"lib
I
as cl-rt" est’
- . . u i

; ;l=.;
--It - -

1'‘it’. 1B.fltt“tlll"C 4.'D:r'..’llIl"G - E: I;_..§

ll, ll‘
.
‘qr
i;""-.H.__1£|"F_.iI"'li‘
We
W
e+e -"ea
""'i1.i=i;—— d - . .. ...."..-_
.._l.!_

or irir-an-;a-o. hilicltglvea trlgl-_1;i_ii_i;=s'ii-.f_

There are htiio peeslttle _ir_a1ues of cl,
l-ll

\\’/..
oor1'es|:iondetoeiocati:inot'ItotlierlghtoIhottt;trie_et1u1gpe
urheren1egniti.ideeofE.and E.ere eorrltfl-hut"dlmcIp|@s~are
sante.li1tt\iseeeeE,endE_,iitonolc=eneeletfliea|:_irtt‘l§lie
positive velieccrroet:icnde'lici"tIte.-iioatton shoinrr'1n=flipu'I'iB.
ertdlstherterofieldlocetlor|,henee.d¢=+1.tlrrt,.;_==-5:~15!-

"T r a
rs 1'
+\\*~.
' l
rlwisual represantaliion cl‘ lheelectric field can be obtained in
terms of electric field lines; an idea proposed by liilichael
Faraday. Electric field lines can he thought cl a ‘map’ that
provides iitlorrnalicirii ah-out the diection and 51.l‘Bt’lgl.l't of ll'ie
rg.t:_ag1!ltlI=iII'rtrHIdlltI*rl.
electric field at various pleoea- As electric field linea provide
pHildl'i1ililrl'iII|ll'|IilliclfllItill
information about the electric force etrerted on a charge. the
defile:-:i'ld'in'ip|le.i|i-iiterllrieei
I tqtrtfltil tense tilcld H11- lines are commonly called ‘lines oliorce".
cllrwd.-._|I'rIdeth'i:%l'lllII
in-use nu-iy =-mutt Inn rut To introduce electric field lines-. we place posi'li'ire lest
neiilhIircI1l=I1IaI*~c-
charges each ofmagnitude q,,at ditterenlptaces out at equal
distances froth a positive charge +q as shrnvn in the figure.
Each test change will experience a repulsive force, as

\. l/3?”
-\-
ll"l2ll.t,‘sfllfEd by enztrws in Fig- 12.E[a]. Therefore, the electric;
field created by the charge +o is directed radially outward.
Fig. 12.6 {bl shows corresponding field lines which showlhe
field direction. Fig. 12.? shows the electric field lines in the
vicinity ol a negative charge -e In this case the tines are
directed radially ‘inward’, because the tdrce on a positive
test charge is new or attraction, indicating the electric field
pointsin-ward.
Figures 12.6 and 12.? represent two dimensional picture-sot

\ - ll
the field lines. However, electric field lines ernarge from the
charges in three dimensions. and an infinite ni.irnb-er of tines
it
“Tn H‘/"'ti:
__j couldbedrawri-
The electricfield lines ‘map’ also provides information about

ti
the strength oi‘ the electric field. As we notice in
Figs. 12-5 and 12.? that field lines are closer to each other ‘|rii|i|-lie;-ll
near the charges where the field is strong vthie they -_-
‘I.
--Il'I I!|,-l_t-_-l"'_|_-
.1
continuously spread outindicating a continuous decrease in
thefieldstrength. __ 1
. "i
i " .p

;" -§*‘"'lr " "is" 1

itii
-I -I --..
; l| " .-
.’r' L U‘-.

The electric field ices are curved ln case oi hvo identical

separated charges. Flg.12.B shows the partem ot lines
associated virith two identical positive point charges of equal
magnitude. lt reveals that the linesin the region brB'l;1i'tl$Bt'lt'r'r\l;t
lilte charges seem to repel each other. ‘I1-ie behaviour i;i‘itwp
identical negatively charges irril be eiteclly the same, The
midcle region shows the presence ot a zero field spot or _1 _.-rl .. ‘-
neutrelzorie.
W tr
The Fig.12.9 sltovrs the electric field pattern cl hvo opposite .4‘ -1;
't¥i-atI.-'. .|r~_;—__5'_
-
IIII
charges oi same magnitudes. The ileld lines start from lxlufi gs, ‘--.
positive charge and end on a negative charge. The electric '-.~-_ It
field at points suoh as 1, 2, 2 is the resultant otfietde created | I ,.-' _. ‘
"ti. "
by the two charges at these points. The directions or the | _ y

i
resultant intensities is given by the tangents drevim to the field
linesat these points.
In the regions where the field lines are parallel and equally
spaced. the same number or lines pass per unit area and
therefore, field is uniform on all points. Fig. 12-11] shows l'.l1e

i
” Tl il 2>i
field lines between the plate-sot aparallel plate capacitor. The
field is unil‘orm in the middle region where field lines are
equally spaced.
We are new in a position to summarize the properties
oteleciricfieldlinee.
ti Electric field lines originate lrom positive charges I
and end on negative charges. -
2] The is-irigettt to a field line at any point gives the
diireclionotthe elactricfieldatthat point.

<lcl lg,last
3] The fines are closer vritere the field is strong and the
linesaretanherapehnheretrtefialdisvieah

ttltlfliglr-§
til No two lines crosseach other. This is be-muse E has
only onedireclionatanygiven point. tithe lines cross,
Ecould have more than one direction.

T
 i[|| Jtorography[Photo-copier]
Fig.12.11 illustrates a photocopy machine. The copying

pa-grain-bocopled-la-oodcrirrrn

M _ lens
larrip __

lortorooifirrdge
ocrritl-nrrtg bleolt
lonerrhrst
:,lr—I"'I i

—
urdr-rial papero-n'rIr11lcl'it1~rI
hqggigji-gigy, irrtngets-prritrl-d

t'.'*.."-...t'...’“s'f.‘;."L'l.t'..."°“"""’.....,..ll2.'.tt'..."’.......""""...':‘..'tt.t'.';'.,“s%'t
iII'lIHII'.TIlIII'fl'-Irililfir-W. _ ' fl '_" ,2

process is celled rrerography. irom the Grreelr word 'xeros'

and ‘graphosf, theaning "dry writing", The heart of machine
is a drum which is an atuminrum cylinder coated with a layer
, ol selenium. Aluminium is an excellent conductor. CI-n the
other hand, selenium is an insulator iri the clarlr and becomes
a conductor when exposed to light; it is a photoconductor. As
a result. if a positive charge is sprinltlad over the selenium it
will remain there as tong as it remains in darir. if the drur'n is
exposed to light. the electrons from aluminium pass through
the conducting selenium and neutralize the positive charge.
It the drum is exposed to an image oi the document to be
copied, the clarlt and light areas of the docuntent produce
fry; rig ||-q “yaw pg it corresponding areas on the drum. The darlt areas retain their
li-hsl lltrl hp or’ I'lrl|iidl.IlI' ‘l'IIor.rrgh positive charge. but light areas become conducting, lcse
the
muin-are
H, aniii-tit
M mm the orirrirroi
In ,,,or their positive charge and become neutral.
“'°""““”"'“““" In this way, a positive chargelmage of the document remains
on the selenium surlace. Then a special dry. blaclr. powder
called ‘toner’ is given a negative charge and spread overthe
dn,im,1.rrl'1ere itsticlrs to the positive charged areas.
The loner [rem the i;ln,.im is translerred on to a sheet-bl paper
on which the document is to be copied. Heated pressure

S
rollers than nri-air the toner into the paper which is also given
arr e’-tlcess positive charge to produce the permanent
impresrsion oftha document.
Ill] lrl!-Ijcl Pr‘ r'rl.r2-I";
An inltjet printer {Fig 12.12 a] is a hrpe of printer wfiripit uses
etaotnc charge in its operation, while shuttling tiaclt and forth
acroae the paper. the initjet printer ‘ejects’ a thin stream or
inlr. The inlt is forced outcria small nozzle and breaks up into
etttrarrtel-;.r smalldroplets. Dunng their flight. the droplets pass
through two elaotrioal components. a ‘charging electrode‘
and the "deflection plates‘ [a parallel plate capacitor). When
the printhead moves over regions or the paper which are not
to he inlted, the charging electrode is tart on and gives the ink
droplets a net charge. The deflection plates ditrert suott
charged tlrepsintoa gutter and in this way such drops are net
able to aaadt the paper. Whenever ink ire to he placed on the
paper, the charging control. responding to con1ooter.turnsol‘f
the charging electrode- The uncharged droplets fly straight
through the deflection plates and sirilte the paper. Schematic
diagram ofsu-ch a printeris shown by-Fig.12.12th}.
rflnarprr-5 Ilr'l-|I.l-:1 to-I‘-I1
Ht-II-HJI i

"t ...;'"-H
II-IJIIIIIIIFIIF-I

titEl53$ii?iiilit‘
i i?/'
moan-glddrnshllannimlernei-nnooon
at
lnltjel printers can ate-D produce coloured copies.

when we place an element oi area in art electric field. some

ortheiirtes olforca pass throughitt_Fig. 12 t3al.
The number of the field lines passingthrough ecertain element
or area ts ltnoir-n as electric ltutr through that area. It is usually
denoted try Graelt letter ¢'. For tell-Bmplre the flt.|:-I otthrough the
areartin Fig. 12.13 ratisd wlhletlteflutr Irlrrough Ei is2.
In order to gitra a quantitative meaning to flux. the field lines
are drawn such that the number or field lines passing through

‘ti
 l —r- s unil area held perpendicular lo field Ines at a point

ll
represrerttthelrttenslty Eolthe llald aluial paint. Suppose at
—-+ a given paint lha tralue crl E is -rill’-ill‘-". This means that ll 1m‘
area is hsldporporidlculartolleldllheeatli-tiepolrit,4fiaii!
inaswilipessutrsugltlt.ihordertaeslahiishrolstion
—-n bohrrean elactriciluttrlli. electrlcinlensit-;rE and area rt. we

l
i-:__L_i-J..
—+
1--|__,.,_,_._-I
rnrtsidar the Flg-12.13 r[lfll,¢.d] triiltieit shows the three
tllrhertslrllrtfll representation of the electric field lites due to a
u'iilor'melech1cfieldoli1lensil1rE-
.\._-.- .- -.|»._ - . qr. _.r
In Fig.12.13 (bl. also is hold perpendicular to the field lines.
lhenErt_. lines pass fltrrougit ll. Tl'te1'lu:rtlll,ln ihlscasais

—'-it
l—-ii
——Ir
s --
“.- t-1==+*=-t»ir- Eli?
. _. "--' ll -' ' - _, -

trrhere A_t:lttr'id1iee that the area is held perpendicular to field

*4 lino-s. in Flg.12.13lc},a.rea A is hel-dparallaltofiaid lines and.
aslrs-ch»v'it:iushelinerscroesllisaraa, aatl-|atrt1nrrp_ir1 this
ii -"'—Ir caseis
in .

vrhera A, indicates that A is held paralal to the field lites.

Fig.12.13{dj|shorrrsthec=aserrrhttrrtr1ls-neither perpenrzlioular
nor parallel to field lites but ls inclined at angle El with lzha
lines. in this case we have-to find the projection ol the area
tahiclt is perpendicular tie use field lines. The area at this
prcrlectlon_{Flg.12-13d}isAeee£l.Ti-ie fluxtbin lhiscaqnls
1iI_=EAoorsEl
Lflfli Usualtrlltoalamantolaraoisrepresantsdhyavectorareah
ruhosomsrgniltrdeisequeitodtesurtacearea.-tiorll'vs
Fl|.12.1'! up
slomsntt_tind1t1'rosedlrectlcnlsdirectianefnorntaltothe
area. The electric llutt ttr, through a patch ot‘ flsl surface in
lotrrtsolEandill.istl'tangirrenl:iy

tmerareisutaartgiaoettvaonlltefleldllnesandtlterramtalte
theema.
Eleotric11r.ttr.traing ascaiarproduct. is a scalar quantity. its 5|
urtitiel~lrn’C'*.

L-etuscelculatell'ieelec1|icfluttU1r'ougltsdrosedsurfsoe.irt
shape ole sphereerradiusrdua loa point charger;

Ill
placietl at this oantre of sphere as sriorri-n in Fig. 12.14. To
applrrthelonhttla lil,= Ejlilorttiaootrqsutalioitoleleotitcflita.
tlteaurlacia qreasltoultlb-all-sl. Forthi.eroeaonl1'ielr:i'tol
strfaceareaofthesphoroisdiviiadirrionsrriollpahttltssuriht
areas olntagrtlttrdaa M..M,M, ......i|iliil..,-lfn is vary large.
each palchtrrr:|r.|ld lsa'aIoteiiernentolorere-'l'l1ie
oorreaponding tractor areas are dull... fliig,
respiectivel1r.Tha dlractionoleactttroctorareaia
parpenticular drawn outward to the ooirrespondi 3
Tliaater.ttt1cin'r-ansitiesatti-ieoentraeolrractor
£|.illi..£irli.,. E,. E, ---.----E_respecti-reigr.
iii
According to Eq.12.12. the total 'l’I.t:tr. passing through the . _. .| .|_ _I -
cioisadattrfaoais I “l I...,1
--.-- T'l
_- _.:..'.-
.; . ‘iJ-,,.-_.-.._.
-
. _ . .1-i.i_ _ __ __ ‘_J_T.,.T_.L -.
-' -- -_ _- _ - _ - . ._1t'1;.; ;~ ---J-I‘:
_ -. -T
Thedi|'ectiono1alectriclntenailyarid\recloraroaisaatrtoat
eecltpatr:h.liloreovar.bacatraeolspltar1cda';immatr3r.atllto
surfaosolspriere. -
-- - - ‘-'r-__ "-lbs-, tn
J-1'

.i.ti.._ >t-.~"-=- 'r_i fr-':1

..:I'.'_
"1""'l .- __r.:__;|-2: ‘Ur._:
.-:-7 -
.. 3
_ |-T-£153
ll‘.
ll-
-
-_..
5"t;-'_--5.2-
= . . '-."-j:ir1
J-

tli,IEo.-i.+Eo.A,+E.oA,+ .......+Eil!iA,.
=IEtt[.ilL-li,+.ilii.ll,+iM,+ .......+a.it.t
=Ett {total spherlcelsurlacia area}
1 H 3 .
i----——-
‘fit, :3! 4 IF

_ "r" \ .-,4 __ t=tq,t:_ta

_1. _ I‘. F‘.. . _| is_ ‘I _. ._f_.-. -1 "I-i .!rI .-_:_1.i... 1."
'-\-
1' 1..-.__.
'.:.-.
._ ,;;:E-“.4 E-1|! 3'‘-"I“f-'-

lrlowlniaginetltataclossdsurlaioafiisarioiositgltiasphare.
llcanbeaeer1lrtFig.12.1EithatthallutrtlIooghlhoolosorr:l
surlacefiietlteeameasthatthroughthospltartetsottrooart
ooricludelzhattortalfluttdt I'll"-ill haclosadsurlaroadoasnot
dEflrEl'tdU[II1|hBShE|3EDfQflflfl1D'U'§'Dffl1IdflGId5lJffIOl.ll
depends uponlhiemeditrn and lhiecriargo enclosed.

Suppose poiint charges qt, rt, qr, . rt, are arbitrarily

distdhutad it an arhltt'a|1,rahaped closed aurla aaahorirrrt in
Fig. 12.15. Using idea giren it previous section. tlte electric
ltuiipassinglliit:tug|h1ltac:iorseidsurlaioe_ls HI H 1-
 (Q-=gL |. q .| HI". ;, 1'1
Ea E: E-U ED

1
at-_= —.'r[q, +13, +41, -........+q,,)
1 5“
c,=__— at flclat charge enclosed byclcsec surface]
re
1
~it,=—I'D ........ .. (12.15)
EU

where D = q, + q_. +q-_ + .... .. +q,1, is the tctalcharge ertdcsed

by closed surface. Er:|-12.'1E is mathematical expression of
Gauss's law which can bestatetl as.

- .. ._._. ....::.. ‘Iii____ . F

Gauss's law is acplleo to calculate the electric Intensity clue

to rtitlereht charge confrguraucns. in all such cases, an
imaginary clc-sect surface is considered which passes
through the paint at '|'|‘l‘ltCl'l the electric intensity is to be
evaluated. This clcsed surface is itnown as -l".-iatlssian
surface. Its choice is such lhatthe flu: through itc-an be easily
evaluated. Nest the charge enclosed by Gaussian surface is
calculated anrt finally the electric intensity is computed by
applying -t'5auss's law E-q.12.1E. We will iilustrate this
prcceclure lsyrccnsirlering scrne examples.
I _ ._.__.. _.-_ __:
11] Iriterislty u‘ Field irwsiclc a rlcllcw Chargiirt
F
-r-*'+ Supposelhat a hollow ccncluclihg sphere cf radius Ens given
Q fir
a positive charge c. We wish to calculate the iielcl intensity
-l-
GilLt1=llIt'l Sltiiflfi
-l-
‘I first atapcrnt inside the sphere.
1- -__u_,_._
-I‘
.- Q New imagine a sphere cf radius Fits R In be inscribed within
s l.
um’-Ir
'3- the i1r:l|hew charged sphere as shcum in Fig. 12-17’. The
‘.1-.1‘ J surface cl‘ this sphere is the Gaussian surface- Let ti? he flux
'\_
‘\. r"
rt‘ 1-
through this closed surface. It can be seen in the figure that
|'\- .r _‘_
the charge enclcseu by the Gaussian surfaces is zero.
i R. i Applying Gaussian law. we have
1 1'
1- ,|, 4-
o,= 5 = c
n; 1111 E9

Since ¢t,= EA = D as Ar Cl. therefore. E =D

I2
Thus the int-erler cf a hollow charged metal sphere is e field
tree regicn.A.s a consequence. any apparatus pieced within
emelalenclesureis'st|ielded_'fromelecai_cfieli:ie._ _ _ ._ ,.|
it:-| Electric lnti:-risity ljtiie to an ln*iuitr- Sheet -ct 1,4 __ ____;_____
Eli:-irge _| _ -;i-
,.__, .
Suppcse we heire B plane sheetcfinfinite estenten yiihich ' ' __._In ,_
H.-
pcisltiug dflrges. are urifclnnly l:li=et1ibu'bed_ The ul'til'tJi|‘l'l'l ' ' "‘“
surface charge density ts. say. cr.Atinite pertctlhie sheet is
shown in Fig. 12.18. TocalculatellteelectricintensityEete
peint P, clcse to the sheet. imagine a closed Gaussian
surfacei-i thetermctecyiindarpessingdtrtmgltttie sheet.
whceecnetlatfcce ccnleins poi-nt PL Frcm symmetry we can
conclude that E pcinisat right angletetheend faces and
ainrayfrcrhtl'le plane. Since Eisperalteltethecuruedsurface
ciftl1ecytlnder.setharelsrrpccrrlIihulienlcfltnrhcn1tlte
curved wall of the cylinder. White it will he,
EA +EA=2EA.ihrcughtl1ehucllatandfacesofd1ec:lceed
cylindrical surface, where A is the surface area ct the fiat
feces (Fig- 12.13]. As the charge enclosed by the closed
suriaceia tr.-lt.1;l1erefcre. eccardingtc Gauss's law.
c_=£l itciiargeenc-lcsedhycdcseclsurfece
Q

_. _. _- e==§-intuit‘ -__-="-1;
_ - . -fi- _. ..., - ._... .-_1s '1,

Therefore. 2E-'l=£lxeA

5, -. .__|
- .-
, E..L",1--=1-=3:s..::.;..--7'1=?lfesis
s .I_. _ . _--:---..-s_
.__,_ _ -_ 1

- -- .i...-:.---'If1I"'_"u _-. _!.;' '."T‘?'t"_' 'r_-'----_--i.-.--'.!1"-

"“'““‘“""-"'7"'- -' - E ‘is’?-.111:-s'='é-1-'.ij_i'i‘;ii'i_”t3jfififiwf

whereFisaunitvectnrnornuitcti'Iesheetttirectedawayfi'cmiL
1L| Eiijiijttric ||‘itij!r"i:5.it'y E-r-tween Turci Clpp-:s|.'.Lly
Cliurguct F'cr._il|e-- Plates
upp-use I et | para = a I i-"l""""
-.' :- ~--i
-:- :- Ies
infinite extent separated hy yacuurn are griren cppcslte
duarges, Under these eenditiens the charges are essentially
cchcentratecl en the inner surfaces cf the plates. The field
lines which originate on pesitiue charges cnthe inner face
pi‘ one plate. terminate en negalnre charges on the inner
face pf the ether plate {Fig 12.191 Thus the charges

- I3
 ereurilcnnlytllstrlhutedcnttielmersurfacecftheptatetna
icrmcfsheetefrcttargesofsurfapedensllyesqt.-\t_tthere.it
isthaareecfptateendqlstheamountofchergecnetthercf
tin Itepietes.
knsglneno\v_aGet:sslensu'facelntl'iefcn'nelehet+cwihcs
wlthltstcplnsicelheupper|netai1:tetear"iditshottomlnti1e
specehe'trneentlIepletasessltcnni1F|g;12.2tl.Asthefield
lines are parallel tc the sides ct the cos. therefore, the tttltt
thrcughthas-idesis-aerc.Thettetdtlnasare urtltonnty
-_=-_.- -..-..-_--._ clistlitiiuted ch the tower bettcrn face and are directed
' ' '-'-.;. normally to ll. It A ls the area ct this tape and E the electric
' '-_‘_~'§'-1. tnteheRy'BtttB£ttis.1hsflLhttt1tcughitvrctldtteE.i\t.Thefeisnc
‘- fltptfltrcughtheupp-ereridctlriehoxbecaLmetltet"e.isriefield
— "' ihsidelhemelslplstsi.111L|$tt'ietetxIfl1|:ttIl_tl1rei,|ghtt1e
GaussianaurfacaksEA.Thecd1argeer1cdceedhyti'ie
Gaussian surfeceiaefl- Applying Gauss-‘slaw
c,-l ltfllilt

pr E.-\t=—:tcut
an-hf‘
':1-']--'!,'-t.'"-".j-__!-__ -1.;-1-:33. - @.- - .| . s, c-_-.=._-,;r.-
; -. _. ___q_...|_ - . - .|_.- .1-u " ; - - -_ __._s-_i ,|. :__:_.

, _. __ _ . -._l' --.- -:I,-..:,;. --

.?".'-, " |;..-1' ;'1-.--r-'1 4. ' .-rt-.1. -- - - ." ""\"+1""" 1-",1.
-. ' ",__ |.| -.;- _. ."-s_1-H - -_':-. _ . ',- -'.- , '-:e '#'~c“-III: -= J’ it
ttlefialdittetisityisthesameataltpcittsbeheeantheptates.
thelzliecticrtctfietdisfrcrtipcstthletortegaltseptatebecause
amltpcstthecttageenyvrherebettueenttteptatesueutdhe
repelledtrcmpestliueanctattractedtcnegativeplaternd
tl1esefercesarei1lhesameclirecticn.lnvectcrlcrm

wtrereiisaunttvectprdiecaedtmmpoetfiuetpnegettyeptele.

LetLiscorrsider*apesiliuecd'iargeg,wt1ictiisallcwedtcn1cy-e
EI- lnamelechtcttetdpreducechetneentvieeppoeilelydterged
pal-eletphtesessticv-ninFig.12.21[e}.Ttrepcsitiuec=l1arge
ttriltrricuefmrncilateBtc.handwitlgelnK.E-1titlstobemeved
ficrnA.tciEl.aI1e1dsmalfcrceisneeideidtomattett1er:herge
meueagaii1sttheetectrtcttetdar|d\ttltgaitFtE.Letirstrnpese
accntltltprithatesthec:t1arIgetsn1cuedfrcm.iflitcB_itlsrricued
lt- loeeplngetectrestatlceqiilitiriuh, i.e.,llmcueswiI1 uniferm
Fl. 1121 tit veicciry.1hse:rie|scnccueeesciseyecbysPnlri'learcice
Fe-quelandoppoeitetcq,Eateverypcirrtalchgitspati1

H
 i
as shown in Fig. 12.21 (ti). The wort done by the etrternal
lorceegairisttheelectlicfietrzltrtcreasesetectrtcdpotenttal
eriergyefthec=l1ai'gelttattsmgued.
Let W.“ theworkctene tiylheforcein cenying tliepoeitilre
charge tL'tl't1tIl'l'l.Pt|t1lBti\l‘|"lt|fl keeping the charge in equilibrium. q
1—.|I .n.

Triediangeinitspo-tenfialenercry cl.-'=litr‘.,
it ' - - '"-==1 .i-_&"‘.-I-llit-"~1'l'li"i"‘='.=l:-'.*-I‘l'-so.-'.~. =1
whereU..and Li,.arede1tnedt-otielheprrlieritialenervgiieset F‘.1L21-fit
polntsiltand B. respectively.
Tcoescrioeelech-tcfieldw-einuodi.icelrieideeofeiectr1c
potential The potential clttererice between two
pctntsfliandfl nanetectrtcfteld istleflned as theworttdone
in carrying a unit positive charge trornnto Bwhile keeping the
chargeinequiitirium. thatis.
=--=- - - ~*-- -5:" -1.". 1. .
is -ii et:i ?tci§>!‘~ s’" t% tfiiieie
rr |rI-llrll-I IIIIII I 1I'IIIlIIII Ililr
run-run: run.-nun.-use-nu In-nnnisna
|.-noun ensue. IIIJI-I use acumen: I
It-iilllitlliiillilr-ii|-iililltlmil-rd-Blair
r .- II III III IIIIIIIII-IIILIIIIIIIIII 1
IIIIIIIIIII IIII-IIIII1IIIIlIIII'IIlJ
if II acneisanasnna||.na.nn|ana||.nn|i.u|
t- ‘P11II'l11'I--‘IIl‘PI'I1‘PF'III'--'IP'l'I'I

ghiffi-if, enowti', dellmic electricpotentials sip-oiinn one

I ilrlllllllllrlll III'I'IIIIIII'IIIIII
II IIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIII-IIIII-I1III1J
an nunnuin.“|.un.n|1;nna|nnn|nan.
|. ,|.i.4\.-4-.|.|...H._.|_.4 cr--._--,.--.-

respectively. lectric potential energy ciiference and

r -sun-nu--u--run IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII1
I-I IIIIIIII nun 1 IIIIIII-IIIII Ilal. I lat
II Illll --an .. -41 . -I I.
I-|-
rl H-an-1' II'I|l:I ':IlIF:I
-1 .tttit]-
aegct-ac potential difference between the points-hand E are III'I"|1
'1 1:“: '..
PI'IlrI"rIIl
'F:1':' l:H':':
'll'III'I
, - l:::'i."'
.. _
as I-:l.F:::l:ll; .. -:7 :3 ::Il:-::'::- iii I

-.iiss4i t:;i..t:t::.ttitE|.t §ir'.'::i'. §:'t:t§i§

iisis itsitt
II‘|'III'I|'I'I1lFiI‘|I'II' .'IrII1IIII'I'II'Il'I

IIILIIJI-IIIIII:nlIlIl-IIJ1llIll|II -I1.
Tl'mstl'iepoteritialdiffer*encebetweenlhetwopoi1ts-car1tia I-H I--'1-r-I-sill-r urn lllilll-I-I E ‘I

defined as the difference of the potential energy P91’ unlt

charge.
PlSl'BLIi'lClP.E. lsiouie.Eq.1?_2s
pi_;iterilielcliflsrsriceisior.teperccr.licIr't:i.
-is - -.-"-1-t- I -' '|E_.E*'-:71. '..;'. " '- -
it i t
s='.i'-.-'-:i‘=":‘i'! ‘race--.1:?1rfii"-.:'it?‘?t*1
That is. a potential difference cf 1 volt exists between two
points ifworlr clone in moi-ri_ng a unit poeitiye chem frornone
point toother. iteepiing equilibrium. isonepute.
In order to ghre a concept ofelectdc potential ate poii-it in an
electric field. we must have a reference to which we assign
zero electric potential. This point ls ursuatly talten at infinity.
Thus in Ec|.12.2T3. lfwetal-tehtp beat lnflnlty and choose
Vac. the electric potential at Bwllt he v,=w_..e.orcmppiig
the subscripts.

"s-
____ ._.'
if
-—--|-
: ‘"1
:"I
-.'c,_._
_ r

15
 whicitstatestltatiheelactricpotartlieiatartypeiritinat
etectricttetd is equal to worltdone in bn'ng'|1g a unit positive
charge from infinityto that ppintjsaep-irtct it in equilibrium. It is
tobenoted that potential eta point is stilt potentielditlerence
between the potential at that point and potential at infinity.
Both potential and potential differences are scalar quantities
because both Wand q.are scalars.

Elli?-ittflll--tliltfllifii
to-ttinlclclr-Ind In this section we will establish a relation between electric
racer-tigonice iitensity and potential diftenenoe. As a special case. let us
consider the situation shown in Fig. 12.21 tb).The electric
ttetd between the twocherged plates is unilionn. let tlsvatue
beE.Ti1apotentielditferencebetweeniitendBtsgivenbytt1e
-
equation

i -1-
flIl{IlItIllflltlIij'l|ll'II |

where til-',., = Fe’ = - o_,Eo' {the negative sign is needed

becauseFmustbeappliedopposi'tetoq,Esoastolieepitin
equitibnunli-ttnthtnis.Eq.12.2Tbecon1es .
V,-‘t-",.=-E! =-Ed
We
5='._ - I L -:..i-"-':-'= 1»; ,'."=;~:-.=§.r.oc.=cit'
_ '-_ __ ".1
-i___5_.._.
- .. - ---- ----
i'i;-'"-'; _.f.#._I.._i?.;'.';_-rl_
'i;.t;¢." =5i=:~si-1-fl
|'.-,- .I- ' _ __-:i_
.. r . --._1....|. .-.- _ .

l
Ii’ the plates It is B are separated by inlinitesirnsly entail
clistarrcad.r.tlisE.12.2tiisrncdifiedas _; * _ _

Poterfl -- -'-~ " -'- -= .- -- .-";;t;;..-n-.t'i'-

dllrilri-ct _
Thequentil-yg‘ves thema:itimum value ofthe rats of
or
1-,... _...1|. change of potential with distance because the charge has
been rnovedslong alietdtinezaongwhich the distanced:
his between the two plates is minimum. tt is itnown as potential
gradient. Thus the electric intensityis equal tothe negative of
; l--
‘I r I H..s-I-s'-"-,5---r
‘I ‘I I?I't it-t--It--.
the gradient of potential. Thenegative sign indicates trial the
' I -- -...|.J.I'-:: '-

; '"%t.='l r=t~i-.sl1..-':*_:-J'-.r:n-.-- .|5 ‘ i."'.-" '

. .'.'
_ -
-I ". |.'. ..
y-1-F_-‘IL? -'ir'----
'.... .
"-_.\_-:l_;q_ directional E is along the decreasing potential-
Theurrit ofeiectric intensity from Eq.12.29ls voithnetre wriiei
. " - "1"": -'- -1-

iseoualtotitti ‘as shown below.

1i=1h."'°l"l.E1‘E ,1 =1h
metre metre I rnetretieoutonlt cotlomb

lit
 E||;h,";1_1'iC F'{HF1|‘|HEJiflt a Point due tn a Point
Cher 9 tr
__t,q¢m;.derb4eane:p|'esstd|1terltrepete|1tia1a1aeertainpnimin
d1efialdulapdeimrepeinld1argeq.Ttisem1beau:e|11pHhed
byhringingaunfl pueirive magefmmmflnltyleflmtpcint
Ivtflep-I fl1e|;:hargein equi|ib|iurn.Tt1elargeteanbeaet'tieved
uelngngq. 12.29 in the form av = -E hr, provided electric
ir|ta11.sityEren1airte:I:m-tentHdwe\Ieri1tl'ieeaseEvarie-e - -.f'. ---

inversely as square crf cietenee from the p-uinl I:-harge. fl 11¢ ..-.... .3
mereren'|ai1s::dnetanleuweus=ebasiepflrlciJIe-alndemptlte
maateuhidpdlantielalapei1t.111efieldiera1:Iia1esshu\m1in_
Fig.12.22_
Lel us lake two points A and B. infimteelmally eleee to each
dthemlethat Eremains alt-ndsteenetanl between them. The F|q, 1Ll'.E
distance et pqinteh and B from q are r, and r,_ respdelivaty
and distanced!‘ I‘l'lid|JIDinh‘;ll5-FELDB interval behueennand B is
r [rem q-Then ac::erdlngtuFig.1l'-22.
_;- _. ' r,_Ir,, 1-Eur £12.30]
-._m-'=r,-r, (12.31;
Asrra-|;|re5B|'|lE|'|‘|id pDi|1lDHfllBN3|bBMfBflflP\3Ild Ben
-_ ,--&;T":_ ' ' 112.521
Themagnitudedieleclrieinterlsityatthispninlifi.
,_ 1 1
El dun r, £12.33]-
A3 the paints A and B are very cldee lhen. as a first
B|3|Jl'I;HItiIIlBllr3l1.\\'B' can lake the arithmetic mean to be equal Hllfifiiiflifie
tO"gB='UII'IBlfii:l'l'iEBI1\\'hi|::hg'vvB5 ihtlitlflilhliliflrflwlh.
L_5 ~ H'fl'kil'I'I'liiI'§I,i-
I10-'l|1'|I-bl di L-erI|'ntH. Int In
r, r‘ vI|IlI1'||IijnIniudI'i-|:|\iI_-Ind-:i|'l
-dllpd pdhrnll i:fllrI|'l:\u cl thi-
'-|'hlrl=Iure, r.‘ =r, r, - (12.34; mwdnumulflmbuunn
il"!"I""l'YP"l'°*llfi'-
Trtus.Eq.12.33c-‘an be-written as '
. _ 1 q _
_ ' El --—-— £12.35}
_ I .I I I ‘Ian far: _

Mmv, if a unit peeitive charge ls moved frem B teflt. the werh

dune is equal tufl1a putenlialdifferenee belweenhand B.
'|.|"_-L-"_,= -E[ri- 1",} '

'lT
 Suhelfluth ' aqtzas ' '

_ Teeelcalateahedlut-updlu|1llddrpetunflulatA.p0ir|tBls
.~ fi'_,_;‘§,",,,"§',",§"""" assunedl:dbohir|ltypdi1ledfl1atV,=flendhenee
'“H*u*|# I lll-1-D '

.. - ri ‘fl In
_
.
111e5|enera|exp|e::idnfdre¥e:htep|dle|1l1a|\F,aladislinue
rfrdmqie.
;Pu||-u
|ln'I'CI

RBI?-P
.

_%
HUI-ll-lulfllllllfll

- §i“‘ .»..
FlBfBlTi'lQFig.12.21.WBhrlWtfl\BlIhBl1BIlGI'tlflBflHi'lBfQE
qmweefmm pelntAwitl1pdtenl;ie| V,,tdepelntBwifl1
-.
'
..
pdtert-fie! V, keeping eiedt|1delnfidequilbr1um.tl1eehar1gein
'_
'
-.-.,.._.-,=-=..
|.- -.
., .n.r_'-"\":..
. potanlt=eienetgy.fl.Udfperdetele.' _

IIr|dautle|ndinrdua»e|een'I1ed'iu'ge'td'n1}i11ilhu:|L|I:rh|n.
lhtsd1ungui1FtEnppaarsi1l1afdn'ndlet'nr|gei1K.E.
Euppde-echargecarfiadbyfl1eputlcialeqIeI1.Bx1IJ”'¢.
‘hue. in this case. ttteenergy acquirer! tnytliac-t1a|=;a willbe
else =qsv=ssv-l1.a I 1o"‘t:t[eu1
»ioreo1rar.asaurnett1atM-‘=1 1-roit.harioe
oi-LE - qov={1.es1o"‘c):{1l-on;
£it{.E =(1.s=1c"'}:{cxv}=1.es1o"‘-t
‘he amount cl‘ energy ec|uatto1.E~ t-:10" J is celed cne
rlectron-volt and is denoted by 1eV. It is defined as ‘the
lmoont ol energy acquired or teat by an electron as it
raveraeaa potantiald_itieren-oeolonevoit'.Tt1ue.
it} . '-t_‘_|'1itg:.1.e==1a"J ' ........ (12421
Example 12.1: Apufldscanrinqa ctiargaolie latte
itrough e peerless dtlieranoe ol am. Calculate the energy
iaqmrsu b1_rlt. -
q=ile , .lllll'l3.lt‘ll'
|'ltt!tH'lt2lfflt_|'l=ttlt]ltlt'Ittlltl[|t'llte|:let|1;it‘;laIi$ '
. sic: =qev-las]ra.ow=eoav
I=$.litr1.t5::1lZl"'..i =tl.fl-:r1fl-"'J

n chapter 4, we pointed out that gravitational force is a

mnaervative loroa. that is. wort: done in a-ooh a field is
ndependent ol path. It can also he proved that C‘-oulomlata
electrostatic force is also conservative force. The electric
'oroabet\\-aentwo charges F = £211; ,issirnitarirl1‘orrn to
the gravitational force between tlle two |:l-oint rnaaaea.
= =t3-m-"':-31.Bofl1foroesvaryinverselyvdfl1lheaouareolfl1e
r
distance between the two charges or the two masses.
l-tow-ever, the value of gravitational oionstant G is very small
ea oompared to-electrical oonalant e. It is because oi this
4115
i-act that the gravitational tome is a"u-ery weal: foroa as
ooropare-d to electrostatic force- As regards their qualitative
aspect. trreelectrcataticiioroe could beattractiveor repulsive
lvhie. on theother hand. gravitational loroe is only attractive.
Anolherdiflareooetobeno-ted iethatttiealactmstatictoroeis
medium dependant and can be shielded while gravitational

19
 force laclts this property.

In 190$. FLA tutill'lr.ar1 devised a technique that resulted i

precise rneaeuremenrtotthe charge onanatectron.

C . - .:;.i..£:i';r,J
"."|':I:':£'d.-r

5 .- _.._
ri-if a _ __

fig. lump
A schematic diagram of the htilliltan oil drop experiment l.
shown in Fig. 12.23 la}. Two parallel plates PF‘ are piece:
inside a container C. to avoid disturbances due to ai
cmranls. The separation between the plates is d. Tris uppe
plaleF' hasa snlallholeH.asst1osinintttefigore.Au-oltagel
is applledtlothe plates dueto-nhichtiieel-acizricfield Eit
setup between the plates. The magnitude of its value it
E = ea. An atomizereis used for spraying oil dropslnto the
container through a nozzle. The oil drop gets charger
F. - ii! because of friction between walls ol atomizer and oil drops
These oildrops are verysrnall. and are actuallyln the form o
n1iat.$oma ofthase drops happerlto pass throughtheholeir
Di mp the upper plate. Thespaoe between the pistes is ilurninater
bythe ligil coming from the souroe S through the lens L ant
Wlndthtl W',. The path oF|'|1|olion oi’ i;hes.e drops can bl
carefully observed byamiorosoope M.
F.*""'l -it given droplet between the two plates could he suspendec
- - -sq -- - in airiflha gravitational loroe F, I mgacilingonthedropit
aquatic the eieolricalt‘oroe F, - us. asshotrrn in Fig-12.23{t:|}
_ .._____l'f'f'§§1§-'_'-;§j=_j-fit;-_.r:" _ The F_c-anbeediusted equal tofibyradjtietitgttievolage. tr
this case. we can write. _

or ' qE=mg
ltlfisthevalt1eo1'p.d-hehveenli1eplalealorti'|is ae‘tt:ing.1her

H Ii] '
 E=E wemaywrita 'il'!'=""Q
= if ' 11'

humarludatalmir-H\emanamuifl'|a¢l'cplat.maalac=1‘n=
|ldbfln'aanl1apl|hu:siu'nitd'~adufl=Tlrad|'unlaIlaIIs-undurma
cliunolql-niylvaughai.nau.uln:mrninal:und\¢a1moslallhe
ifllnltI'lIlil1:lrl¢fiHdill'hi:hB5nfl'.ltilIm'iIrBl:pfildv,i$
uhmirodhyfinirlglwialnlhawnflflwaranuasumd
b§'tlnUl.$iMiIPItI‘I§iUI'¢lFdulhliri¢l.iflQ\|nMU'|idI'DQlH
fiB11itilIfi"|Qwflh¢¢|'|IiInltGflfllflI|&nild|5B£l|fll0fbiVIiQht.'

FIEnn1rv.Img
rhuarlsfluradlusnilheurup-latand :1 lsmacnalfldqmui
isnusilyfurai.lfpis-lhadansityu'Ilr|udr=n|:lat,H10h

‘E

Hfltl, §1|:r‘pg=BII:\1rv,

r I‘? 2 9 “H-I

I-’|-W _ .
irumiwgihavalua olr. the mas-5 mcan tyac-abculalad by
slng Eq.{1.'?,-15). This value of mis s|.|b:|:i'oulad in E_q.12.4-I
:gel1i1uvaIuunId1a|'=g|q0nll'\udmplat. '
Iilkmmaasuradmachargann marqdrbpsaawdlbund mm
an-I1 U1-'iI'EB was ail integral mullipla crfa rrinimurn value of
hargenqualtu1.Bx1D'"G.Ha.li1enaIum.umc|L|1uflIh=atlhla
inhummkmnlmedurgablhadwargammulecrun.

1|
 Ferfltedlapietelflledtflfflflq-weheve _. _ _
. fa _ .-R;-e_ I: _q..e_e_1g_!F_|g eea me" ire.e.rr1e'l' m_- '
- v , " : -raw = - r
_qI3.2:r1D"'G " '__';- _

Acepaciler la a |:le\-'i|:_e that can store charge- It ceneiete -r

,0 . _.;, twe eenduetera piaeecl neer one another separated l:
uaeuum. air er any ether ineuleter. ltnewn as rlleleclrii
Usually lheeencluciere are it thetermetperelet ptelee. an
_’_|: tltecapeiciherielgieumaeperelleiplatelapacllmwttenm
*“‘“"- pareeureueneeapeeturemeenneeeumaneeeryr
1- - g voltage V|[Flg.12.24}|, iteelabli-ehee e potential clitlereaeer
I12 Vault: between lhehllrepleles enrllltebalileryplaeee
Fla-11-H el-large +C.len the plate eennectecl vi-ilh ite peeiti-we termim
ende charge--Den the otherplate. eennectedte its negalhr
tenninal. let Cl-aethe megnitudeelthe charge en either-elth
pletee. It iefeund that
Darin" of .flI_GV DI‘ ‘C-"lg "['I2.'lifl

The 1!lt‘t)|DIDfliOl'kB|H‘_|l' cenetanl C la celled tl1e eeperzitarrce 1

the capacitor. he we e-hall see leler. it e'ep-encle upen th
gee-rneu'3r'eIlne plates endthe medium between lhern. It is
rneeeure ef the eniity el capacller lle atere charge. Th
r,-apaeitanee er a capacitor can he clellner! as the arneunti
charge en ene plele nepeeeery tap raise the petential at rm
plate by ene --elt with respect te the ether. The SI unit i
capacitance la eeuipmh per veil. which beceuee at i'
3 freq I1 entuse.iscc+mmenl'y' calleell‘erer:l{F]|.elte I’ the Ie l1‘l tn.
W5‘-aw,“ .-,-,-5 Englieh S-ClBfl|fl5I..FH|'H'dH!|'. I
. ““"“"".. . .""..R2"'
.-.|. . .....l“".l.l..-"""" "1'l't|H:lplcllll'l_Bl an =-n-rare =eI1'i.n!l III;
I:~m_iFF_Wh'fl duraealetwcentlemhqhueuuueltlrqplalee
mm_H“_,FF_w..hu eiepn-flflflat':'i:fic|'1:nhr.ueduc:aapeh|uh_

Censiclar a parallel plate capacieer canslellng cl twe plan

metelpietee. eeehetareaa. eepalatedby edietance in
shown in Fig. 12.24. The dielenee cl ls small ee lnal lh
electric field E between the plelee is unilerrn and eenfine

22
atrneat entirely in the raglan between the plates. Let initially
the medium between the plat-ee be air er vacuum. Then
accerdingteEq.12.4ti. _ __ __ _
D
I G_- T; (12171
where Ole the charge an the capaciter and 1-its the p-ctential
diflerence between the parallel plates. The magnitude E el’
etectrtcinlensltyle related wilttthetlietaneedbv Eq.12.2-Bee
“I.
' _ Er; pa.-tat
AeQiethechergeenei1heref1tteplateselarea.ll,ttte
eurfeaedensitvetchergeenthepteteeieae -
I =1?-

Ae aieedtr ah-awn in sectren 12.3. the electric intensity

pnnlll-elllatltlilv

H
ttrttir fttl
between tvra dppttraile-Iv ctterged plates is given by E = '

trill
Saba-ltt|.li'|glhevaltreefc.weheve ’"
-
_ 1'.._'?_
d kg
' t:t:t.4a;
I

e
ttpt-in - c,,-g-4’? 112.:-at
If an insulating metettal. celled dielectric. cl relatlve
p-etmittivil-tr r, is introduced between the plates, the
capacitance at cepeciter ls enhanced by the teeter 1,.
ti?-epacitela ccmrnentv have sernedielectric medium. thereby
c,leeteeceltedaadielect|'iccenetant.

I
Fellcrwlng experiment give-stheettect cl insertion at dielectric
between the plates eta capaciter.

Er _®
Cencider a charged cepaclterwheee plates are cennected ta-
a vettmeter (Fig. 12.25 e). The detteclicn ct‘ the meter ls e
tneaeure at the potential difference between the plates.
When a dielepttie material is inserted between the plates,
reeelng drape a decrease In the petential
dillerenee between the plates (Fig. 12.25 bt. Frcm the
definitien, C = O.-‘V. eince V decreases whlte O remaine
ccnetentthevalueeftilncreaeee.ThenEq.t2-5-flbectcmea. I.-‘<1.-'_

_ _ ' c_-it? 112.51} Ft|,i 1I.I5Efldl2IlkI'.ilSI!l1I'I

%i'HI'flIi'- I

23
 Ee.12.5tt shows the dependence oi a capacitor upon the
area oi plates. the separation between the plates and
medium betweanthem.
Dividing Ec|.12.51 by Eq.'i2.5t) we get expression tor
diatarztriccenslantias,

. I - s.I%5- i[t2.ti2}_
From Eq.12.52 dielectric co-eiticient or dielectric constant is
defined as

.
"._i_i ..-_I "-"_1-'- -1 _ .it- |i- Int. 'I_
!"I'lte.
'-'- ---.---i
-. '-'-' i- -l"" ole
2- --I.t ' -.

mt.“ _ 1:;--“""."5'T]i'.'!"-<~i.-.=.-ii'_i‘-‘= ;.. .. -. . ‘r

iiiieerirliiriirreiriiiriiriiiiii-r_iiinirt-i The increasein the capacity eta capacitor due to presence oi

1'-'I‘KII“'lit diatectricisduetoeiectric polarization oidielectric.
The dielectric consists ot atoms and molecules which are
electrically neutral on the average, i.e, they contain equal
amountsotnegative and positive charges. Tlmedisrnbutionot
these charges in the atcme and molecules is such that the
centre oi the positive charge coincides with the centre of
negative charge. Wltien the molecules oi dielectric are
subjected to an electric iield between the plates oi a
capacitor. the negative charges [electrons] are attracted
towards the positively charged plate cl the capacitor and the
positive charges (nut:-lat} towards the negetiiieiy charged
plate. The electrons in the dielectric iinsulatcrji are not tree to
lttcive but it is possible that the electrons and nuclei can
undergo slight displacement when subjected lib an electric;
field. As a result of this displacement the centre of positive
and negative charges nevrnoionger coincide with each other
and one end oi molecule-s shows a negative charge and the
bitter end. an equal amount oi positive charge but the
molecule as a whole is still neutral. Two equal arid opposite
charges separated by a srnalt distance are said to constitute
adipola- Thus the molecules otihe dielectric under the action
at elechricfield become dipoles and the dielectric is said to be
p-alitrildtil.
‘i'heeltectetthepclari2a'lieneti:tielactncissnonni1

14
 atsit? get;tiiiti
sis
the dielectric in contact with the nege
Eas
pieceealtiryerofpoei1iverharges.ltelactivetydeo'easeethe
flllTB'EBt3i'Bfi5i|}t'UlihEd1EIQ'BfltI1‘i|lBDiBlB'§.tl5i5li']B electric
inteneityEbettveenthepia1iesis §'.soEdect1aaseedueto
_ —' _..

,
-.

|'__tr;".
CIILCII,
.
_‘ _.__|__

'_--. - __]

[jeiii-is". "_':.i'..i;_1 |
'

polaitzationottliedieiectrlcttisresuits-ittoedecaaseet
potential riflerencebetweentheplatesdue to presencec'i_ Fig. 12-H
dielectitcasdei1'ior'rslraledbytl'ieeicpedntentdesc:i:adintha

Acapacitoris adevtceto stare charge. Fiitemattveiy. itie

peeeibtetcthlnitctecapacttcrasadevlcaiorstorlng
electrical energy. iiittereli. the chargeon the plate possesses
electrical potential energywhich arises becausewertt tstobe
donetodepositchargaen theplates- This isduelotltetact
that with each small increment at charge heiig deposited
during the tifialjiifla process. the Potential difference
betweenthe plates lncreeeae.and a larger BI'l'ttJl.ll'tiD‘iW0l'|'l is
neededtd bring upnerttlnuement ofcharge.
initially when the capacitor is uncharged. the potential
ditterence between plates is zero and tlnetiy it becomes if
vmengctiaigeisdepcettedoneactt plate. Thus, theaveraga
eeiencereisere-ieee!3%‘i=%u .
riiereeire as. =Energy = %e v
usiiigiiviriitauiiiii;-=cvirireipei;itiiriiiegiit
r" i'_:|:-_.-r"'-- !-.--.;j.

..e.:...eit,p;qg, . - ..
it is also possible to tegard the energy as being stored in
stectricfield bet'iveentheplates.ratherthenthepo'nenltal
energy ct‘ the charges on the plates. Such e view point is
usetutvihen electric Field strength behveenthe plates itstaad
otcharges on the plates causing field is to he considered.
This relation can be obtained by Etlsatiiuting iv’ = Ed and
C= Ara-.Jd in Ei:|.t2.53.' -

25
 R +1; ~¢ Emm,,E[_..é._q.)5d]F
1 Ass
—iec

5
=1=eE1mm
I
A Fl-E[Ad]iiu'G|umBbHWBflfl'|L|iBplEliBBBfl _
'--' '__.. E-'1.
'i". 1|.-5I
r‘-1. . .-l_ !!I
.,._ -_.. -:| '_1'-
-''|-_'. .L'_.,'_
' -‘:.''-_t
'l-'
.:
v' .';:-,
' '|__|" II-.
--'.I
' . 'r
"' .' _F," -.1-‘F.-.Jr;
3J‘!-
"‘ -_!_:..
|-I
I. 3|I
.'''_-.:E
1,"-'. IL-..:|_'. - -..2.
_,_
.~:_-:-'-.

_¢
‘l'nisequa1inn isuaiidferan1_reieeb'iefieide'b'eflQfl1-
. .- -..1-L
. TJ. -.3. ll --..,."_..'=r

" Br.-n. Many eieetlie tireiilis sensisl ei hem eeeesilbls and

nesislaers. Fig.12.2? ehe-as e resieiibr-sapacilel einmit eeiied
F!-G-c=irv::ui1;. ‘Mien the ewil1.':h S is set al tenninai A. ihe R-E
enirbineliginisebnneclied ieeheiteryeflelteee 'i-",Wi'I|-ei1
" "" ; Ll“ starts charging lheca|:iesitbrtl1reughlheresistnr R.
: 5'i The sepecih:-r is nnl charged immedieiehr. reihel‘ eflefeee
1-: L_
-build up gredualy le ihe equilibrium velue ef q. = CV, The
F1 11-H gmwtll ef ¢l'|el'ge\uflh lime ier diiierent-resistenees is ehbum
in Fig.12.2B. Aseerclirig in ihis graph q = D at i = D and
R .||¢.q increases gradually witi'| time lil ll reaches its equilibrium
vaiue q_, I Cifl. Thevelege Vecmss pacilnr alarvyirisiant
{ C
canbenbminedbydiifidingqby G, as i-'= qifi.
I-lcrnleslerhnwsiewtl1esepaeitce'issharginger
"' 5
B dieehergirig. depends upen the predusi of ihe resisienee R
A and ihe uapasiiame G used in Ihe circuit. A-e lihe uflii el
pmdu-|:!RCiBH1HfC||'fil'fl0, sethis pruduetislinuumeeiinie
censtenl end is defined as lhe lime required by the GBDB-flier
+ A tedepesit 0.53 timeelhe eqiiilbfium charge q,,. Thegraphsei‘
[Ii Fig.1:-_*.1'.B ghewthatthaeiiarge reaeries ils equilibrium value
1? snenerwhenliietime eeneieniisemell.
CV. Fig. 12.291111} iiiusirales ihe dieel1ergi1g of a capacitor
through a resislnr. in this iigure. the ewiieh 5 '5 eel ei peinl B,
seihe::i1arge+qnnt|1eieitpieiessI1flewerifi~eie-cinidse
through ihe reeielenee and neulraiize lhe charge -q en the
' 5InlI'?¢ right piale. .
The grqziesin Fig. 12.29ibj|-eheurs ihelc|is|:i'ierging begins at
i= Human q = CV, and decrees-ee graduelyhcizere. E-male!
in '- values uilime eensiamfl-Cieed teemererepiddiseharge.
@
26-
EJ:ampie1i.5: 'I'I'|eti'l1e00I‘IIlfl1lU|l series HG clrcuilis
I=R‘G.Vu1fyil1ateneiuI:ti|ieefe1'ediseqiivaie|'uteeeound.
: ohm‘: E~iv'iF1 iem*e'uFpnmrIE" BIIereneo"_""" ‘II
curreriuandreeisimeeflcanbeiirriitenes.
V=IR
r
pqum ;-qr; um gqiimni-|' unmiuu-nu h'i:eihe equelien.
nu M n
v=%e _ eleenll-llilifl-iililflill‘
wiper: ei eerl he he-use-d
l'hn'IllIIj'fl'l'!§-IQ!-li'hD.||\
“I HIE lillindeelqlimlieubln
Mifliflfilflfllfllfli I.Il'i1II
Q llilfi'.ThII'iiIII'lIll'i-'flqI:llI
i\fi0fll'li'lflTUBqilBlifl1lI'CV.CI¢"V ' Khfifi HID HI hi-if I
ifiur-a|iI:||'urIliflen.
|IlLIliIiFi'lflil1ieequeien\ii'd1abeueec||1aiion-fives. _
-1 1 '
i-ienoe 1eh1n-x1feredI‘ieeeend_
wi'|ereoiI'nisfl1eu|it-alresietaricefi.

'
. Tiiefiwhniflsieueieieeflietfliefnrbehememnmpeirldulgeehdheeiiy
pmpuflenalmmepudueteifliemegniudeabidwgesmdhwuueiyplupuflemih
lieequme-aili1edi:lanuebehueentherr1-
1 Eieebiefieidhmepermfidiergeetepehliscdhdehebiefilfiflrengmersledrh
flddhllnlljralfllalpditit.
e Tl1en|||'nbe:di'1heiieidiir|eepeeehgiiu1:I.|gl1e eensinelm-'rmlde|Ie ;ilme'e'flBe
eiaic:rii:fl1ncli'Inughli'ielaree.derlbi|db'yfli.
. flreeleehiefiasfiflimiqhauectnramehhdmdesbiefiddeikdellelyiiegiuflihy
¢IE.A=Edens-E.ufl1ereBielrieangiehetweei1flnfleidihiesar|dfliene|'n1aiib
eurfaee area.
- Gain-s'siawisetawdes'fl1eflusdIeughenyc:nsedu|fieeehiIs,flmeel1eumi
diageensiibsldhil.
e Tl1einlariornIai'ueiiewci1lgedmelaienl1e|1eieefieldfieeIegi1e. U
1 fl1eeieehsH¢eneIyheheu1hneeppnsinehrei'iergedpu'eleipieieeleE= t— .
. flwarmumefiwlkduiehbnrighigeuritpudfluedulgehumhfldhrhepdm
ageinsleieclri<:filidisiheiiec:i:iepei:e|1iielelihetpein1.

2'7
 ‘I .

111 fl1epeierflielieemslenimmu%rnmeghenmgienefspene.lefl1eehehicHfieH
zereernen-zeminilfleregien? spleln- _ .
11.2‘ Suppnsefl1etyeuhIuuw1Hedriefieidinedueieepesifiveeei|'flfl\e:‘ge.De
eiec.-briei'ieid andlhe peteniieiirisreaeeerdeiieeee?
‘IE-3 Huiinyeu_idenfifyjthatudflc#ipiaieefacepec#ieIispeeiflveiyd1a1;ed?
12.4 gigs“-ginmmefermmbrmemapeflflmpbimdmrgenhmpheedbemewiperflifl
iai wiihsintiisuandeqiiaidaerges (bi wilhnppnsileandequdelnarges
12.5 Eleei1'ieii1eeeffeteeneveru'nss.\|ilhy'?
12.6 Hepdrfldwlqeeelmessmismleesedinenerwfifiermeieehiefiaflwfiiifiehiries
p0|l'Iii'iQli‘ifl'ifl'B-Bi'I'iB'iii'BlZi'i;iliiIl, Wi||i;ITiB|i'H'~BrBGi|il_BflrI'flU‘liUl'l‘?
12.? isEnenes-eerily zeru-insides-ei1arged rubberbeiieun ifbeleenie spherieel? Resume
ihat charge isdisb'ibuieduniiem1l1;eveIihesurfeee.'
I18 is_ilhnflulGmss‘sieusHmsd\mdBlmaimn|hueiHrp§_:jfe[eesu'eesfl1gany
eieeeflsurieeeiniheeuhuarddieelinnisprnpnninneite nelpeslthrechatge
enzsnsednimhsufleee?
123 Deeiedrenemndlegehunegimeirighpelmflaiereiiewpetemiai? ' '

111 Cenuuermgnflxndesefeieeuleflsneg-ewmennuiermsuenenunnnebiuc:
~[m-ass-=1fl.Ug,el1e|'ge=2fl._iiu'C}b3re|1ifleflfieelebieI21fl'ialiepleeed 11'Ii.i]i;:n'|fmm
thefiral-{G=B.H?x1fl"‘Hm‘hg"'}

' (Ann: fl I 5.4 :1 10"}

FI

IS
12.2 Calculate uectcrieity the net eieeireslsetic fierce en q as sheum in the iigiure.
flilflpr _

1 (Am: |= = 0.050 my
I -1 i Ii ii 1 -I I I Fl --- iI--I 1 I in -1

,_ __M “"2 _,_ ___m

I I

12.3 .i.peir|tchargie e= -Ei.0:|r10“Cis|:|ieeed ettheerigin.t';eltui_ateeiett1ricfieidete

puint 2.0 tn from the eriginen the 2-esie. |A.ns: [-1.8 :10’
12.4 Deterrrtinedteeiectficiieidettitepeeiiienr=0i-i+3]]mc=eusedbyapdint_dterge
e=5.0x10"Cpie0edaterigin. [A.rll:-[1-I11i0i +10e0jJN 0";
12.5 T-we paint charges. e, = -1.0 s10‘C end qr, = + 4.0 it 10‘ C. are separated by e
distance ef 3.0 m. Find and iuslity the zere-feid iecalien. tens: 3.0 mfi
12.0 Fihdtheeleetriclieid strength requiredte hcidsuspendede |:\eri:ieleefrness
1-0 ::10'kg end charge 1.0|.ic between tyi-e_pietes 10.0 cm apart. {amt 0.0 'ut't1'f|
12.? Apelticiehevirig acttargeef20etecb'ensenitiatieltu1:ughapetentialditerer1eebI
100 ydtts. Gaiwlate theenergy acquired by itin B1001-l'1;\n\Pt:||i3l{tt"r"}I. fem: [2 0 1: 10‘ em;
12.5 in Mi|iiitan's experiment. nil drepiets ere introduced |t1i0 the space between twe flat
herizentel pieles. 5.00 mrn apart. The plate vdttage is adjusted te exactly T0011’ se
that the dmpiet isheidstetienery. The piateuelegeis switched eflendtheseleeted
drepiet ieebsenred tefeii a measured dislaneeet 1-50 mm in 11,2 5. Gi‘uen1',i1a‘|;fl'Ua
density elihe eilused is 900irg m“, end the viscbsitycfeirattaberatery temperature
is1.00:r10"i*-im"'s,caicuia|e
5; Themess.end a}_ Tirechergeenuiedrepiettflussume-g=0.ttms’i
[Am-: {e} 5.14 it 10'” HQ, ib} 3.20 at 10'" C]
12.5 Apretcn pieced inaunflermeiectiie iieidet‘5000 NC‘ direciedterighi is eiicmled tc
geedisiance cI'10.0cr'r|fremAte B. Deteulele
re; Pct-entiai difference between thetwe points
q 1; 5| were dene bythe iield
ic] Theehengein P.E.eiprc1en
idi Thechangein i{.E.ei'1heprnl.en
re} tisueie-city {mes-a0I|:r010fli51.l5?'.'t10'"lItg} .
_ (Ana: ~5D0 V, 500 e‘i|". -500 e"-I. 500 e'u'. 3.00? 110’ ms")
12.10 Usingzere reiarenee peini ei iniiiity. determine the ameunt by which a painlcharge
01'-1.0::10"(.1eiterstheeiectricpetentia|atape-int1.2me1Ire'y.1Irl1en
re; Chargeispesdiye (bi _ Ctiergeisnegsttve
’ (Ans: +3.0 rt 10‘ V, -3.0 at 10' Vi

. 19
12.11 in ears atemic mcdeiethytregen Bl0i11,0‘lBB|Bi.'!0"0l'i15ifi3fl{I'|ii0iBi'lZlI|FIii11I|'lB
nuctear prctan at e distance cl 5.29 iii 10'" m with a speed -at‘ 2.10 it 10‘ nee".
-[eI1.00:\t 10'“t3.maeeeteiect11:I1 =0.10ir10"'kg]-. Find
ta} Titeatectricpeterttiattttateprtatcarteatertsettiitedietanee
ib} Tetaienergyefthe ateminett
tc} Theicriizaiierl ertergytermealcmin a"u' _
[Ann +2120 ti. -12.0 av, +t3.0D av}
12.12 The eiedrenic itash attachment tar a camera contains a capecitcr fer aicring the
energy uaed ta preducethetteah. In ene such unit, ihapetentiai diiierence between
ti-ueptetaeete?50uFpaciturieseettfleterrninethaenergythetisusedte
predueethatteah. (lu1s:40.aJ}
12.13 Asap-aeiterhasalcep-ecitaneeet2.5:r10' F. _inthecharging precess.eiecl.ransare
rernu-iredtremenepiatear1dpieee~de-ntbeethercne. Whenittepetentieidittiererice
bete'eenthepiatesis450V.hawmenyalecatat1ahevabeenharts1erred‘?
{e =1.00:-1 10"'tI‘.} ' {il|.ne:7.0:r10"eiaclrens)

3-0
 13
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter the students w * be able to:
Understand the concept of steady current.
Describe some sources of current.
Recognize effects of current.
Understand and describe Ohm's law.
Sketch and explain the current-voltage characteristics of a metallic conductor at
constant temperature, diode and filament lamp.
Understand resistivity and explain its dependence upon temperature.
Understand and elaborate conductance and conductivity of conductor.
Solve problems relating the variation of resistance with temperature for one
dimension current flow.
Know the value of resistance by reading colour code on it.
Know the working and use of rheostat in the potential divider circuit.
Describe the characteristics of thermistor.
Use the energy considerations to distinguish between emf and p.d.
Understand the internal resistance of sources and its consequences for external
circuits.
Describe the conditions for maximum power transfer.
Know and use the application, of Kirchboffs first law as conservation of charge v
Know and use the application of Kirchhoff s second law as conservation of energy.
Describe the function of Wheatstone Bridge to measure the unknown resistance.
Describe the function of potentiometer to measure and compare potentials without
drawing any current from the circuit.

M ost practical applications of electricity involve charges in motion or the electric current.
A light bulb glows due to the flow of electric current. The current that flows through the coil of
a motor causes its shaft to rotate. Most of the devices in the industry and in our homes

31
 operate with current. The electric current has becom e a
necessity o f o u r life

13.1 ELECTRIC CURRENT

A n electric current is caused by the m otion o f electric charge.
If a net charge AO passes through any cross section o f a
conductor in tim e At, w e say that an electric current / has
beon established through the conductor w here

(13.1)
At
The SI unit o f current is am pere and it is a current due to flow
o f charge at tho rate o f one coulom b per second.
Motion o f electric charge w hich causes an e le ctric current is
due to the flow o f charge carriers. In case of metallic
conductors, the charge carriers are electrons. The charge
earners in electrolyte are positive and negative ions e.g.. in a
CuSO . solution the charge carriers are C u " and S O . ions.
In gases, the charge carriers are electrons and ions.
C u rre n t D ire c tio n
Early scientists regarded an electric current as a flo w of
positive charge from positive to negative term inal o f tho
battery through an external circuit. Later on. it w as found that
a current in m etallic conductors is actually due to the flow of
nogative charge carriers called electrons m oving in the
opposite direction i.e.. from negative to positive term inal of
the battery, but it is a convention to take tho direction of
current as the direction in which positive charges flow. This
Whan c«< « i» o » dangor. a x /n * current is referred as conventional current. T he reason is that
into a »W10 b a O tfy Any ona wt>0 it has been found experim entally that positive charge m oving
aracM a Mw*y k> j M a
shock Th o po:«nt-*l m one direction is equivalent in all external effects to a
M M « n 9 * h M d on<3 L-vi oT jn negative charge m oving in the opposite direction. A s the
«Jocti>CM l«nb*uplo6COV
curront is m easured by its external offects so a current due to
motion o f nogative charges, after reversing its direction of
flow can be substituted by an equivalent current due to flo w of
positive charges. Thus

The co nventional cu rro n t In a c irc u it is defined as

th a t equ iva le nt cu rre n t w h ich passes fro m a p o in t at
h igher po ten tia l to a p o in t at a low or po ten tia l as if it
represented a m ovem ent o f p o sitivo charges.

W hile analyzing the electric circuit, w e use the direction o f the

current according to the above m entioned convention.

32
If w e w ish to refer to the m otion o f electrons, we use the term Electron Itow
electronic current (Fig. 13.1).
C u r r e n t T h r o u g h a M e ta llic C o n d u c to r
In a metal, the valence electrons a re not attached to
individual atom s but are free to m ove about w ithin the body.
These electrons are known as free electrons. The free
electrons are in random motion ju st like the m olecules of a
gas in a container and they act a s charge carriers in metals.
T he speed o f random ly m oving electrons depends upon
temperature.
If w e consider a ny section o f m etallic wire, the rate at which
the free electrons pass through it from right to left is the same Fig. 13.1
a s the rate a t w hich they pass from left to right (Fig. 13.2 a).
A s a result the current through the w ire is zero. If the ends of
the wire are connected to a battery, an electric field E will be
set up at every point w ithin the w ire (Fig. 13.2 b). The free
electrons w ill now experience a force in the direction opposite
to E. A s a result o f this force the free electrons acquire a
motion in the direction o f -E. It m ay be noted that the force
experienced by the free electrons does not produce a net
acceleration because the electrons keep on colliding with the
atom s o f the conductor. The overall effect o f these collisions
is to transfer the energy of accelerating electrons to the lattice
w ith the result that the electrons acquire a n average velocity,
called the drift velocity in the direction o f -E (Fig. 13.2 b). The
drift velocity is o f the order o f 10 ’m s'1, w hereas th e v o lo d ty of
free electrons a t room tem perature due to their thermal
m otion is several hundred kilom etres per second.
Thus, when an electric field is established in a conductor, the
free electrons m odify their random m otion in such a w ay that
they drift slow ly in a direction opposito to the field. In other
w ords the electrons, in addition to their violent thermal
motion, acquire a constant drift velocity due to w hich a net
directed m otion o f charges takes place along the w ire and a
current begins to flow through it. A steady current is
established in a wire when a constant potential difference is
<«>)
m aintained across it which generates the requisite electric
F i g - 1 3 .2
field E along the wire.

E x a m p le 1 3 .1 : 1.0 x 10’ electrons pass through a

conductor in 1.0 ps. Find the current in am pere flowing
through the conductor. Electronic charge is 1.6 x 10 ” C.
S o lu tio n :- Num ber Of electrons = n = 1.0 x 10'

33

F i g . 13.3 C o n vo n s o o a l current flows
from h ig h * to l o w * poW rftal I N o o / t
fiy 1j i Asource of currar* tucfi «*
batlory mamuur* » nearly oomuni
potennaf <M««rence between end* o< •
C O rr\K ttx
F o r Y o u r In fo rm a tio n
Heebng affect of currant is used In
otectnckettle
Charge on an electron = e = 1.6 x 10 '* C
Time =Af= 1.0ns
Current / through the conductor is given by
1 to to
I « 1:0x- 9.7 x1 -6- x1()19P = 1 .6 x 10 6 Cs‘‘ = 1.6 x 10'®A
1.0x10'6s
13.2 SOURCE OF CURRENT
When two conductors at different potentials are joined by a
metallic wire, current will flow through the wire. The current
continues to flow from higher potential to the lower potential
until both are at the same potential (Fig. 13.3). After this tho
current ceases to flow. Thus the current through the wire
decreases from a maximum value to zero. In order to have a
constant current tho potential difference across the conductors
or the ends of the wire should be maintained constant. This is
achieved by connecting the ends of the wire to the terminals of
a device called a source of current (Fig. 13.4).
Every source of current converts some non electrical energy
such as chemical, mechanical, heat or solar energy into
electrical energy. There are many types of sources of current.
A few examples are mentioned below:
(i) Cells (primary as well as secondary) which convert
chemical energy into electrical energy.
(ii) Electric generators which convert mechanical energy
into electrical energy.
(Iii) Thermo-couples which convert heat energy into
electrical energy.
(iv) Solar cells which convert sunlight directly into
electrical energy.
1 3 .3 E F F E C T S O F C U R R E N T
The presence of electric current can be detected by the
various effects which it produces. The obvious effects of the
current are:
(i) Heating effect
(ii) Magnetic effect
(iii) Chemical effect
34
 H e a tin g E ffe c t
Current flows through a m etallic wire due to motion o f free
electrons. D uring the course o f their motion, they collide
frequently with the atom s o f the metal. At each collision, they
lose som e o f their kinetic energy and give it to atom s with
w hich they collide. Thus a s the current flows through the wire,
it increases the kinetic energy o f the vibrations o f the metal
atom s, i.e.. it generatos heat in the wire. It is found that the
heat H produced by a current / in the wire of resistance R
during a tim e interval f is given by
H * l ‘ Rt
The heating effect of current is utilized m electric heaters,
kettles, toasters and electric irons etc.

M a g n e tic E ffe c t
The passage o f current is always accompanied by a
m agnetic field in the surrounding space. The strength o f the
field depends upon the value o f current and the distance from
<*»>
the current elem ent. T he pattern o f the field produced by a
current carrying straight wire, a coil and a.solenoid is shown
in F»g. 13.5 (a. b & c). M agnetic effect is utilized in the
detection and m easurem ent o f current. All the machines
involving electric m otors also use the m agnetic effect of
current.

C h e m ic a l E ffe c t
Certain liquids such as dilute sulphuric acid or copper
sulphate solution conduct electricity due to some chemical
reactions that take place witnm them The study o f this process
ts known as electrolysis. The chemical changes produced
during the electrolysis o f a liquid are due to chemical effects of
the current. It depends upon the nature o f tho liquid and the
quantity o f electricity passed through the liquid.
The liquid which conducts current is known as electrolyto. The
m aterial in the form o f w iro or rod or plate which leads the
current into o r out of the electrolyte is known as electrode . The
electrode connected w ith the positive terminal o f the current
source is called anode and that connected with negative
terminal is known as cathode. The vessel containing the two
electrodes and the liquid is known as voltameter. As an
example we w il consider the electrolysis of copper sulphate
solution. The voltameter contains drfute solution of copper
sulphate. The anode and cathode are both copper plates

35
 (Fig. 13.6). W hen copper sulphate is dissolved in water, it
dissociates into C u " and S O ', ions. On passing current
through the voltameter. C u " m oves towards the cathode and
the following reaction takes place.
C u“ ♦ 2 e ► Cu
Tho copper atom s thus form ed are deposited at cathode
plate. W hile copper is being deposited at the cathode, the
SO , ions m ove towards the anode. Copper atom s from the
anode g o into the solution as copper ions which combino with
sulphate ions to form copper sulphate.
C u " +SO« --------- ► CuSO.
r i9 , , < A s the electrolysis proceeds, copper is continuously
deposited o n the cathode-whiie an equal am ount of copper
from the anode is dissolved into the solution and the
density o f copper sulphate solution rem ains unaltered
This exam ple also illustrates the basic principle of
electroplating - a process of coating a thin layer o f some
expensive m etal (gold, silver etc.) on an article o f some
^ je a p m e ta l^

13.4 OHM ’S LAW

We havo seen that w hen a battery is connectod across a
conductor, an electric current begins to flow through it. How
m uch current flows through tho conductor when a certain
potential difference is set up across its ends? T he answ er to
this question was given by a Germ an Physicist George
Sim on Ohm. He showed by elaborate experim ents that the
current through a m etallic conductor is directly proportional to
the potontial difference across its ends. This fact is known as
O hm s' law which states that

"T h e c u rre n t flo w in g th ro u g h a c o n d u c to r is d ire c tly

p ro p o rtio n a l to th e p o te n tia l d iffe re n c e a c ro s s its
e n d s p ro v id e d th e p h y s ic a l s ta te s u c h a s te m p e ra tu re
etc. o f th e c o n d u c to r re m a in s c o n s ta n t".

Sym bolically O hm 's la w can be w ritten as

/ oc V
It im plies that V=Rl ............. (13.2)
w here R. th e constant o f proportionality is called the
resistance o f the conductor. The value o f the resistance
depends upon the nature, dim ensions and the physical state
o f the conductor. In fact the resistance is a m easuro o f the

36
opposition to the motion of electrons due to their continuous
bumping w th the atoms o f the lattico. The unit of resistance is
ohm. A conductor has a resistance o f 1 ohm if a current of 1
ampere flows through it when a potential difference of 1 volt is
applied across its ends. The symbol of ohm is 0 . If / is measured
in amperes. I/in volts, then R is measured in ohms i.e..
V (volts)
R (ohm s) ■ 7 (a m p e re s j ............. <13'3 >

A sam ple of a conductor is said to obey O hm 's law if its

resistance R rem ains constant that is. the graph o f its
V versus / is exactly a straight line (Fig. 13.7). A conductor
which strictly obeys O hm 's law is called ohm ic. However,
there are devices, w hich d o not obey O hms' law i.e.. they are 0 7 Curronl - voK*g» gropft oT
non ohmic. The exam ples o f non ohm ic devices are filament
bulbs and sem iconductor diodes.
Let us apply a certain potential difference across the
term inals o f a filam ent lam p and m easure the resulting
current passing through it. If w e repeat the m easurement for
different values o f potential difference and draw a graph of
voltage V versus current /. it w ill be seen that the graph is not a
straight line (Fig. 13.8). It means that a filam ent is a non
ohm ic device. This deviation o f / - V graph from straight line is
due to the increase in the resistance o f the filam ent with
tcm porature - a topic w hich is discussed in the next section.
As the current passing through the filam ent is increased from
zero, the graph is a straight line in the initial stage because
the change in the resistance o f the filam ent with temperature
due to sm all current is not appreciable. As the current is
further increased, the resistance o f the filam ent continues to
increase due to rise in its temperature.
Another exam ple o f non oh m ic device is a semiconductor
diode. The current - voltage plot o f such a diode is shown in
Fig. 13.9. The graph is not a straight line so semi conductor is
also a non ohm ic device.
R e vie w o f S eries a n d P a ra lle l C o m b in a tio n s o f R e sis to rs
In an electrical circuit, usually, a num ber o f resistors are
connected together. There a re two arrangem ents in which
resistors can be connected w ith each o th e r.. one is known as
series arrangem ent and o th er one as parallel arrangement. / R. r, r, i
- > - V W “— A A A —/V \A -> -
If the resistors are connected end to end such that the same
current passes through all o f them, they are said to be
connected in series a s show n in Fig. 13.10(a). There F t g .l) I 0 (« ]

37
 equivalent resistance R. is given by
(13.4)
-e — Avvw vw — 4- In parallel arrangement a number of resistors are
*. connected side by side with their ends joined together at
"V M V W W -
two common points as shown m Fig 13 10(b) The
lllh eqvivalent resistance R, of this arrangement is given by
1 1 1
+— +— + .......... (135)
n»txwM R, R, R2
13.5 RESISTIVITY AND ITS DEPENDENCE
UPON TEMPERATURE
It has been experimentally seen that the resistance R of a
wire is directly proportional to its length L and inversely
proportional to its cross sectional area A Expressing
mathematically we have

/? « -
A
R =l> (13.6)

where p is a constant of proportionality known as resistivity or

specific resistance of the material of the wire. It may be noted
that resistance is the characteristic of a particular wire
whereas the resistivity is the property of the material of which
the wire is made. From Eq. 13.6 we have

P= V .......... (13-7)

The above equation gives the definition of resistivity as the

resistance of a metre cube of a material The SI unit of
resistivity is ohm-metre (Q m)
Conductance is another quantity used to describe the
electncal properties of materials. In fact conductance is the
reciprocal of resistance i.e..
Conductance
resistance (R)
The SI unit of conductance is mho or siemen
Likewise conductivity, o is the reciprocal of resistivity i.e..

(13.8)

38
The SI unit of conducfcvtfy is o h m 'm ' or mh m \ Resistivity of T a b le 13.1
various materials are given in Tabte 13.1.
Subslarv* p(On» -<K'>
It may be noted from Table 13.1 that silver and copper are two
Saver 1 52 * to* 000380
best conductors. That is the reason that m ost electric wires
are m ade of copper. C«w 1 S 4 - 10* 0 00390

The resistivity o f a substance depends upon the temperature Odd 2 27 * 10* 000340
also. It can be explained by recalling that the resistance AJumnum 2 63 • 10* 000390
offered by a conductor to tho flow o f electric current is due to
Tunpssn 5 00 ■ 10* ooo«eo
collisions, w hich the free electrons encounter with atom s of
the lattice. A s the tem perature o f th e conductor rises, the ken 110 0 » 1 0 * 000020
amplitude o f vibration o f the atom s in the lattice increases Ptaarum 1100* 10* 000520
and hence, the probability of their collision with free electrons
Ccnstanun 49 00 * 10* 00001
also increases. One m ay say that the atom s then offer a
bigger target, that is. the collision cross-section o f the atom s Msrtxry M 0 0 - 10* 000091
increases w ith temperature. This m akes the collisions .. .
rmyr&T'm 1000 - 0* 000020
between free electrons and the atom s in the lattice m ore
C trtx n 3.5 * 10* -0 0005
frequent and hence, the resistance o f the conductor
increases. Gsrmanum 05 -005

Exporim ontally the change in resistance of a metallic Sacoi 20-2301 ■007

conductor w ith tem perature is found to be nearly linear o ver a
considerable range of tem perature above and below 0 °C
(Fig. 13.11). O ve r such a range the fractional change in
resistance per ketvin is known as the temperature coefficient
o f resistance i.e..

« = (13.9)
o
w here R cand R,are resistances a t temperature 0 "C and f *C.
A s resistivity p depends upon the tem peraturo. Eq. 13.6 gives
R ,= pJJA and R ,=pJU A
Substituting th e valuos o f R, and R in E q . 13.9. w o get
P. -P M*C>-
as a ®— "• (13.10)
Po* S t j. 11VenationOi nuMYty of Cu
I
w here p. is the resistivity o f a conductor a t 0 °C and p, is the
resistivity at f *C. Values o f tem peraturo co-efficients of
resistivity o f som e substances are also listed in Table 13.1
In t e r e s t in g In fo r m a t io n
There are som e substances like germanium, silicon etc..
in sp e cto rs c a n e a t* y cnecfc the
whose resistance decreases with increase in temperature, r d d t - M y o f a c o n c re te t n J j c m a d e
i.e.. these substances have negative temperature coefficients. w ith c a rb o n t b e r s . T h e ftbers co n d u c t
e lo c tn o ty ff s e n s o r s s n o w lh a l

E x a m p le 1 3 .2 : 0.75 A current flow s through an iron wire ele ctrical re s ista n ce is s t c r a a s r g

o v e r t m e th e * b e rs a r e le p a r a t r v }
when a battery o f 1.5 V is connected across its ends. The because o f c ra A *

39
 length o f the w ire is 5.0 m and its cross sectional area is
2 .5 * 10 W . C om pute the resistivity of iron.
S o lu tio n :
Table 13.2 The C olour Code
The resistance R o f the w ire can be calculated by Eq. 13.2
Colour Value i.e..
Blec* 0 y j v
Brown 1 7 “ oI sa " 20 Va~' * 20 fi
Red 2 T he resistivity p of iron o f which the w ire is m ade is g iven by
r A 2 .0 0 x 2 . 5 x 1 0 r m * _ 4 n „ t n .y.
Orange 3 1.0 x 10 O m
P L 5 .0 m
Y«eo*r 4
E x a m p le 1 3 .3: A platinum w ire has resistance o f 10 Q at
Groen 5 0 ‘C and 2 0 O at 273 ’ C. Find the value of temperature
Blue 6 coefficient o f resistance o f platinum.

v«*rt 7 S o lu tio n :

Gray 8 R, = 1 0 O . R, = 2 0 0 . I = 5 4 6 K - 2 7 3 K = 2 7 3 K

wr*e 9 Temperature coefficient o f resistance can be found by

a =^ = i o o l l oi L . _ L_ ,
R0 t 10O x273K 273 K

13.6 COLOUR CODE FOR CARBON

RESISTANCES
Carbon resistors are most common in electronic equipment. They
consist of a high-grade ceramic rod or cone (called tho substrate)
on which is deposited a thin rosistrvo film of carbon. The numerical
value of their resistance is indicated by a colour code which
consists of bands of different colours printed on the body of the
resistor Tho colour used in this code and the digits represented by
R otittof Colour CcxJo
them are given in Table 13.2.

Fig 13.12
Usually the code consists o f four bands (Fig. 13.12). Starting
from left to right, the colour bands are interpreted as follows:
For Your Intormatic T he first band indicates the first digit in the numerical
value o f the resistance.
The second band gives the second digit.
The third band is decim al m ultiplier i.e.. it g ive s the
num ber o f zeros after the first two digits.
Rod Vk M Oango STrer The fourth band gives resistance tolerance. Its colour
2 7 000 t 10% is either silver o r gold. Silver band indicates a
tolerance o f ± 10%. a gold band show s a tolerance of
R « 27000 0 ( 1 10% )

40
 + 5 % It there is t>o fourth band, tolerance is
understood to be ♦ 20% By tolerance, we mean the
possible variation from the m arked value. For
exam ple, a 1000 O resistor with a tolerance o f ± 10%
w ill have an actual resistance anywhere between
9 0 0 0 and 1100Q.

R h e o s ta t
It is a w ire w ound variable resistance. It consists of a bare
m anganin w ire wound over an insulating cylinder. T he ends
o f the w ire are connected to two fixed term inals A and B
(Fig. 13.13 a). A third term inal C is attached to a sliding
contact w hich can also be moved o ver the wire.
A rheostat can be used as a variable resistor a s w ell as a (at A R hociU t
potential divider. To use it as a variable resistor one o f the
C
fixed term inal say A and the sliding terminal C are inserted in
the circuit (Fig. 13.13 b). In this w ay the resistance of the wire
between A and the sliding contact C is used. If the sliding
contact is shifted aw ay from the term inal A , the length and ;b Its u w H n r l t b l t rvsWtor
hence the resistance included in the circuit increases and if
the sliding contact is moved towards A . the resistance F ig . U . 1J

decreases. A rheostat can also be used a s a potential divider.

This is illustrated in Fig. 13.14. A potential difference V is
applied across the e nds A and B o f the rheostat w ith the help
o f a battery. If R is the resistance of w ire AB. the current /
passing through it is given by / = V/R.
T he potential difference between the portion BC o f the wire
A B is given by

current x resistance

= (13.11)
R R
w here r is the resistance o f the portion BC o f the wire. The
circuit show n in Fig. 13.14 is known as potential divider.
Eq.13.11 shows that this circuit can provide a t its output
terminals a potential difference varying from zero to the full
potential difference of the battery depending on the position of
the sliding contact A s the sliding contact C is m oved towards
the end B. the length and hence the resistance r o f the portion
BC of the w ire decreases which according to Eq. 13.11.
decreases V* . On the other hand if the sliding contact C is
moved towards the end A. the output voltage increases.
F i g . 1S .1 4

41

f t ®|°|
Fig 1J M n * m to to n o l< X l9 r* rt
tfU pM
F o r Y o u r In fo rm a tio n
Aioro-ofxn rcaiucr t .-.scaled try a
tingle bt*c* colour band around the
body of tb« r**«*tof.
Fig. 13.16 The power of a bMtry
appears as P » poew *svpaled in
thoresistwft
T h e rm is to rs
A thermistor is a heat sensitive resistor. Most thermistors
have negative temperature coefficient of resistance i.e.. the
resistance of such thermistors decreases when their
temperature is increased. Thermistors with positive
temperature coefficient are also available.
Thermistors are made by heating under high pressure
semiconductor ceramic made from mixtures of metallic
oxides of manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron etc. These
are pressed into desired shapes and then baked at high
temperature. Different types of thermistors are shown in
Fig .13.15. They may be in the form of beads, rods or washers.
Thermistors with high negative temperature coefficient are
very accurate for measuring low temperatures especially
near 10 K. The higher resistance at low temperature enables
more accurate measurement possible.
Thermistors have wide applications as temperature sensors
i.e.. they convert changes of temperature into electrical
voltage which is duly processed.
13.7 ELECTRICAL POWER AND POWER
DISSIPATION IN RESISTORS
Consider a circuit consisting of a battery E connected in
series with a resistance R (Fig. 13.16). A steady current /
flows through the circuit and a steady potential difference V
exists between the terminals A and B of the resistor R.
Terminal A. connected to the positive pole of the battery, is at
a higher potential than the terminal B. In this arcuit the
battery is continuously lifting charge uphill through the
potential difference V. Using the meaning of potential
difference, the work done in moving a charge AO up through
the potential difference Vis given by
Work done = A W = V x AO ( 13 12)
.
This is the energy supplied by the battery. The rate at which
the battery is supplying electrical energy is the power output
or electrical power of the battery. Using the definition of
power we have
Electrical power ■ =y ^
Time taken AT
42
 Since l^ .s o
At
Electrical power = Vx / (13 12a)
Eg 13.12a is a general relation for power delivered from a
source of current / operating on a voltage V. In the circuit
shown in Fig. 13.16 the power suppliod by tho battery is
oxpended or dissipated in the resistor R. The principle of
conservation of energy tells us that the power dissipated in
the resistor is also given by Eq. 13.12. a
Power dissipated ( P ) * V x l ........... (13.13)
Alternative equation for calculating power can be found by
substituting V = IR . l = V/R in turn in Eq. 13.13

P = V x l * f R x l * l ’R
i / i/*
P = V x l = Vx - - —
R R
Thus we have three equations for calculating the power
dissipatod m a resistor.

P * V x l, P -t'R . P= s - (13.14)

If Vis expressed in volts and /in amperes, the power is

expressed in watts.
13.8 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF) AND
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
We know that a source of electrical energy, say a cell or a
battery, when connected across a resistance maintains a
steady current through it (Fig. 13.17). The cell continuously
supplies energy which is dissipated in the resistance of the
circuit. Suppose when a steady current has been established
in the circuit, a charge AO passes through any cross section
of the drcuit in time At. During the course of motion, this
charge enters the cell at its low potential end and leaves at its
high potential end. The source must supply energy AW to the Fig. 13.17 EJ»c«rom»v« lore* erf •
positive charge to force it to go to the point of high potential.
The emf E of the source is defined as the energy supplied to
unit charge by the cell.

43

F ig . S3 18 A n s q u v a io n t o rc u il o f a
cad c * o m f £ m l internal roaatanoo r.
Fig lilt Tha MrirMtal pofen*al
(3'H p-fncc V c t i C H r i E / i
It may bo noted that electromotive force is not a force and we
do not measure it in newtons. The unit of emf is
joule/coulomb which is volt (V).
The energy supplied by the cell to the charge carriers is
derived from the conversion of chemical energy into
electrical energy inside the cell.
Like other components in a circuit a cell also offors some
resistance. This resistance is due to the electrolyte present
between the two electrodes of the cell and is called the
internal resistance r of the cell. Thus a cell of emf £ having an
internal resistance r is equivalent to a source of pure emf E
with a resistance r in series as shown in Fig. 13.18.
Let us consider the performance of a cell of em f E and
internal resistance r as shown in Fig. 13.19. A voltmeter of
infinite resistance measures the potential difference across
the external resistance R or the potential difference V across
the terminals of the cell. The current / flowing through the
circuit is given by
E
I
R +r
or E * IR +Ir ............ (13.16)
Here / R = V is the terminal potential difference of the cell in
the presence of current /. When the switch S is open, no
current passes through the resistance. In this case the
voltmeter reads the emf E as terminal voltage. Thus terminal
voltage in the presence of the current (switch on) would be
less than the em f £ by / r.
Let us interpret the Eq. 13.16 on energy considerations. The
left side of this equation is the emf £ of the cell which is equal
to energy gained by unit charge as it passes through the cell
from its negative to positive terminal. The right side of the
equation gives an account of the utilization of this energy as
the current passes the circuit. It states that, as a unit charge
passes through the circuit, a part of this energy equal to / r is
dissipated into the cell and the rest of the energy is dissipated
into the external resistance R. It is given by potential drop IR .
Thus the emf gives the energy supplied to unit charge by the
cell and the potential drop across the various elements
account for the dissipation of this energy into other forms as
the unit charge passes through these elements.
The em f is the 'cause" and potential difference is its 'effect*.
The emf is always present even when no current is drawn
44
through the battery or the cell, but the potential difference
across the conductor is zero w hen no current flows through it.

E x a m p le 1 3 .4 : The potential difference between the

term inals o f a battory in open circuit is 2.2 V. W hen it Is
connected across a resistance o f 5.0 0 , the potential falls to
1.8 V. Calculate the current and the internal resistance o f the
battery.
S o lu tio n :

G iven E = 2 .2 V, f l= 5 . 0 f i . V = 1 .8 V

W e are to calculate / and r.

W e have V = IR
, V 1.8 V
or /= — -------- =0.36 A
R 5 .0 0 Do You Know?
Internal resistance rc a n be calculated by using
E -V * /r
or 2.2 V = 1.8 V + 0.36 A x r
or r = 1.11 V A ’ = 1 .1 1 0

M a x im u m P o w e r O u tp u t

In the circuit o f Fig. 13.19. as the current / flows through the (•)
resistance R. the charges flow from a point of higher potential
to a point o f low er potential and as such, they looso potontial
energy. If V is the potential difference across R. the loss of
potential energy per second is V /. This loss o f energy per
second appears in other form s of energy and is known as -Q h -
pow er delivered to R by current /.
Pow or delivered \o R = P ^ = V I
-w w w -
- l’R (7 V = IR ) w
A vcftm tfor connected accost
As
I I I

Mminals <A a co * moasoros (a)

o m f o f lh a c « l o n o p e n t i r o A (6 )
terminal poumn dWarance o n a
E 2R e 2r dOMdcircuA
(13.17)
(R + r f ( R - r j 2 + 4 R r .............
w hen R = r, the denom inator o f the expression o f Pw is least
and s o Pw is then a m axim um . Thus w e see that m aximum
power is delivered to a resistance (load), when the internal
resistance o f the source equals the load resistance. The

45
 value o f this m aximum output power as given b y Eq. 13.17 is
E2

4R .
13.9 KIRCHHOFF'S RULES
C hm 's taw and rules o f series and parallel com bination of
asistance are quite useful to analyze sim pte electrical
circuits consisting o f m ore than one resistance. However
such a m ethod fails in the case of com plex networks
consisting o f a num bor o f resistors, and a num ber o f voltage
sources. Problem s o f such networks can be solved by a
system o f analysis, w hich is based upon two rules, known as
K irch h o ffs rules.

K ir c h h o ffs F irs t Rulo

It states that the sum o f all the currents m eeting a t a point in
the circuit isze ro i.e ..
Z fO (13.18)
It is a convention that a current flowing towards a point is
taken a s positive and that flowing aw ay from a p oint is taken
as negative.
C onsider a situation w here four w iros m eet a t a point A
(Fig. 13.20). The currents flowing into the point A are
/, and I, and currents flowing aw ay from the point are /, and /,.
According to the convention currents /, and /, are positive and
currents /, and /, are negative. Applying Eq. 13.18 we have

F i g 1 1 j o A e c o f 4 n ( j l o K i r t f i h o » « 1* or /,♦ /,= /,♦ /, (13.19)

nt
Using Eq. 13.19 K irchhoffs first rule can be stated in other
words as

T h e s u m o f a ll th e c u rre n ts flo w in g
to w a rd s a p o in t is e q u a l t o th e s u m o f all
th e c u rre n ts flo w in g aw a y fro m th e p o in t.

K irch h o ffs first rule which is also known as K irch h o ffs point
rule is a manifestation of law o f conservation o f charge. If
there is no sink o r source o f charge at a point, th e total charge
flowing towards the point m ust be equal to the total charge
flowing aw ay from it.

46
 K irc h h o ff's S e c o n d R u le
It states that the algebraic sum of voltage changes in a closed
circuit or a loop must be equal to zero. Consider a closed
circuit shown in Fig. 13.21. The direction of the current /
flowing through the circuit depends on the cell having the
greater emf. Suppose £, is greater than Et . so the current
flows m counter clockwise direction (Fig. 13.21). We know
that a steady current is equivalent to a continuous flow of
positive charges through the circuit. We also know that a
voltage change or potential difference is equal to the work
done on a unit positive charge or energy gained or lost by it in
moving from one point to the other. Thus when a positive
charge AO due to the current / in the dosed circuit
(Fig. 13.21), passes through the cell E. from low (-ve) to high
potential (♦ve). it gains energy because work is done on it. rfc3 13 2«Accon*ng»K«N>o<r*2'‘
Usmg Eq 1312 the energy gam is E, AO When the current nSi£../R,-£,•«, >o
passes through the cell £ it loses energy equai to - £ . AO
because here the charge passes from high to low potential. In
going through the resistor R „ the charge \Q loses energy
equal to - / R, AQ where / R. is potential difference across R,
The minus sign shows that the charge is passing from high to
low potential. Similarly the loss of energy while passing
through the resistor R, is - / R, AO. Finally the charge reaches
the negative terminal of the cell £, from where we started.
According to the law of conservation of energy the total
change in energy of our system is zero. Therefore, we can
write
£ ,A Q -/R ,A Q -£ ,A Q -/R ,A Q = 0
or E ,-/R ,-E ,-/R , = 0 (13.20)
which is Kirchhoff's second rule and it states that

Tho algebraic su m o f po ten tia l changes

In a clo se d c irc u it is zero.

We have seen that this rule is simply a particular way of

stating the law o f conservation of energy in electrical
problems.
Before applying this rule for the analysis of complex network
it is worthwhile to thoroughly understand the rules for finding
the potential changes.

47
(i) If a source of emf is traversed from negative to
positive terminal, the potential change is positive, it is
negative in the opposite direction.
(ii) If a rosistor is traversed in the direction of curront. the
change in potential is negative, it is positive in the
opposite direction.
E xam ple 13.6: Calculate the currents in the three
resistances of the circuit shown in Fig. 13.22.
S o lu tio n :
First we select two loops abcda and ebcfe The choice of
loops is quite arbitrary, but it should bo such that each
resistance ts included at least once in the selected loops.
After selecting the loops, suppose a current /. is flowing in the
first loop and /, in the second loop, all flowing in the same
sense. These currents are called loop currents. The actual
currents will be calculated with their help. It should be noted
that the sense of the current flowing in all loops should
essentially be the same. It may be clockwise or anticlockwise.
Here we have assumed it to be clockwise (F*g. 13.22).
We now apply Kirchhoffs second rule to obta.m the equations
required to calculate the currents through the resistances. We
first consider the loop abcda Starling at a point 'a' wo follow
the loop clockwise. The voltage change while crossing the
battery E, is * E. because tho current flows through it from
positive to negative. The voltage change across R, is - !JRr
The resistance R. is common to both the loops /, and /,
therefore, the currents /, and /, simultaneously flow through it.
The directions of currents /. and /, as flowing through R, are
opposite, so we have to decide that which of these currents is
to be assigned a positive sign. The convention rogardmg the
sign of the current is that if we are applying tho Kirchhoffs
second rule in the first loop, then the current of this loop I.e. /,
will be assigned a positive sign and all currents, flowing
opposite to /. have a negativo sign. Similarly, while applying
Kirchhoffs second rule in the second loop, the current /, will be
considered as positive and /, as negative. Using this
convention the current flowing through R} is (/, - /,) and the
voltage change across is - (/, - /,) R^ The voltage change
across tho battery E, is E ,. Thus the Kirchhoffs second rule as
applied to the loop abcda gives
-E ,- /,/? ,-(/,-/,)« ,+ £ , =0

48
 Substituting the values, we have
- 40 V - /, x 10 O - ( / , - / , ) x 30 0 + 60 V = 0
20 V - 1 0 O x [ /, ♦ 3 (/, - /,)) » 0
Of 4 /, - 3 /, = 2 V O ' = 2 A (13.21)
Similarly applying Kirchhoffs second rule to the loop ebcfe.
we get

Substituting the values, we have

•6 0 V - ( /,- / , ) x 3 0 0 - / , x 1 5 0 + 5 0 V = 0
-10 V - 1 5 O x (/, + 2 (/,- /,)] = 0
or 6 / , - 9 / , = 2 V f i ’ = 2A (13.22)
Solving Eq. 13.21 and Eq. 13.22 for /. and l }. we get
2 2
/,= -A and /,= - A

Knowing the values of loop currents /, and /, the actual

current flowing through each resistance of the circuit can be
determined. Fig. 13.22 shows that /, and /, are the actual
currents through the resistances R, and Ry The actual
current through R} is the difference of /, and /, and its direction
is along the larger current. Thus
2
The current through R, = /. = r A = 0.66 A flowing in the
direction of /. i.e.. from a to d.
2 2
The current through = / , - / , = - A - - A = 0.44 A flowing in
the direction o f/.i.e .. from c to b.
2
The current through R, = / } = - A = 0.22 A flowing in the
d irectionof/, i.e.. from f toe.
P ro c e d u re o f S o lu tio n o f C ir c u it P ro b le m s
After solving the above problem we are in a position to apply
the same procedure to analyse other direct current complex
networks. While using Kirchhoffs rules in other problems, it is
worthwhile to follow the approach given below:
(i) Draw the circuit diagram.
The choice of loops should be such that each
resistance is mdudod at least once in the selected loops.

49
 (iii) Assume a loop current in each loop, all the loop
currents should be m the same sense. It may be
either clockwise or anticlockwise.
(iv) Wnte loop equations for all the selected loops
For writing each loop equation the voltage change
across any component is positive if traversed from
low to high potential and it is negative if traversed
from high to low potential
(v) Sdvetheseequationsfortheunkno.viquanV.ius

13.9 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

The Wheatstone bridge circuit shown in Fig. 13.23 consists
o f four resistances R „ R „ R, and R, connected in such a way
so as to form a mesh ABCDA. A battery is connected between
points A and C. A sensitive galvanometer of resistance Rt is
c connected between points B and D. If the switch S is closed,
a current will flow through tho gatvanometer. We aro to
dotormine the condition under which no current flows
through the galvanometer even after tho switch is closed. For
this purpose we analyse this circuit using Kirchhoffs second
rule. We consider the loops ADBA.DCBD and ADCA and
assume anticlockwise loop currents and I, through the
loops respectively. The Kirchhoffs second rule as applied to
loop ADBA gives
-/, * , -< /,-/,) -(/, - / , ) * , = 0 (13.23)
Similarly by applying the Kirchhoffs second rule to loop
-BC D B w ehave
0 ............ (13.24)
The current flowing through the galvanometer will be zero if.
/ , - / , = 0 o r /, = /,. With this condition Eq 13.23 and
Eq. 13.24 reduce to
(13.25)
-l<R3» ( /,- /,) « . (13.26)

H —
Dividing Eq. 13.25 by Eq. 13.26

Thus whenever the condition of Eq. 13.27 is satisfied, no current

tows through the galvanometer and it shows no defection, or
conversely when the galvanometer in the Wheatstone bridge
circuit shews no deflection. Eq. 13.27 is satisfied

50
If w e connect th re e resistances /?,. R, and R, of know n
adjustable values and a fourth resistance R, o f unknow n
value and the resistances /?,. R. and R, are so adjusted that
the galvanom eter shows no deflection then, from the know n
resistances R,. R 1and R, the unknown resistance R, can be
determ ined by using Eq. 13.27.

13.10 POTENTIOMETER
Potential difference is usually measured by an instrument
catted a voltmeter. The voltmeter is connected across the two
points in a circuit between which potential difference is to be
measured. It is necessary that the resistance o f the voltmeter
be large compared to the circuit resistance across which the
voltmeter is connected. Otherwise an appreciable current will
flow through the voltmeter which will alter the circuit current and
the potential difference to be measured. Thus the voltmeter can
read the correct potential difference only when it does not draw
any current from the circuit across which it is connected. An
ideal voltmeter would have an infinite resistance.

However, there a re some potential measuring instrum ents

such as digital voltm eter and cathode ray oscilloscope which
practically d o n o t draw any current from the circuit because of
their large resistance and are thus very accurate potential
m easuring instrum ents. But those instruments are very
expensive and are difficult to use. A very simple instrum ent
which can m easure and com pare potential differences
accurately is a potentiom eter.
A potentiom eter consists o f a resistor R in the form of a wire
o n which a term inal C can slide (Fig. 13.24 a). The resistance
between A and C can be varied from 0 to R as the sliding
contact C is m oved from A to B. If a battery of em f £ is
connected across R (Fig. 13.24 b). the current flowing
through it is / = EJR. If we represent the resistance betw een A
and C by r. the potential drop between these points w ill be
r l = r E /R Thus as C is m oved from A to B. r varies from 0 to R
and the potential drop betw een A and C changes from 0 to £.
Such an arrangem ent also known a s potential divider can be
used to m easure th e unknow n em f o f a source by using the
circuit show n in Fig. 13.25. Here R is in the form o f a straight
wire of uniform a rea o f cross section. A source o f potential,
say a cell whose em f E. is to be measured, is connected
between A and the sliding contact C through a galvanom eter
G. It should be noted that the positive terminal of £ , and that of
the potential divider are connected to the same point A If. in
 the loop AGCA. the point C and the negative terminal of E.are
at the same potential then the two terminals of the
galvanometer will be at the samo potential and no current will
flow through the galvanometer. Therefore, to measure the
potential the position of C is so adjusted that the
galvanometer shows no deflection. Under this condition, the
emf £, of the cell is equal to the potential difference between A
and C whose value E r/R is known. In case of a wire of uniform
cross section, the resistance is proportional to the length of the
wire. Therefore, the unknown emf is also given by

£. = £ - = £ - (13.28)
R L
where L is the total length of the wire A8 and t is its length from
A to C after C has been adjusted for no deflection As the
maximum potential that can be obtained between A and C s £ .
so the unknown emf E. should not exceed this value, otherwise
the null condition will not be obtained It can be seen that the
unknown emf E. ts determined when no current is drawn from it
and therefore, potentiometer is one of the most accurate
methods for measunng potential
The method for measunng the emf of a cell as desenbed
above can be used to compare the emfs E. and E. of two
cells The balancing lengths t, andf, are found separately for
the two cells Then.
t (
E , - E - ~ and =

Dividing these two equations, we get

E I.
E /
(13.29)

So the ratio of the emfs is equal to ratio of the balancing

longths.

SUMMARY
The electric current is said to be caused by the motion of electric charge.
The heat energy H produced by a current / in the wire of resistance R during a time
interval t is given by H = l 3R t
The passage of current is always accompanied by a magnetic field in the
surrounding space.

52
• Certain liquids conduct electricity due to some chemical reaction that takes place
with: n them. The study of this process is known as electrolysis.
• The potential difference Vacross the ends of a conductor is directly proportional to
the current / flowing through it provided the physical state such as temperature etc.
of tho conductor remains constant.
• The fractional change In resistance per kelvin is known as temperature coefficient of
resistance.
• Athermistor is a heat sensitive resistor. Most thermistors have negative temperature
coefficient of resistance.
. v2
• Electrical power P = W = / /? =
R
• The emf E of the source is the energy supplied to unit charge by the cell
• The sum of all the currents meeting at a point in a circuit is zero is the Kirchhoffs first
rule.'
• The algebraic sum of potential changes in a dosed circuit is zero is known as
KirchhofTs second rule.

0 BBEBB
13.1 A potential difference is applied across the ends of a copper wire. What is the effect
on the drift velocity of free electrons by

(I) increasingthepotentialdifference

(I) decreasing the length and the temperature of the wire

13.2 Do bends in a wire affect its electrical resistance? Explain.
13.3 What are the resistances of the resistors given in the figures A and B? What is
the tolerance of each? Explain what is meant by the tolerance?
Bwn_____________________ SBm

13.4 Why does the resistance of a conductor rise with temperature?

13.5 What are the difficulties in testing whether the filament of a lighted bulb obeys Ohm's
law?

53
13.6 Is the filam ent resistance lower or higher in a 500 W. 220 V light bulb than in a 100 W.
220 V bulb?
13.7 Describe a circuit which w ill give a continuously varying potential.
13.8 Explain w hy the term inal potential difference o f a battery decreases w hen the
current drawn from it is increased?
13 .9 W hat is W heatstone bridge? H ow can it be used to determ ine an unknown
resistance?

( B S
13.1 H ow m any electrons pass through a n electric bulb in one minute if the 3 0 0 mA
current is passing through it? (Ans: 1 .1 2 x 1 0 ” )

13.2 A ch a rg e o f 90 C passes through a w ire in 1 h o u ra n d 15 m inutes. W hat is the current

in the wire? (Ans: 2 0 mA)

13.3 Find the equivalent resistance of the a rc u it (Fig.P. 13.3). total current drawn from the
source and the current through each resistor.
ft, ■ 6 Cl

13.4 A rectangular bar o f iron is 2.0 cm by 2.0 cm in cross section and 40 cm long.
Calculate its resistance if the resistivity o f iron is 11 x 1 0 *fim . (Ans: 1.1 x 1 0 ‘ O)

13.5 The resistance o f an iron wire at 0 'C is 1 x 10* Q. W hat is the resistance at 500 'C if
the tem perature coefficient o f resistance o f iron is 5.2 x 10 ’ K '? (Ans: 3.6 x 10‘ O)

13.6 Calculate term inal potential difference of each o f cells in circuit o f Fig. P. 13.6.

(Ans: 23.8 V. 7.8 V)

FI9.P. U «

54
13 .7 F ind th e c u rre n t w h ic h flo w s in a ll th e re sista n ce s o f the circu it o f F ig. P.13.7.

FHj. p. i j .7 (A n s : 1 .2 5 A . 0 .5 A )
13 8 F ind th e c u rre n t and p o w e r d issip a te d in e a ch resista n ce o f th e c irc u it, sh o w n in
F ig. P. 13.8.

1 0 ft 1.00
— vw — ^
— w —
2.0 f t |
60 V
»2on ]
10 / - L
10ft 1 .0 ft
— v « v -------- -------- W - ------- 1

Fl»P. IX *

(A n s : 0 .8 A . 1.4 A . 2 .2 A . 0.64 W . 1.96 W . 3 .9 2 W . & 9 .6 8 W )

55
 ELECTROMAGNETISM
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:
Appreciate that a force might act on a current carrying conductor placed in a
magnetic field.
Defi ne magnetic flux density and the tesla.
Derive and use the equation F=BIL sin0 with directions.
4- Understand how the force on a current carrying conductor can be used to measure
the magnetic flux density of a magnetic field using a current balance.
Describe and sketch flux patterns due to a long straight wire.
Define magnetic flux and the weber.
Derive and use the relation <t> = B.A.
Understand and describe Ampere’s law.
Appreciate the use of Ampere's law to find magnetic flux density inside a solenoid.
10 Appreciate that there acts a force on a charged particle when it moves in a uniform
magnetic field and in electric field.
Describe the deflection of beams of charged particles moving in a uniform magnetic
field.
12. Understand and doschbe method to measure e/m.
13. Know the basic principle of cathode ray oscilloscope and appreciate its use
14 Derive the expression of torque due to couple acting on a coil.
15. Know the principle, construction and working of a galvanometer.
16. Know how a galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter and an ammeter.
1? Describe and appreciate the use of AVO meter/multimeter.
16 Read through analogue scale and digital display on electrical meters.

lectric current generates magnetic field. At the same time, a changing magnetic field
produces electric current. This interplay of electricity and magnetism is widely used in a
number of electrical devices and appliances in modem age technology.

56
 14.1 MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO CURRENT
IN A LONG
Take a straight, thick copper wire and pass it vertically
through a hole in a horizontal piece of cardboard. Place
small compass needles on the cardboard along a circle with
the centre at the wire. All tho compass needles will point in
the direction of N - S. Now pass a heavy current through the
wire. It will be seen that the needles will rotate and will set
themselves tangential to the circle (Fig. 14.1 a). On reversing
the direction of current, the direction of needles is also
reversed. As the current through the wire is stopped, all the
needles again point along the N-Sdirection.
Following conclusions can be drawn from the above
mentioned experiment:
(i) A magnetic field is set up in the region
surrounding a current carrying wire.
(ii) The lines of force are circular and their
direction depends upon the direction of
current.
(ni) The magnetic field lasts only as long as the
current is flowing through the wire.
The direction of the lines of force can be found by a rule
concluded directly from the above experiment which is stated
as follows:

If the wire is grasped in fist of right hand with

the thumb pointing in tho direction of the
current, the fingers of the hand will circle the
wire in the direction of the magnetic field.

This is known as right hand rule and is illustrated in

Fig. 14.1 (b).

14.2 FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING

CONDUCTOR IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC
FIELD
We have seen that a current carrying conductor sets up its
own magnetic field. If such a conductor is placed in an Fig. 14.1 (*)
external magnetic field, the magnetic field of the conductor
will interact with the external magnetic field, as a result of
which the conductor may experience a force. To demonstrate

57
 Do You Know?
If tno irwMIo fmoof ot tbe rigM hand
pontj m tbo OrtxXcrt of »» magnoOc
fwk) ttw thumb in toe cjrecticb o<
cu»r*nt, th« k*co on to* oocductor
w«t>* normal to to* paVn towards to*
Fig. 14.3
Do You Know?
Roputtton
(a) Two long parallel wm carrying
curronSs /. ard /, In oppos-t* brecton
ropol each other (fc; The w«r®» attract
each otoar wtoen the currants are in
the same dradton
this effect, consider a rod of copper, capable of moving on a
pair of copper rails. The whole arrangement is placed in
between the pole pieces of a horsoshoc magnet so that the
copper rod is subjected to a magnetic field directed verttcalfy
upwards (Fig. 14.2).
Fig. 142 I
When a current is passed through the copper rod from a
battery, the rod moves on the rails. The relative directions o{
the current, magnetic field and the motion of the conductor
are shown in Fig. 14.3. It can bo seen that the force on a
conductor is always at right angles to the plane which
contains the rod and the direction of the magnetic field. The
magnitude of the force depends upon the following factors:
(i) The force F is directly proportional to sina where a is
the angle between the conductor and the field. From
this, it follows that the force is zero if the rod is placed
parallel to the field and is maximum when the
conductor is placed at right angles to the field.
Fcrsina
(ii) The force F is directly proportional to the current I
flowing through the conductor. The more the current,
greater is the force.
Fx I
(tii) The force F is directly proportional to the length L of
the conductor inside the magnetic field.
Fxl
(iv) The force F is directly proportional to the strength of
the applied magnetic field. The stronger the field, the
greater is the force. If we represent the strength of the
field by 8. then
FxB
Combining all these factors.
Fx ILBsinu
58
or F = k/LBsina
where k is constant of proportionality. If we follow SI units, the
value of k is 1. Thus in SI units
F-ILBsinn ....................................... (14.1)
Eq.14.1 provisos a definition for the strength of magnetic
field. If / = 1 A. L = 1m and a = 90’. then F = B. Thus B. the
strength of magnetic field which is also known as magnetic
induction is defined as the force acting on one metre length of
the conductor placed at right angle to the magnetic field when ForrbUf Information
1 A current is passing through it. In SI units the unit of B is
X XX x
tesla. A magnetic field is said to have a strength of one tesla A
X XX X
it exerts a force of one newton on one metre length of the
X XX X
conductor placed at right angles to the field when a current of
one ampere passes through the conductor. Thus Out or Into page
Convention »ropremnt dnocbon
1 T = 1 NA'm
It can be seen that the force on a current carrying conductor is
given both in magnitude and direction by the following
equation:
F = / L x B .................................. (14.2)
where the vector L is in the direction of current flow. The
magnitude of the vector / LxB is I LB sina. where a is the
angle between the vector L and B. This gives the magnitude
of the force. The direction of the force F (Fig. 14.3) is also
correctly given by the right hand rule of the cross product of I N
vectors of L and B i.e.. rotate L to coincide with B through the
smaller angle. Curl the fingers of right hand in the direction of
rotation. The thumb points in the direction of force. In some
situations the direction of the force is conveniently ►
determined by applying the following rule:
Consider a straight current carrying conductor held at right
angle to a magnetic field such that the current flows out of the
plane of paper i.e.. towards the reader as shown in
Fig. 14.4. It is customary to represent a current flowing
towards the reader by a symbol dot (•) and a current flowing
away from him by a cross (x). n 5
In order to find the direction of force, consider the lines of Fig. 14 4 Tha megnooc force on tie
force (Fig. 14.4). The two fields tend to reinforce each other current canytng conductor pieced al
rghtangle loatnagntOcFaW
on left hand side of the conductor and cancel each other on
the right side of it. The conductor tends to move towards the
weaker part of the field i.e.. the force on the conductor will be
directed towards right in a direction at right angles to both the

59
conductor and the magnetic field. This rule is often referred as
extension of right hand rule. It can be seen that the direction of
the force is the same as given by the direction of the vector L x B

Example 14.1: A 20.0 cm wire carrying a current of 10.0 A is

placed in a uniform magnetic field of 0.30 T. If tho wire makes
an angle of 40° with the direction of magnetic field, find the
magnitude of the force acting on the wire.

Solution:
Length of the wire = L = 20.0 cm = 0.20 m
Current =/= 10.0 A
Strength of magnetic field =S = 0.30T
Angle = a = 40'
Substituting these values in the equation
F=1BL sinu
10.0 A x 0.30 Tx 0.20 mxsin40 = 0.39 N

Like electric flux, the magnetic flux <t>, through a plane

element of area A in a uniform magnetic field B is given by dot
product of Band A (Fig. 14.5).
O, = B.A
<&,= 8Acos0 ....................................... (14.3)
Note that A is a vector whose magnitude is the area of the
element and whose direction is along the normal to the
surface of the element. 0is the angle between the directions
of the vectors Band A
In Fig. 14.5 (b) the field is directed along the normal to the
area, so 0 is zero and the flux is maximum, equal to BA.
When the field is parallel to the plane of the area (Fig. 14.5 c).
the angle between the field and normal to area is 90’ i.e..
0 = 90°. so the flux through the area in this position is zero.
In case of a curved surface placed in a non uniform magnetic
field, the curved surface is divided into a number of small
surface elements, each element being assumed plane and
the flux through the whole curved surface is calculated by
sum of the contributions from all the elements of the surface.
From the definition of tesla, the unit of magnetic flux is NmA'
which is called weber (Wb).

60
According to Eq. 14.3. the magnetic induction B is the flux per
unit area of a surface perpendicular to B. hence if is also
called as flux density. Its unit is then. Wbm'. Therefore,
magnetic induction, i.e.. the magnetic field strength is
measured in terms of Wbm' or N A m1 (tesla).
Example 14.2: The magnetic field in a certain region is
given by B * (40i-18k) Wbm '. How much flux passes through
a 5.0 cm' area loop in this region if the loop t»es flat In the
xy- plane?

Solution:
Magnetic induction = B = 40«-18 k
Area of the loop * \A = 5 0 x10 ‘m; k
F/ux = <&,» B. \A
«(40i-18k).(5.0x10"m'k)
d>.= 90x10'* Wb

We know that an electric current produces a magnetic field.

Ampere, after carrying out a series of expenments.
generalized his results into a law known as Ampere circuital
law by which the magnetic flux density B at any point due to a
curront carrying conductor can be easily computed as
explained below:
Consider a closed path in the form a arete of radius r
enclosing the current carrying wire (Fig. 14.6). This closed
path is referred as Amperean path. Divide this path into small
elements of length like AL. Let B be the value of flux density at
the site of AL. Determine the value of B.AL. If 0 is the angle
between B and AL. then
HJ Amcwr*'* tow to «nd
B..\L = BAL cos0 MtcMlnn far*, o* ‘
9 cvci»ri-;arryt-*}
B cos0 represents the component of B along the element of
length ,\L i e., Component of B para'tel»o\L ThusB. \L
represents the product of the length of the element AL and
the component of B parallel to AL. Ampere stated that the
sum of the quantities B.AL for all path elements into which the
complete loop has been divided equals times the total
current enclosed by the loop, where p. is a constant, known

61
 as permeability of free space. In SI units its value is
4s x 10 ’WbA mThis can be mathematically expressed as
(B.AL), ♦ (B.AL), ♦....♦ (B.ALX (B.AL),. = p*/
N

or £(B.Al-Up./ ............. (14.4)

>•1
where (B.AL), is tho value of B.AL along the r th element and
N is tho total number of elements into which the loop has
been divided. This is known as Ampere's circuital law.

Field Due to a Current Carrying Solenoid

A solenoid is a long, tightly wound, cylindrical coil of wire.
When current passes through such a coil, it behaves like a
For Your Information
bar magnet. The magnetic field produced by it is shown in
Fig. 14.7(a). The field inside a long solenoid is uniform and
much strong whereas out side the solenoid, it is so weak that
it can be neglected as compared to the field inside.
The value of magnetic filed B can be easily determined by
applying Ampere's circuital law. Consider a rectangular loop
abed as shown in Fig. 14.7 (b). Divide it into four elements of
length ab = t„ be ■ cd = (, and da »

Asotanort

fig 147

Applying Ampere’s law. we have

4

I<B.AL), = ^ x current enclosed

r-1

(B.aL),+(B.aL)j+(B.aL),*(B.aL).=h,x current enclosed

Now we will calculate the value of B.AL for each of the

elements. First we will consider the olement ab = t, that lies
inside the solenoid. Field inside the solenoid is uniform and is
parallel tor,(Fig. 14.7b). so

62
 (B.AL ),= t,B COSO*

For tho element cd = that lies outside the solenoid . the

field Bis zero, so
Do You Know?
(B. AL),= 0
Again B is perpendicular to r, and I. inside the solenoid and is Ptttttem Mr <nagn*«

zero outside, so

(B. AL )2 = (B. AL), * 0

4

X (B. AL),=81“ p. x current enclosed

r«1 The cutronl loco tan be rrjgmod to
be a phantom bar tnagnat wtt> a north
To find the current enclosed, consider the rectangular potaandaaoutipola
surface bounded by the loop abcda.
If n is the number of turns per unit length of tho solenoid, the
rectangular surfaco will intercept nt. turns, each carrying a
current /. So the current enclosed by the loop is nf, /. Thus
Ampere's law gives
Bt, = p,xr>F,/ For Your Information
or B =p n/ (14.5)

The field B is along the axis of the solenoid and its direction is
given by right hand grip rule which states "hold the solenoid in
the right hand with fingers curling in the direction of the
current, the thumb will point in the direction of the field*. * (s'Attraction

Example 14.3: A solenoid 15.0 cm long has 300 turns of

wire. A current of 5.0 Allows through it. What is the magnitude
of magnetic field inside the solenoid?

Solution: A.
Length of the solenoid = L= 15.0cm = 0.15m
Total number of turns = N = 300
T"T (b) R«pul»kxi
Current = /=5.0 A The 'phantom* magnat ndu4M tof
•acti loop r>etp» to axptan to*
Permeability of free space = p. = 4:: x 10' WbA’m1 attraction and itpiMn MCwaan tha
loop*
N 300
Number of turns per unit length = n=— = —
f 0.15m
= 2000 tums/m
Magnetic field = B = p. n /

63
 (B.AL), = ',8cosO*
*(,B
For the element cd a that lies outside the solenoid . the
field Bis zero, so
Do You Know?
<B.AL),«0
Again B is perpendicular to f, and inside the solenoid and is
zero outside, so

(B.AL ); = (B..\L), = 0
4

X (B • AL) = 8 f, = p. x current enclosed

I ho curroflt loop can Oo «rognod lo
bo a phantom bar magnat «*•» • north
To find the current enclosed, consider the rectangular pdoondotouthpo**
surface bounded by tho loop abcda.
If n is the number of turns por unit length of the solenoid, the
rectangular surface will intercopt n/, turns, each carrying a
current /. So the current enclosed by the loop is nf, /. Thus
Ampere's law gives
8 /, = p. x n f,/ For Your Information
or B =,!/»/ (14.5)
The field B is along the axis of the solenoid and its direction is
given by right hand grip rule which states "hold the solenoid in
the right hand with fingers curling in the direction of the
current. the thumb will point in the direction of the field*. *

Example 14.3: A solenoid 15.0 cm long has 300 turns of

wire. Acurrent of 5.0 A flows through it. What is the magnitude
■NOW
-i .
of magnetic field inside the solenoid?
r\
Solution:
•
Length of the solenoid » L = 15.0 cm = 0.15 m
Total number of turns = N = 300 (b) Ropuloloo
Current = / = 5.0A Tho •phoroom" magnat mcJuOoO kx
aach loop hotpa lo axpian no
Permeability of free space = p. = 4s x 10' WbA m ’ asrocbon ond tafAjHon botwoen tio
loop*
N 300
Number of turns per unit length = n=- = —
r 0.15 m
= 2000 tums/m
Magnetic field = 8 = p. n t

63
In Fig. 14.8. it can be seen that the direction of the segment L
is the same as the direction of the velocity of the charge
earners. If L is a unit vector along the direction of the segment
L and v. a unit vector along tho velocity vector v. then L = v
vL = vL L
-vvL = vL
Substituting the value of v L in Eq. 14.7. we have
Ft=nAq(vL)xB
= nALqvxB
n AL is the total number of charge carries in the segment L. so
the force experienced by a single charge carrier is

F =—V; = wg v x B
nAL
Thus tho force experienced by a single charge carrier moving
with velocity v in magnetic field of strength B is
F = Q(vxB) (14.8)
Although the Eq.14.8 has been derived with reference to
charge carrier moving in a conductor but it does not involve
any parameter of the conductor, so the Eq.14.8 is quite
general and it holds for any charge carrier moving in a
magnetic field.
If an electron is projected in a magnetic field with a velocity v.
it will experience a force which is given by putting q = - e in
Eq . 14.8 where e is the magnitude of the electronic charge.
F = -evxB (14.9)
In case of proton. Fis obtained by putting q = * e.
F=+evxB (14.10)
Note that in case of proton or a positive charge the direction
of the force is given by the direction of the vector v x B i.e
rotate v to coincide with B through the smaller angle of
rotation and curl the fingers of right hand in the direction of
rotation. Thumb will point in the direction of the force. This is
illustrated in Fig. 14.9 in which the proton enters into a
magnetic field, as shown in figure, along the direction of
dotted Ime. It experiences a force in the upward direction as Flo. 14.* '«*<* F ■*
given by the vector v x 8 As a result of this force the proton is
porp*r»x»AV to bom tho megnooc
rttU B and me vctoony v and cautat
deflected upwards as shown in Fig. 14.9. The direction of thetho pwMo's trajectory to bend in a
force on a moving negativo charge will be opposite to that ofvertical piano
positive charge. Due to this force, the electron is deflected in
tho downward direction as it enters into a magnetic field. It

65

Do You Know?
Ttw «t*ctric kxce F ffiat acts on a
pOMrrs cftargo is paraM to (he
•tectnc l«M I and causes the
particle's trajectory to bend in a
horizontal ptsne
may be noted that the magnitude of the force on a moving
charge carrier is qvSsinG where 0 is the angle between the
velocity of the carrier and the magnetic field. It is maximum
when 0 = 90° i.e., when the charged particle is projected at
right angles to the field. It is zero when 0 = 0° i.e.. a charged
particle projected in the direction of the field experiences no
force.
14.6 MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLE IN
AN ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELD
When an electric charge g is placed in an electric field E, It
experiences a force F parallel to electric field (Fig. 14.10). It is
given by
F = gE
If the charge is free to move, then it will accelerate
according to Newton's second law as
a F- = 2f .................... (14.11)
m m
If electric field is uniform, then acceleration is also uniform
and henco. the position of the particle at any instant of time
can be found by using equations of uniformly accelerated
motion.
When a charge particle q is moving with velocity v in a region
where there is an electric field E and magneticfield B. the
total force F is the vector sum of theelectric force
q E and magnetic force q (v x B) that is.
F = F. + F.
F = gE + g(vxB) (14.12)
This force F is known as the lorentz force. It is to be pointed
out that only the electric force does work, while no work is
done by the magnetic force which is simply a deflecting force.
14.7 DETERMINATION OF e/m OF AN
ELECTRON
Let a narrow beam of electrons moving with a constant speed
v be projected at right angles to a known uniform magnetic
field B directed into plane of paper. Wo havo seen that
electrons will experience a force
F = -evxB
66
The direction of the force will be perpendicular to both v and
B. As the electron is experiencing a force that acts at right BOTftopap*)
angle to its velocity, so it will change the direction of the
velocity. The magnitude of velocity will remain unchanged.
The magnitude of the force is evSsinO. As 0 is 90*. so
F = evB. As both v and B do not change, the magnitude of F is
constant. Thus the electrons are subjected to a constant
force evB at right angle to their direction of motion. Under the
action of this force, the electrons will move along a circle as
showninFig. 14.11.

The magnetic force F = Bev provides the necessary

mv"'
centripetal force to the electron of mass m to move along
a circular trajectory of radius^. Thus we have An otocfron n moving
porpervPoAw to a constant magnetic
Bev*—j~ Tho magnate loreo F couvm
tho panda to movo on a areolar pan

«■ (14.13)
m or

If v and r are known, e/m of the electron is determined. The

radius r is measured by making the electronic trajectory
visible. This is done by fiBing a glass tube with a gas such as
hydrogen at low pressure. This tube is placed in a region
occupied by a uniform magnetic field of known value. As
electrons are shot into this tube, they begin to move along a
circle under the action of magnetic force. As the electrons
move, they collide with atoms of the gas. This excites the
atoms due to which they emit light and their path becomes
lips
visible as a circular ring of light (Fig. 14.12). The diameter of
the ring can be easily measured.
In order to measure the velocity vof the electrons, we should
know the potential difference through which the electrons are
accelerated before entering into the magnetic field. If V is 1
this potential difference, the energy gained by electrons Fig. 1A.12
during their acceleration is Ve. This appears as the kinetic
energy of electrons
— mv = Ve
2
or
m
Substituting the value of v in Eq. 14.13. we ha ve

(14.14)
m ' BV

67
 Example 14.4: Find the radius of an orbit of an electron
moving at a rate of 2.0 x 10r ms ’ in a uniform magnetic field
1.20x10’T.
Solution:
Speed of the electron = v =2.0x10’ ms’
Magneticfietd strongth =8 = 1.20 x 10’T
Mass of the electron = m = 9.11 x 10 ” kg
Charge on electron =e = 1.61 x 10 ”C
The radius of the orbit is
mv
ra eB
9.11*1Q-a,kgx2.0xlO,ms ’
1.61x 10"1® Cx 1.20x 10 3 T

r=9.43x10’m
Example 14.5: Alpha particles ranging in speed from
1000 ms' to 2000 ms ’ enter into a velocity selector where th
electric intensity is 300 Vm' and tho magnetic induction
0.20 T. Which particle win move undeviated through the fiel

r« * rr « i Solution:
-' «e E=300 Vm ‘ = 300 NC ‘ 8 = 0.20T
Only those particles will be able to pass through the plate fo
which the electric force eE acting on the particles balances
' - &*v the magnetic force Bev on the particle as shown in the figu
Therefore eE = Bev
Thus, the selected speed is
E 300 NC ’ ‘_,
V" — - ------------- -—r = 1500 ms
8 0.20 NA Vn 1
The alpha particles having a speed of 1500 ms ’ will move
undeviated through the field.

14.8 CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a very versatile electroni
instrument which is. in fact, a high speed graph plotting
device. It works by deflecting beam of electrons as they pas
through uniform electric field between the two sets of paral
plates as shown in the Fig. 14.13{a). The deflected beam the
falls on a fluorescent screen where it makes a visible spot.

68
 F* Ftemeot A. A, A, • ATOM*

t Jr \
C'CHbodo X X > HonzonM Mlocbon putn
G* Grid VY*
S* FkxroKonl tenon

—2—irn nh rh M
P
Fig.
It can display graphs of functions which rapidly vary with time.
It is called cathode ray oscilloscope because it traces the
desired waveform with a beam of electrons which are also
callod cathode rays.
The beam of the electrons is provided by an electron gun
which consists of an indirectly heated cathode, a grid and
three anodes. The filament F heats the cathode C which
emits electrons. The anodos A.. A., A, which are at high
positive potential with respect to cathode, accelerate as well

A
as focus the electronic beam to fixed spot on the screen S.
The gnd G is at a negative potential with respect to cathode. It
controls the number of electrons which are accelerated by
anodes, and thus it controls the brightness of the spot formed
on the screen.
Str* toodi vOlt*g« w*v*tOfm
Now we would explain how the waveform of various voltages
Fig 14.13(1))
is formed in CRO.

Tho two set of deflecting plates, shown in Fig. 14.13(a) are

usually referred as x and y deflection plates because a
voltage applied between the x plates deflects the beam
horizontally on the screen i.e.. parallel to x-axis. A voltage
applied across the y plates deflects the beam vertically on the
screen i.e., along the y-axis The voltage that is applied
across the x plates is usually provided by a circuit that is built
in the CRO. It is known as sweep or timo base generator. Its
output waveform is a saw tooth voltage of period T
(Fig. 14.13-b). The voltage increases linearly with time for a
period Tand thon drops to zero. As this voltage is impressed
across the x plates, the spot ts deflected linearly with time Fig. 14.13 (b)
along the x-axis for a time T. Then the spot returns to its Thru annftbonal vww o< CRO
starting point on the screen very quickly because a saw tooth
voltage rapidly falls to its initial value at the end of each

69
period. We can actually see the spot moving on the x-axis. If
the time period T is very short, we see just a bright line on tho
screen.

If a sinusoidal voltage is applied across the y plates when,

simultaneously, the time base voltage is impressed across
the x plates, the sinusoidal voltage, which itself gives rise to a
vertical line, will now spread out and will appear as a
sinusoidal trace on the screen. The pattern will appear
•stationary only if the time T is equal to or is some multiple of
the time of one cycle of the voltage on y plates. It is thus
necessary to synchronize the frequency of the time base
generator with the frequency of the voltage at the y plates.
This is possiblo by adjusting the synchronization controls
provided on the front panel of the CRO.
Uses of CRO
The CRO is used for displaying the waveform of a given
voltage. Once the waveform is displayed, we can measure
the voltage, its frequency and phase. For example.
Fig. 14.14(a) shows the waveform of an alternating voltage.
As the y-axis is calibrated in volts and the x-axis in time, we
can easily find the instantaneous value and peak value of the
voltage. The time period can also be determined by using the
time calibration of x-axis. Information about the phase
difference between two voltages can be obtained by
simultaneously displaying their waveforms. For example, the
waveforms of two voltages are shown in Fig. 14.14(b). These
waveforms show that when the voltage of I is increasing, that
of II is decreasing and vice versa. Thus the phase difference
between these voltages is 180'.

14.9 TORQUE ON A CURRENT CARRYING

COIL
Consider a rectangular cod carrying a current /. The cod is
capable of rotation about an axis. Suppose it is placed in unifor
magnetic field B with its plane along the field (Fig. 14.15). We
know that a current carrying conductor of length L when placed
in a magnetic field experiences a force F-/LB sin6 where 0 is
the angle between conductor and the field. In case of sides AB
and CD of the cod. the angle 0 is zero or 180°, so the force on
these sides wi be zero. In case of sides DA and BC. the angle 0
is 90s and the force on these sides wfl be

70
 F, = F } = ILB
where L is tho length of these sides. F, is tho force on the side
DA and F, on BC. The direction of the force is given by the
vector / L x B. It can be seen that F, is directed out of the plane
of paper and F, into the plane of papor (Fig. 14.15 a).
Therefore, the forces F, and F, being equal and opposite
form a couple which tends to rotate it about the axis. The
torque of this couple is given by

x = Force x Moment arm

-ILBxa

where a is the moment arm of the couple and is equal to the

length of the side AB or CD. La is the area A of the coil.

x-IBA ........................................ (14.15)

Note that the Eq.14.15 gives the value of torque when the
field B is in the plane of the coil. However if the field makes an
angle a with the plane of the coil, as shown in Fig 14.15(b).
the moment arm now becomes a cosa. So

x = /L8xacosa

or x = /BAcosa (14.16)
(Top vktwoT COM)

Fig 14.15 (6)

14.10 GALVANOMETER
A galvanometer is an electrical instrument used to
detect the passage of current. Its working depends upon
the fact that when a conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, it experience a force as soon as a current passes
through it. Due to this force, a torque t acts upon the
conductor if it is in the form of a coil or loop.
x = N/8Acosu
where N is the number of turns in the coil. A is its area. / is
current passing through it. B is the magnetic field in which the
coil is placed such that its plane makes an angle a with the
direction of B. Due to action of the torque, the coil rotates and

71
 thus it detects the current. The construction of a moving coil
galvanometer is shown in Fig. 14.16(a).
A rectangular coil C is suspended between the concave
shaped poles N and S of a U-shaped magnet with the help of
a fine metallic suspension wire. The rectangular coil is made
of enameled copper wire. It is wound on a frame of non­
magnetic material. The suspension wire F is also used as
one current lead to the coil. The other terminal of the coil is
connected to a loosely wound spiral E which serves as the
second current lead. A soft iron cylinder D is placed inside the
coil to make the field radial and stronger near the coil as
showninFig. 14.16(b).
When a current is passed through the coil, it is acted upon by
a couple which tends to rotate the coil. This couple is known
as deflecting couple and is given by N IB A cosu. As the coil is
placed in a radial magnetic field in which tho plane of the coil
is always parallel to the field (Fig. 14.16 b). so « is always
zero. This makes cosu = 1 and thus.
Deflecting couple = N /BA
As the coil turns under the action of deflecting couple,
the suspension wire Fig. (14.16 a) is twisted which gives
rise to a torsional couple. It tends to untwist the
suspension and restore the coil to its original position.
This couple is known as restoring couple. The restoring
couple of the suspension wire is proportional to the
angle of deflection 8 as long as the suspension wire
obeys Hooke's law. Thus
Restoring torque = c0
where the constant c of the suspension wire is known as
torsional coupte and is defined as couple for unit twist.
Under the effect of these two couples, coil comes to rest
when Deflecting torque = Restoring torque
Fig. 14.19
Oafvaixm***
(a)
(b)
Moving
Concave
coll
pcto
N/8A=c9
piece and soft non cy*nOof maU* tho
f»eW radial and wronger or
'■as* (14.17)

Thus / * 0 since —= Constant

BAN
Thus the current passing through the coil is directly
proportional to the angle of deflection.

72
There are two methods commonly used for observing the
anglo of deflection of the coil. In sensitive galvanometers the
anglo of deflection is observed by means of small mirror
attached to the coil along with a lamp and scale arrangement
(Fig.14.17). Abeam of light from the lamp is directed towards
the mirror of tho galvanometer. After reflection from the mirror
it produces a spot on a translucent scale placed at a distance
of one metre from the galvanometer. When the coil rotates,
the mirror attached to coil also rotates and spot of light moves
along the scale. The displacement of the spot of light on the
scale is proportional to the anglo of deflection (provided the n» 14.17
angle of deflection is small).
The galvanometer used in school and college laboratories is
a pivoted typo galvanometer. In this type of galvanometer,
the coil is pivoted between two jewelled bearings The
restoring torque is provided by two hair springs which also
serve as current leads. A light aluminium pointer is attached Upperspring
to the coil which moves over a scale (Fig.14.18). It gives the
angle of deflection of the coil.
It is obvious from Eq. 14.17 that a galvanometer can be made
rrtoro sensitive (to give large deflection for a given current) if
core!
c/SAN is made small. Thus, to increase sensitivity of a
galvanometer, c may be decreased or S. A and N may be
increased. The couple c for unit twtst of the suspension wire
can be decreased by increasing its length and by decreasing magnet
its diameter. This process, however, cannot be taken too far.
as the suspension must be strong enough to support the coil. Lower spring
Another method to increase the sensitivity of galvanometer is
to increase N. the number of turns of the coil. In case of Flfr 14.14
suspended coil type galvanometer, the number of turns can
not be increased beyond a limit because it will make the coil
heavy. To compensate for the loss of sensitivity, in case
fewer turns are used in tho coil, we increase the value of the
magnetic field employed. Wo define current sensitivity of a
galvanotneter as the current, in microamperes, required to
produce one millimetre deflection on a scale placed one
metre away from the mirror of the galvanometer.
When the current passing through the galvanometer is
discontinued, the coil will not come to rest as soon as the
current flowing through the coil is stopped. It keeps on
oscillating about its mean position before coming to rest. In
the same way if the current is established suddenly in a
galvanometer, the coil will shoot beyond its final equilibrium
position and will oscillate several times before coming to rest

73
 at its equilibrium position. As it is annoying and time
consuming to wait for the coil to come to rest, artificial ways
are employed to make the coil come to rest quickly. Such
galvanometer in which the coil comes to rest quickly after the
current passed through it or the current is stopped from
flowing through it. is called stable or a dead beat
galvanometer.

Ammeter
An ammeter is an electrical instrument which is used to
measure current in amperes. This is basically a
galvanometer. The portion of the galvanometer whose
motion causes the needle of the device to move across the
scale is usually known as meter - movement. Most meter
movements are very sensitive and full scale deflection is
obtained with a current of few milliamperos only. So an
ordinary galvanometer cannot be used for measuring large
currents without proper modification.
Suppose we have a galvanometer whose meter - movement
(coil) has a resistance R,and which gives full scale deflection
when current /, is passed through it. From Ohm's law we
Fla 14 An ammeter ■* a
Qalranorreter w«ch to ttvrtaC by • know that the potential difference V, which causes a current /,
proper lew revtUr'CO to pass through the galvanometer is given by

If we want to convert this galvanometer into an ammeter

which can measure a maximum current /. it is necessary to
connect a low value bypass resistor called shunt. The shunt
resistance is of such a value so that the curront /, for full scale
deflection of the galvanometer passes through the
galvanometer and the remaining current (/ - IJ passes
through the shunt in this situation (Fig 14 19).

The shunt resistance R. can be calculated from the fact that

as the meter - movement and the shunt are connected in
parallel with each other, the potential difference across the
meter - movement is equal to the potential difference across
the shunt.

/
°r R' = T^T R ‘ ............................................... (1418>

9
The resistance of the shunt is usually so small that a piece of

74
 copper wire serves the purpose. The resistance of the
ammeter is the combined resistance of the galvanometer's
meter - movement and the shunt. Usually it is very small. An
ammeter must have a very low resistance so that it does not
disturb the circuit in which it is connected in series in order to
measure the current.

Voltmeter
A voltmeter is an electrical device which measures the
potential difference in volts between two points. This. too. is
made by modifying a galvanometer. Since a voltmeter is
always connected in parallel, it must have a very high
resistance so that it will not short the circuit across which the
voltage is to be measured. This is achieved by connecting a
very high resistance R. placed in series with the meter -
<................... v >
movement (Fig.14.20). Suppose we have a meter •
movement whoso resistance is R, and which deflects full A patvanoiviatsf A mom
with a Ngh rasatancn acts as a
scale with a current /,. In order to make a voltmeter from it
»o«ma«af
which has a range of V volts, the value of the high resistance
R, should be such that full scale deflection will be obtained
when it is connected across V volt. Under this condition the
current through the meter - movement is /,. Applying Ohm's
law(Fig.14.20)wehave
V=It(R,+R.)
V
R h-T- R 9 .................................................. <14-19>
9
If the scale of the galvanometer is calibrated from 0 to
V volts, the combination of galvanometer and the series
resistor acts as a voltmeter with range 0 -.Vvolts. By properly
arranging the resistance R, any voltage can be measured.
Thus, we see that a voltmeter possesses high resistance.
It may be noted that a voltmeter is always connected across
the two points between which potential difference is to bo
measured. Before connecting a voltmeter, it should be
assured that its resistance is very high in comparison with the
resistance of the circuit across which it is connected
otherwise it will load the circuit and will alter the potential
difference which is required to be measured.
Example 14.6: What shunt resistance must be connected
across a galvanometer of 50.011 resistance which gives full
scale deflection with 2.0 mA current, so as to convert it into an
ammeter of range 10.0 A?

75
 Solution:

Resistance of galvanometer = Ra = 50.0 O

Current for full scale deflection = /, = 2.0 mA
Current to be measured = / =10.0 A
The shunt resistance R, is given by

R=-^- R = 20x10 * A ... x50.0A = 0.01 Q

‘ I-I J 10.0 A - 2 . 0 x 10 A
o

Ohmmeter

It is a useful device for rapid measurement of resistance. It

consists of a galvanometer, and adjustable resistance r, and
a cell connected in senes (Fig.14.21-a). The series
resistance r, is so adjusted that when terminals c and d are
short circuited, i.o.. when R ■ 0. the galvanometer gives full
scale deflection. So the extreme graduation of the usual
scale of the galvanometer is marked 0 for resistance
measurement When terminals c and d are not joined, no
current passes through the galvanometer and its deflection is
zero. Thus zero of the scale is marked as infinity
* (Fig. 14 21-b). Now a known resistance R is connoctcd
jr. across the terminals c and d. The galvanometer deflects to
C some intermediate point. This point is calibrated as R. In this
way the whole scale is calibrated into resistance. The
resistance to be measured is connected across the terminals
c and d. The deflection on the calibrated scale reads the
value of the resistance directly.

on 14.11 AVO METER -MULTIMETER

i0n-A It is an instrument which can measure current in
amperes, potential difference in volts and resistance in
ohms. It basically consists of a sensitive moving coil
galvanometer which is converted into a multirange ammeter,
voltmeter or ohmmeter accordingly as a current measuring
circuit or a voltage measunng circuit or a resistance measuring
circuit is connected with the galvanometer with the help of a
switch known as function switch (Fig. 14 22) Here X. Y are the
main terminals of the AVO meter which are connected with the
circuit in which measurement is required FS is the function
selector switch which connects the galvanometer with relevant
measuring circuit.

Voltage Measuring Part of AVO Meter

The voltage measuring part of the AVO meter is actually a
multirange voltmeter. It consists of a number of resistances
each of which can be connected in series with the moving coil
galvanometer with the help of a switch called the range
switch (Fig. 14.23). The value of each resistance depends
upon the range of the voltmeter which it controls.
Alternating voltages are also measured by AVO meter.
AC voltage is first converted into DC voltage by using diodo
150V
as rectifier and then measured as usual.

Current Measuring Part of AVO Meter

Tho current measuring part of the AVO meter is actually a
multirange ammeter. It consists of a number of low
resistances connected in parallel with the galvanometer. The Fig. 14 23
values of these resistances depend upon the range of the
ammeter(Fig. 14.24). 5 mA

The circuit also has a range selection switch RS which is

used to select a particular range of the current.

Resistance Measuring Part of AVO M e t e r

The resistance measuring part of AVO meter is. in fact, a
multirange ohmmeter. Circuit for each range of this meter
consists of a battery of emf V0 and a variable resistance r,
connected in series with galvanomoter of resistance Rr
When the function switch is switched to position X,
(Fig. 14.22). this circuit is connected with tho terminals X. Y of
the AVO meter (Fig . 14.25 a).
Before measuring an unknown resistance by an ohmmeter it
is first zoroed which means that we short circuit the terminals
X. Y and adjust r„ to produce full scale deflection.

Digital Multimeter (DMM)

Another useful device to measure resistance, current and

voltage is an electronic instrument called digital multimeter.

77
 It is a digital version of an AVO meter. It has become a very
■cm; popular testing device because the digital values are
displayed automatically with decimal point, polarity and the
unit for V. A or O. These meters are generally easier to use
because they eliminate the human error that often occurs in
reading the dial of an ordinary AVO meter. A portable DMM is
shown in Fig. 14.26.

esmmb
A magnetic field is set up in the region surrounding a current carrying conductor.
The right hand rule states. 'If the wire is grasped in the fist of right hand with the
thumb pointing in the direction of current, the fingers of the hand will circle the wire
the direction of the magnetic field’.
The strength of the magnetic fiold or magnetic induction is the force acting on one
metre length of the conductor placed at right angle to the magnetic field when 1 A
current is passing through it.
A magnetic field is said to have a strength of one tesla if it exerts a force of one
newton on one metre length of the conductor placed at right angle to the field when
current of one ampere passes through the conductor.
The magnetic flux <t»B through plane element of area Aina uniform magnetic field B
is given by dot product of B and A.
Ampere circuital law states the sum of the quantities B. AL for all path elements into
which the complete loop has been divided equals p., times the total current enclose
by the loop.
The force experienced by a single charge carrier moving with velocity v in magnetic
field of strength B is F = q (v * B).
Cathode ray osoi'kjscope (CRO) is a high speed graph plotting device. It works by
deflecting beam of electrons as they pass through uniform electric field between th
two sets of parallel plates.
Atorque may act on a current carrying coil placed in a magnetic field.
t = MB cos«
A galvanometer is an electric device which detects the flow of current. It usually
consists of a coil placed in a magnetic field. As the current passes through the coil,
tho coil rotates, thus indicating the flow of current.
A galvanometer is converted into an ammeter by properly shunting it.
A galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance in
series.

78
14.1 A plane conducting loop is located in a uniform magnetic field that is directed along
the x-axis. For what orientation of the loop is the flux a maximum? For what
orientation is the flux a minimum?
142 A current in a conductor produces a magnetic field, wriich can be calculated using
Ampere's law. Since current is defined as tho rato of flow of charge. what can you conc
about the magnetic field due to statxsnary charges? What about moving charges?
14.3 Describe the change in tho magnetic field inside a solenoid carrying a steady current
/. if (a) tho length of the solenoid is doubled but the number of turns remains the
same and (b) the number of turns is doubled, but the length remains the same.
14.4 At a given instant, a proton moves in the positive x direction in a region where there is
magnetic field in the negative z direction. What is the direction of the magnetic
force? Wdl the proton continue to move in the positive x direction? Explain.
14.5 Two charged particles are projected into a region where there is a magnetic field
perpendicular to their velocities If the charges are deflected in opposite directions,
what can you say about them?
14.6 Suppose that a charge q is moving in a uniform magnetic field with a velocity v. Why
is there no work done by the magnetic force that acts on tho charge g?
14.7 If a charged particle moves in a straight line through some region of space, can you
say that the magnetic field in the region is zoro?
14.8 Why does the picture on a TV screen become distorted when a magnet is brought
near the screen?
14.9 Is it possible to orient a current loop in a uniform magnetic field such that the loop will
not tend to rotate? Explain.
14.10 How can a current loop be used to determine the presence of a magnetic field in a
given region of space?
14.11 How can you use a magnetic field to separate isotopes of chemical element?
14.12 What should be the orientation of a current carrying coil in a magnetic field so that
torque acting upon the coil is (a) maximum (b) minimum?
14.13 A loop of wire is suspended between the poles of a magnet with its plane parallel to
tho polo faces. What happens if a direct current is put through the coil?What
happens if an alternating current is used instead?
14.14 Why the resistance of an ammeter should be very low?
14.15 Why the voltmeter should have a very high resistance?

79
14.1 Find the value of the magnetic field that will cause a maximum force of
7.0 * 10 ’ N on a 20.0 cm straight wire carrying a current of 10.0 A.
(Ans: 3.5 x 10’ T)
14.2 How fast must a proton move in a magnetic field of 2.50 * 10 ’ T such that the
magnetic force is equal to its weight? (Ans: 4.09 x 104 ms')
14.3 A velocity selector has a magnetic field of 0.30 T. If a perpendicular electric field
of 10.000 Vm ' is applied, what will be the speed of the particle that will pass
through the selector? (Ans: 3.3x10* ms’)
14.4 A coil of 0.1 m x 0.1 m and of 200 turns carrying a current of 1.0 mA is placed in
a uniform magnetic field of 0.1 T. Calculate the maximum torque that acts on the
coil. (Ans: 2.0x104Nm)
14.5 A power line 10.0 m high carries a current 200 A. Find the magnetic field of
the wire at the ground. (Ans: 4.0x104T)
14.6 You are asked to design a solenoid that will give a magnetic field of 0.10 T. yet
the current must not exceed 10.0 A. Find the number of turns per unit length
that the solenoid should have. (Ans: 7.96 x 10’)
14.7 What current should pass through a solenoid that is 0.5 m long with 10.000
turns of copper wire so that it will have a magnetic field of 0.4 T? (Ans: 16.0A)

14.8 A galvanometer having an internal resistance Rt = 15.0 O gives full scale

deflection with current /, = 20.0 mA. It is to be converted into an ammeter of
range 10.0 A. Find the value of shunt resistance/?.. (Ans: 0.0300)
14.9 The resistance of 8 galvanometer is 50.0 O and reads full scale deflection with a
current of 2.0 mA Show by a diagram how to convert this galvanometer
into voltmeter reading 200 V full scale. (Ans: R = 99950Q)
14.10 The resistance of a galvanometer coil is 10.0 O and reads full scale with a current
of 1.0 mA. What should be the values of resistances R,. R, and R, to convert this
galvanometer into a multirange ammeter of 100. 10.0 and 1.0 A as shown in the
Fig.P.M.10? (Ans: R, = .0001 O. /?, = 0.001 O. R, = 0.01 O)

R, R, R,

100A 10A 1A

Fig. *14 10

80
E E X E X Q ) 1 6
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:

Understand and describe time period, frequency, the peak and root mean square
values of an alternating current and voltage.
2. Know and use the relationship for the sinusoidal wave.
3. Understand the flow ofA .C . through resistors, capacitors and inductors.
4. Understand how phase lags and leads in the circuit.
5. Apply the knowledge to calculate the reactances of capacitors and inductors.
6. Descnbe impedance as vector summation of resistances.
Know and use the formulae ofA .C . power to solve the problems.
8. Understand the function of resonant circuits.
9. Appreciate the principle of metal detectors used for security checks.
Describe the three phase A .C. suppty.
Become familiar with electromagnetic spectrum (ranging from radio waves
toy rays).
12, Know the production, transmission and reception of electromagnetic waves.

W * have read in the last chapter that an A .C . generator produces alternating

voltage/current. Now a days most of the electrical energy is produced by A .C . generators
using water power or huge steam turbines. The main reason for the world wide use of A .C . is
that it can be transmitted to long distances easily and at a very low cost.
16.1 ALTERNATING CURRENT
Alternating current (A C .) is that which is produced by a voltage source whose polarity keeps
on reversing with time (Fig.16.1 a.b). In Fig.16.1 (a), the terminal A of the source is positive
with respect to terminal B and it remains so during a time interval 0 to T / 2 . At t = T / 2 . the
terminals change their polarity. Now A becomes negative with respect to B (Fig.16.1 b). This
state continues during the time interval T / 2 to T. after which terminal A again becomes
positive with respect to B and the next cycle starts. As a result of this change of polarity, the
direction of the current flow in the circuit also changes. During the time 0 - T/ 2 . it flows in one
direction and during the interval T / 2 - T i n opposite direction (Fig. 16.1 a.b). This time interval T

III
 during which the voltage source changes its polarity once is
known as period 7 of the alternating current or voltage. Th u s
an alternating quantity is associated with a frequency /given
by

T h e most com m on source of alternating voltage is an A C .

generator which has been described in the previous chapter.
T h e output V o f this A C . generator at an y instant is given by

. 2 it , (1 6 2 )
V0sin y x I

where 7 is period of the rotation of the coil and is equal to the

period of A .C . and ^ = 2 s / = w is angular frequency of rotation

of the coil. Th u s =<oJ is the angle 9 through which the

coil rotates m time t. Eq.16.2 shows that the value of

alternating voltage V is not constant It changes with timef.

f 19 1*1 W h en I « 0. o - y *f is 0 and V is zero W h en t = 7/4.

0 = x — a — and Vattains its m axim um value V at this

T 4 2
instant. At I = 7/2. 0 * n and V is zero. At this instant V
changes its polarity and becom es negative henceforth.
37
W henf = — . 0 and V = ■Vc and finally at the end of tho
4

cycle w hen I = 7. 0 = 2s and V = 0. T h e variation of V with

time f and 0 is shown in F ig . 16.2 (a .b). Th is graph between
voltage and time is known a s waveform of alternating
voltage. It can bo seen that it is a sine curve. T h u s the output
voltage of a n A .C . generator varies sinusoidally with time. In
/ 7 \ C p E
*/2 \ 3V 2 our daily life we are mostly dealing with this type of voltage,
s o w e will consider it in deta il

(b) 1. In s ta n t a n e o u s v a lu e
Fig. 16.2
T h e value of voltage or current that exists in a circuit at any
instant of timo t m easured from som e reference point is
known a s its instantaneous value. It can have any value
between plus m aximum value * V , and negative m axim um

112
value -V„ ar>d is denoted by V. T h e entire waveform shown in
Fig. 16.2 is actually a set of all the instantaneous values that
exist during a period T. Mathematically, it is given by
V = V .s in 6 = V .sin <of
2- ,
V = V . s i n ' y x ‘ = V .s in 2 * f f ............. (1 6 .3 )

2. P e a k v a lu e
It is the highest value reached by the voltage or current in one
cycle. F o r exam ple, voltage shown in Fig. 16.2 has a peak
value of V..

3. P e a k to P e a k V a lu e

It is the sum of the positive and negative peak values usually

wntten as p-p value. T h e p -p value of the voltage waveform
shown in Fig. 16.2 is 2 V..
Do You K now ?
R o o t M e a n S q u a r e ( r m s 1V a Iu c
If we connect a n ordinary D .C . am m eter to m easure V-
alternating current, it would m easure its value as averaged §
over a cycle. It can be seen in Fig. 16.2 that the average value &
of current and voltage over a cycle is zero, but the power }
delivered during a cycle is not ze ro because power is I 'R and |
the values of / ‘are positive even for negativo values of /. Th u s
the average value of / 'is not zero and is called the m ean
square current. T h e alternating current or voltage is actually
measured by squaro root of its m ean square value known as ' - . • 0 7 /.
root m ean square (rm s ) value. A .C Waveform

F I9 - 1 « J
Let us com pute the average value of V over a cycle. F ig . 16.3
shows a n alternating voltage and the w a y its V values vary.
Note that the values of V 1 are, positive on the negative half
cycle also. A s the graph of V is symmetrical about tho line
2 Vot so for thisfigure the m ean or the average value of V is
’ Vo. T h e root m ean square value of V is obtained by taking

113
th e s q u a re roo t o f V * 12 T h e re fo re .

v~ * J ? mT2 m07K (16-4)

Similarly /_= ^ =0.7/o

Most of the alternating current and voltage meters are

calibrated to read rms values. When we speak of A .C . meter
reading, we usually mean rms values unless stated
otherwise

E x a m p le 16.1 : A n A .C . voltmeter reads 250 V. What is its

peak and instantaneous values if the frequency of alternating
voltage is 50 H z?

S o lu tio n :

rms valuo of alternating voltage ■ V*. ■ 250 V

Its peak value V. is given by tho relation

or K = J 2 V -. = >fex 2 5 0 V = 3 5 3 .5 V

Angular froquoncy o> = 2 itf

= 2 x it x 5 0 H z = 1 0 0 n H z
Therefore, instantaneous value is given by
V = V.sin o>/

= 353.5 sin (lO O x f) V

P h a s e o f A .C .
W e have seen that the instantaneous value of the alternating
voltage is given by
V = V.sin t»f
or V = V.sinO
This angle 0 which specifies the instantaneous value of the
alternating voltage or current is known as its phase. In
Fig. 16.2 (b). we can say that the phase at the points A . B. C . 0
and E is 0. x / 2. x. 3x / 2 and 2x respectively because these
angles are the values of 0 at these points. Th u s each point on
the A .C . waveform corresponds to a certain phase.

1 14
T h e phase at the positive peak is x/2 = 90’ and it is
3x/2 = 270’ at tho negative peak. T h e points whore the
waveform crosses the time axis correspond to phase 0 and x.

P hase La g and Phase Lead

In practice, the phase difference between two alternating

quantities is more important than their absolute phases.
Fig 1 6 4 shows two waveforms 1 and 2. Th e phase angles of
the waveform 1 at the points A. B. C . D and E have been shown F lg .1 M
above the axis and those of waveform 2 below the axis. At the
point B. the phase of 1 is x 12 and that of 2 is 0. Stmiarly it can
be seen that at each point the phase of waveform 2 is less than
the phase of waveform 1 by an angle of x / 2 W e s a y th a tA .C . 2
is lagging behind A .C , 1 by an angle of x / 2 It means that at
each instant, the phase of A C . 2 is less than the phase of A C . 1
by it / 2. Similarly it can be seen m Fig. 16.5. that the phase at
each point of the waveform of A C . 2 is greater m an that of A
waveform 1 by an angle s / 2. In mis case, it is said that A .C . 2 is
leading the A C . 1 by n / 2. It means mat at each instant of time,
the phase of A .C . 2 is greater than that of 1 by x / 2. Flfl. i t s
Phase lead and lag between two alternating quantities is
conveniently shown b y representing the two A C . quantities
as vectors.
V e c t o r R e p re s e n t a t io n o f a n A lt e r n a t in g Q u a n t it y
A sinusoidally alternating voltage or current can be
graphically represented by a counter clockwise rotating
vector provided it satisfies the following conditions.
1. Its length on a certain scale represents the peak or
rm s value of m e alternating quantity.
2. It is in the horizontal position at m e instant when the
alternating quantity is zero and is increasing positively.
3. Th e angular frequency of m e rotating vector is the
sam e as the angular frequency to of the alternating
quantity.
Fig. 16.6 (a ) shows a sinusoidal voltage waveform leading an
alternating current waveform by x / 2. T h e sam e fact has been
shown vectorially in Fig. 16.6 (b). Here vector 01 represents
the peak or rms value of the current which is taken as the
reference quantity. Similarly O V represents m e rms or peak F*g. 16.$
value of the alternating voltage which is leading the current by
90°. Bom vectors are supposed to be rotating in m e counter

115
 c lo c k w is e d ire c tio n a t the a n g u la r fre q u e n c y o> o f the two
a lte rn ating q u a n titie s. F ig . 1 6 .6 ( b ) s h o w s the position of
v o lta g e a n d c u rre n t v e c to r a t f = 0 . _______________________________

16.2 A .C . C IR C U IT S
T h e b a s ic c irc u it e le m e n t in a D .C . circuit is a re sisto r ( R )
w h ic h c o n tro ls th e c u rre n t o r v o lta g e a n d the relationship
b e tw e e n th e m is g iv e n b y O h m 's la w tha t is V = I R .

In A . C . circu its , in a d d itio n to re sisto r R , tw o n e w circuit

e le m e n ts n a m e ly I N D U C T O R ( L ) . a n d C A P A C I T O R ( C )
b e c o m e re le v a n t. T h e c u rre n t a n d v o lta g e s in A . C . circuits
a re c o n tro lled b y th re e e le m e n ts R . L a n d C . W e w o u ld s tu d y
the r e s p o n s e o f a n A . C . circuit w h e n it is e x cite d b y a n
a lte rn ating v o lta g e ._____________________________________________

16.3 A .C . T H R O U G H A R E S IS T O R
F ig . 16 .7 ( a ) s h o w s a re sisto r of re s is ta n c e R c o n n e c te d w ith
a n a lte rn a tin g v o lta g e s o u rc e .

A t a n y tim e t th e po te ntia l diffe re nce a c r o s s th e term in als of

the re s is to r is g iv e n b y

V = V ,.s in c o f ................ (1 6 .5 )

w h e re V . is th e p e a k v a lu e o f the a lte rn a tin g vo lta g e . T h e

c u rre n t / flo w in g t h ro u g h th e circuit is g iv e n b y O h m 's la w
V
'-R f t sin<of

or / = / „ s in w f (1 6 .6 )

Ysl
w h e re / is th e in s ta n ta n e o u s c u rre n t a n d /, = f t is the

p e a k v a lu e of th e c u rre n t. It fo llo w s fro m E q s .1 6 .5 a n d 16.6

tha t th e in s ta n ta n e o u s v a lu e s of b o th v o lta g e a n d c u rre n t are
s in e fu n c tio n s w h ic h v a ry w ith tim e (F ig , 1 6 .7 b ). T h is figure
s h o w s that w h e n v o lta g e rise s, the c u rre n t a ls o rises. If the
vo lta g e falls, the c u rre n t a ls o d o e s s o - b o th p a s s their
m a x im u m a n d m in im u m v a lu e s a t the s a m e insta nt. T h u s in a
p u re ly resistive A . C . c irc u it, in s ta n ta n e o u s v a lu e s o f voltage
i a n d c u rre n t a re in p h a s e . T h is b e h a v io u r is s h o w n g ra p h ic a lly

(e) in F i g . 16 .7 ( b ) a n d v e c to n a lty in F i g . 16 .7 (c ).

F lfl. 1 6 .7
F ig . 1 6 .7 ( c ) s h o w s V a n d I v e c to rs for re s is ta n c e . T h e y a re
d ra w n pa rallel b e c a u s e th e re is n o p h a s e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n
t h e m . T h e o p p o s i t i o n to A . C . w h i c h t h e c ir c u it

116
p re s e n ts is th e re s is ta n c e

*= 7 (16.7)

T h o instantaneous power in the resistance is given by

p a l’ R ^ V I x V '/ R ............. (16.8)
P is in watts. V is in voits. I is in amperes and R Is in ohms. It is
very important to note that the Eq. 16.8 holds only when the
current and voltage are in phase.

16.4 A.C. THROUGH A CAPACITOR

Alternating current can flow through a resistor, but it is not
obvious that how it can flow through a capacitor. This can be
demonstrated by the circuit shown in Fig. 16.8. A low power
bulb is connected in series with a 1 uF capacitor to supply
mains through a switch. W hen the switch is closed, the bulb
lights up showing that the current is flowing through the
capacitor. Direct current cannot flow through a capacitor
continuously because of the presence of an insulating
medium between tho platos of the capacitor. N ow let us see
how does A .C . flows through a capacitor. T h e current flows
because the capacitor plates are continuously charged,
discharged and charged the other way round by the
alternating voltage (Fig. 16.9 a). Th e basic relation between
tho charge q on a capacitor and the voltage V across its
plates i.e. q = C Vholds at every instant. If V = V0sin u>/ is the
applied alternating voltage, the charge on the capacitor at
any instant will be given by

q = C V » C V . sinwf ............. (16.9)

Since C. V, are constants, it is obvious that q will vary the same

way as applied voltage i.e.. V a nd ga re in phase (Fig. 16.9b).
p
Th e current / is the rate of change of q with time i.e..

/ .^
At
S o the value of /at any instant is the corresponding slope of
the p /curve. At O when q = 0. the slope is maximum, so / is
then a maximum. From O to A. slope of the q - t curve
decreases to zero. S o / is ze ro atN . F ro m A to B th e slope of
the q - 1curve is negative and so / is negative from N to R. In
this way the curve P N R S T gives the variation of current
with time.
Referring to the Fig. 16.2 (b ) it can be seen that the phase at O
is zero and the phase at the upper maximum is x / 2. S o in
Fig.16.9 (b ) the phase of V at O is zero but the current at this
point is maximum so its phase is x / 2. Thus, the current is
leading the applied voltage by 90* or x / 2. Now consider the
points A and N. Th e phase of alternating voltage at A is x / 2
but the phase of current at N is x. Again the current is leading
the voltage by 90° or x / 2 Similarly by comparing the phase
at the pair of points (B. R ). (C . S ) and (D . T ) it can be seen that
at all these points the current leads tho voltage by 90’ or n/2.
This is vectorialty represented in Fig. 16.9 (c).
Roactance of a capacitor is a measure of the opposition
offered by the capacitor to the flow of A .C . It is usually
represented by X c . Its value is given by

(16.10)

whore VL, is the rms value of the alternating votage across the
capacitor and / „ is the rms value of current passing through the
capacitor. The unit of reactance is ohm. In case of capacitor

1 1 (16.11)
2x fC <oC

According to Eq. 16.11. a certain capacitor will have a largr

reactanco at low frequency. So the magnitude of th«
opposition offered by it will be large and the current in th«
circuit will be small. O n the other hand at high frequency. th<
roactance will be low and the high frequency current througl
tho same capacitor will be large

E x a m p le 16 .2: A 100 uF capacitor is connected to ar

alternating voltage of 24 V and frequency 50 H z. Calculate
(a ) Th e reactance of the capacitor, and
(b ) Th e currdnt in tho circuit
S o lu tio n :
1
(a ) Reactance of the capacitor Xc *

1
2 x 3.14 * 50 s"’ x 100 x 10

X c = 3 1 .8 -— * - 31.8 ft
c Cs ’

118
 v_
(b ) From the equation Xf-= —

, V -. 24 V , 7CA
075A
16.5 A.C. THROUGH AN INDUCTOR
A n inductor is usually in the form of a coil or a solenoid wound
from a thick wire so that it has a large value of self inductance
and has a negligible resistance. W e have already seen how
self inductance opposos changes of current. So when an
alternating source of voltage is applied across an inductor, it
must oppose the flow of A .C . which is continuously changing
(Fig. 16.10). Let us assume that the resistance of the coil is
negligible. W e can simplify the theory by considering first, the
current and then finding the potential difference across the
inductor which will cause this current. Suppose the current is
/ = /.sin 2 Jiff. If L is the inductance of the coil, the changing
current sets up a back emf in the coil of magnitude
M
‘ • 'L u
To maintain the current, the applied voltage must be equal to
the back e.m.f. T h e applied voltage across the coil must,
therefore, be equal to

Since L is a constant. V is proportional to — . Fig. 16.10 (b )

Af
shows how the current / varies with time. The value of
A/ / Af is given by the slope of the / - f curve at the various
instants of time. At O, the value of the slope is maximum, so the
maximum value of V equal to V, occurs at O and is represented
by O P (Fig. 16.10 b). From O to A the slope of I - f graph
decreases to zero so the voltage decreases form V, to zero at
Q. From A to B. the slope of the / - f graph is negative, so the
voltage curve goes from Q to /?. In this way the voltage is
represented by the curve P Q R S T corresponding to current
curve O A B C D . By comparing the phases of the pair of points
(O , P). (A, Q ). (B. R), (C . S ) and (D. T ). it can be seen that the
phase of the current is always less than the phase of voltage by
90'’ or x / 2 i.e.. current lags behind the applied vottago by 90*
or x/2 or the applied voltage leads the current by 90* or n / 2.

119
 T h is is vectorially shown in Fig. 16.10(c) Inductive reactance
is a m easure of the opposition offered by the inductance coil
to the flow of A .C . It is usually denoted by X L.

* = (16.12)

If V ^ s is rms value of the alternating voltage across an

inductance and l„.x. the rms value of the current passing
through it. the value of X L is given by

Iiltnrirstinp Information X ”* 2 x fL <oL (16.13)

u
T h e reactance of a coil, therefore, depends upon the
frequency of the A .C . and the inductance L. It is directly
proportional to both /and L . L is expressed in henry, /in hertz,
and X in ohms. It is to be noted that inductance and
capacitance behave oppositely as a function of frequency. If /
is low X L is smaH but X c is large. F o r high /. X L is large but X c is
small. T h e behaviour of resistance is independent of
frequency
Rofem ng to Fig. 16.10 (b). it can be seen that no power is
dissipated in a pure inductor. In the first quarter of cycle both V
and / are positive so the power is positive, which means
energy is supplied to inductor. In the second quarter. V is
positive but / is negative. N ow power is negative which implies
that energy is returned by the inductor. Again in third quarter, it
receives energy but returns the sam e amount in the fourth
IrrXKtcn t f « m tires So
p«rio>m a wide v«n«ty functfon* in quarter. Th u s, there is no net change of energy in a complete
tvsi-rt-w end indusSry. cycle. Since an inductor coil does not consum e energy, the
.coil is often employed for controlling A .C . without consumption
o f e n e r m ^ S u c h a n in d u c t e n c e c a lis k T O w n a s c M ^ ^ ^ ^
im p e d a n c e H H B H H H H H
W e already know that resistance R offers opposition to tho
flow of current. In case of A .C . a n inductance L or a
capacitance C also offer opposition to the flow of A .C . which
is m easured by reactances X L and X t respectively. A n A .C .
circuit m ay consist of a resistance R , a n inductance L , a
capacitance C or a combination of these elements. T h e
com bined effect of resistance and reactancos in such a
circuit is known as im pedance and is denoted by 2 .
It is measured by the ratio of the rm s value of the apphod
voltage to the rm s value of Moulting A C . Th u s

(1 6 1 4 )

120
It is also ex p re sse d in o h m s.

E x a m p l e 1 6 .3 : W h e n 10 V a re ap plie d to a n A .C . circuit, the

current flowing in it is 1 0 0 m A . F in d its im pedance.

S o lu tio n :

rm s va lu e of applied voltage = 10 V

rm s va lu e of current = / „ = 1 0 0 m A = 100 x 10' A

v -. 1° v in n o
Im p o d a n c e Z * u ~ 100 x 1 0 ’ A “

16.7 R - C A N D R - L S E R IE S C IR C U ITS
C o n s id e r a s e rie s netw ork of resistance R a nd a capacitor C
excited b y a n alternating voltage ( F i g . 16.11 a ). A s R a n d C
are in series, the s a m e current w o u ld flow through e a ch of
them. If /^, is th e v a lu e of cu rre n t, the potential difference
a cross the resistance R w ou ld b e / „ . R a n d it w ou ld be in
ph a se with current / T h o vector d ia g ra m of tho voltage and
current is s h o w n in Fig.16.11 (b ). Ta k in g the current a s
reference, the potential difference L . R ac ro s s tho resistance
is represented b y a line a lon g th e current line because
potential d ro p R is in p h a se wixh current. T h e potential
difference a c ro s s the capacitor will b e / _ X c = / „. / <->C. A s
<•)
this voltage la gs the current b y 9 0 ". s o the line representing
the vector / _ / coC is d ra w n at right a n g le s to the current line
(Fig.16 .11 b).

T h e appltod v d t a g e V that will s e n d the current / in the

circuit is ob ta -ne d b y the resultant of the vectors /_. R and
/ ■ i.e..
«C

Flfl 16.11

Im p eda nce Z (1 6 1 5 )
< t»c y

It can b e s e e n in Fig. 16.11 (b ) that th e current and the applied

voltage a re not in ph a se . T h e c u n e n t leads the applied
voltage b y a n angle 0 s u c h that

12 !
 8 = tan (1 6.16 )
w
E q .16.15 suggests that we can find the im pedance of a
series A C . circuit by vector addition. T h e resistance R is
represented by a horizontal line in the direction of currenl

which is taken as reference. T h e reactance X c - — is

wC
show n by a line lagging the R - line by 9<r (Fig. 16.11 c ). Th e
im pedance 2 of the circuit is obtained by the vector
summation of resistance and reactance. Fig. 16.11 (c ) is
known as impedance diagram of the circuit. T h e an gle which
the lino representing the impedance 2 makes with R line
gives the phase difference between the voltage and current.
In Fig.16.11(c). the current is leading the voltage applied by
a n angle

N o w we will calculate the impedance of a R - L series circuit

by drawing its impedance diagram . Fig.16.12 (a ) sho w s an
R - L series circuit excited by a n A .C . source o f frequency o>.
Th e current is token a s reference, so rt is represented by a
horizontal line. Resistance R is drawn along this line because
the potential drop / „ R is in phase with current. A s the
potential across the inductance V L = / _ X t = (<»L) leads
(•) the current by 90*. so the vector line of reactance X L = o>L is
draw n at right angle to P i n e (F ig . 16.12 b). T h e im pedance Z
of the circuit is obtained by the vector sum of R and <»L lines.
Thus
Z - v R * ♦ (< »L f

T h e angle o = tan ' 1 — which Z makes with R line gives the

phase difference between the applied voltage and current. In

this case the voltago leads the current by 0*. B y comparing
the .m pedance diagrams of R ■ C and L - R circuits it can be
seen that the vectcr linos of reactances X c and X L are
directed opposite to tach other with R a s reference.

16.8 PO W ER IN A .C . CIR CU ITS

T h e expression for power is P = V C ./ .,. Th is expression is true
in case of A C . d ro its , only when V a n d / are in phase as in

• 122
case of a purely resistive drey*. W e have already seen that the
pow er dissipation in a pore inductive or in a pure capacitance
drcuit is zero. In these cases the current lags or leads tho
applied vottago by 90* and com ponent of applied voltage
vector V along the current vector is ze ro (Fig. 16.9 c and
16.10 c ). In A . £ . drcuit the phase difference between applied
voltage t/and the current / _ i s 0 (Fig.16.11 b and 16.12 b). T h e
com ponent of V along current / _ is cosQ. Actually it is this
com ponent of voltage vector which is in phase with current. S o
the power dissipated in A C . drcuit

P = L x V „ cos0 .............. (1 6 .1 7 )

T h e factor cosG is kno w n a s po w e r factor.

E x a m p le 1 6 .4 : A t w hat frequency will an inductor of
1.0 H h ave a rea ctan ce of 5 0 0 O ?
S o lu tio n :
L = 1 .0 H . X t «5 0 0 fi
D o You K n o w ?
X L * o f. = 2 n tL - 5 0 0 O
5000 5000
/ c 2xfL 2 x x 1 .0 H =80Hz

E x a m p l e 1 6 .5 : A n iron c o re coil of 2 .0 H a n d 5 0 0 is placed

in series with a resistance of 4 5 0 0 . A n A . C . supp ly of 100 V.
5 0 H z is con nected across the drcuit. F in d (i) the current
flow ing in the coil, (ii) p h a se angle b e tw e e n the current and
voltage.
A <M*ctor « u M d to local*
tum*0 m*ttic6 t*ct»
S o lu tio n :

R esistance = R » 500 *4500 = 5000

In du ctan ce = L = 2 .0 H
S u p p ly voltage = V _ 3 100 V

F re q u e n c y = f= 5 0 H z
T h e reactance = X l = o>f. = 2 x f/.

= 2 x 3.14 x 5 0 s ' x 2 .0 H = 6 2 8 0
Im p eda nce « Z = y R 2 » ( « of.)2

= V (5 0 0 O ) ’ ♦ (6 2 8 O ) 2 = 8 0 3 O
V - 100 V
C u rre n t / „ = 0 .0 1 2 4 5 A = 1 2 .4 5 m A
Z . 803Q
.(cof.
P h a s e difference 0 = tan

12 3
 f 628 Q 'l
[ s o o n ] ' 5 ' 5'
E x a m p le 1 6 .6 : A circuit consists of a capacitor of 2 p F and a
resistance of 1000 Q connected in series. A n alternating
voltage of 12 V ar>d frequency 50 H z is applied. Find (I) tho
current in tho circuit, and (ii) the average pow er supplied.
S o lu tio n :

Resistance = R = 1000 O

Capacitance = C = 2 p F = 2 X 1 0 "* F
Frequency = /= 50 H z
!_
Reactance c j r.fC

------------------------- --------------------- t — = 1592 n

2 x 3 .1 4 x 5 0 s x 2 x 10 F

Im pedance Z fe * * (X cf

-> / (1 O O O n ), * (1 5 0 2 f r )2 = 1 8 8 0 0

w 12 V
Current = U ■~ = 0 .0 0 6 4 A = 6 .4 m A
Z 18800

Phaso Difference 0 - tan ' 1 tan 1 ! = 57.87°

R 1.1000 f l )

Avorage pow er = V _ /„, cosO

= 12 V x 0.0064 A x 0.532 = 0.04 W

Consider a R - L - C series circuit which is excited by an

alternating voltage sourer; w hoso frequency coukJ be varied
(F ig. 16.13 a). T h e imped an co diagram of the circuit is shown
in Fig. 16.13 (b). A s expla ined earlier, the inductive reactance
V 1
Xt = mL and capacitor reactance x c = are directed

opposite to each other. W h en the frequency of A C . source is

very small * c ^ jS m uch greater than X L * t»L. S o tho

capacitance dom inates at low frequencies and the circuit

124
b e h a v e s like a n R - C circuit. A t high frequencies X t = «>L is

m u ch greater than X c = ~ . In this c a s e the inductance

* -uL • ■
dom inates a n d the circuit b e h a v e s like R - L circuit. In
betw een the se freq uen cie s there will b e a freq uen cy ta, at
w h ich X L = X c . T h is condition is called reson ance. T h u s at * -= c
reson ance the inductive reactance be in g equal a n d opposite (b>
to capa citor reactance, cancel e a ch o th er a n d the im p e d a n ce
d ia gram a s s u m e s the form (F ig . 16.13 c ). T h e v a lu e of the
reson ance freq uen cy can be obtained b y putting

a’L a ^ c
2 1 1 («)
or
or FI 9 16.13
= LC T l c

or f, (1 6 .1 8 )
2 7 \ iC

T h e following a re the properties of the series resonance,

i) T h e re s o n a n c e frequency is giv e n by

'-'d t c
T h e im p e d a n ce of the circuit at resonance is resistive
s o the current a n d voltage a re in ph ase. T h e p o w e r
factor is 1 .

i:i) T h o im p e d a n c e of the circuit is m in im um a t this

froq uon cy a n d it is equal to R .

iv ) If the am plitude of the s o u rce voltage V , is constant,

the c u rre n t is a m axim um at the reson ance freq uen cy
an d its v a lu e is V0 / R . T h e variation of current with the
fre q u e n c y is s h o w n in Fig. 16.14.

v) A t re s o n a n c e V L, the voltage d ro p across inductance

Flfl. 16.14
an d V c the voltage d ro p ac ro s s capa citan ce m a y be
m u ch la rg er than the so u rc e voltage.

16.10 P A R A L L E L R E S O N A N C E C IR C U IT
F ig 16 15 s h o w s a n L - C parallel circuit It is excited b y an
alternating s o u rce of voltage w h o s e frequency could be
va rie d T h e inductance cod L has a resistance r w h ich is
negligibly sm all T h e capacitor d ra w s a leading current

12 5
 whereas the cotl draws a tagging current T h e circuit
resonates at a frequency <•>= to, which makes X t = X c . so that
the two branch currents are equal but opposite H ence, they
L C cancel out with the result that the current draw n from the
supply is zero In actual practice, the current is not zero but
has a m inimum value due to small resistance r of the coil
Properties of parallel resonant circuits ar^
i) Resonance frequency is ^ ~ z — 772
Illvl-Vs

rtg H I S '■) At the resonance frequency, the orcuil impedance is

maximum. It is resistive,
in) A t the resonance the current is minimum and it is in
phase with the applied voltage. S o the power factor «s
one. T h e variation of current with the frequency of the
source is shown in Fig. 16.16.
iv) At resonance, the branch currents /L and /c m ay each
be larger than the source current /,.

E x a m p le 1 6 .7 : Find the capacitance required to construct a

resonance circuit of frequency 1000 k H z with an inductor of
5m H.

S o lu t io n :

R esonance frequency f * 1000 kHz

'i t 1» 1« L = 5 m H = 5 x 10 3 H C=?
1
Resonance frequency = I ■

4 **<*£. 4 x(3 .1 4 )* x (10* 8 ' f xx 5 x 1 0 * H 509pF

1
W o have already studied that an A .C . generator consists of a
coil with a pair of slip rings. A s the cod rotates an alternating
voltage is generated across the slip rings. In a three phase
A .C . generator, instead of one coil, there are three coils
inclined at 1 2 0 * to each other, each connected to its own pair
of slip rings. W h e n this combination of three coils rotate in the
magnetic field, each coil generates an alternating voltage
•across its ow n pair of slip rings. Th u s , three alternating
voltages are generated. T h e phase difference between these
voltages is 120°. It m eans that when voltage across the first

126
jair of slip rings is zero, having a phase of 0 . the voltage
jcross the second pair of slip rings would not be zero but it
vill have a phase of 120*. Similarly at this instant the voltage
jenerated across the third pair will havo a phase 240'. Th is is
shown in Fig. 16.17. T h e m achine, instead of having six
erm inals. two for each pair of slip rings, has only four
erm inals because the starting point of all the three coils has a
x m m o n junction which is often earthed to the shaft of the
jenerator and the other three ends of the coils are connected
x> three separate terminals o n the m achine. Th e se four
:erminals along with the lines and coils connected to them are
>hown in Fig .16.18. T h e voltage across each of lines
connected to terminals A . B . C and the neutral line is 230 V.
Because of 1 2 0 ” phase shift, the voltage across any two lines
s about 400 V. T h e main advantage of having a three phase
iupp ly is that the total load of the house or a factory is divided
n three parts, so that none of the line is over loaded. If heavy
oad consisting of a num ber of air conditioners and motors
ate., is supplied pow er from a singlo phase supply, its voltage
s likely to drop at full load. Moreover, the throe phase supply
also provides 400 V which can be used to operate som e
special appliances requiring 400 V for their operation.

16.12 PRINCIPLE O F M ETA L D E TE C TO R S

A coil and a capacitor are electrical components which
togother can produce oscillations of current. A n L ■ C circuit
behaves just like an oscillating m ass - spring system. In this
case energy oscillates between a capacitor and an inductor.
Th e circuit is called an electrical oscillator. Tw o such
oscillators A and B are used in the operation of a com m on
type of metal detector (F ig. 16.19). In the absence of any
nearby
OKMHoronxHB OicAMy o-oMA

127
metal object, the inductances L A and Lj, are the sam e and
hence the resonance frequency of the two circuits is also
sam e. W h e n the inductor B. called the search coil com es
near a metal object, its inductance decreases and
corresponding oscillator frequency increases and thus a
beat note is heard in the attached speaker. S uch detectors
are extonsivcly used not only for various security checks but
also to locate buried metal objects.

16.13 CH OK E
It is a coil which consists of thick copper wire w ound closely in
a large num ber of turns over a soft iron laminated cores. Th is
makes the inductance L of the coil quite large whereas its
resistance R is ve ry small. Th u s it consum es extrem ely small
power. It is used in A .C . circuits to limit current with extremely
small wastage of energy as com pared to a resistance or a
rheostat

16.14 E L E C TR O M A G N E TIC W AVES

It is a very important class of w aves which requires no
m edium for transmission and which rapidly propagates
through vacuum .
In 1864 British physicist Ja m e s Clark Maxwell formulated a
set of equations known as Maxwell's equations which
e x pla ined the various electrom a gne tic ph e nom en a.
According to these equations, a changing magnetic flux
creates an electric field and a changing electric flux creates a
magnetic field. C onsider a region of space A B as show n in
Fig. 16.20. Suppose a change of magnetic flux is taking place
through it. Th is changing magnetic flux will set up a changing
electric flux in the surrounding region. T h e creation of electric
field in the region C D will cause a change of electric flux
through it due to which a m agnetic field would be set u p in the
space surrounding C D and so on. T h u s each field generates
the other and the whole package of electric and magnetic
fields will m ove along propelling itself through space. Such
m oving electric and m agnetic fields are know n as
electromagnetic waves Th e electric field, magnetic field and
the direction of their propagation are mutually orthogonal
(Fig. 16.21). It can be seen in this figure that the
electromagnetic w aves are periodic, hence they have a
wavelength /. which is given b y the relation c = f). w here ( is
the frequency and c is the speed of the w ave. In free space
the speed of electromagnetic w aves is 3 x 10* m s'1.

128
Depending upon the values of wavelength and frequency,
the electromagnetic w ave s have been classified into different
types of waves a s radiowaves, microwaves, infrared rays,
visible light etc. Fig. 16.22 shows the complete spectrum of

^ ^ s p e c tru m _^—

i -o -o i n c y T V and M u u i l l K . l i P W P ra*«6on X-rays ray*

AU ru «no
*JO rado ceso '« • >

w ter icr 10" 10" 10" 10"

,0 '
10* Iff Iff Iff tO* W 10' 10* 10- 10" 10
(irewe)
d e o t w n g wavelengei

F ig . t i n
T h o electromagnet.: * p e«rum

Electromagnetic w ave s from the low radio w aves to high

Tit-bits
frequency gam m a rays.

16.15 PRINCIPLE O F GEN ERATIO N,

TRANSM ISSIO N AN D R ECEPTIO N
O F E L E C TR O M A G N E TIC WAVES
W e have seen that electromagnetic w aves are generated
when electric or magnetic flux is changing through a certain
region of space. A n electric charge at rest gives rise to a
Coulom b's field which do es not radiate in space because no
change of flux takes place in this type of field. A charge
S h a k e an e le ctrica lly c h a r g e
moving with constant velocity is equivalent to a steady object to and Fro. and you produce
olectrcmagnet waves
current which generates a constant magnetic field in the

O o You Know ?
MCond. they produced redo were*
having frequency 94 tttt
surrounding space, but such a field also does not radiate out
because no changes of magnetic flux are involved. Th u s only
chance to generate a w ave of moving field is when we
accelorate the electrical charges.
A radio transmitting antenna provides a good example of
generating electromagnetic w aves by acceleration of
charges. T h e piece of wire along which charges are m ade to
accelerate is known as transmitting antenna (F ig. 16.23). It is
charged b y an alternating source of potential of frequency t
and time period T. A s the charging potential alternates, the
charge on the antenna also constantly roverses. For
exam ple if the top has ♦ q charges at an y instant, then after
time 77 2 the charge on it will be - q. S uch regular reversal of
charges on the antenna gives rise to an electric flux that
constantly changes with frequency f. Th is changing electric
flux sets up an electromagnetic w a v e which propagates out
in space aw ay from the antenna. T h e frequency with which
the fields alternate is always equal to the froqucncy of the
source generating them. Th e se electromagnetic waves
which are propagated out in space from antenna of a
transmitter are known as radio w aves. In free space these
w aves travel with the speed of light.
Suppose these w aves impinge on a piece of wire (Fig. 16.24).
T h e electrons in the wire m ove under the action of the
oscillating electric field which give rise to an alternating
voltage across the wire. T h e frequency of this voltage is the
sam e as that of the w ave intercepting the wire. Th is wire
receiving the wave is known a s receiving antenna. A s the
electric field of the w ave is very w eak at a distance of m any
kilometres from tho transmitter, the voltage that appears
across the receiving antenna is very small. E a ch transmitter
propagates radio w aves of one particular frequoncy. So
w h e n a n u m b e r of tra n sm ittin g sta tio n s op erate
simultaneously, we have a num ber of radio waves of different
frequencies in the space. Th u s the voltage that appears
across a receiving antenna placed in space is usually due to
the radio waves of large num ber of frequencies. T h e voltage
of one particular frequency can be picked up by connecting
an inductance L and a variable capacitor C in parallel with
one end of the receiving antenna (F ig. 16.24).
If one adjusts the value of the capacitor so that the natural
frequency of L ■ C circuit is the sam e as that of the
transmitting station to be picked up. the circuit will resonate
130
 u n d e r the d riv in g a c tio n of th e a n te n n a . C o n s e q u e n tly , the
L - C circuit w ill b u ild u p a la rg e r e s p o n s e to the a c tio n o f o n ly
' that ra d io w a v e to w h ic h it is tu n e d . In y o u r r a d io r e c e iv e r set
w h e n y o u c h a n g e stations y o u a c tu a lly a d ju st th e v a lu e o f C .

16.16 M O D U L A T IO N
S p e e c h a n d m u s ic e tc . a re tra n s m itte d h u n d re d o f k ilo m e tre s
a w a y b y a ra d io transm itter. T h e s c e n e in front o f a tele visio n
c a m e r a is a ls o s e n t m a n y k ilo m e tre s a w a y to v ie w e rs . In all F o r Y o u r In form atio n
th e s e u s e s , th e c a rrie r o f th e p r o g ra m m e is a h ig h fre q u e n c y
ra d io w a v e . T h e in fo rm a tio n i.e .. light, s o u n d o r o th e r d a ta is
im p re s s e d o n th e r a d io w a v e a n d is c a rrie d a lo n g w ith it to the
d e stina tion .

M o d u la tio n is th e p ro c e s s o f c o m b in in g the lo w fre q u e n c y

s ig n a l w ith a h ig h fre q u e n c y ra d io w a v e ca lle d c a rr ie r w a v e .
T h e resultan t w a v e is ca lle d m o d u la te d ca rrie r w a v e . T h e lo w
fre q u e n c y s ig n a l is k n o w n a s m o d u la tio n s ig n a l. M o d u la tio n
is a c h ie v e d b y c h a n g in g the a m p litu d e o r th e fre q u e n c y o f the
c a rrie r w a v e in a c c o rd a n c e w ith the m o d u la tin g s ig n a l. T h u s
w e h a v e tw o t y p e s of m o d u la tio n s w h ic h a re

1. A m p litu d e m odu lation (A .M ), 2. F re q u e n c y m odulation (F .M )

A m p lit u d e M o d u la tio n
m m s m m
carrier wave
In this t yp e of m o d u la tio n the a m p litu d e o f th e c a rrie r w a v e is
in c re a s e d o r d im in is h e d a s the a m p litu d e of th e s u p e rp o s in g
m o d u la tin g s ig n a l in c re a s e s a n d d e c re a s e s .

F ig . 1 6 .2 5 (a ) re p re se n ts a h ig h fre q u e n c y ca rrie r w a v e of
c o n sta n t a m p litu d e a n d fre q u e n c y. F ig . 1 6 .2 5 (b ) re p re se n ts a a A AI
lo w o r a u d io fre q u e n c y s ig n a l o f a sin e w a v e fo rm .
ampMudo modiXatod wave
F ig .1 6 .2 5 ( c ) s h o w s the result o b ta in e d b y m o d u la tin g
th cca rrie r w a v e s w ith th e m o d u la tin g w a v e . T h e A .M . Fig. 16Z5
tra n s m is sio n f re q u e n c ie s r a n g e from 5 4 0 k H z to 1 6 0 0 k H z .

F r e q u e n c y M o d u la tio n
VAIUUM (M l
In this type o f m odulation the fre q u e n cy o f the carrier w a v e is
increased o r dim inish e d a s the m odulating signal am plitude
« c r e a s e s o r d e c re a s e s but the carrier w a v e am plitude rem ains
c on stan t. F ig . 1 6 .2 6 s h o w s fre q u e n c y m odu lation. T h e
freq uen cy of the m odu lated carrier w a v e is highest (p oint H )
t r.
w h e n the signal am plitude is a t its m a x im u m positive v a lu e a n d
o m M iU A A A / lM IM M A
is a t its lowest freq uen cy (point L ) w h e n signal am plitude h as fiiV m lV V V v i n f n m i
m a x im u m negative. W h e n the signal am plitude is ze ro , the frequency mmtuuted wave
carrier fre q u e n cy is a t its norm al fre q u e n cy f„

131
 Th e F.M. transmission frequencies are much higher and ranges
between 88 M H z to 108 M Hz. F.M. radio waves are affected
less by electrical interference than A. M. radio waves and hence,
provide a higher quality transmission of sound. However, they
have a shorter range than A M waves and are less able to
travel around obstacles such as hSs and large buildings.

a m
Alternating current is that which is produced by a voltage source w hose polarity
keeps on reversing with time.

• T h e time interval during which the voltage source changes its polarity once is known
as period T of the alternating current or voltage.
T h e value of voltage or current that exists in a circuit at an y instant of time measured
from som e reference point is known as its instantaneous value.
T h e highest value reached by the voltage or current in one cycle is called the peak
value of the voltage or current.
T h e sum of positive and negative peak values is called peak to peak value and is
written as p -p value.
T h e root mean square value (rm s ) is the square root of the average value of V ‘or /’.
T h e angle 0 which specifies the instantaneous value of the alternating voltage or
current, gives the phase lag or phase lead of o n e quantity over the other.
A n inductor is usually in the form of a coil or a solenoid wound from a thick wire so
that it has a large value of self inductance and has negligible resistance.
T h e com bined effect of resistance and reactance in a circuit is known as impedance
and is denoted b y Z .
Choke is a coil which consists of thick copper wire wound closely in a large number
of turns over a soft iron laminated core.
• Electrom agnetic w aves are thoso which require no medium for transmission and
rapidly propagate through vacuum .
Modulation is the process of com bining tho low frequency signal with a high
frequency radio w ave, called carrier waves. T h e resultant wave is called modulated
carrier w ave.

I r l 'i m w

Asinusoidal current has rms value of 10 A W hat is the maxim um or peak value?

132
16 2 N a m e the d e vic e that will perm it flow o f direct current but op p o s e the flow of
alternating current permit flow of alternating current but not the direct current.

16 .3 H o w m a n y tim es per second will a n incan de scen t la m p reach m axim um brilliance

w h e n c o n nected to a 5 0 H z source?

16.4 A circuit contains a n iron-cored inductor, a switch and a D .C . source arran ged in
series. T h e sw itch is closed and after a n interval reop en ed . E xp la in w h y a spark
ju m p s ac ro s s the switch contacts?

16 5 H o w d o e s doubling the frequency affect the rea ctance of an inductor

a capacitor?

16 6 In a R - L circuit, will the current la g o r le ad the voltage? Illustrate yo u r an sw er

b y a vector diagram .

16.7 A choke cod placed in series with a n electric la m p a n A C . circuit causes the lam p to
be com e dim . W h y is it so? A variable capacitor ad ded in series m this circuit m a y be
adjusted until the lamp glow s with norm al brilliance. Explain, how this is possible?

Explain the conditions under w h ich electrom agnetic w a v e s a re produced from a y

s o urce?
16 9 H o w the reception of a particular rad io station is selected o n yo u r rad io set?

16 10 W h a t is m e a n t b y A .M . and P.M .?

G 2 3 E E J
A n alternating current is represented b y the equation / = 2 0 sin 100 itf. C o m p u te its
frequency a n d the m a xim u m and rm s v a lu e s of current. ( A n s : 5 0 H z . 2 0 A . 14 A )

16 2 A sinusoidal A .C . has a m axim um valu e of 1 5 A W h a t are its rm s va lu e s ? If the time

is recorde d from the instant the current is z e ro and is be com in g positive, w hat is the
instantaneous value of the current after 1 /3 0 0 s. giv e n the frequency is 5 0 H z.
(A n s : / , = 1 0 . 6 A . Instantaneous current = 13.0 A )

F in d the value of the current and inductive reactance w h e n A . C . voltage of 2 2 0 V at

5 0 H z is pa ssed through a n inductor of 10 H . (A n s : / _ = 0 .0 7 A . X L = 3 1 4 0 O )

16 4 A circuit h a s an inductance of 1/n H a n d resistance of 2 0 0 0 O . A 5 0 H z A . C . is

supplied to it. C a lcula te the reactance a n d im p e d a n ce offered b y the circuit.
( A n s : X L= 100 O . Z = 2 0 0 2 .5 0 )

16 5 A n inductor of pure inductance 3/n H is co n nected in series with a resistance of 4 0 O .

F in d (i) the peak value of the current tho rm s value, a n d (Hi) the ph a se difference
betw een the current a n d the applied voltage V = 3 5 0 sin(1 OOit t).
(A n s : (i) 1.16 A . (ii) 0.81 A . (iii) 8 2 .4 ‘ )

A 10 m H , 2 0 O coil is connected ac ro s s 2 4 0 V a n d 180 I z H z source. H o w m u c h

p o w e rd o e s it dissipate? (A n s : 2 7 7 8 W )

133
 F in d the v a lu e of the c urrent flowing thro ugh a capa citan ce 0 .5 p F w h e n connected
to a source o f 150 V at 5 0 H z . (A n s :/ nm= 0 .0 2 4 A )

A n alternating so u rc e of em f 12 V a n d freq uen cy 5 0 H z is applied to a capacitor of

capacitance 3 p F in series with a resistor of resistance 1 k O , C a lcula te the phase
angle. (A n s : 46.7*)

W h a t is the resonant freq uen cy of a circuit w hich includes a coil o f inductance 2.5 H
a n d a capa citan ce 4 0 p F ? (A n s : 15 .9 H z )

16 1 A n inductor of inductance 150 p H is c o n nected in parallel with a variable capacitor

w h o s e capacitance c a n b o c h a n g e d from 500 p F to 2 0 p F. C a lcula te the m axim um
freq uen cy a n d m in im um freq uen cy for w h ich the circuit can b e tu n e d .
(A n s : 2.91 M H z . 0 .5 8 M H z )

13 4
 PHYSICS OF SOLIDS
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter the students will bo able to:
Distinguish between the structure of crystalline, glassy, amorphous and polymeric
solids.
Understand the idea oflattice.
Appreciate that deformation is caused by a force and that, in one dimension, the
deformation can be tensile or compressive
Define and use the terms Young's modulus, bulk modulus and shear modulus.
Describe an experiment to determine elastic limit and yield strength.
Distinguish between elastic and plastic deformation of a material.
Synthesize and deduce the strain energy in a deformed material from the area under
the force extension graph
Describe the energy bands in sofcds.
Classify insulators, conductors, semi-conductors on the basis of energy bands.
Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
Explain how electrons and holes flow across a junction.
Descnbe superconductors.
Distinguish between dia. para and ferro magnetic materials.
Understand and describe the concept of magnetic domains in a material.
Know the Curie point.
Classify hard and soft ferro magnetic substances.
Understand hysteresis and hysteresis loss.

I \ ^ aterials have specific uses depending upon their characteristics and properties, such
as hardness, ductility, malleability, conductivity etc. What makes steel hard, lead soft, iron
magnetic and copper electrically conducting? It depends upon the structure - the particular
order and bonding of atoms in a material. This due has made it possible to design and
create materials with new and unusual properties for use in modem technology.
17.1 C L A S S IF IC A T IO N O F S O L ID S

Crystalline Solids
In crystalline solids there is a regular arrangement of molecules. The neighbours of every
molecule are arranged in a regular pattern that is constant throughout the crystal. There is.
thus an ordered structure in crystalline solids.

135
 T h e vast majority of solids, e.g.. metals such as copper, iron
and zinc, ionic com p ound s such as sodium chloride,
ceram ics such as zirconia are crystalline. T h e arrangem ent
of molecules, atom s o r ions within all types of crystalline
solids can bo studied using various X -ra y techniques. It
should be noted that atom s, molecules o r ions in a crystalline
sobd are not static. F o r exam ple, each atom in a metal crystal
vibrates about a fixed point with an amplitude that increases
with rise in temperature. It is the average atom ic positions
w hich are perfectly ordered over large distances.

T h e cohesive forces between atom s, molecules or ions in

crystalline solids maintain the strict lo ng-range order inspite
of atom ic vibrations. For every crystal, however, there is a
temperature at w hich the vibrations be com o so great that the
structure suddenly breaks up. and the solid melts. T h e
transition from solid (o rd e r) to liquid (disorder) is. therefore,
abrupt o r discontinuous. E v e ry crystalline solid has a definite
melting point.

A m o r p h o u s o r G l a s s y S o li d s
Q ta ily and cryWaftrw k M h MXI
*nd k x v '* nO* order T h e w ord am orphous m ea ns without form or structure. T h u s
in am orphous solids there is no regular arrangem ent of
F o r Your Information m olecules like that in crystalline solids. W e can. therefore,
say that am orphous solids are m ore like liquids with the
disordered structure frozen in.

F o r exam ple ordinary glass, w hich is a solid at ordinary

'♦ • » + + # f + . temperaturo. has no regular arrangem ent of molecules. O n
heating, it gradually softens into a paste like state before it
be com es a very viscous liquid at alm ost 800°C. T h u s
♦ ♦ ♦ » ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ + + < am orphous solids are also called glassy solids. Th is type of
solids have no definite melting point.
Tran*rr»**ion B * O o m U c r o g n p n <rf
m * atomic totte* of a gold crystal
P o ly m e r ic S o li d s

P olym ers m a y be said to be m ore or less solid materials with

For Your Information a structure that is intermediate between order and disorder.
T h e y can be classified as partially o r poorly crystalline solids.

Polym ers form a large group of naturally occurring and

synthetic materials. Plastics and synthetic rubbers are termed
•Ploymers' because they are formed by polymerization
reactions in which relatively simple molecules are chemically
com bined into m assive long chain molecules, or th re e
dimensional" structures. T h e s e materials have rather low
specific gravity com pared with even the lightest of metals, and
yet exhibit good strength-to-weight ratio.
Polymers consist wholly or in part of chemical combinations o f ,
carbon with oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and other metallic o r ' For Y ou r Inform ation
non-metallic elements. Polythene, polystreno and nylon etc..
are examples of polymers. Natural rubber is composed in the
pure state entirely of a hydrocarbon with the formula (C ,H ,L .

C ry s ta l L a ttic e

A crystalline solid consists of three dimensional pattern that

repeats itself over and over again. Th is smallest three
dimensional basic structure is called unit cell. Th e whole
structure obtained by the repetition of unit cell is known as
crystal lattice. F o r example, the pattern of NaCI particles
have a cube shape. Th e cube shape of the sodium chloride is
just one of several crystal shapos. In a cubic crystal all the
sides meet at right angles. Other crystal shapes have comers
in which one or more of the angles are not right angles.

17.2 M ECH ANICAL PRO P ER TIES OF

SOLIDS
e fo rm a tio n in S o lid s
E
If w e hold a soft rubber ball in our hand and then squeeze it.
the shape or volume of the bail will change. However, H we
O
stop squeezing the ball, and open our hand, the ball will
return to its original spherical shape. Th is has been illustrated
F
schematically in Fig. 17.1.
\
Similarly, if we hold two ends of a rubber string in our hands,
and move our hands apart to some extent, the length of the
string will increase under iho action of the applied force
exerted by our hands. Greater the applied force larger will be
•:m v
the increase in length. Now on removing the applied force,
the string witl return to its original length. From these
examples, it is concluded that deformation (i.e.. change in
shape, length or volum e) is produced when a body is
subjected to some external force.
In crystalline solids atoms are usually arranged in a certain
O
order. These atoms are held about their equilibrium position,
which depends on the strength of the inter-atomic cohesive Ongmal rubber bafl
force between them. W hen external force is applied on such Sbueejed rubber b o i subjected
force F by the hand
a body, a distortion results because of the displacement of
Rubber be* after removng fore*
the atoms from their equilibnum position and the body is said
to be in a state of stress After the removal of external force.

137
 the atoms return to their equilibrium position, and the body
regains its original shape, provided that external applied
force was not too great. The ability of the body to return to its
original shape is called elasticity. Fig.17.2 illustrates
deformation produced in a unit cell of a crystal subjected to
an external applied force.

S tre s s an d Strain
The results of mechanical tests are usually expressed in
terms of stress and strain, which are defined in terms of
applied force and deformation.

S tress
It is defined as the force applied on unit area to produce any
change in the shape, volume or length of a body.
Mathematically it is expressed as

(' 7”
The SI unit of stress (o ) is newton per square metre (N m 7).
which is given the name pascal (Pa).
Urtf c*« i a N> outwtrd
*tr*Ww>g tore* Stress may cause a change in length, volume and shape.
When a stress changes length, it is called the tensile stress,
when it changes the volume it is called the volume stress and
when it changes the shape it is called the shear stress.

Strain is a measure of the deformation of a solid when stress

is applied to it. In the case of deformation in one dimension,
Un4 o*< under irMard strain is defined as the fractional change in length. If Af is the
■pphedtorte change in length and I is the original length (Fig. 17.3 a).then
strain is given by
S , ^ C h a n g e in ^ j^ ....................

Original length (/)

Since strain is ratio of lengths, it is dimensionless. and

therefore, has no units. If strain c is due to tensile stress o, it is
Urwt c»l removing
eppted lore* called tensile strain, and if it is produced as a result of
R b- 172 compressive stress o. it is termed as compressive strain.
In case when the applied stress changes the volume, the
change in volume per unit volume is known as volumetric
strain (Fig. 17.3 b). Thus

138
 AV F__
Volum etric strain:
V,
N o w referring to Fig. 17.3 (c ). w h e n the opposite faces of a
rigid c u b e are subjected to shear stress , the shear strain
produced is given by

Aa (1 7 .3 )
r »■ tano

H ow ever, for small values of angle 0. m easured in radian,

tan 0 * 0 . so that

r - 9 (1 7 .4 )

E la s t i c C o n s t a n t s
Experim ents have revoalod that the ratio of stress to strain is
a constant for a given material, provided the external applied
force is not too great. T h is ratio is called m odulus of elasticity,
and c a n b e mathematically described as

M odulus of Elasticity* ^ eS^ - (1 7 .5 )

Strain
S ince strain is a dim ensw nloss quantity, the units o f m odulus Ft0.i7a
of elasticity are the sa m e a s those of stress, i.e.. N m : o r Pa. j W r o puled along <ts tengti by
stretching (ortn F
CySnder sUyected to compresrsne
In the c a s e of linear deformation, the ratio of tensile (or •crcoF
com p re ssive ) stress o ( = F I A ) to tensile (or com pressive) Cube subjected to sheenng lorts F
strain e = A * U is called Y o un g ’s m odulus
m
rA (1 7 .6 ) Thor* a re seven, drflerent crystal*
system s b ated on the geom etrical
arrangem ent 0< the» atom * and the
F o r three dim ensional deformation, w hen volum e is involved, mil Hftot Qicmttncil
then the ratio of applied stress to volum etric strain is called Co te c « ! * « ■ ■ T re e n *

Bulk m odulus.

(1 7 .7 )

w he re A V is the ch a n ge in original volum e V.

H ow ever, w h e n the sh ear stress t = ( F I A ) a n d sh ear strain

y(= tan 0 ) are involved, then their ratio is called shear modulus.
 Elastic constants for som e of the materials are given in
Table 17.1.

Table17.1 Elastic constants E la s t ic L i m i t a n d Y ie ld S t r e n g t h

for som o materials
In a tensile test, metal wire is extended at a specified
deformation rate, and stresses generated in the wire during
M*t«n«i I f doformation are continuously m easured by a suitable
l ^ electronic device fitted in the m echanical tosting machine.
10‘Nm* 10’Nm* Force-etongation diagram or stress-strain curve is plotted
| Menrxum 70 70 30 automatically on X -Y chart recorder. A typical stress-strain
le o ~ 15 - 60 curve for a ductile material is show n in Fig. 17.4.
Br»*s 91 61 36 In the initial stage of deformation, stress rs increased linearly
Concrete 25 • • with the strain till w e reach point A on the stress-strain curve
Copper 110 140 44 Th is is called proportional hmit (o„) It is defined as the
Diamond 1120 540 450 greatest stress that a material can endure without losing
straight line proportionality between stress and strain
GUM 55 31 23
Hooke's law which states that the strain is directly
| lea 14 6 3
proportional to stress is obeyed in the region O A From A to
[ lend 15 7.7 56 B. stress and strain are not proportional, but nevertheless, if
| Mercury 0 27 0 the load is rem oved at any point between O and B. the curve
f Sioel 200 160 64 will be retraced and the material will return to its original
[ Tungsten 390 200 150 length In the region O B . the matenal «s said to be elastic Th e
i ia«-■- - 0 22 0 point B * caned the yield point T h e value of stress at B is
known as elastic limit o . If the stress is increased beyond the
yield stress or elastic limit of the matenal. the specimen
becom es permanently changed and does not recover its
original shape or dvnension after the stress is rem oved This
kind of behaviour is called plasticity

T h e region of plasticity is represented by the portion of the

curve from B to C . the point C in Fig 17 4 represents the
ultxnate tensile strength ( U T S ) o „ of the matenal T h e U T S is
defined as the maximum stress that a matenal can withstand
and can be regarded as the n o m n a i strength of the material
O n c e point C corresponding to U T S is crossed the matenal
breaks at point D. responding the fracture stress ( a )

Substances w hich undergo plastic deformation until they

break, are know n as ductile substances. Lead , copper and
w rought iron are ductile. O th er substances which break just
typical duello meter*! after the elastic limit is reached, are know n as brittle
substances. G la s s and high carbon steel are brittle.

E x a m p l e 1 7 .1 : A steel w ire 12 m m in diameter is fastened

140
to a log and is then pulled by tractor. Th e length of steel wire
between the log and the tractor is 11 m. A force of 10.000 N is
required to pull the log. Calculate (a ) the stress in the wire and
(b ) the strain in the wire, (c ) How much does the wire stretch
when the log is pulled? ( E = 200 x 10’ Nm *)

S o lu tio n :
F 10.000 N
(a) A s tensile stress ^\4x^ 04 m f

= 88.46 x 10*Nm '= 88.46 MPa

A/
(b ) T h e tensile strain e 1
I
Stress 88.46 x 104 N m 'J
Also 200x10* Nm
Strain Strain

88.46 x106 Nm *
Strain 4.4 x 1 0 4
200x10® N m 2
Af
(c ) Now using the relation Strain = — . w e get

M = 4 .4 x 1 0 ‘*x11 m = 4 .8 4 x 1 0 ,m = 4.84m m

S tra in E n e r g y in D e fo rm e d M a te ria ls
Consider a wire suspended vertically from one end. It is T h » a ■ macfrna u»*0 to rrvaatigate

stretched by attaching a weight at the other end. W e can vanat wtfi ft* tore* tta w a n g it
increase the stretching force by increasing the weight. By
noting the extension I of the wire for different values of the
stretching force F . a graph can be drawn between the force F
and the extension I (Fig.17.5). If the elastic limit is not
exceeded, the extension is directly proportional to force F . A s
the force F stretches the wire, it does some amount of work
on wire which is equal to product of force F and the extension
I Suppose w e are required to find the amount of the work
done when the extension is I,. Let the force for this extension
be F,. Fig.17.5 shows that the force F does not remain
constant in producing the extonsion l „ it varies uniformly
from 0 to F,. In such a situation the work is calculated by
graphical method.
Suppose at some stage before the extension I, is reached,
the force in the wire is F and that the wire now extends by a
very small amount Ax. Th e extension Ax is so small that the
force F m ay be assum ed constant in ax. so the work done in 17.S
producing this small extension is F x Ax. In the figure it can be

141
 seen that it is represented by the area of the shaded strip. In
this w a y the total extension I , can be divided into very small
extensions and the work done during each of these small
extensions w ould be gtven by the area of the strips (Fig . 17.5).
S o the total work d o ne in producing the extension I , is the sum
area of all these strips which is equal to area between the
graph and the axis on which extension has been plotted upto
I - 1 , . In this case it equals to area of the triangle O A B .

W o rk done ■ A re a of A O A B
1
=2 O A xA B

■ jA x F , .............. (1 7 .9 )

T h is is the am ount of en ergy stored in the wire. It is the gain in

the potential en ergy of the m olecules due to their
displacem ent from their m ean positions. E q .1 7 .9 g ives the
e n e rg y in joules w h e n F is in newton a n d I in metres.

E q .1 7 .9 can also be expressed in term s of m odulus of

elasticity E . If A is the area of cross-section of the wire a n d L
its total length then

c L
A t,
E A x iy
or F ,» L ■

Substituting the va lu e of F , in E g . 17.9 w e have

1 E A xt?
W o rk d o n e : (1 7 .1 0 )
2l <■
T h e area m ethod is quite a general on o. F o r exam ple if the
extension is increased from I , to*,, the am ount of w ork done
by the stretching force w ould be given by the area o f the
trapozium A B C D (F ig . 17.5). It is also valid for both the linear
(elastic) and the non-linear (n on-ela stic) parts of the force-
extension graph. If the extension occurs from O to G
(F ig . 17.5). this w ork d o ne w ould be the area of O H G

17.3 E LE C TR IC A L PROPERTIES O F SOLIDS

T h e fundamental electrical property of a solid is its response
to an applied electric field, i.e.. its ability to conduct electric
current. T h e electrical behaviours of various materials are

142
diverse. S o m e are very go o d conductors, e .g.. metals with
conductivities of the order o f 10 ’ ( O m ) ’. A t the other extreme,
som e solids, e .g.. w ood, diam ond etc.. have very low
conductivities ranging between 10'** and 1 0 ” (O m ) ’. these
are called insulators. S olids with intermediate conductivities,
generally from 104 to 104(O m ) \ are termed semiconductors,
Do You Know ?
e .g.. silicon, germ anium etc. T h e conventional free electron
theory based o n B oh r m odel of electron distnbution in an
atom failed to explain com pletely the vast diversity in the GteM » Jtoo kncrnn M totd
bo cauM o m o l*cU »» "• «ragU «rty
electrical be haviour of these three types of materials. •rrangad m n • Iq u 4 bul fae<J in
t w n M M poa bo n t
O n the other hand, e n e rg y band theory based o n w ave
m echanical m odel has been found successful in resolving
the problem.

E n e rg y B a n d Th e o ry

Electrons of a n isolated atom are bound to the nucleus, and

can only have distinct en ergy levels. However, w hen a large
num ber of atom s, say N . are brought close to one another to
form a solid, each en ergy level of the isolated atom splits into
N sub-levels, called states, under the action of the forces
exerted by other atom s in the solid. T h e s e permissible
en ergy statos are discrete but s o closely spaced that they
appear to form a continuous e n e rg y band. In between two
consecutive permissible en ergy ba nds, there is a ra nge of
en ergy states which cannot be occupied by electrons. Th e s e
are called forbidden en ergy states, and its range is term ed as
forbidden e n e rg y gap.

T h e electrons in the outerm ost shell of an atom are called

valence electrons and the en ergy band occupying these
electrons is know n as valence band. It is obviously the
highest occupied band. It m a y be either com pletely filled or
partially filled with electrons and can never be em pty. T h e
band a b o ve the valonco band is called conduction ba nd. In
conduction b a nd, electrons m ove freely and conduct electric
current through solids. Th a t is. w h y the electrons occupying
this band are known a s conductive electrons or free
electrons. A n y electron leaving the valence band is
accom m odated by this band. It m a y be either em pty or
partially filled with electrons. T h e bands below the valence
band are norm ally com pletely filled and as such play no part
in the conduction procoss. T h u s , while discussing the
electrical conductivity w e will consider only the valence and
con duction ban ds.

143
 ________________
In s u la t o r s Insulators are those materials in which
valence electrons are bound very tightly to their atom s and
are not free. In term s of en ergy bands, it m eans that an
insulator, as show n in Fig. 17.6 has

an em pty conduction band (n o free electrons)

a full valence band
a large en ergy gap (several e V ) between them

C o n d u c to rs Conductors are those w hich have plenty of

free electrons for electrical conduction. In term s of energy
ba nds, conductors are those materials in w hich valence and
conduction bands largely overlap e a c h other (F ig . 17.7).
T h e re is no physical distinction betw een the tw o bands w hich
ensures the availability of a large num ber of free electrons.
S e m ic o n d u c to rs In t e rm s o f e n o r g y b a n d s ,
fC o o S u c tx x i
sem icon ducto rs are those m aterials w hich at room
a »n .j temperature have
0 ) partially filled conduction band (ii) partially filled valence band
VM noe (iii) a ve ry narrow forbidden en ergy g a p (of the order of 1 e V )
Band
betw een the conduction and valence b a nds (F ig . 17.8).

A t 0 K . there are no electrons in the conduction ba nd and

their valence band are com pletely filled. It m ea ns at 0 K . a
piece of G e or Si is a p o rte d insulator. H ow ever, with
increase in temperature, som e electrons posses sufficient
Condocton band
en ergy to ju m p across the small en ergy g a p from valen ce to
conduction band. T h is transfers so m e free electrons in the
*w o w tosiddan » » « 9K> c o n d u d io n bands and creates so m e vacan cie s of e lo d ro n s
in the valence band. T h e vacan cy of e le d ro n in the valence
band is know n as a hole. It be haves like a positive charge.
VWcnoeBand
T h u s at room temperature. G e or Si crystal becom es a
semiconductor.

In t r in s ic a n d E x t r i n s i c S e m i - c o n d u c t o r

A sem i-conductor in its extrem ely pure form is know n as

intrinsic sem i-cond uctor. T h e electrical b e h a vio u r of
se m ic o n d u d o r is extremely sensitive to the purity of the
material. It is substantially changed on introducing a small
am ount of impurity into the pure s e m i-c o n d u d o r lattice. T h e
process is called doping, in w hich a small num ber of atom s of
som e other suitable elem ents are a d ded as impurity in the
ratio of 1 to 10*. T h e doped s e m i-c o n d u d in g m atenals are
called extrinsic s em i-co nd udo rs.

P u re elem ent of silicon and g e rm a n iu m are intrinsic

144
sem i-conductors. T h e s e sem i-conductor elements have
atom s with four valence electrons. In solid crystalline form,
the atom s of these elem ents arrange them selves in such a
pattern that each atom has four equidistant neighbours
F»g. 17.9 sh ow s this pattern along with its valence electrons.
E a c h atom with its four valence electrons, shares an electron
from its neighbours. T h is effectively allocatos eight electrons
in the outerm ost shell of e a c h atom w hich is a stable state.
T h is sharing of electrons between two atom s creates
covalent bonds. D u e to these covalent bonds electrons are
b o und in their respective shells.

W h e n a silicon crystal is doped with a pcntavatent element,

e .g .. arsenic, antim ony o r phosphorous etc.. four vale^co
electrons of the impurity atom form covalent bond with the <•>
four ne»ghbouring Si atom s, while the fifth valence electron
provides a free electron in the crystal. S u c h a doped or
extrinsic sem i-conductor is called n-type semi-conductor.
Fig. 1 7 .1 0 (a ) illustrates silicon crystal lattice doped with a
p e n ta v a le n t im p u rity s u c h a s p h o s p h o r o u s . T h e
phosphorous atom is called a donor atom because it readily
donates a free electron, w hich is therm ally excited into the
conduction band.

O n the other hand, w hen a silicon crystal is d o p -.d with a

trivalent element, e .g.. aluminium, boron, gallium o r indium
etc.. threo valence electrons of the impurity atom form (*»
covalent bond with the three neighbouring S i atom s, while
the o n e missing electron in the covalent bond with the fourth Ftg. 17.10
neighbouring Si atom , is called a hole w hich in fact is vacancy
w he re an electron c a n be accom m odated. S u c h a sem i­
conductor is called p-type sem i-conductor. Fig. 17.10 (b )
illustrates silicon crystal lattice doped with alum inium . T h e
alum inium atom is called a n acceptor atom b e cause it is easy
for the aluminium ion core to accept a valence electron from a
nearby silicon atom , thus creating a hole in the valenco bond.
• • • • • •

E le c t r ic a l C o n d u c t i o n b y E le c t r o n s a n d H o le s in
S e m ic o n d u c to rs • • • • • •

C onsider a sem i-conductor crystal lattice, o .g .. G e o r S i as •• • • ••

show n in Fig. 17.11. T h o circles represent the positiveion
co res of Si or G e atom s, and the blue dots are valence •• • • ••
electrons. Th e s e electrons are bound by covalent bond.
H ow ever, at room tem perature they have thermal kinetic 17.11

motion w hich, in case of so m e electrons, is so vigorous that

145
 the covalent bond is unable to keep them bound. In such
cases the electrons break the covalent bond and get
them selves free leaving a vacant seat for an electron, i.e.. a
hole. T h u s w he never a covalent bond is broken, an electron-
hole pair is created. Both the electrons and the holes m ove in

A0 , A©. A©. A©. the sem i-conductor crystal lattice a s explained below.

t C onsider a ro w of Si atom s in crystal lattice. S upp o se a hole

B® . B@o B© . B® . is present in the valence shell of atom A . A s hole is a

deficiency of electron, s o the core of atom A w ould have a not
positive charge (F ig . 17.12 a). T h is attracts an electron from a
cO - c O ! c® . neighbouring atom say B . T h u s the electron m o ve s from B to
C0 ©# Jf A and the hole (* v e ch a rg e ) shifts to B (Fig. 17.12 a .b ). N ow
0© . 0®. 0®o an electron is attracted from C to B a n d a hole is created at C
<•> « » (C) W) (Fig. 17.12 b .c ) and positive ch a rg e app ears at C . Th is
process is repeated between the a tom s C a n d D with the
result that the electron m o ve s from D to C and the hole
(♦ve c h a rg e ) app ears at D (Fig. 17.12 c . d ) . T h u s w e notice
that if a hole is present in a n y vale nce shell, it cannot stay
there but it m o ve s from o n e atom to other with the electron
m oving in opposite direction. S eco n dly w e notice that the
appearance of hole is accom panied by a positive chargo.
T h u s a m oving hole is equivalent to a m oving positive chargo.
© Electron In this exam ple w e have considered a special case in which
k * 0 -+ the electron and the hole are m oving in a straight line.
. Actually their motion is random b e cause positively charged
t ' * core of the atom can attract a n electron from a n y of its
“H k neighbouring atoms.
T h u s , in sem i-conductors there a re two kinds of charge
carriers; a free electron ( - e ) and a hole (+ e).
W h e n a battery is connected to a semi-conductor, it
establishes an electric field across it due to w hich a directed
flow of electrons and holes takes place. T h e electrons drift
towards the positive end, w hereas the holes dnft towards the
negative end of the sem i-conductor (Fig. 17.13) T h e current /
flowing through the sem i-conductor is earned by both
electrons and holes. It m ay be noted that the electronic current
and the hole current add up together to give the current /.

17.4 S U P E R C O N D U C T O R S
Th e re are so m e materials w ho se resistivity becom es zero
below a certain tem perature Tf called critical temperature as
show n in rosistivity-temperaturo graph in Fig. 17.14. Below
this temperature, such materials are called superconductors.

14 6
Th e y offer no resistance to electric current and are. therefore,
perfect conductors. O nce the resistance of a material drops Oo Yo u K n o w ?
to zero, no energy is dissipated and the current, once
established, continues to exist indefinitely without the source Sop or conductor* a rc a to y s r m at
c o rta m t a m p e ra tu ro * . c o n d u c t
ofanemf. H o c a -o ry m T i n o r**i*tanc*

Th e first superconductor was discovered in 1911 by

Kmaerimgh O m e s when it was observed that electncal
resistance of m ercury disappears suddenly as the
temperature is reduced below 4.2 K. Som e other metals such For Y ou r Inform ation
as aluminium ( Tt = 1.18 K). tin ( T , - 3.72 K ). and lead ( Tt=7.2 K )
also become superconductors at very low temperatures. In
1986 a new class of ceramic materials was discovered that
becomes superconductor at temperatures as high as 125 K.
A ny superconductor with a critical temperature above 77 K.
the boiling point of liquid nitrogen, is referred as a high
temperature superconductor.

Recently a com plex crystalline structure known as

Yttrium barium copper oxide (Y B a ,C u ,. O ,) have been
reported to become superconductor at 163 K or -110 *C by
Prof. Yao Lian's Lee at Cambridge University. Perhaps one M ag n a te Roso n an ca «m a g n g (M R I)
u*o* strong m a g n a te f* * j producad
day even room temperature superconductor will bo
b y super c o n d u c in g m a to n ah lor
developed and that day will be a new revolution in electrical s c a n n in g c o m p u to r p r o c o s v n g
technologies. Superconductors have many technological p ro d u c e s th e im a g e identifying
tumor* and W ta m o d b
applications such as in magnetic resonance imaging (M R I).
magnetic levitation trains, powerful but small electric motors
and faster computer chips.

1 7 .5 M A G N E T IC P R O P E R T IE S O F S O L ID S

From the study of the magnetic fields produced by bar

magnets and moving charges, i.e., currents, it is possible to
trace the origin of the magnetic properties of the material. It is
observed that the field of a long bar magnet is like the field
produced by a long solenoid carrying current and the field of
a short bar magnet resembles that of a single loop
(Fig. 17.15). Th is similarity between the fields produced by
magnets and currents urges an enquiring mind to think that
all magnetic effects m ay be due to circulating currents (i.e..
moving charges); a view first held by Ampere. Th e idea was
not considered very favourably in Ampere's time because the
Structure of atom was not known at that time. Taking into
consideration, the internal structure of atom, discovered Long Bar magnat
thereafter, the Am pere's view appears to be basically correct.

Th e magnetism produced by electrons within art atom can

147

M j g n c t fie ld o f ■ c u r r e n t l o o p
FIB 17.15
For Y our Information
Atojdmuve
S q u id s ( o r s u p o r-c o n d o c tio g
q u a r te rn r t o d o r e r v o d e v t c o i) *f#
u so d to d e te ct v e r y t m k m a g n o tc
M e d s u ch a* p ro O u c o d b y tho br*r>
arise from two motions. First, each electron orbiting the
nucleus behaves like an atom ic sized loop of current that
generates a small m agnetic field; this situation is similar to the
field created by the current loop in Fig. 17.15 (d ). Secondly
each electron possesses a spin that also gives rise to a
magnetic field. T h e net magnetic field created by the
electrons withm an atom is due to the com bined field created
by their orbital and spin motions. S ince there are a num ber of
electrons in an atom , their currents o r spins m ay be so
oriented o r aligned a s to cancel the m agnetic effects mutually
o r strengthen the effects of each other. A n atom in which there
is a resultant m agnetic field, behaves like a tiny magnet and is
called a m agnetic dipoie. T h e m agnetic fields of the atoms are
responsible for. the magnetic behaviour of the substance
m ade u p of these atom s. Magnetism is, therefore, due to the
spin and orbital motion of the electrons surrounding the
nucleus and is thus a property of all substances. It m ay be
mentioned that the charged nucleus itself spins giving rise to
a m agnetic field. H ow ever, it is m uch w eaker than that of the
orbital electrons. T h u s the source of m agnetism of an atom is
the electrons. Accepting this view of magnetism it is
concluded that it is impossible to obtain an isolated north
pole. T h e north-pole is m erely one side of a current loop. T h e
othor side will afw ays be present as a south pole and these
cannot be separated. T h is is an experimental reality.
T w o cases arise w hich have to be distinguished. In the first
case, the orbits and the spin axes of the electrons in an atom
are so oriented that their fields support each other and the
atom be haves like a tiny m agnet. Substances with such
atom s are called param agnetic substances. In second type
of atom s there is n o resultant field as the m agnetic fields
produced by both orbital and spin motions of the electrons
might a d d upto zero. T h e s e are called diamagnetic
substances, for exam ple the atom s of water, copper, bismuth
and antimony.
H ow ever, there a re so m e solid substances e .g.. F e . C o . Ni.
C h rom ium dioxide, and Alnico (a n iron aluminium - nickel
- cobalt a lloy) in w hich the atom s co-operate with each other
in such a w a y so as to exhibit a strong m agnetic effect. T h e y
a re c a lle d , ferro m ag ne tic substances. Ferro m agn etic
materials are of great interest for electrical engineers
Recent studies of ferromagnetism h a v e show n that there
exists in ferrom agnetic substance sm all regions called
'dom ains'. T h e dom ains are of m acroscopic size of the order
148
of millimetres or less but large enough to contain 10’' to 10’'
atoms. Within each domain the magnetic fields of all the
spinning electrons are parallel to one another i.e.. each
domain is magnetized to saturation. Each domain behavos as
a small magnet with its own north and south poles. In
unmagnetised iron the domains are oriented in a disorderly
fashion (Fig.17.16). so that the net magnetic effect of a
sizeable specimen is zero. W hen the specimen is placed in
an external magnetic field as that of a solenoid. the domains
line up parallel to lines of external magnetic field and the f ig 17.ie Magnetic doman* w
an unmagnetirad lorrcc-jgnet
entire specimen becomes saturated (Fig. 17.17). Th e
combination of a solenoid and a specimen of iron inside it thus
makes a powerful magnet and is called an electromagnet.
Iron is a soft magnetic material. Its domains are easily
oriented on applying an external field and also readily roturn
to random positions when the field is removed. This is
desirable in an electromagnet and also in transformers.
Domains in steel, on the other hand, are not so easily
oriented to order. T h e y require very strong external fields, but
once oriented, retain the alignment. Th u s steel makes a good
permanent magnet and is known as hard magnetic material rig 17.17
and another such material is a special alloy Alnico V.

Finally, it must be mentioned that thermal vibrations tend to D o Y o u K now ?

disturb the orderliness of the domains. Ferromagnetic
materials preserve the orderliness at ordinary temperaturos. LUgnotc mad* owl c<organ*: tromnt*
When heated, they begin to lose the# orderliness due to the c © » bo m od n otftoo and
increased thermal motion. Th is procoss begins to occur at a components. >n computers. mobJe
phono*. T V » motor* generator* and
particular temperature (different for different materials) called d .iu storage donees O curt* can make
Cune temperature. Above the Curie temperature iron is use ol ceramic magnet* tnat do not
conducts <M*f*ie>iy
paramagnetic but not ferromagnetic. Th e Curie temperature
for iron is about 750 °C.

H y s te re s is L o o p
To investigate a ferromagnetic material, a bar of that material
such as iron is placed in an alternating current solenoid. When
the alternating current is at its positive peak value, it fully
magnetises the specimen in one direction and when the current
is at its negative peak, it fully magnetises it in opposite direction.
Thus as the alternating current changes from its posrtivo peak
value to its negative peak value and then back to its positive
peak value, the specimen undergoes a complete cycle of
magnetization Th e flux density versus the magnetization
current of the specimen for the various values of magnetizing
current of the solenoid is plotted by a C R O (Fig.17.18). 17.I t

149
Its m ain features are as follow s:
1. H y s te re s is

T h e portion of O A of the curve is obtained when the

magnetizing current / is increased and A R is the portion when
the current is decreased. It may be noted that the value of flux
density for any value of current is always greater when the
current is decreasing than when it is increasing, i.e.,
magnetism lags behind the magnetizing current. This
phenomenon is known as hysteresis.

0^5223231
Th e magnetic flux density increases from zero and reaches a
maximum value. A t this stage the material is said to be
magnetically saturated.
3. R e m a n o n c o o r R e ta n tiv ity

W hen the current is reduced to zero, the material still remains

strongly magnetized represented by point R on the curve. It is
due to the tendency of domains to stay partly in line, once
they have been aligned.
4- C o e r c iv ity

To demagnetize the material, the magnetizing current is

reversed and increased to reduce the magnetization to zero.
Th is is known as coercive current represented by C on the
cun/e. Th e coercivity of steel (Fig. 17.19 a), is more than that
of iron as more current is needed to demagnetize it O nce the
material is magnetized, its magnetization curve never
passes through the origin. Instead, it forms the closed loop
A C D C 'A . which is called hysteresis loop.
6. A r e a o f th e L o o p

Th e area of the loop is a measure of the energy needed to

magnetize and demagnetize the specimen during each cycle
of the magnetizing current. This is tho energy required to do o
work agBinst internal friction of the domains. Th is work, like lb) H y t t w t H lo op of »ofl Iron
all work that is done against friction, is dissipated as heat It is O R » Rottntivrty
called hysteresis loss. O C ■ Cooreivtty
Hard magnetic materials liko steel can not be easily f*B.
magnetized or demagnetized, so they have large loop area
as compared to soft magnetic material such as iron which
can easily be magnetized. Th e energy dissipated per cycle,
thus, for iron is less than for steel.

150
S u ita b ilit y o t m a g n e t ic m a t e r ia ls fo r d iffe re n t p u r p o s e s c a n b e
s t u d ie d b y ta k in g th e s p e c im e n t h r o u g h a c o m p le t e c y c le a n d
d r a w i n g th e h y s t e r e s is lo o p . A m a te ria l w ith h*gh r e te n tiv ity
a n d la r g e c o e r c iv e f o r c e w o u l d b e m o s t s u ita b le to m a k e a
p e rm a n e n t m a g n e t T h e c o r e s o f e le c t r o m a g n e t s u s e d fo r
a lt e r n a t in g c u r r e n t s w h e r e th e s p e c im e n r e p e a t e d l y
u n d e r g o e s m a g n e t iz a t io n a n d d e m a g n e t iz a t io n s h o u ld h a v e A M M n o a M M M x M M t*
n a r r o w h y s t e r e s is c u r v e s o f s m a ll a r e a to m in im iz e th e w a s te duo to magoobe ofloct. mo» •rtMfi
<t reduced to rrmlmum and *p**d
o f e n e rg y.
can bo enhanced up to SOChnth'

E sm m
• Crystalline solids are those in which there is a regular arrangement of moieculos
Th e neighbours of every molecule are arranged in a regular pattern that is constant
through out the crystal. Thus, there is an ordered structure in crystalline solids.
• In amorphous solids there is no regular arrangement of molecules. These are more
like liquids with the disordered structure frozen in.
• Polymers may bo said to be more or less solid materials with a structure that is
intermediate between order and disorder. Theso can be classified as partially or
poorty crystalline solids.
• A crystalline solid consists of three dimensional pattern that repeats itself over and
over again. This basic structure is called unit cell.
• The force applied on unit area to produce any change in the shape, volume or length
of a body is called stress.
• When a long wire of length I with area of cross section A is being pulled by a force F,
which results in an increase in length A I. the stress is catted tensile deformation.

• When a small cylinder is subjected to a force F along the inward drawn normal to its
area of cross section A to reduce its length, the stress is called compressive stress
and deformation produced by it is called compressive deformation.
• If a force F is applied tartgenttally to the surface of the opposite face of a cube to
deform or twist it through an angle 0. the stress is termed as shear stress.
• Strain is a measure of the deformation of a solid when stress is applied to it. In tho
case of deformation in one dimension, strain is defined as the fractional change in
length per unit length. If strain is due to tensile stress, it is called tensile strain and if it
is produced as a rosult of compressive stress, it is tormed as compressive strain.
• Th e ratio of stress to strain is a constant for a given matenal. provided the external
applied force is not too great. This is called modulus of elasticity.
• The strain energy can be obtained by tho area of the force-extonsion graph.
• The electrical behaviour of semi-conductor is substantially changed on in t r o d u c in g

151
 a sm all am ount of impurity into the pure sem i-conductor lattice. T h e process is called
doping in w hich a small num ber of atom s of som e other suitable elem ents are added
a s impurity. T h e doped sem i-conducting materials are called extrinsic

• W h e n a silicon crystal is doped with a pentavalent elem ent, four vale nce electrons of
the impurity atom form covalent bond with the neighbouring Si atom s, while the fifth
valence electron provides a free electron in the crystal. S u c h a doped or oxtrinsic
sem i-conductor is called n-type semi-conductor.

• T h e re are so m e materials w ho so resistivity be com e s ze ro below a certain

temperature T „ called critical temperature. B e lo w this temperature, such materials
are called superconductors.

• Substances in w hich the orbits and the spin axes of the electrons in a n atom are so
oriented that their m agnetic fields support each other and the atom be haves like a
tiny m agnet are callod param agnetic substances

• T h e substances in w hich m agnetic fields produced by orbital and spin m olecules of

the electrons add u p to ze ro are called diam agnetic substances.

• Substances in w hich the atom s co-operate with each other in such a w a y s o as

to exhibit a strong m agnetic effect are called ferromagnetic.

G S S H 3
17.1 Distinguish betw een crystalline, am orphous and polym eric solids.
17.2 Define stress and strain. W hat are their SI units? Differentiate betweon tensile,
com pressive and shear m od os of stress and strain.
17 3 Define m odulus of elasticity. S h o w that the units of m odulus of elasticity and stress
are the sam e. A ls o discuss its three kinds.
17.4 D ra w a stress-strain cu rve for a ductile material, a n d then define the terms: Elastic
limit. Yield point a n d Ultimate tensile stress.
17.5 W h a t is m eant b y strain en ergy? H o w can it be determ ined from the force-extension
graph ?
17.6 D o scn bo the formation of en ergy bands in solids. Explain the difference am ongst
electrical behaviour of conductors, insulators and sem i-conductors in term s of
en ergy band theory.
17.7 Distinguish betw een intrinsic and extrinsic sem i-conductors. H o w w ould you obtain
n-type and p-type material from pure silicon? Illustrate it by schem atic diagram .
17.8 Discuss the m echanism of electrical conduction by holes and electrons in a pure
sem i-conductor element.
17.9 W rite a note o n superconductors.
17.10 W hat is m eant by para, dia and ferromagnetic substances? G iv e exam ples for each.
17.11 W h a t is m eant by hysteresis lo ss? H o w is it used in the construction of a transformer?

152
 C H M 9
17.1 A 1.25 cm diameter cylinder is subjected to a load of 2500 kg. Calculate the stress on
the barin mega pascals. (A n s : 200 M Pa)
17.2 A 1.0 m long copper wire is subjected to stretching force and its length increases by
20 cm. Calculate the tensile strain and the percent elongation which the wire
undergoes. (A n s :0 .2 0 .2 0 % )
17.3 A wiro 2.5 m long and cross-section area 10 ’ m’ is stretched 1.5 mm by a force of
100 N in the elastic region. Calculate (i) the strain (ii) Young's modulus
(iii) the energy stored in the wire. (A n s : 6.02 x 10M .66 x 10 : Pa, 7.5 x 10 \J)
17.4 What stress would cause a wire to increase in length by 0 .0 1 % if the Young's
modulus of the wire is 12 x 10"5 Pa. What force would produce this stress if tho
diameter of the wire is 0.56 m m ? (A n s : 1.2 x 10* Pa. 2.96 N)

17.5 Th e length of a steel wire is 1.0 m and its cross-sectional area is 0.03 x 104mJ.
Calculate the work done in stretching the wire when a force of 100 N is applied within
the elastic region. Young's modulus of steel is 3.0 x 10'’ N m ! . (A n s : 5.6 x 1 0 5J )
17.6 A cylindrical copper wire and a cylindrical steel wire each of length 1.5 m and
diameter 2.0 mm are joined at one end to form a composite wire 3.0 m long. Th e wire
is loaded until its length becomes 3.003 m. Calculate the strain in copper and steel
wires and the force applied to the wire. (Young's modulus of copper is 1.2 x 10" Pa
and forsteel is 2 .0 x 1 0 " Pa). (A n s : 1.25x 10°. 7.5x10'*. 477 N )

153
b z q q ) 1 8
ELECTRONICS
Learning O bjectives
At the end of this chapter the students will b e able to:

Describe forward and resen/e biasing of a p -n junction.

2 Understand half and full wavfe rectification.
K now the uses of light emitting diode, photo diode and photo voltaic cell.
4 Describe the operation of transistor.
5 K n o w current equation and solve related problems.
6 Understand the use of transistors as an amplifier and a switch.
7 Understand operational amplifier and its characteristics.
K n o w the applications of an operational amplifier as inverting and non-inverting
amplifier using virtual ground concept.
9 U nderstand the use of an operational amplifier as a comparator e .g .. night switch.
10. Understand the function of each of the following logic gates: A N D . N O T . O R and
N A N D gates and represent their functions by m eans of truth tables (limited to a
m axim um of two inputs).
11. Describe how to com bine different gates to form X O R and X N O R gates.
12 Understand combinations of logic gates to perform control functions.

T he huge advances in electronics over the recent past are due to discovery and use of
sem i-conductors. Silicon is one of the most com m only used semi-conductors, and is the
basic material from which highly sophisticated integrated circuits known as 'chips' are
m ade. T h e use of chips in analogue as well as in digital electronics is described in the form of
the black boxes. Th is chapter is based on the preliminary concepts introduced in the
secondary school physics course.

18.1 B R IE F R E V IE W O F p -n J U N C T I O N A N D IT S C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S

A p -n junction is formed when a crystal of germ anium o r silicon is grown in such a w a y that its
one half is doped with a trivalent impurity and the other half with a pentavalent impurity. O n e
of the m ost important building blocks of electronic devices is the p-n junction. Its n-region
contains free electrons as majority charge carriers and p-region contains holes as majority
charge carriers. Just after the formation of the junction, the free electrons in the n-rcgion.
because of their random motion, diffuse into the p-region. A s a result of this diffusion, a
region is formed around the junction in which charge carriers are not present. Th is region is
known as depletion region (Fig. 18.1 a ). In this figure, bkic dots represent the free electrons
and the small circles show the holes whereas the circles wilh ♦ and - signs show the
positive and negative ions which constitute the depletion region. D ue to charge on

154
 p-r«gion n-rc^oo
these ions a potential difference develops across the
depletion region (Fig. 18.1 b). Its value is 0.7 V in case of
silicon and 0.3 V in case of germanium. This potential
difference, called potential barrier, stops further diffusion of
; :
electrons into the p-region. : : 7 a
F o rw a r d B ia s e d p -n J u n c tio n

W hen an external potential difference is applied across a p-n

junction such that p-side is positive and n-side is negative,
then this external potontial difference supplies energy to free
e le c t r o n s in th e n - r e g i o n a n d to h o le s in
¥■
p-region. When this energy is sufficient to overcome the
potential barrier, a current of the order of a few miliamperes

h
begins to flow across the p-n junction. In this state the p-n p-typo
junction is said to be forward biased (Fig. 18.2 a). Th e
variation of current through the junction with the bias voltage
can be studied by the circuit shown in Fig. 18.2 (b). Th e value
of current for different values of bias voltage is noted and a-
current-bias voltage graph is plotted. Fig. 18.3 shows the ♦| /
graph for a typical low power silicon diode. • - w ■
As shown in Fig. 18.3. if forward bias voltage is increased by (a) L convention* — '
A V.. the current increases by m , . Th e ratio AV./A/, is known as
forward resistance of the p-n junction, i.e..

r,*-■*■ ( 18 .1 )
A/,
It is the resistance offered by the p-n junction when it is
conducting. Th e value of r, is only a few ohms.

R e v e rs e B ia s e d p -n J u n c tio n

W hen the external source of voltage is applied across a

p-n junction such that its positive terminal is connected to n- FI9 18 2 Th0ro » an jppro&Jt*)
current througn tne *ode w*>on the
region and its negatrvo terminal to p-region. the p-n junction d & t o ( t to rm w j t»*V X l
is said to be reverse biased (Fig. 18.4). In this situation no
current flows due to the majority charge carries. However a
very small current, of the order of few microamperes flows
across the junction due to flow of minority charge carriers
(F ig .18.4). It is known as reverse current or leakage current.
Th e variation of reverse current with the applied bias voltage
can be studied by the circuit shown in F ig .18.5. Fig.18.6
shows the revorse characteristic for the p-n junction. It can be
seen that as the reverse voltage is increased from 0. the
reverse current quickly rises to its saturation value /„. A s the
reverse voltage is further increased, the reverse current

155
 <Hyp* remains almost constant. Here the resistance offered by the
diode is very high - of the order of several mega ohms.

A s the reverse voltage is increased, the kinetic energy of the

F lg .1 8 .4 U rxJw a ra ve ryo ) bowod
condition tn w a n afmoat no Currem
^ n o u g h t-* diode
minority charge carriers with which they cross the depletion
region also increases till it is sufficient to break a covalent
bond. As the covalent bond breaks, more electron-hole pairs
are created. Thus, minority charge carriers begin to multiply
due to which the reverse current begin to increase till a point is
reached when the junction breaks down and reverse current
rises sharply (F ig .18 6 ) After breakdown the reverse current
will rise to very high value which will damage the junction.
P -n junction is also known as a semi-conductor diode whose
symbolic representation is given in Fig.18.7. Th e arrow head
represents the p - region and is known as anode. The vertical
line represents the n-region and is known as cathode. The
current flows in the direction of arrow when the diode is
forward biased.

18.2 R E C T IF IC A T IO N
Reverie Ban Conversion of alternating current into direct current is called
•25y -20/ -IS v -1CX -5v rectification. Semi-conductor diodes are extensively used for
10i.A this purpose. There are two very common types of rectification.
25 uA
(i) Half-wave rectification and (ii) Full-wave rectification
i
50 11A H a lf-W a v e R e ctifica tio n
A half-wave rectification is shown in F»g. 18.8 where an
t * 1- ' alternating voltage of period T called input voltage is applied
F lfl. 18.7
to a diode D which is connected in series with a load
resistance R. In this method only one half of alternating
current cycle is converted into direct current.
0
W During the positive half cycle of the input alternating voltage i.e..
HP*
during the interval 0 -> 772. the diode D is forward biased, so it
offers a very low resistance and current Bows through R. The
(•) flow of current through R causes a potential drop across it which
varies »n accordance with the alternating input (Fig. 18.8 c).

0 T0 ........ m During the negative half cycle i.e.. during the period
<b) 772 -> T. the diode «s reverse biased. Now it offers a very high
\ J \ resistance, so practically no current flows through R and
potential drop across it is almost zero (Fig. 18.8 c). The same
events repeat during the next cycle and so on. The current
0 rn
^
r
\ through R flows in only one direction which means it is a direct
(e) Fig.18.8
current. However, this current flows in pulses (Fig. 18.8 c). The

156
voltage which appears across load resistance R is known as
output voltage.
F u ll-W a v e R e c tific a tio n

W e have seen that in a half-wave rectification, only one half of

the alternating input voltage is used to send a unidirectional
current through a resistance. However both halves of the input
voltage cycle can be u t i l i z e d using
full-wave rectification. Its circuit consists of four diodes
connected in a bridge typo arrangement (Fig. 18.9). To
understand the operation of tho circuit, recall that a diode
conducts only when it is forward biased. During the positive
half cycle, i.e.. during tho time 0 772, the terminal A of the
bridge is positive with respect to its other terminal B. Now the
diodes D. and D „ become forward biased and conduct. A
current flows through the circuit in the direction shown by
arrows in Fig. 18.9 (a). During the negative half cycle, i.e..
during the time interval 772 -> T, terminal A is negative and B is
positive. Now the diodes D. and D, conduct and current flows
through the circuit in the path shown by arrows in Fig. 18.9 (b).
By comparing Figs. 18.9 (a) and 18.9 (b). it can be seen that
direction of current flow through the load resistance R is the
same in both the halves of the cycle. Thus both halves of the
alternating input voltage send a unidirectional current through u*
R. The input and output voltages are shown in Fig. 18.10.
However the output voltage is not smooth but pulsating. It can
be made smooth by using a circuit known as filter.

18.3 S P E C IA L L Y D ES IG N ED p-n JU N C TIO N S

In addition to the use of semi-conductor diode as rectifier,
many types of p-n junctions have been developed for special
pi rocses. Three most commonly used such diodes are

(i) Light emitting diode

(ii) Photodiode
(iii) Photo voltaic cell
L ig h t E m ittin g D io d e

Light emitting diodes (L E D ) are made from special 1*10

semi-conductors such as gallium arsenide and gallium
arsenide phosphide in which the potential barrier between p
and n sides is such that when an electron combines with a
hole during forward bias conduction, a photon of visiblo light
is emitted. These diodes are commonly used as small light

157
 sources. A specially formed array of seven LEO 'S is used for
displaying digits etc.. in electronic appliances (Fig. 18.11).

Photo Diode
Q A MV«1 segment dopiay Photo diode is used for the detection of light It is operated in
the reverse biased condition (F ig. 18.12 a ). A photo diode
u ! c 3 H 5 6 > 8 9 sym bol is shown in Fig. 18.12 (b ). W h en no light is incident

o n the junction, the reverse current / is almost negligible but

w hen its p -n junction is exposed to light, the reverse current
increases w ith the intensity of light (F ig . 18 .12 c).

A photo diode can turn its current O N and O F F in

nano-seconds. H ence it is one of the fastest photo detection
devices. Applications of photo diode include
Detection of both visible and invisible radiations
ii Automatic switching
FIs-18.12 in Logic circuits
iv. Optical communication equipm ent etc.

P h o t o -V o lt a ic C o l l .

It consists of a thick n-type region covered by a thin p-type

layer. W h en such a p-n junction having no external bias
(F ig .18.13). is exposed to light, absorbed photons generate
electron-hole pairs. It results into an increase percentage
of minority charge carriers in both the p and n-regions and
w hen they diffuse close to the junction, the electric field due
to junction potential barrier sw eeps them across the junction.
It causes a current flow through the external circuit R. Th e
current is proportional to intensity of light.

F i g . 1 8 . 13

158
18.4 T R A N S IS T O R S
A transistor consists of a single crystal of germanium or
silicon which is grown in such a way that it has three regions E c
(Figs.18.14 8,18.15).
In Fig. 18.14 the central region is p type which is sandwiched
between two n type regions It is known as n-p-n transistor In
Fig.18.15. the n type central region is sandwiched between
two p type regions. It forms a p-n-p transistor. The central F lfl 18.14

region is known as base and the other two regions are called
emitter and collector. Usually the base is very thin, of the
order of 10'4 m. The emitter and collector have greater E C
concentration of impurity. The collector is comparatively
larger than the emitter. The emitter has greater concentration
of impurity as compared to the collector. E —» c
F lfl 18.15
It can be seen in Figs.18.14 and 18.15 that a transistor is a
combination of two back to back p-n junctions: emitter-base
junction and collector-baso junction.
For normal operation of the transistor, batteries V „ and ______ E C
are connected m such a way that its emitter-base junction is
forward biased and its collector base junction is reverse s R. B
biased. Vw Is of much higher value than V „ . Fig. 18.16 shows
the biasing arrangement for n-p-n transistor when the
transistor has been represented by its symbolic form.
Fig. 18.17 shows the same for a p-n-p transistor. — -----
F lfl. 18.15

It may be noted that polarities of the biasing batteries VM and

are opposite in the two types of tho transistors. In actual
practice, it is the n-p-n transistor that is generally used. So we
will discuss n-p-n transistors only.

159
 C u rr e n t F lo w in a n -p -n T ra n s is to r

Fig, 18.18 (a) shows a n-p-n transistor at the instant when the
biasing voltage is applied. Electrons in the emitter, shown by
black dots, have not yet entered the base region. After the
application of the biasing voltage, omitter base junction is
forward biased, so emitter injects a large number of electrons
in base region (Fig. 18.18 b). These free electrons in the base
can flow in either of two directions. They can either flow out of
the base to the positive terminal of V „ or they can be
attracted towards the collector bocause of battery V ^ . Since
the base is extremely thin, very few electrons manage to
recombine with holes and escape out of the base. Almost all
of the free electrons injected from the emitter into the base
are attracted by the collector due to it large positive
potential (Fig 18.18 c). Thus, in a normally biased
transistor due to above mentioned flow of electrons, we can
say. that an electronic current /,. flows from the emitter into
the base A very small part of it. current /,. flows out of the
base, the rest of it /c flows out of the collector (Fig. 18.19).

F i g . 1 8 19

T h e flow of conventional current is shown in Fig. 18.20. In

future we will use conventional current only. From the figure,
it can be seen that
/,= /c* /. (18 2
I A s very few electrons flow out of baso. so /, is very small as
r , compared to/c.

It is also found that for a given transistor the ratio of collector

current /c to base current /, is nearly constant i.e.,
T-
is. (1 8 3 )
'8
T h e ratio [J is called current gain of transistor. Its value is quite
large - of the order of hundreds. Eqs.18.2 and 18 3 are
fundamental equations of all transistors.

Example 18.1: In a certain circuit, the transistor has a

collector current of 10 m A and a base current of 40 >iA. What
is the current gain of the transistor?

Solution:
lO x lO lA ^ S O
/B 40x10 A

18 .5 T R A N S I S T O R A S A N A M P L IF IE R
In majority of electronic circuits, transistors are basically
used as amplifiers. An amplifier is thus the building block of
every complex electronic circuit. It is for this reason that study
of transistor amplifier is important.

Th e circuit in Fig. 18.21 is a transistor voltage amplifier. The

battery V „ forward biases the base-emitter junction and
reverse biases the collector-base junction. V „ and V „ are
the input and output voltages respectively. T h e base current
is /, = v*/r. where r . is base emitter resistance of the
transistor. T h e transistor amplifies it p times. So
/c = P/n = p V „ / r .
T h e output voltage V . = V c, is determined by applying KVL
equation in the output loop which gives
Vcc^cR c + V * or V ct = V cc-/c R<
Substituting the value of lc and replacing by Vs

V ',=V oc-p V MRc/r. 18.4(a)

W hen small signal voltage AV„ is applied at the input

terminal B. the input voltage changes from V „ to V „ ♦ A V,.
Th is causes a little change in base current from /, to (/, + A /,)
due to which the collector current changes from /cto (/c + AA).
A s the collector current changes, the voltage drop across Re
i.e. (/cRc) also changes due to which tho output voltage
Va changes by AV*. Substituting the changed values in
Eq. 18.4(a)

V. + A V . s V ^ - p ( V « + A V J R c / r , ............. 18.4(b)

Subtracting Eq. 18.4(a)from Eq. 18.4(b)

A V , = -p A V ’>>Rc/ r.

161
Therefore the gain of the amplifier A = A V JA V,= p R</r.
Th e value of the factor p f V r. is of tho order of hundreds, so
the input voltage is amplified. Th e negative sign shows that
there is a phase shift of 180 between the input and the
output signals.

18.6 T R A N S IS T O R A S A S W IT C H
Fig. 18.22 (a ) shows the circuit in which a transistor is used as
a switch. Th e collectors C and emitter E behave as the
terminals of the switch. Th e circuit in which the current is to be
tuned O F F and O N . is connected across these terminals.
T h e base B and emitter E act as control terminals which
decide the state of the switch.
In order to turn on the switch, a potential V , is applied
between control terminals B E (Fig. 18 22 a). This injects a
large current /, into the base circuit due to which a very heavy
current /c begins to flow in the C E circuit. This large value of
collector current is possible only when the resistance
between C and E drops down to such a small value that the
potential drop across C E is nearly 0.1 volt. In Fig. 18.22 (a)
emitter is at ground, so we can assume that collector is also
at ground and collector emitter circuit of Fig. 18.22 (a ) can be
drawn a s shown in Fig. 18.22 (b). C E switch is closed and the
bulb glows due to flow of large collector current. To turn the
switch O F F the base current /, is set zero by opening the
base circuit (Fig. 18.22 c). As /c = p /». so /c becomes zero
and C -E circuit becomes open (Fig. 18.22 d ) Now the
resistance between C and E becomes nearly infinity which
opens the C E switch.
A n electronic computer is basically a vast arrangement of
electronic switches which are made from transistors.

18.7 O P E R A T I O N A L A M P L IF IE R
A s stated earlier, amplifier is an important electronic circuit
that is used in almost every electronic instrument. So instead
of making amplifier circuit by discrete components, the whole
amplifier is integrated on a small silicon chip and enclosed in
a capsule. Pins connected with working terminals such as
input, output and power supply project outside the capsule
(Fig. 18.23 a). T h e enclosed circuit of the amplifier is used by
making requisite connections with these pins. Such an
integrated amplifier is known as operational amplifier
(op-am p). as it is som e times used to perform mathematical
operations electronically.
The op-amp is usuaty represented by its symbol shown in
Fig.18.23 (b). It has two input terminals One is kno\n as
inverting input (-) and the other non-inventing input (♦). A signal
that is appled at the inverting (-) input, appears after amplification,
at the output terminal with a phase shift of 180° (Fig. 18.24 a). It
can be seen that the signal is inverted as it appears at the output.
This is why this terminal is known as inverting. If the signal is
applied at non-inverting input (+), it is amplified at the output
without any change of phase (Fig. 1824 b).

input

F ig . 1 8 24

Characteristics of op-am
Fig. 18.25
An op-am p has a large number of characteristic parameters.
W e will discuss only three of them.
(i) Input Resistance
It is the resistance between the (♦ ) and ( - ) inputs of the
amplifier (Fig. 18.25). Its value is very high -- of the order of
several mega ohms. D ue to high value of the input resistance
R r . practically no current flows between the two input
terminals. It is a very important feature of op-amps. Fig. 18.28

(II) O utput Resistance

It is the resistance between the output terminal and ground
(Fig. 18.26). Its value is only a few ohms.
(iii) O pe n L o o p G ain
It is the ratio of output voltage V, to the voltage difference
between non-inverting and inverting inputs when there is no
external connection between the output and the inputs
(Fig. 18.27)i.e..

A* V, - V V,
(18.5) r Fig. 18.27

163
 Th e open loop gain of the amplifier is very high. It is of the
order of 10’.
18.8 O P - A M P A S IN V E R T I N G A M P L IF IE R
Fig. 18.28 shows the circuit of an op-am p when used as an
inverting amplifier. T h e input signal Vm which is to be
amplified, is applied at inverting terminal ( - ) through a
resistance R,. V„ is its output. Th e non-inverting terminal (♦)
is grounded, i.e.. its potential is zero. W e know that A * is
v. very high, of the order of 10’ . A s Vr m ay have any value
between ♦V’cc (+ 1 2 V ) and - V,K (-1 2 V ) so according to
Eq.18.5. for finite (±12V) value of V,. V . - V . - 0 or V. • V..
Since V. is at ground so V is virtually at ground potential i.e..
V. * 0. Referring to Fig. 18.28.

Current through R, *

Current through R mJ
2 2
A s practically no current flows between (-) and (♦ ) terminals,
so accordingto Kirchhoffs current rule /, = /,

R R V R
1 * 1
As V J is defined as gain G of tho inverting amplifier, so
R
G m— ............. (18.6)
R
1
Th e negative sign indicates that the output signal is 180* out
of phase with respect to input signal. It is interesting to note
that the closed loop gam depends upon the two oxtemally
connected resistances R , and R }. Th e gain is independent of
what is happening inside the amplifier.

If R , = 10 k O and R , = 100 kO. the gain of the amplifier is

° R 10U2

18.9 O P -A M P A S N O N -IN V E R T IN G A M P L IF IE R
Th e circuit diagram of op-am p as non-inverting amplified is
shown in Fig. 18.29. In this case the input signal V , is applied
at the non-inverting terminal (♦)• As explained earlier, due to
high open loop gain of amplifier, the inverting (-) and non
inverting (♦ ) inputs are virtualty at the same potential. That is.

V. * V. = Vm
Also, from Fig. 18.29.
For Your Information
Current through R
0 -V . o -v . -y ,
R R R
1 1 1
V ~ Vo V „ -V .
Current th ro u g h ^ .
",
A s practically no current flows between (-) and (+ ) terminals,
so by Kirchhoffs current rule /, = /,

Hence
-v „ v.-v.
R An op a m p - The c*cutt in the
1 R, buck box

f_L + 0 .

(18.7)
Galn =^ " U I f
Again the gain of the amplifier is independent of the internal
structure of the op-amp. It just depends upon the two externally
connected resistances R, and R,. Th e positive sign of gain
indicates that the input and out put signals are in phase.
Example 18.2: Find the gain of the circuit as shown in
Fig.18.30.
Solution:
A s the input signal V . is connected to non-inverting input
(♦ ). so the op -a m p acts as a non-inverting amplifier.
Com paring it with the circuit of non-inverting amplifier as
sho w nin Fig. 1 8 .2 9 ,w eh a ve
R , = infinity and R ,= 0

Gain

18.10 O P -A M P A S A C O M P A R A T O R
Op-am p usually requires two power supplies of equal voltage
but of opposite polarity. Most op-am p operate with VCC* ± 1 2 V
supply (Fig. 18.31). F*. 1S.J1

165
 A s the open loop gain of the op-amp is very high (10*). even a
very small potential difference between the inverting and non­
inverting inputs is amplified to such a large extent that the
amplifier gets saturated, i.e.. its output either becomes equal
to ♦V,* or -Vet.. This feature of op-amp is used to compare two
voltages. Fig. 18.32 shows the circuit of an op-amp used as

comparator. V, is reference voltage which is connected with

(♦ ) terminal and V is the voltage which is to be compared with
Integrated circuit (* C ) c N p » are
the reference V,. It is connected with (-) terminal.
m anufactured o n w ater* o » *erm -
eonductor materiel W hon V > V. or V > V 9. thon V,= -V’a.
and if V < V . or V<V„ then V .*+V 'ce

18.11 C O M P A R A T O R A S A N I G H T S W I T C H
Suppose it is required that when intensity of light fads below a
certain level, the street light is automatically switched on.
This can be accomplished by using op-am p as a comparator.
In Fig.18.33 resistances R , and ft, form a potential divider.
Th e potential drop across R, provides the reference voltage
V , to the (+ ) input of the op-amp. Thus

(18.8)
R , +Rj
L D R is a light dependent resistance. T h e value of its
resistance R l depends upon the intensity of light falling upon
it. R , and R , form another potential divider. T h e potential drop
across R , is V which is given by

V '- ~ r - x- VV cc
R ' r. (18.9)

V provides the voltage to ( - ) input of the op-amp. V w ill not be

166
a constant voltage but it will vary with the intensity of light.
During day time, when light is falling upon LDR, R, is small.
According to Eq.18.9. V ’ will be large such that
V > V, so that V .= - Vcc. Tho output of the op is connected with
a relay system which energizes only when V , = ♦ Va and then
it turns on the street lights. Thus when V . ■ •V ^. the light will
not be switched O N.
As it gets darker. R l becomes larger and Vdecreases. When
V becomes just less than V,. the output of op-amp switches
to + Vccwhich onergizes the relay system and the street lights
are turned ON.

18.12 D IG ITA L S Y S T E M S
A digital system deals with quantities or variables which have
only two discrete values or states. Following are the
examples of such quantities.
(i) Aswitchcanbeeitheropenorcloscd.
( h) The answer of a question can be either yes or no.
( mi) Acertain statement can be either true or false.
(rv) A bulb can be either off or on.
Various designations are used to represent the two
quantized states of such quantities. The most common of
these are listed in Table 18.1.
T a b le 18.1

1 2 3 4 5 6
One of the states True High 1 Yes On Closed
The other state False Low 0 No Off Open

Mathematical manipulation of these quantities can be best

carried if they are represented by binary digits 1 and 0. When
we are dealing with voltages, designation No.2 is also a
convenient representation.
In describing functions of digital systems a closed switch will
be shown as 1 and open switch will be shown as 0. Similarly,
a lighted bulb will be described as 1 and an off bulb will be
described as 0.
Just as we require two basic mathematical operations, i.e..
addition and subtraction for the mathematical manipulation

167
 of ordinary quantities which can possess all continuous
values, w e require a special algebra, known as Boolean
algebra for the manipulation of the quantities which have
values 1 and 0 . now designated as Boolean variables.
Boolean algobra is based upon three basic operations
nam ely r A N D operation, (i O R operation and (in) N O T
operation. You have already read about these operations.
H ero w o would study about logic gates which implement
these operations.

18.13 FU N D A M EN TA L LO G IC G A TE S
T h e electronic circuits which implement the various logic
operations aro known as logic gates. In those gates the high
and low states, i.e.. 1 and 0 states are simulated b y certain
voltago levels. Ideally one particular voltage level represents
a high (1 ) and another voltage level represents a low (0 ). In
practical digital circuits, how ever a 1 or high can be any
voltage between a specified m inimum value and a specified
Fig. 18.34 m aximum valuo. Likewise 0 or low can bo any voltage
between a specified m inimum and a specified maximum.
Fig. 18.34 show s the range 1 and 0 levels for a certain typo of
digital gates. Th u s if voltage of 3.5 V is applied to a gate, it will
lnpo,A accept it a s high or 1. If a voltago of 0.5 V is applied, the gate
Input B • - ) __ ' x will recognize it as 0 or low.
OR «8 I« O R Gate
Fig. 18.35
O R gate as sym bolically represented in Fig . 18.35.
implements the logic of O R operation. It has two or more
inputs and a single output X. T h e output has a value 1 when
at least one of its inputs A and B is at 1. Th u s X will b e zero
only when both the inputs are 0. Th u s it implements the truth
— 5 !
table of O R operation (Table 18.2). Th e mathematical
notation for O R operation is

X =A ♦ B
In p u tA * ----------------
t Ompui
In p u tB * - A N D Gate |
4 X
AM ) 8»1o T h e A N D gate show n in Fig. 18.36 has two or m ore inputs
Ftg. 18.38 and a single output. It is designed such that it implements the
truth table of A N D operation, i.e.. its output X is 1 only when
T»W* 18.3
both of its inputs A and B are at 1 and for all other
combinations of the values of A and B . X is zero
(Table 18.3). T h e mathematical notation for A N D operation is
X X =A .B

168
N O T Gate
It performs the operation of inversion or complementation.
That is why it is also known as inverter. It changes a logic
lovel to its opposite level, i.e.. it changes 1 toO and 0 to 1 The
symbolic representation of N O T gate is shown in Fig. 18.37. N O T g .v *

Whenever a bar is placed on any variable, it shows that the F 19 . 16.37

value of the variable has been inverted. For example TaM* 18A
1 * 0 and 0 * 1. The 'bubble' (o) in Fig.18.37 indicates
operation of inversion. Its truth table is given in Table 18.4.
The mathematical notation for N O T operation is X=A m
18.14 O T H E R L O G IC G A T E S

InputA •
O M pU
In NO R gate the output of OR gate is inverted. Its symbol is
shown in Fig.18.36 and its truth table is given in Input 8
Table 18.5. The mathematical notation for NOR operation is won 9M0
F ig . 1 8.38

N A N D Gate
r -o ^
In NAND gate the output of an AN D gate is inverted. Its * - f -
symbol is shown in Fig. 18.39. The bubble in this figure 0_ . .1 0
1 0 _
shows that the output of AND gate is inverted. The truth tablo 1 1 _ 09
implemented by it is shown in Table 18.6. The mathematical
notation for NAND operation is
mpu«A * -
X = A .B
Input B • -
E x c lu s iv o O R G a te (X O R )
N A N O gM a
Consider a Boolean function X of two variables A and B such F i g 18.39

that X=AB*AB
A e 6vtt>ut
The first term of tho function X is obtained by ANDing the 0 0
6 1 1
variable A with N O T of B. The second term is N O T of A 1 0 1
ANDed with B. The function X is obtained by ORing these two 1 .. 1 ._— 0
terms. It can be constructed by combining AND. O R and N O T
gates according to tho scheme shown in Fig. 18.40(a). The

H > ^ D — l

D -*

F ig . 18.40 (a ) M aking a n XOR g a te

169
 value of this function can be obtained by drawing the truth
m£m tabte (Tabte 18.7) which gives the value of X for all the values
of the vanabtes A and B. The value of X is 0 when the two
— 5" inputs have the same values and it is 1 when the inputs have
different values. It can be verified that the circuit of
mpotA Fig. 18.40 (a) implements this truth table. The symbol of XOR
;3
Input B W r I > -- ^ ^
gate is shown in Fig. 18.40(b).

X O R gam
E xclu s iv e - N O R gate (X N O R )
F ig . 1 8.40 ( b )

The exclusive N O R gate is obtained by inverting the output

ofaX OR gate. Its symbol is shown in Fig. 18.41. The bubble
input A Oujpoi shown at the output in this figure shows that the output of
#X
XO R gato has been inverted. So its Boolean expression is
Input B

X N O R g*M given b y X= A B*AB

F ig . 1 8 4 1
The truth table of XNOR gate is given in the Table 18.8. Its
output is 1 when its two inputs are identical and 0 when the
two inputs are different. Like XO R gate, it is also constructed
by a combination of NO T. AN D and NOR gates by the
T .M .1 8 J
scheme shown in Fig. 18.42.

S I - p » a £ ) A B

A B

F lf l. 1 8 .4 2

1 8 .1 5 A P P L IC A T IO N S O F G A T E S IN C O N T R O L
SYSTEM S

Gates are widely used in control systems. They control the

function of the system by monitoring some physical
parameter such as temperature, pressure or some other
physical quantity of the system. As gates operate with
electrical voltages only, so some devices are required which
can convert various physical quantities into electric voltage.

170
T h e s e d e v ic e s a re kno w n a s sensors. F o r exam ple , in the
exam ple of night switch. Light D epe nd ent R esistance (L D R )
is a se n so r for light b e c a u s e it c a n convert c h a n g e s in the
intensity of light into electric voltage. A therm istor is a sensor
for tem perature. A m icrop ho ne is a sound sensor. Sim ilarly
there are lovel se n s o rs w h ich give an electrical signal w h e n
the level of liquid in a vesse l attains a certain limit. O n e such
application is d e sc n b e d hero. F o r exam ple se n s o rs a re used
to m onitor the pre ssure a n d tem perature of a chem ical
solution stored in a vat. T h o circuitry for e a ch sensor is such
that itp r o d u c e s a H IG H .i.e .. 1 w h e n either the tom porature or
pre ssure e x c e e d s a specified value. A circuit is to be
de sign e d w h ich will ring a n alarm w h e n either the
tem peraturo o r pre ssure o r both cross the m axim um
specified limit. T h e alarm requires a L O W (O ) voltage for its F I
activation.

T h e block d ia g ra m of the prob le m is s h o w n in Fig. 18.43 in

w h ich C is the circuit to be de sign ed . Its inputs A and B a re fed
b y the tem peraturo and pre ssure sensors T a n d P fitted into
the vat. W h e n e v e r output of the circuit C is L O W . the alarm is
activated S o the circuit C should be such that its output is 0
a s soon as tho limit for tem perature o r pre ssure is exceed ed ,
i.e.. w h e n A = 0 . B = 1 or w h e n A = 1. B = 0 o r w h e n A = B = 1.
T h e output of C should be H IG H w h e n tem perature and
prossure are within the specified limit, i.e., w h e n A = B = 0.
T h is g iv e s th e truth table 18.9 w hich the circuit C has to
im plem ent. It c a n b e seen that it is the truth table of N O R
gate. S o the circuit C in Fig. 18.43 should be a N O R ga te as
s h o w n in F ig . 18.44.

g o s
When an external potential difference is applied across a p-n junction such that
p-side is positive and n-side is negative, it is called forward biased.
When the external source of voltage is applied across a p-n junction such that its
positive terminal is connected to n-region and its negative terminal to p- region, the
p-n junction is said to be reverse biased.
Conversion of alternating current into direct current is called rectification.
When only one half of alternating current cycle is converted into direct current, it is
called half-wave rectification.
• Transistor is a semiconductor device consisting of threo electrodes, namely emitter,
base and collector. For normal operation, the base-emitter junction is forward
biased whereas the collector-base junction is reverse biased.

171
 Input resistance is the resistance between the positive and negative inputs of the
amplifier.
O utput resistance is the resistance between the output terminal and ground.
Instead of making amplifier circuit by discrete components, tho whole amplifier is
integrated on a small silicon chip and enclosed m a capsule. Pins connected with
working terminals such as inputs, outputs and power supply project outside the
capsule. Such an integrated amplifier is known 3S operational amplifier.
O pe n loop gain is the ratio of output voltage and the difference between non­
inverting and inverting inputs w h en there is no external connection betw een the
outputs and inputs.

A digital system deals with quantities or vahabtos which have only two discrete
values or states.
T h e electronic circuits which implement the various logic operations are known as
logic gates.

M l ld A d M H J

18.1 H o w does the motion of an electron in a n-typo substance differ from the motion of
holes in a p-type substance?
18.2 W h at is the net charge on a n-type or a p-type substance?
183 T h e anode of a diode is 0.2 V positive with respect to its cathode. Is it forward
biased?
18.4 W h y charge carriers are not present in the deplotion region?
18.5 W hat is the effect of forward and reverse biasing of a diode on the width of depletion
region?
18.6 W h y ordinary silicon diodes do not emit light?
18.7 W h y a photo diode is operated in reverse biased state?
18.8 W h y is the baso current in a transistor very small?
18.9 W hat is the biasing requirement of the junctions of a transistor for its normal
oporation? Explain how these requirements are m et in a com m on emitter amplifier?
18.10 W hat is the principle of virtual ground? A pply it to find the gain of an inverting
amplifier.
18.11 Th e inputs of a gate are 1 and 0. Identify the gate if its output is (a) 0. (b) 1

18.12 Tick ( )the correct answer

(•> A diode characteristic curve is a plot between

(a) current and time (b) voltage and time
(c) voltage and current (d) forward voltage and reverse voltage

172
 Th e cotour of light emitted by a L E D depends on
(a ) its forward bias (b ) its reverse bias
(c ) the amount of (d ) the type of semi-conductor
forward current material used.
In a half-wave rectifier the diode conducts during
a. both halves of the input cycle
b. a portion of the positive half of the input cycle
c. a portion of the negative half of the input cycle
d O ne half of the input cycle
(iv) In a bridge rectifier of Fig. Q . 18.1 when V is positive at
point B with respect to point A . which diodes are O N .

D , and D4 D. and D,
D , and D, D, and D,
Th e com mon emitter current amplification factor p is given by

a. c. d. FI#. Q. tt.1

(vi) Truth table of logic function

a summarizes its output values
b. tabulates all its input conditions only
c. display all its inpul/output possibilities
d. is not based on logic algebra
(vii) Th e output of a two inputs O R gate is 0 only when its
a. both inputs are 0 b. either input is 1
c. both inputs are 1 d. either input is 0
(viii) A tw o inputs N A N D gate with inputs A and B has an output 0 if
a. A is O b. B isO
c. both A and B a re zero d. both A a n d Bare 1
(ix) Th e truth table shown below is for
a .X N O R g a te
b. O R gate
c. A N D gate
d. N A N D gate

173
 I S f iH W .t a

18.1 T h e current flowing into the base of a transistor is 100

pA. Find its collector current /c. its emitter
current /, and the ratio IJ I , . if the value of current
gam p is 100. (A n s : 10mA. 10.1 mA. 0.99)

18. 2 Fig.P.18.2 shows a transistor which operates a

relay as the switch S is closed. Th e relay is
energized by a current of 10 m A. Calculate the
value R , which will just make the relay operate. The
current gain p of the transistor is 200. W hen the
transistor conducts, its V „ can be assumed to be
0.6 V. (A n s : 168 kO)

18 3 In arcurt (Fig.P.18.3). there is negligible potential

drop between B and E . if. P is 100. Calculato

(i) base current

(ii) collector current
(ini potential drop across R c
(iv) Va .
(A n s : 11.25 pA. 1.125 mA. 1.125 V. 7.875 V )

18.4 Calculate the output of the op-amp circuit shown in

Fig.P. 18.4. (A n s: 0)

18. 5 Calculate the gam of non-invertmg amplifier shown

in Fig.P.18.5. (A n s : 5)

rie . p . u s

174
 DAWN O F MODERN PHYSICS
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:
1. Distinguish between inertial and non-mertial frames of references.
2. Descnbe the postulates of special theory of relativity and its results.
3. Understand the NAVASTAR navigation system.
4 Understand the concept of black body radiation.
5. Understand and describe how energy is distributed over the wavelength range for
several values of source temperature.
6. Know Planck’s assumptions.
7. Know the origin of quantum theory.
8. Show an appreciation of the particle nature of electromagnetic radiation.
9. Descri be the phenomenon of photoelectric effect.
10. Explain photoelectric effect in terms of photon energy and work function.
11. Explain the function of photocell and descnbe its uses.
12. Describe Compton's effect.
13. Explain the phenomena of pair production and pair annihilation.
14 Describe de-Broglie’s hypothesis of wave nature of particles
15. Describe and interpret qualitatively the evidence provided by electron diffraction for
the wave nature of particles.
16. Understand tho working principle of electron microscope
17. Understand and describe uncertainty principle.

In the early part of the twentieth century, many experimental and theoretical problems
remained unresolved. Attempts to explain the behaviour of matter on the atomic level with
the laws of classicalphysics were not successful. Phenomena such as black body radiation,
the photoelectric effect, the emission of sharp spectral lines by atoms in a gas discharge
tube, and invariance of speed of light, coukl not be understood within tho framework of
classical physics. To explain these observations a revolutionary framework of explanation
was necessary which we call modem physics. Its two most significant features are relativity
and quantum theory. The observations on objects moving very fast, approaching the speed
of light, are well explained by the special theory of relativity. Quantum theory has been able
to explain the behaviour of electromagnetic radiation as discrete packets of energy and the
particles on a very small scale are dominated by wave properties.
Classical physics is still valid in ordinary processes of everyday life. But to explain the
behaviour of tiny or very fast moving particles, we have to use the above mentioned
theories. In this chapter, we shall discuss Various aspects of theory of relativity and quantum

175
theory. Before introducing special theory of relativity, some
related terms are discussed briefly.

19.1 RELATIVE MOTION

W hen w e say a ball is thrown up. the 'up' direction is only for
that particular place. It will be 'down' position for a person on
the diametrically opposite side of the globe. Th e concept of
direction is purely relative. Similarly, the rest position or the
motion of an object is not same for different observers. For
example, the walls of the cabin of a moving train aro
stationary with respect to the passengers sitting inside it but
are in motion to a person stationary on the ground. S o we
cannot say whether an object is absolutely at rest or
absolutely in motion. All motions are relative to a person or
instrument observing it.
Let us perform an experiment m two cars moving with
constant velocities m any direction. Suppose a ball is thrown
straight up. It will come back straight down. Th is will happen in
both cars. But if a person in one car observes the experiment
done in the other car. will he observe the sam e? Suppose now
one car is stationary. Th e person in the other car. which is
moving with constant velocity, throws a ball straight up. H e will
receive the ball straight down. O n the other hand, the fellow
sitting in the stationary car obsorves that the path of the ball is
a parabola Th us, when experimonters observe what is going
on in their own frame of reference, the same experiment gives
identical observations. But if they look into other frames, they
observe differently.

19.2 FRAM ES O F R E FE R EN C E
W e have discussed the most commonly used Cartesian
coordinate system In effect, a frame of referenco is any
coordinate system relative to which measurements are taken.
Th e position of a table in a room can be located relative to the
walls of the room. Th e room is then the frame of reference.
For measurements taken in the college laboratory, the
laboratory is the reference frame. If the same experiment is
performed in a moving train, the train becomes a frame of
reference. Th e position of a spaceship can be desenbed
relative to the positions of the distant stars. A coordinate
system based on these stars is then the frame of reference.
An inertial frame of reference is defined as a coordinate
system in which the law of inertia is valid. That is. a body at

176
rest rem ains at rest unless an unbalanced force produces
acceleration in it. O th er law s of nature also apply in such a
system . If w e place a body upon Earth it rem ains at rest
unless an unbalanced force is applied upon it. Th is
observation s h ow s that Earth m a y be considered as an
inertial frame of reference. A body placed in a c a r m oving with
a uniform velocity with respect to Earth also rem ains at rest,
s o that c a r is also an inertial frame of reference. T h u s an y
frame of reference w hich is m oving with uniform velocity
relative to a n inertial frame is also an inertial frame.

W h e n the m oving c a r is suddenly stopped, the b o d y placed in

it. n o lo nger rem ains at rest. S o is the case w h e n the c a r is
sudd enly accelerated. In such a situation, the car is not an
inertial fram e of reference. T h u s an accelerated frame is a
non-inertial frame of reference. Earth is rotating and
revolving and hence strictly speaking, the E arth is not an
inertial fram e. But it can often be treated as a n inertial frame
without serious error because of very small acceleration.

19.3 S P E C IA L T H E O R Y O F R E L A TIV ITY

T h e theory o f relativity is concerned with the w a y in which
ob se rvers w h o are in a state of relative motion desenbe
physical phenom ena. T h e special theory of relativity treats
problem s involving inertial or non-accelerating fram es of
reference. T h e re is another theory called general theory of D o You Know ?
relativity w hich treats problem s involving fram es of reference
accelerating with respect to one another. T h e special theory
of relativity is based upon two postulates, w hich can be
stated as follows:
- i
1 T h e law s of physics are the s a m e in all inertial frames.
2. T h e speed of light in free space has the sa m e va lu e for all Th e K M C or light em m od by
observers, regardless of their state of motion. fiM hight is c measured b y two
observers, o n s o n f e moWng track
T h e first postulate is the generalization of the fact that all end the other c«i the rc>»d
physical law s are the sam e in frames of reference m oving with
uniform velocity with respect to one another. If the laws of
physics w ere different for different observers in relative motion,
the observer could determine from this difference that which of
them were stationary in a space and which w ere moving. But
such a distinction does n o t exist, so this postulate implies that
there is no w a y to detect absolute uniform motion. T h e second
postulate states an experimental fact that speed of light in free
space is the universal c on stant 'd (c = 3 x 10* m s ’). Th e se
simple postulates have far-reaching consequences. These

177
include such ph enom ena as ihe slowing do w n of clocks and
contraction of lengths in m oving reference frames as
m easured by a stationary observer. S o m e interesting results
of the special theory of relativity can be sum m arized as
follows without going into their mathematical derivations.

T i m e D ila t io n

A ccording to special theory of relativity, time is not absolute

quantity. It de pend s upon the motion of the frame of
reference.

S upp o se an observer is stationary m an inertial frame. He

m easures the time interval betw een two events in this frame.
Let it be f.. Th is is known as proper time. If the observer is
m oving with respect to frame of events with velocity v or if the
frame of events is m oving with respect to observer with a
uniform velocity v, the time m ea sured by the observer would
not be f,. but it w ould be t given by

(1 9 .1 )

o n e. so t is greater

than (.i.e ., time has dilated or stretched d u e to relative motion

of the ob se rver and the frame of reference of events. Th is
astonishing result applies to all timing processes - - physical,
chem ical and biological. E v e n aging process of the hum an
body is slow ed by motion at very high speeds.

L e n g t h C o n t r a c t io n

T h e distance from Earth to a star m ea sured by an observer in

a m oving spaceship w ould seem sm aller than the distance
m easured b y a n observer o n Earth. Th a t is. if you are in
motion relative to two points that are a fixed distance apart,
the distance between the tw o points appears shorter than if
you w ere at rest relative to them . T h is effect is known as
length contraction. T h e length contraction happens only
along the direction of m otion. N o such contraction w ould be
observed perpendicular to the directign of m otion. T h e length
of an object or distance betw een tw o points m easured by an
observer w h o is relatively at rest is called proper length If
an object a n d an observer are in relative motion with speed v.
then the contracted length 'C is given by

178
 (192)
M a ss Variation

According to special theory of retativity, mass of an object is a

varying quantity and depends upon the speed of the object.
An object whose mass when measured at rest is m0will have
an increased mass m when observed to be moving at speed
v. They are related by

'V ........ (193>

Th e increase in mass indicates the increase in inertia the

object has at high speeds. As v approaches c. it requires a
larger and larger force to change the speed of the object.

As v—>c, — —> 1 therefore , T - - y -» 0

c i c *

Thus m
An infinite mass would require an infinite force to accelerate
it. Because infinite forces are not available, hence, an object
cannot be accelerated to the speed of light '<? in free space.
In our everyday life, we deal with extremely small speeds,
compared to the speed of light. Even the Earth's orbital speed
is only 30 k m s O n the other hand, the speed of light in free
space is 300.000 kms ’. This is the reason why Newton's laws
are valid in everyday situations. However, when
experimenting with atomic particles moving with velocities
approaching speed of light, the relativistic effects are very
prominent, and experimental results cannot be explained
without taking Einstein's equations into account.
E n e r g y - M ass R elation
According to special theory of relativity, mass and energy are
different entities but are interconvertible. Th e total energy £
and mass m of an object are related by the expression
£ = mc’ (19.4)
where m depends on the speed of the object. At rest, the
energy equivalent of an object's mass m, is called rest mass
energy £„.

179
 E.=m ,<? ............. (19.5)
As me* is greater than mtc\ the difference of energy
(me?- mjc?)is due to motion, as such it represents the kinetic
energy of the mass. Hence
K.E. = (m - m 0) c 2 ............. ( 19.6 )
From equation 19.4 above, the change in mass m due to
change in energy A £ is given by

Because o' is a very large quantity, this implies that small

changes in mass require very large changes in energy. In our
everyday world, energy changes are too small to provide
measurable mass changes. However, energy and mass
changes in nuclear reactions are found to be exactly in
accordance with the above mentioned equations.
N A V S T A R N a v ig a tio n S y s te m
Th e results of special theory of relativity are put to practical
use even in everyday life by a modem system of navigation
satellites called N A V STA R . Th e location and speed
anywhere on Earth can now be determined to an accuracy of
about 2 c m s ’. However, if relativity effects arc not takon into
account, speed could not be determined any closer than
about 20 cms ’. Using these results the location of an aircraft
after an hour's flight can be predicted to about 50 m as
compared to about 760 m determined by without using
relativistic effects.

E x a m p le 19.1: Th e period of a pendulum is measured to be

3.0 s in the inertial reference frame of the pendulum. What is
its period measured by an observer moving at a speed of
0.95 c with respect to the pendulum?

S o lu tio n :
E x a m p le 1 9 .2 : A bar 1.0 m in length and located along
x-axis moves with a speed of 0.75 c with respect to a
stationary observer. W hat is the length of the bar as
measured by the stationary observer?

S o lu tio n :
fo = 1 .0 m , v = 0 .7 5 c . £=?

Using ( r: f 0| l - ^ 1

r = 1 .0 m x 1 .0 0 1 X ^ 1 - ( 0 . 7 5 ) 1 - 0.66 m

E x a m p le 1 9 .3 : Find the mass m of a moving object with

speed 0.8 c.

S o lu tio n :

Using

or m : 1.67 m„

or m = 1.67 m0

19.4 B LA C K B O D Y RADIATION
When a body is heated, it emits radiation. Th e nature of
radiation depends upon the temperature. At low temperature, a
body emits radiation which is principally of long wavelengths in
the invisible infrared region. At high temperature, the proportion
of shorter wavelength radiation increases. Furthermore, the
amount of emitted radiation is different for different
wavelengths. It is of interest to see how the energy is distributed
among different wavelengths at various temperatures. For
example, when platinum wire is heated, it appears dulf red at
about 500 °C. changes to cherry red at 900:C . becomes orange
red at 1100°C. yellow at 1300:C and finaty white at about
1600=0. This shows that as the temperature is increased, the
radiation becomes richer in shorter wavelengths. (• Absorption o ( radabon

In order to understand the distribution of radiation emitted from F i g 1 9 .1

a hot body, we consider a non-reflecting object such as a solid

I8 I
 that has a hollow cavity within it. It has a sm all hole and the
radiation can enter or escape only through this hole. T h e
*mo»
hoi* inside is blackened with soot to m ake it a s good a n absorber
and as bad a reflector as possible. T h e small hole appears
black because the radiation that enters is reflected from the
inside w alls m any times a n d is partly abso rb ed at each
reflection until none rem ains. S u c h a body is term ed as black
body and has the property to absorb all the radiation entering
it. A black body is both an ideal absorber (F ig . 19.1 a )a n d a n
ideal radiator(F»g. 19.1 b).

I n t e n s it y D is t r ib u t io n D ia g r a m

Lu m m e r and Pringsheim m easured the intensity of emitted

en ergy with w avelength radiated from a black body at
(b| Em auoo of rad<*bon different tem peratures by the apparatus show n in F ig .19.2.
F ig . 19.1 T h e am ount of radiation emitted with different w avelengths is
s h ow n in the form o f en ergy distribution curve s for each
tem peraturo in the Fig. 19.3.
black body cavity

For Your Information

rock ta x
pnsm (tra n v n tt
and daperse* a i
wavelengths)

F I * 1*2

T h e s e curve s reveal the following interesting facts.

A t a g iven temperature, the en ergy is not uniformly

distributed in the radiation spectrum of the body.

2. A t a given temperature T, the emitted e n e rg y has

m axim um value for a certain w avelength and the
product / v . x f rem ains c on stant.
F ig 19 3 R m uC s o f Lum m er and
Pn n gshem ’s eipenm enl* graphs of > _ x T = Constant .............. (1 9 .7 )
rnleowty oI redated energy a g e n t!
wavelength Irom a btackbody
T h e value of the constant known a s W ie n 's constant is
about 2 .9 x 10'* m K. Th is equation m ea ns that as T

182
 increases. X _ . shifts to shorter w avelength.

3. For all wavelengths, an increase in temperature causes

an increase in energy emission. Th e radefcm intensity
increases with increase in wavelengths and at a
particular wavelength , it has a maximum value. With
further increase in wavelength, tho intensity decreases.

4 T h e are a under each curve represents the total energy

( £ ) radiated per second per square metre o v e r all
w avelengths at a particular temperature. It is found that
area is directly proportional to the fourth pow er of ketvin
temperature T . T h u s

£ x T* or £ =<j t ‘ (19 .8 )

w here o is called Stefen's constant. Its value is 5 .6 7 x 10"*

W m 'IC * a n d the a b o ve relation is know n a s Stefen-
B oltzm ann law.
P la n c k ’s A s s u m p t i o n

Electrom agnetic w a v e theory of radiation cannot explain the

en ergy distribution along the intensity-wavelengths curves.
T h e successful attempts to explain the shape of energy
d i s t r i b u t i o n c u r v e s g a v e r is e to a n e w a n d
non-classical view of electrom agnetic radiation. In 1900. Max
Planck founded a mathematical model resulting in an
equation that describes the shape of observed curves
exactly. H o suggested that e n e rg y is radiated or absorb ed in
discrete packets, called quanta rather than as a continuous
w ave. E a c h quantum is associated with radiation of a single
frequency. T h e en ergy £ o f each quantum is proportional to
its frequency/.and

£=h/ (1 9 .9 )

w here h is Planck's constant. Its value is 6.6 3 x 10'* J s . Th is

fundamental constant is a s important in physics as the
constant c. the speod of light in vacuum .

M ax P lanck received tho N ob el P rize in physics in 1918 for

his discovery of en ergy quanta.
T h e P h o to n

Pfanck suggested that as matter is not continuous but

consists of a large num ber o f tiny particles, s o is the radiation
en ergy from a sourco. H e assum e d that granular nature of

183
radiation from hot bodies was due to some property of the
atoms producing it. Einstein extended his idea and
postulated that packets or tiny bundles of energy are integral
part of all electromagnetic radiation and that they could not
be subdivided. These indivisible tiny bundles of energy he
called photons. The beam of light with wavelength >. consists
of stream of photons travelling at speed c and carries energy
hf. From the theory of relativity momentum p of the photon is
related to energy as
E=pc ............. (19.10)

Thus pc = hf or P ^ — = - ............. (19.11)

C A

The table 19.1 relates the quanta emitted in different regions

of the electromagnetic spectrum with energy. At the high end.
y- radiation with energy - 1 MeV is easily detected as quanta
by a radiation detector and counter. At the other end. the
energy of photon of radio waves is only about 10" 5 eV. So
millions of photons are needed to detect a signal and hence
wave properties of radio waves predominate. The quanta are

Table: 19.1 Electrom agnetic spectrum

ImfwiY, 11/ -

184
so close together in energy value that radio waves are
detected as continuous radiation.
Th e emission or absorption of energy in steps may be
extended to include any system such as a mass oscillating on
a spring. However, the energy steps are far too small to be
detected and so any granular nature is invisible. Quantum
effects are only important when observing atomic sized
objects, where h is a significant factor in any detectable
energy change.
E x a m p le 19.4: Assuming you radiate as does a blackbody
at your body temperature about 37 °C, at what wavelength do
you emit the most energy?
Solution:
T 37°C = 310K
W ien's constant = 2.9xlO ~5 mK

Using ^ xT Constant

’ ^ o k " * ' 9 35 * 1cr' m ■9 35

The radiation lies in the invisible infrared region and is

independent of skin colour.
E x a m p le 19.5: What is the energy of a photon inabeam of
infrared radiation of wavelength 1240 nm?
Solution:
X = 1240 nm . E =?

Using E ■ hf ^
A
E = 6 .6 3 x l0 > « J s x 3 x 1 0 »m s _ -: = 1 6 x 1 0 , t j
1240x10 8 m
or E - 1.0 eV

1 9 .5 IN T E R A C T IO N O F E L E C T R O M A G N E T IC
R A D IA T IO N W IT H M A T T E R
Electromagnetic radiation or photons interact with matter in
three distinct ways depending mainly on their energy. The
three processes are

185
 (i) Photoelectric effect
(ii) C om pton effect
(in) Pair production

P h o t o e le c t r ic E f fe c t

T h e em ission of electrons from a metal surface when

exposed to light of suitable frequency is called the
photoelectric effect. T h e emitted electrons are known as
photoelectrons.

T h e photoelectnc effect is dem onstrated b y the apparatus

show n in Fig. 19.4. A n evacuated glass tube X contains two
electrodes. T h e electrode A connected to the positive
f i g 1 * 4 Experimental arrangemerU
terminal of the battery is know n a s anode. T h e electrode C
to cfcaerre e * »* > o t«tn c eWect connected to negative terminal is known as cathode. W h e n
m onochrom atic light is allow ed to shine on cathode, it begins
to emit electrons. T h e s e photoelectrons are attracted by the
positive anode and the resulting current is m easured by an
amm eter. T h e current stops w h e n light is cut off. w hich
PHotoelectrc proves, that the current flows because of incident light. Th is
current
I, >/. current is. henco. called photoelectric current. T h e m axim um
en ergy of the photoelectrons can be determ ined by reversing
the connection of the battery in the circuit i.e.. n o w the anode
A is negative and cathode C is at positive potential. In this
J i condition the photoelectrons are repelled by the anode and
the photoelectric current decreases. If this potential is m ade
< _ -v ♦ v -» m ore and m ore negative, at a certain value, called stopping
potential V0, the current be com es zero. E v e n the electrons of
F ig 19.5 CM recteratic c u v e t ot
m axim um en ergy are not able to reach collector plate. T h e
ptiotocurrenl v*. a (f* e d voltage lor m axim um en ergy of photoelectrons is thus
two m tensAes ot mooocf-romou:
IghC
-1m v 2
' (19 .1 1)
2 *

w here m is m ass, v is velocity and e is the ch a rge on electron.

<— - V o ♦V — >
F ig 1 9 4 C tw e c te r W c curve* ot
ptiotocurrent v*. appt * 0 votog* for
tgh»c^<Ht*rentfr*qu«oer*»
If the experiment is repeated with light beam of higher
intensity, the am ount of current increases but the current
stops for the sam o value of V,. T h e F ig .19.5 show s two
curvos of photoelectric current as a function of potential V
w here / ,> / ,. If. how ever, the intensity is kept constant and
experim ent is perform ed with different frequencies of
incident light, w e obtain the curve s show n in F ig .19.6. T h e
current is sam e but stopping potential is different for each
frequency of incident light, w hich indicates the proportionality
of m axim um kinetic e n e rg y with frequency of light t.

18 6
T h e im portant results o f the exp erim ents a re

1. Th e electrons are emitted with different energies. Th e

maximum energy of photooloctrons depends on the
particular metal surface and the frequency of incident For Your Information
light.

2. There is a minimum frequency below which no electrons t

are emitted, however intense the light may be. This
threshold frequency/, varies from metaltometal. *£_

Electrons are emittod instantaneously, the intensity of

light determines only their number.

These results could not be explained on the basis of

electromagnetic w ave theory of light. According to this
A graph oI the marimum Unetc
theory, increasing the intensity of incident light should energy o l photoetoctrone v* *gM
increase the K .E . of emitted electrons which contradicts the fre q u e n c y . B e lo w a c e rta in
experimental result. Th e classical theory cannot also explain ^ ^ ocy- ^
the threshold frequency of light.
Explanation o n the Basis of Q uan tum Th e o ry
Einstein extended the idea of quantization of energy
proposed by Max Ptanck that light is emitted or absorbed in
quanta, known as photons. Th e energy of each photon of
frequency /as given by quantum theory is
E=hf
A photon could be absorbed by a single electron in the metal
surface. T h e electron needs a certain minimum energy called
the work function ’O ' to escape from the metal surface. If the
energy of incident photon is sufficient, the electron is ejected
instantaneously from the metal surface. A part of the photon
energy (work function) is used by the electron to break away
from the metal and the rest appears as the kinetic energy of
the electron. That is.
InckJont photon energy - Work function = Max K E . d photoelectron

or h/- <t> = - m v ,L (19.12)

2
Th is is known as Einstein's photoelectric equation.

W hen K . E ^ of the photoelectron is zero, the frequency / is

equal to threshold frequency /* hence the Eq. 19.12 becomes

h/.-0> = 0 or 0 = h/. (19 .1 3)

Hence, w e can also write Einstein's photoelectric equation as

187
 K£*m> « h f - h f 0 .............. (1 9 .1 4 )

q u a rtz O f g l M * tub*
ca tfvx l*
It is to b e noted that all the emitted electrons d o not possess
the m axim um kinetic energy, som e electrons co m e straight
out of the metal surface and som e lose e n e rg y in atomic
collisions before com ing out. T h e equation 19.14 hoW s good
on ly for those electrons w hich com e out with full surplus
energy.

Albert Einstein w a s aw arded Nobel P rize in physics in 1921

for his explanation of photoelectric effect.

Note that the ph enom enon of photoelectric effect cannot be

explained if w e a ssum e that light consists of w a ve s and
en ergy is uniformly distributed over its wavefront. It c a n only
be explained b y assum ing light consists of corpuscles of
en ergy know n as photon. T h u s it s h ow s tho corpuscular
nature of light.

P h o to c e ll

A photocell is based o n photoelectric effect. A simple

r >g 1 * .: S « T * o p to to -o m M s ftQ c o l
(«)
f i g 1 9 * S o u n d Ir a c * o n • tt n « N c # >
v a n * * Vi* in i« n * * y o f I g h t r M c M n g
V * p h o to O H .
photocell is show n in Fig. 19.7. It consists of an evacuated
glass bulb with a thin anode rod and a cathode of an
appropriate metal surface. T h e material of the cathode is
selected to suit to the frequency range of ind d e n t radiation
o v e r w hich the cell is operated. For oxam ple sodium or
potassium cathode emits electrons for visible light, cesium
coated oxidized silver emits electrons for infrared light and
so m e other metals respond to ultraviolet radiation. W hen
photo-em issive surface is exposed to appropriate light
(F ig .19.8 a ), electrons are emitted and a current flows in the
external drcuit which increases with the increase in light
intensity. T h e current stops w hen the light beam is
interrupted. T h e cell has wide range of applications. S o m e of
these are to operate:

1. Security system s
bjh<
2. C ountin g system s
: :
3. A utom atic do or system s
sound t r > ^ 4 Autom atic street lighting
5. E x posure m eter for photography

(b ) S o u n d track of m ovies (Fig.1 9 .8 b )

F*V 1 9 .8 P r o t o c o l <J*toetton o rc u * E x a m p l e 1 9 .6 : A sodium surface is illuminated with light of

ftx s o u n d * » c * o f m oY io * w avelength 300 nm . T h e work function of sodium metal
is 2.46 eV.
(a ) Find the maximum K .E . of the ejected electron.
(b ) Determine the cut off wavelength for sodium.
S olu tion:
X = 300nm . 0 = 2.46e V
Ka
(a ) Energy of incident photon E = hf = —

or E = = 6.63 x 10 19 J
300x10 m
£ = 4 .1 4 o V

N ow K .E mn = h f -C > 4 .1 4 e V - 2 .4 6 e V = 1.6 8 eV

(b ) <t>= 2.46 e V = 3.94 x 10 **J

Using <J>= h/0 = ^

0
or ?.o = tl£ = 6 . 6 3 x 1 0 - » J s x 3 x l 0 » m s - = 5 0 5 x 1 0 ?m
0 <t> 3 .9 4 x 1 0 ” J

X0 • 505 nm

Th o cut off wavelength is in the green region of the visible

spectrum

C o m p t o n E ffe c t
Arthur Holly Compton at Washington University in 1923
studied the scattering of X -rays by loosely bound electrons
from a graphite target (Fig. 19.9 a). H o measured the
wavelength of X -rays scattered at an angel 0 with the original
direction. He found that wavelength X, of the scattered X-rays
is larger than the wavelength X of the incident X-rays. Th is is
known as Compton effect. Th e increase in wavelength of
scattered X-rays could not be explained on the basis of
classical w ave theory. Compton suggested that X-rays
consist of photons and in the process of scattering the
photons suffor collision with electrons like billiard balls
(F ig .19.9 b & c). In this collision, a part of incident photon
energy and momentum is transferred to an electron. Applying
(•)
energy and mom entum conservation laws to the process, he F>g.l9.9 ( « ) Corr^lon'% *c*t1onng
derived an expression for the change in wavelength AX OJHJ*nr>*rt
known as Compton shift for scattering angle 0 as

189
 AX = (1 -C O S O ) (19.15)
h
A -IV X , where m . is the rest mass of the electron Th e factor — has
mec
f t 0 9 otoctron dimensions of length and is called Compton wavelength and
E has the numorical value
h 6.63 x 10 ^ Js
2 .4 3 x 1 0 ''* m
m0c 9.1x10 51 k g x 3 x 1 0 * m s 1

If the scattered X -ray photons are observed at 0 = 90°. the

Compton shift AX equals the Compton wavelength. Th e
E q .19.15 was found to be in complete agreement with
Compton's experimental result, which again is a striking
confirmation of particle like interaction of electromagnetic
waves with matter.

Arthur Holly Compton was awarded Nobel Prize in physics in

(«)
F » g 1 9 .9 (t > ) A p t w X o n c o M o * w W i a o
• i»ctrenand(c)8o9 iar**c«nor«<3
1927 for his discovery of the effect named after him.
E x a m p le 1 9 .7 : A 50 keV photon is Compton scattered by a
quasi-free electron. If the scattered photon comes off at 45°.
what is its wavelength?
Solu tion:

E - 50 k e V = 5 0 x 103 x 1 . 6 x 1 0 19 J
he
Using m „ T or X - -

6 . 6 3 x 1 0 ^ Js x 3 x 1 0 * m s 1
= 0.0248 nm
50x10* x 1 .6 x 1 0 ',# J

Now X’ - / . - — (1 -C O S 4 5 0)
me

6 .6 3 x 1 0 ** Js
X '-X - - j (1 -0 .7 0 7 )
9.1x 10 J , k g x 3 x l0 * m s

= 0.2429 x 1 0 " m x 0 .2 9 3

X ' - X i 0.0 0 0 7 nm

X ' - x - f 0.0007 nm

X' = 0.0248 nm + 0.0007 nm = 0.0255 nm

190
Pair Production

In the previous sections you have studied that a low energy

photon interacting with a metal is usually completely
absorbed with the emission of electron (Photoelectric effect)
and a high energy photon such as that of X-rays is scattered
by an atomic electron transferring a part of its energy to the
electron (Compton effect). A third kind of interaction of very
high energy photon such as that of y-rays with matter is pair
production in which photon energy is changed into an
electron-positron pair. A positron is a particle haying mass and
charge equal to that of electron but the charge being of
opposite nature i.e. positive. The creation of two partides with
equal and opposite charges is essential for charge photon I
conservation in the universe. The positron is also known as
antiparticle of electron or anti-electron. The interaction
usually takes place in the electric field in the vicinity of a heavy
nucleus as shown intheFig.19.10so that there is a particle to V
take up recoil energy and momentum is conserved.
P tx P r o d u c tio n
In the process, radiant energy is converted into matter in F ig . 19.10
accordance with Einstein's equation E - me', and hence, is
also known as materialization of energy. For an electron or
positron, the rest mass energy = m.C1= 0.51 MeV. Thus to
create the two particles 2 x 0.51 MeV or 1.02 MeV energy is
required. For photons of energy greater than 1.02 MeV. the
probability of pair production occurrence increases as the
energy increases and the surplus energy is carried off by the
two particles in the form of kinetic energy. The process can be
represented by the equation

Energy of photon 1 jK ln e U c energy 1

[for pair production ! |of the partides !

hf = 2m0c2 + K.E. (e ) + K.E. ( e ') ............ (19.16)

1 9 .6 A N N IH IL A T IO N O F M A T T E R
It is converse of pair production when a positron comes close
to an eledron they annihilate or destroy each other. The
matter of two particles changes into electromagnetic energy
produdng two photons in the y-rays range.
e »y + y
The two photons are produced travelling in opposite
directions (Fig. 19.11) so that momentum is conserved. Each

191
 photon has energy 0.51 MeV equivalent to rest mass energy
of a particle.
The existence of positron was predicted by Dirac in 1928 and
it was discovered in the cosmic radiation in 1932 by Carl
Anderson. It gradually became dear that every partide has a
corresponding antiparticle with the same mass and charge (if
it is a charged partide) but of opposite sign. Partides and
antiparticles also differ in the signs of other quantum
numbers that we have not yet discussed. A particle and its
antipartide cannot exist together at one place. Whenever
they meet, they annihilate each other. That is. the partides
disappear, their combined rest energies appear in other
y.phoioo forms. Proton and antiproton annihilation has also been
observed at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory.

19.7 WAVE NATURE OF PARTICLES

*
It has been observed that light displays a dual nature, it acts
as a wave and it acts as a partide. Assuming symmetry in
nature, the French physicist, Louis de Broglie proposed in
1924 that partides should also possess wavelike properties.
T As momentum p of photon is given by equation 19.11.
Ftg. 19.11 h
P =I
de Broglie suggested that momentum of a material partide of
mass m moving with velocity v should be given by the same
expression. Thus
h
p = - * mv

Do You Know?
L ig h t a . « sh o rt, th * m o s t refined
t o r n o t m e tie r ( L o u * d o Brogfco
1892-1987)
or x « - =— ............. ( 19.17)
p mv
where X is the wavelength associated with partide waves.
Hence an electron can be considered to be a partide and it
can also be considered to be a wave. The equation 19.17 is
called de Broglie relation.
An object of large mass and ordinary speed has such a small
wavelength that its wave effects such as interference and
diffraction are negligible. For example, a rifle bullet of mass
20 g and flying with speed 330 m s ' will have a wavelengthX
given by

X ■ — . — f f f f i - 1. ? . - - ,1 * 1 0 * m
m v 2 x 10 7 kg*330m s

192
T h is w avelength is so small that it is not m easurable or
detectable by a n y of its effects.

O n the other hand for an electron m oving with a s pe e d of

1 x 10‘ m s ',

T h is w avelength is in the X -ra y s range. T h u s , diffraction

effects for elebtfifchs ate m easurable w hereas diffraction or
interference effects for bullets are not.

A cdrivinclng G w e n t e Qf the w a v e nature of electrons was

provided b y CtiHfdi^J. D avissdn and Laster H . G erm or. T h e y
s h o w e d th atlele ctto nsiw e diffractod from: metal crystals in
exactly the sam e manrtor as X -ra y s o r an y other w a ve . T h e
apparatus u s p d 'b y thorn is s h ow n in Fig. 19.12. in which
electrons, /rom heated filament are accelerated by an '
adjustable applied voltage V. T h e electron be am of e n e rg y c
Vo is m ad e incident o n a nickel crystal. T h e beam diffracted
from crystal surface enters a detector and is recorded as a
current /. T h e gam in K .E . of the electron as it is accelerated
r i g . 19.12 Eipertm enW errenaem ert
b y apo ten tial V in the electron g u n is o'0avo*or> end G e rm * lor electron
tfttecton
g iv e n b y 1 = v®

or ; m v = -j2 m V e
Fro m d e Broglie equation

Th u s (1 9 .1 8 )

In o n e o f the expenm ents. the accelerating voltage V w a s 54

volts, hence I.W 9 '
**r

TH ls feiJam of electrons diffracted from crystal Surface w as

obiarifed for a glancirig'tfngle o f 65°. A ccording to Bragg's,

Foi Your Inloim .ition
8*»mc#
•4*e*oos
(*»>
(• ) It •'♦■aro-n W h a i M as c-scr* *
p a r.c* * w in no wave pvopeme*.
Itiey * o t t t pas* through e ve or the
Other d the two tM s and tttk e the
screen ca u s -rg « to g b w and
r e d u c e e > a o m ag e * of the u t s (b )
•n reewy the screen revest* a pattern
of t n j r t w i dark h n g e * simaar to
a used and *it#r«er»«ce occurs
between the »ght wave* oowsng from
e a c h iM
equation
2 d s in 0 = m>.
F o f 1st order diffraction m = 1
F o r nickel d = 0 .9 1 x 1 0 ''* m
Th u s 2 x 0.91 x 10"10 m x sin 65® ■ >.
w hich gives Ji= 1 .6 5 x 1 O’* m
Th u s , experimentally observed w avelength is in excellent
agreem ent with theoretically predicted wavelength.
Diffraction patterns have also been observed with protons,
neutrons, hydrogen atom s and helium atom s thereby giving
substantial eviden ce for the w ave nature of particles.
F o r his w ork on the dual nature of partides. Prince Louis
Victor de Broglie received the 1929 Nobel P rize in physics.
Clinton Jo s e p h D avisson and G e o rg e P aget Th o m so n
shared the Nobel P rize in 1937 for their experimental
confifmatton of the w a v e nature of partides.
W a v e P a r t ic le D u a lit y
Interference and diffraction of light confirm its w a v e nature,
while photoelectric effect proves the partide nature of light.
Similarly, the experim ents of D a visson and G e rm e r and
G P. T h o m s o n reveal w a v e like nature of electrons and in the
experiment of J . J . T h o m s o n to find e/m w e had to assum e
partide like nature of the electron. In the sam e w a y w e are
forced to a s s u m e both wavelike a n d particle like properties
for all matter: electrons, protons, neutrons, molecules etc.
and also light, X -ra y s , y-rays etc. have to be included in this.
In other w ords, matter and radiation have a dual ‘w a ve -
partode’ nature and this n e w concept is know n as w ave
partide duality. Niels B oh r pointed out in stating his principle
of com plem entarity that both w a v e and partide aspects are
rsquired for the com plete description of both radiation and
matter. B oth aspects are alw ays present and either m ay be
revealed by an experiment. H ow ever, both aspects cannot
be revealed simultaneously in a single experiment, which
aspect is revealed is determ ined by the nature of the
experim ent being done. If you put a diffraction grating in the
path o f a light be am , you reveal it as a w ave. If you allow the
light be am to hit a metal surface, y o u need to regard the
beam a s a stream of partides to explain your observations.
T h e re is n o sim ple experim ent that you can carry out with the
194
beam that will require you to interpret it as a wave and as a
partide at the same time. Light behaves as a stream of
photons when it interacts with matter and behaves as a wave
in traveling from a source to the place where it is detected. In
effect, all micro-particles (electrons, protons, photons, atoms
etc.) propagate as if they wero waves and exchange energies
as if they were particles - that is the wave particle duality.
E xam ple 19.8: A particle of mass 5.0 mg moves with speed
of 8.0 ms". Calculate its de Broglie wavelength.
Solution:
m = 5.0 mg = 5.0 x 10'* kg
v * 8.0 ms"
h = 6.6 3 x1 0 Js

Using x „JL ^ x I O ^ 66x1Q.Wm

me 5.0*10 * kg x 8.0 ms
E xam ple 19.9: An electron is accelerated through a
Potential Difference of 50 V. Calculate its de Broglie
wavelength.
Solution:
m - 9.1 x 10-* kg. V# = 5 0 V .

X -? . • ■ 1.6x10"" C

then

^ 2 x 9.1 x 10'3'k g x 50 J C ’ x 1 .6 x 1 0 -" C

. 1 .7 4 x 1 0 '" m

U ses of W ave Nature of Particles

The fact that energetic particles have extremely short
de Broglie wavelengths has been put to practical use in many
ultra-modem devices of immense importance such as
electron microscope.

195
 E le c t r o n M ic r o s c o p e q ie lm oJ iyO< 9 iiu p 0 i lliw JsrtJ met#

tfectfcn n&tSf

Irani3whidh’ ©ffab^jsYv?
dolills nof w s$le vyyi bj
mlcroscop# $ecW c aWef i
lenses are u3e<f(,tbV ftf
Q^pmagneUi?>forjieettKM,<K^ v erted ,o n m etft^otprgec.
The resulting o o < | o o ^ ,o t ^ e « p ^ r o n » b e « m « d r e «ni9ar
to the refraction effects produced by glass lenses used to
focus light in optical microscope. The e:ecf&fWulfi&
accelerated to highepergi^s by applying voltage from 30 kV
to soverai megavotts. i>uch lugh voltages give extremely
short wavelength and also givo the electron sufficient energy
to penetrate specimen of reasonably thickness. A resolution
of 0.5 tc 1 nm is possible'with a 50 kV microscope as
co^pfi.^1 to^yst optkSil re&*utfoMf 0.2 pm. A schematic
diagram of me electron; rulcrp3cope is ;shown in the Figure
1?. 13. The magnetic conducting lens concentrates the beam
the specimen? ebcfrtMS W
stti*e #d-«tit?bf W ’&bem from ttfe m*Sk«rr’p a W e6 r the'
specimen. Th e transmitted beam theroforo hb£lit&t?al
differ ences in density that correspond to the feature
specimen. Tq e ppjecfcve and intermediate,lenses produce a
real intermedtetr image and p reaction lens forms the final
image which csn b§ vigyfecf)On 3 fluorescent screen or
photographed on special film known as electron micrograph.
A three dimensional image of rcmaj^bJe.auatity can be
E le c tro n • n c ro s o c p o ( B lo c k D ia g ra m
achiavod by modem versions called ‘ scanning electron
F i g . 1 9 .1 3

19.8 UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE ,

- -I .\ nod!
Position and momentum of aegdrtidq cannot both be
measured simultaneously with perfect accuracy. There is
always a fundarheniaH uncSrarnty assocuiled with any
Oo You Know ? meayprfeipeota This gowrtafnly'i® not associated with tf*e
measuring instrument. It is a consequence of the wave
In the subalomc wortd lew thngt can particle duality of matter and r&diafion. This was first
bcpiuOcMOvWMOO%pr»caon proposed by Werner Heisenberg in 1527 and hence ts Known
as Heisenberg Uncertainty Pnnciple. This fundamental
unodrtalrrty'ls-'coi.ipweiy^WagiigibiadformeaiuiteiTlehls ofr
position and momentum o fw a c / o s tc ^ c objects but is a
predominant fact of life in the atomid domain. For example, a
stream of light photons scattering from a flying1teflrilSbells

IW»|
hardfy affects its path, but one photon sinking an electron
drastically alters the electron's mpjiofl, Since light has giso
wave properties, we would expect to be able to determine the
position of the electron only to within one wavelength of the
light being used. Rend#. Htwder to observe the position
electron with less uncertainty and also for minimizir
diffftttfd* I s f e 'J W 'r t O K i M i f f " .........................
will alter

P m m M S i m 9 ^ » le»HB8fte'8toP
b rem entis ?emiJairti
A x »X

At most, the photon of light can transfer all its momen/um

9lgbnhq yfnisheonu gnieu
I - | to the micro particle whose ofwn^rv^pentum will then be

uncertain by an artfoufcPr •20. f rf ^

0*.x20.r = 3A

: r r.e r 0lqm sx3

to beeqe eitl bluow ferlW .(m V ftrix O .r ) euetoun ®d» to e jje
Ax^ftJiW^>b&wewh'K-ed

The equation 19.19 is the mathematical form of cM8M^yftf9

M W H to H slates V m the p ra M o H ty M A M riito t^ho** uto Fo r Your Information

pi^fWtapartjcfflcats.yneinetaittflMKiitoeiuaoerWrhB Vtle Y o u c a n n a v w accura tely d o t c r b a Ml

Ihe-.ix-soojpoeeniKpfofts. rsom^rttwe/ abrthensafrmsM*!**# aspects of a su ba fe yric parttcto at
approximately equals Plancfc^CJXWfthttehoonu giedneeleH ccco
T h e re is another form o f u n £ e r j ^ t y principlo w hich relates
the e n e rgy of a particle a n d the time at w hich it h ad the
energy. If the A £ is the uncertainty in o u r know ledge of the
en e rgy of o u r particle a n d ifjjjetiH&IViterval during w hich to
A£ AT
the particle l « d the e n e r g y ^ f - ^ r then rf

:.A/*n
w o r t t o r JSSfr
it energy. a u e to u n

According to Heisenberg’s more careful calculations, he

found that at the very best
 A X .A p ih (19.21)
and A f .A f 2 h (19.22)

where h= 1 .0 5 x 1 0 MJs

W em e r Karl Heisenberg received Nobel Prize for physics in

1932 for the development of quantum mechanics.

E x a m p le 1 9 .1 0 : T h e life time of an electron in an excited

state is about 10* s. W hat is its uncertainty in energy during
this time?

S o lu tio n :
Using uncertainty principle
A E .A t « h
^ h 1.0 5 x 1 0 * Js
Af 10 8 s
A E = 1 .0 5 x 1 0 'w J

E x a m p le 19 .1 1 : A n electron is to be confined to a box of the

size of the nucleus (1.0 x 1 0 M m ). W hat would the speed of
the electron be if it were so confined?

S o lu tio n :

Maximum uncertainty In the location of electron equals the

size of the box Itself that Is Ax = 1.0 x 10 M m . Th e minimum
uncertainty in the velocity of electron is found from
Heisenberg uncertainty principle

Ap m —
AX

or m A v .A

A v, h . . f f ” 10* * -1 .1 5 x 1 0 -n .a -
m Ax 9 .1x 10 k g x 1 .0 x 1 0 m
For confinement In the box. the speed should be greater than
the speed of light. Because this is not possible, w e must
conclude that an electron can never be found inside the
nucleus.

19 8
 e s m a v
• An inertial frame of reforonce is defined as a coordinate system in which the law of
inertia is valid. A frame of reference that is not accelerating is an inertial frame of
reference.

• The special theory of relatively treats problems involving inertial or non-accelerating

frames of reference. It is based upon two postulates.

(i) The laws ofphysics are the same in all inertial frames. „\ .
(ii) The speed of light in free space has the same value for all observers,
regardless of their state of motion.
• E = m c is an .mportant result of special theory of relativity
• A black body is a solid block having a hollow cavity within it. It has small hole and the *
radiation can enter or escape only through this hole.
• Stephen Boltzmann law states that total energy radiated over all wave length at a •
particular temperature is directly proportional to the fourth power of that Kelvin
temperaturo.
• Tho emission of electrons from a metal surface when exposed to ultraviolet light is
called photoelectric effect. The emitted electrons are known as photoelectrons.
• When X-rays are scattered by loosely bound electrons from a graphite target, it
known as Compton effect. « •
• The change of very high energy photon into an electron, positron pair is called pair
production.
•
• When a positron comes dose to an electron, they annihilate and produce twa
photons in the y - rays range. It is called annihilation of matter.
• Position and momentum of a partide cannot both be measured simultaneously with
perfect accuracy. There is always a fundamental uncertainty assodated with any
measurement. It Is a consequence of the wave partide duality of matter and
radiation. It is known as Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

g e s e ®

19.1 what are the measurements on which two observers in relative motion will always
agree upon?

19.2 Does the dilation means that lime really passes more slowly in moving system or
that itonly seems to pass more slowly?

19.3 if you are moving in a spaceship at a very high speed relative to the Earth, would you
notice a difference (a) in your pulse rate (b) in the pulse rate of people on Earth?

199
19.4 if the speed of light were infinite, what would the equations of special theory of
relativity reduce to?
,19.5 Since
... m a s s t h a n sit a n bv * ruhsm
19.6 As a solid is heated and begins to glow, why does it first appear red&nmetoi
19.7 What happens to total radiation from a blackbody if its absolute temperature is
doubled? ■'•»"«pnMovni*mutdow; • . yi•• •i.roitoyioerDisioeqaoflT •
19.8 A beam of red light and VlJeamo^ fciue'tfght have exactlyl!^^melenergy. Which
beam contains the grealqr ovtn^ber ofpbotons?, ■ ^fiqioaw elerlT
19.9 Which photon, red. grew . or. blue;cacrie!Sflhe...(rK>%t f a h w y m and (b)
momentum? * "loetr.i 'iirtftoeaeib’6p9i
19.10 Which has the lower energy quanta? Radiowayes.qr X-rays #
19.11 Does the brightness of a beam of light primarily depends on the frequency of
photonsoronthenurtlberbfphdtort's'7 1 ‘ *>[ ‘>ifo8 6aiYbod*.>GMA •
19.12 When ultraviolet light falls on c e r t ^ dvps'ly'Sih^'light is eitttlpcf.jMv'iJod? this not
happen when infrared light falls on these d^es? ^
9 •«t>oqqx5 ytjoenb .......: miuaoiBQ
19.13 Will bright light eject more electrons from a metal surface than dirpn^M«0hl of the
samecolour? OKt, mom e moil ?noi»ooi-. to ndT •
19.14 Will higher frequency light eject greater numberdf electrons than low frequency light?
19.15 When light shines on a surface, is momenturivtfdnsteWed to the metal surface? •
19.16 Why can red light be used in a photographic dark room when developing films, but a
blue or white light cannot?
19.17 Photon A has twice the energy of photon B. What is the ratio of the momentum of A to
that of B? ’ °' »2<>to jomoo noitiioq >■ 'toriw •
19.18 Why don't we observe a Compton effect ^ith visittte figriW'' ',f1,n " l0,or1<1
19.19 Can pair production take place in vacuum^Ekpl^fh nuinemom bnsnoihao9 •
19 20 Is it possible to create a single electron
19.21 If electrons behaved only Uke particles, tyha&palteoi would youexpecl on Ihe screen
after the electrons passes through the double slit?
19.22 If an electron and a proton have the S8me de Broglie wavelength, which particle has
greater speed?
19.23 We do not notice the de Broglie wavelength for a pitched cricket ball. Explain why?
19.24 If the following particles have the same'efteflflyT tfi? ^ r f t ^ ^ ^ b le n g t h ?
Electron, alpha particle, neutron, proton. noqu
19.2.5 When does light behave as a wave? Wbeo doesrtbqfoiyq asa eadste'feeoa
19.26 What advantages an electron microscope has over-anoptlcaf mlcrolsedp&?i>
19.27 if measurements ^ q w .a precisejx>sitk)n for an
-x S b IIl " *
u q o r l j l w y m f e j e o n e i e l h b g eol kxi

aoo
 19.1 A partide called the pton lives on the average only about 2.6 x 1(T* s wnen'at rest
in the laboratory. It then changes to another form. How long would such a particle
live when shooting through the space at 0 95 c? [Ans. 8.3 x 10'* s)
19.2 What is the mass A £ V j k ?m a rTl& QJ<QfVWKr»Aiveling at 0.8 c from us as
measured from Earth? [Ans. 116.7 kg]
_ 3 9 v i i 3 9 [ d 0 D n im B 9 .
19.3 Find the energy of photon in
(b) Radiowave of wavelengttv I00n»d !tiwalnebula 9<tj lelqcrO aid! 1obnrt -<rti u
(c) GreenlightofwavelengtnSSOntnpoihyrt toeioBtleJnsrrmeqxewonX
(d) X-ray with wavelength 0?2hrff’.ooibyrl to aeMkiteoq *’irio8 edinesr
eV ]
did
ihrfoatonoilBtoiqietnia’eheoia-ebodnoasO t>
19.4 Yellow light of 577 nm wavelertgtWl® mci4am on H cesium surface. Thai Stopping
voltage is foupdjgb£0r25y> to nodiaoq pnibiepo’ ylmcl'oonu odito^eC Pi
(a) the M a x iin e q tX ^lo fth e d h o tootfetnona .notouboiq erU bnr.iaiahnU
aoteJa e(b)^f•^•logWMlcRmdloffofceWuW^sirne auoenetnoqa amiel eriJ edroeeO
Jioiainyni noilRlguoqbnR
QVfJ
19.5 X-rays of wavelengtli 22 pm are scattered f ^ ^ c b o p t t e f ^ r i ^ s c a tte re d
radiation being viewer] ^ r

bfiV 'ItoSton* ^ mP{9«?<*ttenr>g,opc3s

aobuionftfxJ m*. wevotengUi. oJ.men c i photoo, and, the wavelength of the scattered
(i) bellsaJbOlon fdrscarttflrmqangle cfffl»30t'(b46flf>«rnol6 yd beoubowj stioeqe to ybuH»
fidoeqaonihoetmowbt I t>ni[AMP.**® &T#f1 (ft/) <»«*,Prtf'(#Y'f3'pm]
ASbBnilrVWteti is thernwxlfnerrf’wavelength of the twb photons.’produced whenla positron
m O o q ^ f f i b f e t d i ? e rt i»1# t * 6fcl?'T h $ f « f l m a s s i S W W d N b e W O t f l W ^ u 3 ^ R* > « ?
Bitoeqa emi io stew* otoaeiQ xr. on lotoiidDaTiIJnil afebm ,^ S ^ 6 r"'m ]

19.8 Calculate the wavoiength of A 5 ! T 0 3 9 3 O I M O T A h.OS

.belioxetflbRtui^^^flafwWfftoviriQatjfWfflSfiri) &?.-• im tc iuoq6v x) asp oimol6 ns noriw
rtoirtw .r^J3eqaf,rtjt6rilhMrt§ filtftdSWYte 4d&d * «t» ohtoele ne pniaaRq yd yllRnau
rtoua p rr yuy w
j &j ^wd do o- vJ yd_ S_ g r f ^ Qj^lrf ^i e
.iipnetevRW
w w w oitoeqa
ofloeqa nifiheo
rashes aniRtrw
ar
m“ ° ' BOrrnptr-
M M
08rkn r
muilo-ir;.-oruUi. o: erlijRrIjnoefift1 |An8*1.12<j«rV0;fn»]
d M M ) Art eiectforv is placedw a box«bout the suJe ofmn ktoro matte abooi rWO X>t0 Hiff.
2tnemeW»f^19»te9^Sr?bf mekfectrbr^ ertt . tiR rt tv mb edt ni

<201
d ie iiiq ) 2 0

Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:
1. Know experimental facts of hydrogen spectrum.
2. Describe Bohr's postulates of hydrogen atom.
3. Explain hydrogen atom in terms of energy levels.
4. Describe de-Brogile’s interpretation of Bohr's orbits.
5. Understand excitation and ionization potentials.
6. Describe uncertainty regarding position of electron in the atom.
7. Understand the production, properties and uses of X-rays.
8. Describe the terms spontaneous emission, stimulated emission, metastable states
and population inversion.
9. Understand laser principle.
10 Describe the He-Ne gas laser.
11. Describe the application of laser including holography.

H h e branch of physics that deals with the investigation of wavelengths and intensities of
electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by atoms is called spectroscopy. It includes
the study of spectra produced by atoms. In general there are three types of spectra called (i)
continuous spectra, (ii) band spectra, and (in) discrete or line spectra.
Black body radiation spectrum, as descnbed in chapter 19 is an example of continuous
spectra: molecular spectra are the examples of band spectra while the atomic spectra,
which we shaU investigate in detail in this chapter, are examples of discrete or line spectra.
20.1 ATOMIC SPECTRA
When an atomic gas or vapour at much less than atmospheric pressure is suitably excited,
usually by passing an electric current through it. the emitted radiation has a spectrum, which
contains certain specific wavelengths only. An idealized arrangement for observing such
atomic spectra is shown in Fig. 20.1. Actual spectrometer uses diffraction grating for better
results.
The impression on the screen is in the form of lines if the slit in front of the source S is narrow
rectangle. It is for this reason that the spectrum is referred to as line spectrum.
The fact that the spectrum of any element contains wavelengths that exhibit definite
regularities was utilized in the second haIfof the 19* century in identifying different elements.

202
 Fig. 20.1 line *pec(rum of hydrooen

These regularities were classified into certain groups called

the spectral series. Th e first such series was identified by J .J
Balmer in 1885 in the spectrum of hydrogen. Th is series,
called the Balmer series, is shown in Fig.20.2. and is in the 1 I I I
visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum. 2 * 5 1
Th e results obtained by Balmer were expressed in 1896 by
J .R Rydberg in the following mathematical form
Red BUe Blue Veto! W
(20.1) Gown
- = R.
Fig. 20.2

w here R „ is the R yd berg's constant. Its value is

1.0974 x 1 0 'm ’. Since then many more series have been
discovered and proved helpful in predicting the arrangement
of the electrons in different atoms.

A t o m ic S p e c t r u m o f H y d r o g e n

T h e Balmer series contain wavelengths in the visible portion For Your Information
of the hydrogen spectrum. T h e spectral lines of hydrogen in Different type* o< epectr*
the ultraviolet and infrared regions fall into several other
series. In the ultraviolet region, the Lyman series contains the
wavelengths given by the formula
( » ) Ccnsnuou# ipecm xn

where n = 2 . 3 .4 ........ (b ) Line epecfrum

In the infrared region, three spectral series have been found

whose lines have the wavelengths specified by the formulae
(c ) Bend ipeOrum

203
 Paschon.series

(20.3)
F o r Y o u r In fo rm a tio n ■ f ) .......................

where n = 4 ,5 .6 ........
/ \ |*43
Brackett series

( 2 0 -4 )

where n = 5 . 6 .7 ........
Pfund series

•'i.w*;:m w d o n e '• i 'f T .'•!

^«ciT noQoft“r rt6 ,m ,.;TW9q« o«iJ m 288f n. ieml&8
T h e existence of these regularities m the hydrogen spectrum
together with simitar: regulanties In the spectra of more
complex elements, proposes a definite test for any theory of
atomic structure. '■**
- ---
20.2 BOHR'S
'•0S> ATOM
In order to explain the empirical results obtained by Rydberg.
NeSs Bohr, in 1913. formulated a model of hydrogen atom
utilizing classical physics and Planck's quantum theory Thfe
sem i classical theory is based 6n the followtag thrde
postulates:

P o s tu la te I: An electron, bound to the nucleus in an atom.

radiating. These o.b;ts 3rc called the discrete stationary

StatpspT^e.atOfn- • mini bns letomntiu erft
Baimef m o m i *j n Dm
P o s tu la te If: O nly those siationary drbits ard allbwed'for
s p e c tu m which orbital angular momentum is equal to an integral
. h .
I M U I V 'iV / l liV .,

P1B P B m vr =— (20.6)
2n
where n - 1 , 2 . 3 . . . . . . . and n is called the principal quantum
number, m and U a re the m ass and velocity of the orbiting
electron respectively, and h is Planck's constant.

204
Postulate III: Whenever an electron makes a transition,
that is. jumps from high energy state E , to a lower energy
state E . a photon of energy h f\s emitted so that

h'= ^ r £ (20-7)
where f = c/X is the frequency of tttfera&ation emitted. O o You K n ow ?
de -B ro glie's Interpretation o f B oh r's Orbits
H«*um w m ri W Svn
At the time ol ftxmn ation of Bohr**.theory, therewas no v trig w a r a t a x y before it w st
justification for the fist two postulates,,yhile Postulate III had oocovwedonoartn
some roots in P a c k 's thesis. Later on wtth the development
of de Broglie's hypothesis, some justification could be seen in
Postulate 11esnxosstnedbelow. "oec. Unw ,r. n o - no

£ 0 0 I0 0 0 * _ -

(a)

F ig . 2 0 .3 S ta f c o n v y w n v o f o r n *
o n a iln n g

Consider a string of length t as shown in Fig. 20.3 (a). If this is

put into stationary vibrations, we musfhave I = n>. where n is
an integer. Suppose that the string is bent into circle of radius
r. as demonstrated for n = 3 and n = 6 in Fig. 20.3 (b) and (c).
sothat':
I = 2 r.r= n>.
2xr
or X=~ iT (20.8),,

Frppxjte Broglie's hypothesis

? h nh
” p mv
grit ni noitoele edl to ^ ^p^#if> letot erij sirIuoIro won au i
HlHfbnR 3 >1 vB>fnrnvi >n t„ orlt a ,3 .Jicho 3rto8
nh e ' U ygiene leitnmou

Postulate II. 2? yA |+'\.vm ^ = U ♦ .3 .X r 3

20fiC
 Q uantized Radii
Consider a hydrogen atom in vv+nch electron moving with velocity
v. is in stationary circular orbit of radius r„. From Eq. (20.6),

v. x z - P- — ■ (20.9)
2 *m r„
For this electron to stay in the circular orbit, shown in
m vl
Fig. 20.4, the centripetal force Fc = — “ is provided by the
keJ f°
Coulomb's force F , *— y , where e is the magnitude of charge

on electron as well as on the hydrogen nucleus consisting of

a single proton. Thus.

( 20 . 10 )
'• rl
where constant k is equal to — 5— .
4xc0
Fo r Your Information After substituting for v, from Eq . 20.9, we have

(20” )
h2
where r, = ,, j = 0.053 nm
4s2 kme2
This agrees with the experimentally measured values and is
called the first Bohr orbit radius of the hydrogen atom. Thus
according to Bohr's theory, the radii of different stationary
orbits of the electrons in the hydrogen atom are given by
r,® r,.4r„9r,,16r,........

th e W B o w t x l r> the hydrog e n

Substituting the value of r, from Eq. 20.11 in Eq. 20.9, the
a lo m h a s a r a d u s r , * 5 3 > l O ' m speed of electron in the nth orbit is
T h e se c o nd a n d t v d B o h r oTOd*
h a v e ra d u r , « 4 « , a n d r , = 9 r. 2*ke2
v .= — — (20.12)
r«pect«eV nh
Q uantized Energies
Let us now calculate the total energy E. of the electron in the
Bohr orbit; E„ is the sum of the kinetic energy K.E. and the
potential energy U. i.e..

£ , = K.E. ♦ U = ^ mv/ + j ............ <20-13)

206
B y rearranging E q. (20.10). we get
1 , ke2
- m v‘ ■ -— (20.14)
2 2r„
D o You Know ?
ke2 ke2 ke2
then C B — ■- (20.15)
* 2 r0 r„ 2 T v * , rti a ,1 - ■- - - - - k.K ll* --—------- ^ -
in * v ia *
•mourn 01 «n «rg * * atwre as frae
B y substituting the value of r, from E q. (20.11). we have alacfroni may have any amount o>
•nargy
1 ( 2x* kW ) E.
J= (2016)
2 r 2 k 2m a4
where E„= ' ^ * constant = 13.6 eV
which is the energy required to completely remove an electron
from the first Bohr orbit. Th is is called ionization energy. Th e
ionization energy may be provided to the electron by coftsion
with an oxtemal electron. Th e minimum potential through
which this external electron should be accelerated so that it
can supply the requisite ionization energy is known as
ionization potential. Thus for n = 1. 2. 3......... we get the
allowed energy levels of a hydrogen atom to be

......
4 9 16
Th e experimentally measured value of the binding energy of
the electron in the hydrogen atom is in perfect agreement
with the value predicted by Bohr theory.
Normally the electron in the hydrogen atom is in the lowest
energy state corresponding to n = 1 and this state is called
the ground state or normal state. W hen it is in higher orbit, it is
said to be in the excited state. Th e atom m ay be exited by
collision with externally accelerated electron. T h e potential
through which an electron should be accelerated so that, on
collision it can lift the electron in the atom from its ground
state to some higher state, is known as excitation potential.

H y d ro g e n E m is s io n S p e c tru m
Th e results derived above for the energy levels along with
Postulate III can be used to arrive at the expression for the
wavelength of the hydrogen spectrum. Suppose that the
electron in the hydrogen atom is in the excited state n with

207
 energy £, and makes a W»sWorttfe(^kM»W
energyr£(.wtiere
£ £,<£,. then f
D o You Know? o s )'
h / = £ .^ = Vm S
Phcaon m uM h M onc*yy « u c « y
•qua* to t r * o iv »ig y O4lareoco h M i :**e , m§ & 3 neriJ
bcfooon too»hf$a (of.jwwttiooo
o l a n atom but « n f f t t w * m
greater that t l » rMwx.Oft tf*T*fa«ai ('DgniiutiradueyS
canaxctothegasatorr* hence a' 6rt,'“ - J l j «*

^ubs^uting for f = c/>. and rearranging

1 eiertw
cw p K M e l

. xlools oe vomo- ^
C(aV) tta
ySberg conslantgiven by the equation ^

- 02$ , ,.1.tv o - ^ ^ u f 0974x10'mu ’ . ..... (2 0 .1 #

■03$ h rrworul «*i ytftd?* n u l l .. iJviuptn •>’ 9 1
•OM
whlklV ’^gfees wotl With the latest medsur&J vStoe for
hydrogen atom. Hj ' " ’’ n" •’< '■••‘*Ygv "*eb
Eq. 20.17 reduces to the emptrical result denved by Rydberg
and given by Eq 20.1. provided that we substitute p = 2 and
05 gnprgyleveis c o n e s g p q ^ g ^
HI . . •fit toitoolo erU
Example 20.1: Findtftui Speed of the electron'IfHhtfW&r
fojr. nop. tfyrt ydl • «rii yllKrmoU
Solution:1'1^ •*! t • ' - n o : , *>6le Y0**>f*
The s i ^ f c u h d ^ E b '. (^ . 1 2 )w i t h n = 1. is v b" w 0
y«t t»tix:> t»j> yum m o lt. -trtT mnd Ol bit-
v,,n .?5jfcTs2y!j 1^.Aw,<1crNm>c *) l (1.6' 1 0 ^ 0 * llo
tto led1k b o lt v t 6 .6 3 * 1 0 tf\ l* M
bnuoi( V,*2.19x10‘ rhs-' ! mo it noteilioo
.l*Mlrv
2 0 .3 IN N E R S H E L L T R A N S I T I O N S
F «g .2 0 .3 E w j i (oral i * / a C H A R A C T E R I S T I C X -R A Y S
the fryijrogon «lo>«
ol olcctrons m the hydrogen, qr o l ^ r , ^
ienvpsion of spectral lines iptlipjofowi^ri
of electromagnetic specbumdue. |o,
small w iqpie transition levels. .. Arji\Q

20«r.
In h e a v y atom s, the electrons are assum ed to be arranged in
concentric shells labeled a s K . L . M. N . O etc.. the K shell
being closest to the nucleus, the L shell next, and s o on
(F ig . 2 0 .6 ). T h e inner shell electrons are tightly b o und and
large am o unt of en ergy is required for their displacem ent
from their norm al en ergy levels. After excitation, w h e n an
atom returns to its normal state, photons of larger e n e rg y are
emitted. T h u s transition of inner shell electrons in heavy
atom s g ive s rise to the em ission of high energy photons o r X -
rays. T h e s e X -ra y s consist of series of specific w avelengths
o r frequencies a n d hence are called characteristic X -ra y s .
T h e stud y o f characteristic X -ra y s spectra has played a very
important role in the study of atom ic structure and the
periodic table of elements.

P r o d u c tio n o f X -r a y s
IW9h«n*ry,r
Fig. 2 0 .7 show s an arrangem ent of producing X -ra y s . It
consists of a high va c u u m tube called X -ra y tube. W h e n Pig. JO «
the cathode is heated by the filament F. it emits electrons
w hich are accelerated towards the anode T. If V is the

potential difference between C a n d T the kinetic e n e rg y K E

with w hich the oloctron strike the target is g ive n by

K .E . = V e .............. (2 0 .1 9 )
S u p p o s e that these fast m oving electrons of en ergy Vo stnke
a target m ad e of tungsten o r a n y other h eavy elem ent. It is
possible that in collision, the electrons in the innermost
shells, such as K or L . will be knocked out. S u p p o s e that one
of the electrons in the K shell is rem oved, thereby producing
a va c a n c y o r hole in that shell. T h e electron from the L shell

209
 jumps to occupy the hole in the K shell, thereby emitting a
photon of energy h called the K. X-ray given by
h ............. (20.20)
It is also possible that the electron from the M shell might also
jump to occupy the hole in the K shell. The photons emitted
are K , X-ray with energies
h f» = E „ -E , (20.21)
these photons give rise to K , X-ray and soon. ■
The photons emitted in such transitions i.e.. inner shell
transitions are called characteristic X-rays, becauso their
onergies depend upon the type of target material.
Th e holes created in the L and M shells are occupied by
transitions of electrons from higher states creating more
X-rays. Th e characteristic X-rays appear as discrete lines on
a continuous spectrum as shown in Fig. 20.8.
Wavatongtn (nrn)
T h e C o n tin u o u s X -ra y S p e c tru m
no 20*
Th e continuous spectrum is due to an effect known as
bremsstrahluno or braking radiation When the fast moving
electrons bomoard the target, they are suddenly slowed
down on impact with tf\p target. W e know that an accelerating
charge emits electromagnetic radiation. Hence, these
impacting electrons emit radiation as they are strongly
decelerated by the target. Since the rate of deceleration is so
large, the emitted radiation correspond to short wavelength
and so the bremsstrahlung is in the X-ray region. In the case
when the electrons lose all their kinetic energy in the first
collision, the entire kinetic energy appears as a X-ray photon
of energy h f ^ . i.e..
K.E. = h / L
The wavelength in Fig. 20.8 corresponds to frequency
f ^ . Other electrons do not lose all thoir energy in the first
collision. They may suffer a number of collisions before
coming to rest. This will give rise to photons of smaller energy
or X-rays of longer wavelength. Thus the continuous
spectrum is obtained due to deceleration of impacting
electrons.
P ro p e rtie s a n d U s e s o f X -ra y s
X-rays have many practical applications in medicine and
industry. Because X-rays can penetrate several centimetres

210
into a solid matter, s o they can be used to visualize the
interiors of the m aterials opa que to ordinary light, such as
fractured bones or defects in structural steel. T h e object to be
visualized is placed betw een an X -ra y source and a large
sheet of photographic film; the darkening of the film is
proportional to the radiation exposure. A crack or air bubble
allows greater am ount of X -ra y s to pass. Th is appears a s a
dark area on the photographic film. S h ado w of bones
appears lighter than the surrounding flesh. It is due to the fact
that bones contain greate r proportions of elem ents with high
atom ic num ber and so they absorb greater am ount of
incident X -ra y s than flesh. In flesh, light elements like carbon,
h ydrogen and o x ygen predom inate. T h e s e elem ents allow
greater am ount of incident X -ra y s to pass through them.

C A T -S c a n n e r

In the recent past, several vastly improved X -ra y techniques

have been d e ve lope d. O n e w idely used system is
c o m p u te rize d axial to m o g ra p h y;* the c o rre s p o n d in g
instrument is called C A T-S c a n n e r. T h e X -ra y source
produces a thin fan-shaped be am that is detected on the
opposite side of the subject by an array of several hundred
detectors in a line. E a c h detector m easures absorption of
X -ra y along a thin line through the subject. T h e entire
apparatus is rotated around the subject in the plane of the
beam during a few seconds. T h e changing reactions of the
detector are recorded digitally; a com puter processes this
information and reconstructs a picture of different densities
o v e r a n entire cro ss section o f the subject. Density
differences of the order of one percent can be detected with
C A T -S c a n s . Tu m o rs , a n d other anom alies m uch too small to
be seen with older techniques can be detected.

B io l o g i c a l E f f e c ts o f X - r a y s 'mCAT*c*nning«T*nned'Out’ aiT»y
oT X-f*y baam* * araetod Wough
tbo coOont from a nurobaf or dtfarant
X -ra y s cause d a m a g e to living tissue. A s X -ra y photons are
odontabons
absorbed in tissues, th e y break m olecular bonds a n d create
highly reactive free radicals (s u c h as H and O H ), w hich in
turn can disturb the m olecular structure of the proteins and
especially the genetic material. Young and rapidly growing
c e lls a re p a r tic u la r ly s u s c e p t ib le ; h e n c e
X -ra y s are useful for selective destruction of can cer cells. O n
the other hand a cell m a y be dam aged by radiation but
survive, continue dividing a n d produce generation of
defective cells. T h u s X -ra y s can cause cancer. E v e n when
the organism itself s h o w s no apparent dam age, excessive

211
 radiation exposure can cause changes in their productivt
system that will affect the organism 's offspring.

20.4 U N C E R T A IN T Y W ITH IN T H E A TO M
O n e of the characteristics of dua l nature of matter is <
fundamental limitation in the a ccu ra cy of the simultaneou:
m easurem ent of the position and m om entum of a particle.

H eisenberg show ed that this is g ive n by the equation

ApAx> —
2k
VH H ow ever, these limitations are significant in the realm o
L *
atom. O n e interesting question is w hether electrons art
present in atom ic nu- iei. A ? the typical nuclei <: > 'oss than

<t» 10 m e diameter, for an electron to be confined within s u th

nucleus, the uncertainty in its position is of the order of 10 '* n
(• ) T h is tw c w Jim o n i-o ru f C A T s ca n
o ( a b ra m ro v o a ls a la rg e r t r a c r a n t * T h e corresponding uncertainty in the electron's momentum ■
tu m o r (c o lo re d c u p l e ) . ( b ) T h r e o - h
d r r e n s c o a l C A T s c a n s a re n o » Apt* —
a ^ a A a U o a n d this a x a m p lo re v e s ts a n AX
a ra c h n c M c y s t ( co lo re d y e a o w )
w B v n a sfcul. I n both p h o to g ra p h s the 6 .6 3 x 1 0 -* Js
c o lo rs a re artificial h a v n g b e e n 'T « ' * 6 . 6 3 x 1 0 * kg m s '
c o m p u t e r g e n e r a t e d t o a i d in 10 m
d s t n g u n h m g t n M o m c a l features.

As A p = m Av
6 .6 3 x 1 0 * kg m s
H ence Av = J r 7 .3 x 1 0 wm s '
9.11 x 1 0 "JI kg

H e n ce , for the electron to be confined to a nucleus, its speec

w ould have to be greater than 10' m s i.e.. greater than the
speed of light. B ecause this is impossible, w c m ust conclude
that an electron c a n never be found inside of a nucleus. Bui
can a n electron reside inside the atom ? T o find this, w e again
calculate the speed of an electron and if it turns to be less
than the speed of light, w e have reasonable expectation of
finding the electron within the atom but outside the nucleus.
T h e radius of the hydrogen atom is about 5 x 1 0 '' m . A pplying
the uncertainty principle to the m om entum of electron in the
atom w e have
h
Ap* —
^ AX

As Ap = m w

h
Therefore, Av=
m \x

212
:o r an atom a x is given a s 5 x 10 ” m
_ 6 .6 3 x 1 0 ^ Js
T lU S AV s
£ .1 1 x 1 0 J1k g x 5 x 1 0 ’ ’ m

= 1 .4 6 x 1 0 'm s ’

"his speed of the electron is less than the speed of light,

hereforo. it can exist in the atom but outside the nucleus.

>0.5 L A S E R
aser is the acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated
•mission of Radiation. A s the nam e indicates, lasers are
tsed for producing an intense, m onochrom atic, and
midirectional coherent be am of visible light. To understand
i e w orking of a laser, term s s u c h as stimulated em ission and
■opulation inversion m ust be understood.

p o n t a n e o u s a n d S t im u la t e d E m i s s i o n s

Consider a sam ple o f free atom s s o m e of w hich are in the

round state with e n e rg y E , and so m e in the excited state E t
s show n m Fig. 20.9. T h e photons of e n e rg y h f * £ , - E . are
icident on this sam ple. T h e s e incident photons can interact

■if
nth atom s in two different w ays. In Fig. 20 .9 (a ) the incident

iJ
h oto n is absorbed by a n atom in the ground state E . . thereby
•aving the atom in the excited state £ ,. T h is process is called <•> Induced i b to ip M n

timulated o r induced absorption. O n c e in the excited state,

E,
no things can happen to the atom , (i) It m ay de cay by
pontanoous em ission as sh ow n in Fig. 20 .9 (b ). in which the
tom emits a photon of e n e rg y h f = E s - E , in an y arbitrary (b) Sponl*ocoo» *mi»»ion
irection.
O £-
h e other alternative for the atom in the excited state E , is to It -v u v - J = S k=
E.
e c a y by stimulated o r induced em ission as show n in
ig.20.9 (c ). In this case the incident photon of energy <«) Induced em ission
f = E , - £ . induces the atom to d e c a y b y emitting a photon
Fig 20.9
lat travols in the direction of the incident photon. F o r each
icident photon w e will have two photons going in the sam e
irection thus w e have accom plished two things: a n amplified
s well as a unidirectional coherent beam . Fro m a practical
oint this is possible on ly if there is m ore stimulated or
Kluced em ission than spontaneous em ission. T h is can be
chieved as described in the next section.

213
 P o p u la t io n I n v e r s io n a n d L a s e r A c t i o n

Let us consider a sim ple case ot a material w ho se atom s can

reside in three different states a s s h ow n in Fig. 20.10 . state

-to*#

N, > « ,
. IV* 69*3 nm

— *

-V \ / V —
O p O c t lp u m p M g O p 0 c « l(* f n p * » w d )
------------------------ N.
e.
Fl*. 20.10

£ , w hich is g round state; the excited state £ ,. in which the

atom s can reside only for 10* s and the metastable state £
in w hich the atom s can reside for - 1 0 ’ s. m uch longer thar
ILarger anotgy) 10* s. A metastable state is an excited state in which ar
gxcited electron is unusually stable and from w hich the
• C K '^ O O O O O - electron spontaneously falls to low er state only aftei
(Sm*l*< e n v y ji
relatively longer time. T h e transition from o r to this state are
Nom ul populMlon
difficult a s com p are d to other excited states. H e n ce , insleac
A normal p o p U t e o n O f M o m c of direct excitation to this state, the electrons are excited tc
•norgy itata. «w> m o r a atsm c in Bw
tow«r «fw yy Mat* E. man in m*
higher level for spontaneous fall to metastable state. A lso le
us a ssum e that the incident photons of e n e rg y h f = £ , - £
raise the atom from the ground state £ . to the excited state £ ,
E, (J O O O O V O O but the excited atom s do not de cay back to £ ,. T h u s the onh
alternative for the atom s in the excited state £ , is to decai
spontaneously to state £ .. the atom s reach state E , mucf
PopwlMton lnv**»ioo faster than they leave state £ ,. T h is eventually leads to th<
situation that the state £ , contains m ore atom s than state £ ,
A p o p u to te n n v o r t lo n . in w f n t f it h a
haghar e n e r g y u a t o h a t a greener
T h is s itu a tio n is k n o w n a s p o p u la tio n in v e rs io n
p op u la tio n th a n lh a k x r o r o n o rg y
O n c e the population inversion has been reached, the lasinj
action of a laser is simple to achieve. T h e atom s in th«
metastable state E , are bom barded by photons of energy
h f = £ , - £ ,. resulting in an induced om ission, giving ar
intense, coherent be am in the direction of the inciden
photon.

214
T h e emitted photons m ust be confined in the a ssem b ly long
e n ough to stimulate further em ission from other excited
atom s. T h is is achioved by using mirrors at the tw o ends of
the assem bly. O n e end is m ade totally reflecting, and the
other end is partially transparent to allow the laser beam to
e scap e (F ig .20.11). A s the photons m ove back and forth
betw een the reflecting m irrors they continue to stimulate
other excited atom s to em it photons. A s the process
continues the num ber of photons multiply, and the resulting
radiation is. therefore, m uch m ore intense and coherent than
light from ordinary sources.

H e li u m •N e o n L a s e r

It is a m ost com m on type of lasers used in physics

laboratories. Its discharge tube is filled with 8 5 % helium and
1 5 % neon g a s . T h e neon is the lasing o r active m edium in this
tube. B y chance, helium and neon h avo nearly identical
metastable states, respectively located 20.61 e V and
2 0 .66 e V level. T h o high voltage electric discharge excites
the electrons in so m e of the helium atom s to the 20.61 oV
state. In this laser, population inversion in neon is achieved
b y direct collisions with sam e en ergy electrons o f helium
atom s. T h u s excited helium atom s collide with neon atoms,
e a c h transferring its o w n 20.61 e V of en ergy to an electron in
the neon atom along with 0.0 5 e V of K .E . from the m oving
atom . A s a result, tho electrons in neon atom s are raised to
the 2 0 .66 e V state. In this w ay. a population inversion is
sustained in the neon g a s relative to an e n e rg y level of
18.70 eV. S pontaneous em ission from neon a tom s initiate
laser action and stimulated em ission ca u s e s electrons in the
neon to dro p from 2 0 .66 e V to the 18.70 e V level an d red
laser light of w avelength 6 32 .8 nm corresponding to 1.96 eV
e n e rg y is generated (Fig, 20.12).

U s e s o f L a s e r in M e d i c in e a n d I n d u s t r y

1. La s e r b e am s are used as surgical tool for ’ welding’

detached retinas.
2. T h e narrow intense beam of lasor c a n be used to
destroy tissue in a localized area. Tin y organelles
with a living cell have been destroyed b y using laser
to study how the a b se n c e of that organelle affects the
behavior of the cell.
3. Finely focused be am of laser has be e n used to
destroy can cero us and pre-cance rou s cell.

Do You Know?
Th # h e U j n w w o n laaar boam » b o n g
u M d to O a g n o M i t m m o » * » e y* .
Th * u m oI tosor te c h n o lo g y in the
f * M o f ophtha frn ctog y n w O *% p < * * j
T h e heat 0/ the laser seals off capillaries a n d lymph
vessels to prevent spread of the disease.
T h e intense heat produced in small are a by a laser
boam is also used for welding and m achining metals
a n d for drilling tiny holes in hard materials.
T h e precise straightness of a laser be am is also
useful to surveyors for lining up equipm ent especially
in inaccessible locations.
It is potential e n e rg y source for inducing fusion
reactions.
It c a n be used for telecomm unication along optical
fibres.
Laser be am c a n bo used to generate three-
dim ensional im ages of objects in a process called
holography.

W h e n an atom ic g a s or vapours at less than atm ospheric pressure is suitably

exa te d . usually by passing electric current through it. the emitted radiation has a
spectrum w hich contains certain specific w avelenghts only.

Postulates of B oh r's m odel of hydrogen atom are:

A n electron, bound to tho nucleus in an atom , c a n m ove around the nucleus in

certain circular orbits without radiating. T h e s e orbits are caBed the discreto
stationary states of the atom.
O n ly those stationary states are allowed for w hich orbital angular m om entum is

equal to an integral multiple of h i.e., m v r =

W h e n e ve r an electron m akos a transition, i.e., ju m p s from high en ergy state E , to a

lower en ergy state E ,. a photon of en ergy h /is emitted so that h/= E . - E „.

T h e transition of electrons in the h ydrogen or other light elem ents result in the
em ission of spectral lines in the infrared, visible o r ultraviolet region of
electromagnetic spectrum due to sm all en ergy differences in the transition levels.

T h e X -ra y s emitted in inner shell transitions a re called characteristic X -rays,

because their en ergy depends upon the type o f target material.

T h e X -ra y s that are emitted in all directions and with a continuous range of
frequencies aro know n as continuous X -rays.

Laser is the acronym for Light Amplification b y Stimulated Em ission of Radiation

216
• The incident photon absorbed by an atom in the ground state thereby leaving
the atom in the excited state £, is called stimulated or induced absorption.

• Spontaneous or induced emission is that in which the atom emits a photon of energy
h f * E 3- E , in any arbitrary direction.

• Stimulated or induced emission is that in which the incident photon of energy h f = £ ,- £F,
induces the atom to decay by emitting a photon that travels in the direction of the
incident photon. For each incident photon, we will have two photons going in the same
direction giving rise to an amplified as well as a unidirectional coherent beam.

M 'I * H M M
20.1 Bohr's theory of hydrogen atom is based upon sevoral assumptions. Do any of these
assumptions contradict classical physics?

20.2 What is meant by a lino spectrum? Explain, how line spectrum can be used for the
identification of elements?
20 3 Can the electron in the ground state of hydrogen absorb a photon of energy
13.6 eV and greater than 13.6 oV?
20.4 How can the spectrum of hydrogen contain so many lines when hydrogen contains
one electron?
20 .5 Is energy conserved when an atom emits a photon of light?
20.6 Explain why a glowing gas gives only certain wavelengths of light and why that gas is
capable of absorbing the same wavelengths? Give a reason why it is transparent to
other wavelengths?
20.7 What do we mean when we say that the atom is excited?
20 8 Can X-rays be reflected, refracted, diffracted and polarized just like any other
waves? Explain.
20.9 What are the advantages of lasers over ordinary light?
20.10 Explain why laser action could not occur without population inversion between
atomic levels?

o n ™
20.1 A hydrogen atoms is in its ground state (n = 1). Using Bohr’s theory, calculate
(a) the radius of the orbit, (b) the linear momentum of the electron, (c ) the angular
momentum of the electron (d) the kinetic enorgy (e ) the potential energy, and
(f)the total enorgy.
[Ans: (a ) 0.529 x 1 0 '5m (b) 1.99 x 1 0 " kg ms ’ (c ) 1.05 x 10 * kg m V
(d ) 13.6 eV (e) - 27.2 eV (0 -13.6 eV)

217
20.2 W hat are the energies in e V of quanta of wavelength? /. = 400. 500 and 700 nm.
(Ans: 3.10 eV. 2.49 eV. 1.77 eV )
20.3 A n electron jumps from a level E = -3 .5 x 10 ” J to £, = -1.20 x 10 ” J . W hat is the
wavelength of the emitted light? (Ans: 234 nm )
,20.4 Find the wavelength of the spectral Nne corresponding to the transition in hydrogen
from n ■ 6 state to n = 3 state?
(Asn: 1094 nm )
20.5 Compute the shortest wavelength radiation in the Balmer series? W hat value of n
must be used? (Ans: 364.5 n m .n = oo)
20.6 Calculate the longest wavelength of radiation for the Paschen series.
(Ans: 1875 nm)
20.7 Electrons in an X-ray tube are accelerated through a potential difference of
3000 V. If these electrons were slowed down in a target, what will be the minimum
wavelength of X-rays produced? (A ns: 4.14 x 1 0 "'m )
20.8 Th e wavelength of K X -ray from copper is 1.377 x 10 ” m W hat is the energy
difference between the two levels from which this transition results?
(A ns: 9.03 keV)

20 9 Atungsten target is struck by electrons that have been accelerated from rest through
40 kV potential difference. Find the shortest wavelength of the bremsstrahlung
radiation emitted. (A ns: 0.31 x 10 m)
20.10 Th e orbital electron of a hydrogen atom m oves with a speed of 5.456 x 10' m s ’.
(a ) Find the value of the quantum number n associated with this electron.
(b ) Calculate the radius of this orbit
(c ) Find the energy of the electron in this orbit.
(A ns: n = 4. r, • 0.846 nm: E , = -0.85 e V )

218
 C h a p t e r
21
N U C L E A R P H Y S IC S
L e a rn in g O b je c tiv e s
At t he end of this chapter the students will be able to:
1. U n derstand the qualitative treatment of Rutherford's scattering experiment and the
e vid e n c e it provides for the existence and sm all size of nucleus.
2. Distinguish betw een nucleon num ber (m a ss n u m b e r) and atom ic num ber.
3. U n derstand that an elem ent can exist in various isotopic form s each with a different
n u m b e r of neutrons.-
4. U n derstand the use of m ass spectrograph to dem onstrate the existence of isotopes
a n d to m easure their relative abundance.
5. U n derstand m a s s defect a n d calculate binding e n e rg y using Einstein's equation.
6. Illustrate graphically the variation of binding e n e rg y per nucleon with the m ass
num ber.
7. A ppreciate the spontaneous and random nature o f nuclear decay.
8. Explain the m eaning of half-life.
9. R e co g n ize and use d e c a y law.
10. U nderstand and describe the interaction of nuclear radiation w ith matter.
11. U n derstand the use of W ilson cloud cham ber. G e ig e r Muller counter and solid state
detectors to detect the radiations.
12. A ppreciate that atom ic num ber and m ass num ber co nserve in nuclear process.
13. D e scribe en ergy and m a s s conservation in sim ple reactions and in radioactive
decay.
14. U n derstand and describe the phenom ena of nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
15. Explain the working principle of nuclear reactor.
16. B e a w a re of various types of nuclear reactors.
17. S h o w an aw areness about nuclear radiation expo sure a n d biological effects of
radiation.
18. D e scribe in sim ple term s the use of radiations for m edical diagnosis and therapy.
19. U n derstand qualitatively the importance of limiting exposure to ionizing radiation.
20. O utlin e the use of tracer technique to obtain diagnostic information about internal
structures.
21. D e scribe exam ples of the use of radioactive tracers in diagnosis.
22. D e scribe basic forces of nature.
23. D e scrib e the m o d e m view of the building blocks of matter based o n hadrons,
leptons and quarks.

219
 S o o n after the discovery of electron and proton in an atom ,
the quest started to find the w a y in w hich these charged
particles are present in a n atom . From his experim ents
Ernest Rutherford developed a nuclear m odel of the atom .
H is m odel of the atom consisted of a small de nse, positively
charged nucleus with negative electrons orbiting about it. In
1920 Rutherford suggested that there is probably another
particle within the nucleus, neutral one, to which he g a v e the
nam e neutron. Ja m e s Chadw ick discovered neutron in 1932.

D o You K now ?
21.1 A TO M IC N U C L E U S
Nooaftvo A t the centre of each and every atom there is an
otoOron
infinitesimally small nucleus. T h e entire positive charge of
the atom and about 99 .9 percent of its m ass is concentrated
in the nucleus. T h e tininess of tho nucleus can be im agined
by com paring that the radius of the atom is 10' tim es the
radius of the nucleus.

A nucleus consists of nucleons com prising of protons and

Povtive
ru&M
F ro m a -p » r li c le » jc a tie n n g
o x p o r im o n t t L o r d R u th o rto rd
concluded that most o ( the port of * «
atom is empty and lhal m a w d
concentralod n a very s m a l re »o o
ca*ednucleus
neutrons. A proton has a positive charge equal to
1.6 x 10 ” C and its m ass is 1 6 7 3 x 1 0 ; kg A neutron has no
charge on it. but its m ass is 1.675 x 10 ‘ kg T h e m a s s of a
neutron is alm ost equal to m ass of proton. To nd'cate the
m ass of atom ic particles, instead of kilogram unified m ass
scale (u ) is generally used. B y definition 1u is exactly one
twelveth the m ass of c a rb o n " atom (1 u = 1.6606 x 1 0 " kg). In
this unit the m ass of a proton is 1.007276 u and that of a
neutron is 1.008665 u while that of an electron is 0 .0 0 0 5 5 u.

T h e charge on a proton is equal in m agnitude to the charge

on an electron. T h e charge on the proton is positive while that
of an electron is negative. A s an atom on the w h o le ts
electrically neutral, therefore, w e can conclude that the
num ber of protons inside the nucleus is equal to the num ber
of electrons outside the nucleus. T h e num ber of protons
inside a nucleus is called the atom ic num ber or the charge
num ber of an atom. It is denoted b y Z. Th u s the total charge
of an y nucleus is Zo. hero e indicates charge o n one proton.

T h e c o m b in e d n u m b e r o f all th e p ro to n s a n d n e u tro n s in
a n u c le u s is k n o w n a s its m a s s n u m b e r a n d is d e n o te d
byA.

T h e num ber of neutrons N present in a nucleus is g iven by

N =(A -Z ) (2 1 .1 )

220
W e now consider different elements of tho periodic table.
H ydrogen atom is simplest of all the atoms. Its nucleus is
com posed of only one proton; that is for hydrogen A = 1.
Z = 1. Th a t is w hy hydrogen is represented by the symbol JH.
Next in the periodic table after the hydrogen element is the
helium eloment. Its nucleus contains two protons and two
neutrons. Th is m eans for helium A - 4 and Z = 2. and hence
helium is represented as j H e . W e now take the example of
uranium - a heavy element of the periodic table. T h e charge
num ber Z of uranium is 92 while its m ass num bor A is 235. This (•> (ProOum)
is represented as . It has 92 protons while the num ber of
neutrons N is given by the equation N - A - Z = 235 -'92 = 143.
In this w a y the num ber of protons and neutrons in atoms of all
the elements of the periodic table can be determined. It has
been observed that the num ber of neutrons and protons in the
initial light elements of the periodic table is almost equal but in
tho later heavy elements the num ber of neutrons is greater
•y
than the num ber of protons m the nucleus.

21.2 IS O TO P E S <b) (Oeutonum)

Isotopes are such nudet of an elem ent that have the sam e
charge num ber Z . but have different m ass num ber A. that is
in the nucleus of such an elem ent the num ber of protons is
the sam e , but the num ber of neutrons is different. H elium , for
e x a m p le has tw o isotopes. T h e s e a re sym bolically
represented as }H e and } H e . A s the charge num ber of helrum
is 2. therefore, there are tw o protons in the helium nud eus.
T h e neutron num ber of the first isotope is. according to Eq.
21.1 is 3 - 2 = 1 a n d that in the second isotope} H e the num ber
of neutron is 4 - 2 = 2. H ydro ge n has three isotopes
represented by ;H . '. H . J,H Its first isotope is called ordinary rta 21.1
h ydrogen o r protium. Th e re is on ly o n e proton in its nud eus.
T h o s econ d isotope of h ydrogen is called deuterium. It has
o n e proton and one neutron m its n u d e u s . Its n u d e u s is
called deutoron. T h e third isotope of hydrogen has two
neutrons a n d one proton in its n u d e u s and it is called tritium.
T h e isotopes of hydrogen are s h ow n in Figs. 21.1 (a.b.c).
D o You K now ?
T h e chem ical properties of all the isotopes of an elom ent are
alike, a s the chem ical properties of an elem ent d e pe nd only
8<Xh X *o o n a n d c m u k i i <
upon the num bor of electrons around the n u d e u s . that is 36oo«oc*4
upon the ch a rge num ber Z . w hich for all the isotopes of an
elem ent is the sam e. It is. therefore, not possible to separate
the isotopes of a n elom ent b y chem ical m ethods. Physical
m ethods are found to be successful for this purpose. A

221
 dovice with the help of w hich not on ly the isotopes of an y
For Y our Information elem ent can be separated from o n e another but their m asses
can also be determ ined quite accurately is called m ass
Som # atomic n i i M t spectrograph.
P w tld *
M a ss S p e c tro g ra p h
• 000055
A simple m a s s spectrograph is s h ow n in Fig. 21 .2 (a ). T h e
n 1006665 atom s or molecules of the elem ent under investigation, in
■H 1C0T276
vapour form, are ionized in the ions source S . A s a result of
ionization, one electron is rem oved from the particle, leaving
* 2.014102
with a net positive charge *e. T h e positive ions, escaping the
■h 301605 slit S ,. are accelerated through a potential difference V
applied betw een the two slits S . and S ,.
■H# 301603

4002603
•H*
7016004
■u
10013534
"Bo
140031
“N
169991
'0

F ig 21.2

T h e ions pass through the slit S , in the form of a na rrow beam

T h e K .E . of singly charged ion at the slit S , will be given by

l t m / = Vo (2 1 .2 )
2
T h e ions are then subjected to a perpendicular a n d uniform
m agnetic field 8 in a v a c u u m cham ber, w he re th ey are
deflected in semicircular paths towards a detector. T h e
detector records the num ber of ions arriving per second. T h e
centripetal force applied by the m agnetic field is g iven by

Bev=— - (2 1 .3 )
r

222
Substituting the values of vfrom Eq. 21.2. w o get

m* ( ' £ ) 8’ t2,'4)
T h e above equation shows that the mass of each ion
reaching the detector is proportional to S '. B y adjusting the
value of B and keeping the term in the parentheses constant,
ions of different masses are allowed to enter the detector. A
graph of the detector output as a function of S ' then gives an
indication of what masses are present and the abundance of
each mass.
Fig. 21.2 (b ) shows a record obtained for naturally occurring 20 21 22
neon gas showing three isotopes w hose atomic mass
numbers are 2 0 .2 1 . and 22. Th e larger is the peak, the more ft
(b ) ( Proportional to atomic m a n )
abundant is the isotope. Th us most abundant isotope of neon
is neon-20. Fig 2 1 2 Tha m asa apactrum oI
naS^a»y occurring noon. srto«Kng
21.3 M ASS D E F E C T AND BINDING E N E R G Y nonpar ara 20.21. and 22 Th o largor
toe- peak. tho moro abundant
It is usually assumed that the whole is always equal to the sum rtC-Opo
of its parts. This is not so in the nucleus. Th e results of
experiments on the masses of different nuclei show that the
mass of the nucleus is always less than the total mass of all tho
protons and neutrons making up the nucleus. In tho nucleus
the missing mass is called the mass defect m given by.
tn n = Z m „ * (A -Z )m .-m rMM (21.5)

A s Z is the total number of protons in the nucleus and m, is the

m ass of a proton, then Z/n, is the total m ass of all the protons.
A s shown in Eq. 21.1. (A - Z ) is the total num ber of neutrons
and as m„ is the m ass of a single neutron. (A - Z ) m. is the total
m ass of all the neutrons. Th e term m ^ J s the experimentally
m easured mass of the entire nucleus. Hence. Eq. 21.5
represents the difference in mass between the sum of the
masses of its constituents and the mass of the nudeus itself.

T h e missing m ass is converted to energy in the formation of

the nucleus. Th is energy is found from Einstein's mass
energy rolation

£ » (A / n )c ’ (21.6)
and is called the binding energy (8 .E .) of the nudeus. From
equations 21.5 and 21.6. the binding energy of a nudeus is

B .E .* (A m )< ?= Z m ,c: * (A -Z ) m c ^ -m c 1 ...... (21.7)

223
 Let us consider the exam ple of the deuteron nucleus to make
the concept o f m a s s defect and binding en ergy m ore clear.
E x a m p l e 2 1 .1 : Find the m a s s defect and binding en erg y of
the deuteron nucleus. T h e experimental m ass of deuteron is
3.3435 x 1 0 "k g .
S o lu t i o n :
Using equation 2 1 .5. w e get the m ass defect of deuteron as
m = m .* m .-m 0
= 1.6726 x 10 " k g + 1 .6 7 4 9 x 10 J ' kg - 3.3435 x 10 " kg
= 3.9754 x10°°kg
T h e B .E . of deuteron as found from E q . 21 .6 is A m e 7
F o r Y o u r In f o r m a t io n
A m c ^ 3.9754 x 1 0 * k g x (3 x 10*ms ? = 6 .E . = 3.5729 x 1 0 '\J
T o express the result in e V units, divide the B .E . obtained in
joules by 1 .6 x 1 0 '*J. T h u s

'-Ji.vnV.: r.xWo'-A
(gfMttrmn*) Therefore, the bound constituents have less en ergy than
w h e n they are free. Th a t is the B.E. c o m e s from the m ass that
En e rg y mu*< M « u p p M 10 brook lh »
n o c M v j « p o n into o conotcuont is lost in the process of formation. Conversely, the binding
prctont and neutrom en ergy is the am ount of en ergy that m ust be supplied to a
nucleus if the nucleus is to be broken u p into protons and
neutrons. Experim ents have revealed that such m ass
defects exist in other elem ents as w ell. S h o w n in Fig. 21.3 is a
graph betw een the m ass defect per nucleon and charge

C niK go c x m b w Z

Fig 21.3

224
num ber Z is obtained by finding the difference of m ass
betw een the total m a s s of all the protons and neutrons that
form the nucleus and the experimental m ass of the nucleus
and dividing this difference by m ass n u m b e r^ , i.e.. For Your Information
M ass defect per nucleon
Am Zmp + Q t Z ) m n)
A A
w here A m is the m a s s defect. Fro m the definition o f m ass
defect it is quite obvious that for hydrogen, m ass defect is $
zero. T h e m ass defect is m ade d e a r with Einstein's equation
>( <*) 9
E =A me1. T h is equation show s that if for an y reason a m ass
A m is lost, them it is converted into energy.
Let us n o w calculate the B E of helium . F o r j H e
A/n = 2 m ,
= 2.015 19 u + 2.017 96 u - 4.00281 u = 0.03034 u
since 1 u = 1 .6 6 x 10*’kg
A m = 0.030 34 u x 1.66 x 1 0 '' kgu ’ = 5.03 x 10 ’’kg
Th u s B E . = A/nC = 5 .0 3 x 1 0 ” k g x 9 x 1 0 '* m V

'• « * * 10"J " 2 8 2 x 10' e V = 28 .2 M O V

T h is m ea ns that w h e n two protons and two neutrons fuse
together to m ake helium nucleus, if an amount of 28 .2 M e V
onergy is given to the helium n u d e u s then it breaks u p into
two protons and tw o neutrons. From this, w e c o n d u d e that
1 u = 1.6606 x 10J' kg = 931 M eV
In this w a y w o can calculate binding en ergy of every elem ent.
S h o w n in Fig. 21 .4 is a graph betw een binding e n e rg y per
n u d e o n and the m ass num ber of different elements. T h is
graph show s that the binding en ergy per n u d e o n increases

Fifl. 2%A

225
 with the m ass number till it reaches a maximum value of 8.8
M eV at mass number 58 and then it gradually decreases to a
value of 7.6 M eV at m ass number 238. T h e binding energy
per nucleon is maximum for iron. This shows that of all the
elements iron is the most stable element. Later in this chapter
it will be shown with the help of graph of Fig. 21.4 that when
heavy element breaks into lighter elements or the lighter
elements are fused to form heavier element then a large
amount of energy can be obtained.

21.4 R AD IO ACTIVITY
It h a s b e e n ob se rve d that those ele m e n ts w h o se ch arge
n u m b e r Z is greater than 8 2 are unstable. S o m e
invisible radiations, that can affect the photographic
plates e m a n a te out of these elem ents. S u c h elem ents
are called radioactive and the p h e n o m e n o n is called
radioactivity. T h e radiation s c o m in g out of the
radioactive elem en ts are called alp h a (a ) , beta (3 ). and
g a m m a (y ) radiation. R adioactivity w a s discovered b y
H enri B e c q u e re l in 1896. H e found that a n ore
containing u ranium ( Z = 9 2 ) em its a n invisible radiation
that penetrates through a black p ap er w rap pin g a
p h o to g ra p h ic plate a n d affects th e plate. A fter
B e c q u e re l's d is c o ve ry M arie C u rie a n d Pierre C u rie
d is co ve re d tw o n e w radioactive ele m e n ts that they
called polonium a n d radium .

T h e analysis of the radiations emanating out of a radioactive

material can be carried out by a simple experiment. Th e
radioactive material is placed at the centre of a block of load
by drilling a hole in tho block. Radioactive radiations enter a
vacuum chamber after emerging out of this hole. After
passing between the two parallel plates the radiations strike
Fig. 21.5
a photographic plate. These radiations, instead of impinging
at one point, fall at three different points due to the potential
difference between the plates (Fig. 21.5).

From this experiment it can be concluded that all radiations

from the radioactive material are not alike. T h e radiation that
bends towards the negative plate is made up of positively
charged particles. These are called ci-partides. Those
radiations that bend towards the positive plate are composed
of negatively charged particles. These are called (l-particles.
Those radiations that go straight without bending have no

226
charge on them. Th e se are called y-rays.

Further experiments reveal that u-partides are helium nuclei.

Th e charge on them is *2e while their mass is 4u (atomic
mass unit) that is every u-partide has two protons and two
neutrons in it. p-partides are in fa d fast moving electrons
which come out of the nudeus of a radioactive element, y-rays
like X-rays, are eledromagnetic waves which issue out of the
nudeus of a radioactive element. Th e wavelength of these
rays is much shorter, compared with the wavelength of X-rays.

N u c le a r T r a n s m u ta tio n

Radioadivity is purely a nudear phenomenon. Th is is not

affeded by any physical or chemical reaction. W henever any
partide I radiation is emitted out of any radioadive element, it
is always accompanied by som e changes in the nudeus of
the element. Therefore, this element changes into a new
element. Th is phenomenon is called radioadive decay. Th e
element formed due to this change is called daughter
element. Th e original element is called the paront element.
During the nudear changes the laws of conservation of F o r Y o u r In fo rm a tio n
mass, energy, momentum and charge remain applicable.
Urjrnjm Thornjri
W e know that three types of radiations u-partide. p-partide daughter (hotem
nucleus)
and y-rays are emitted by the naturally occurring radioadive
elements. W hen u-partide is emitted out of any nudeus then
due to law of conservation of matter, the mass number of the
nudeus decreases by 4, and due to law of conservation of
charge, the charge of the nucleus decreases by a magnitude
m
of 2e i.e.. the charge number of the nudeus decreases by 2. It n • d e c a y o c o j h w tien a n m tte b te
is due to the fa d that the m ass number and charge number of C o ro d n u cleus em its a n a • perttcte
e n d r u n e process « ■ converted ■mo
the emitted particle a is 4 and 2 respectively. Th e emission of < drtecent (or dm ghter) mjdeue
the u-partide is represented by the following equation
J X ---------► *
z *2Y + \ He
Here X represents the parent and Y the daughter element

To explain the emission of a-partides w e take the example of

r a d iu m ^ R a T h e emission of an a-partide from radium 226.
results in the formation of radon g a s ^ R n . Th is change is
represented by the following equation
“ «R a --------- ►^ R n . *He

It m ay be remembered that the sum of the mass numbers

a n d the c h a rg e n u m b e rs on both s ides of the

227
 equation are equal. W h e n a (5-particle is emitted out of an y
For Your Information nucleus, then its m ass num ber does not undergo a n y change
but its charge num ber increases by one. T h e em ission of a
(5-particle from a n y elem ent X is represented by the following
Parent nudeus
a ■purtd* equation
0 'Me 5x

Negative (5-particle is an electron and its em ission from the

Th e e rm tio n o4 r a p * n d * from
R o * u n -2 2 6 roscfis in the lo n r a w n
O lR *d on -2 229lr»
nucleus becom es an incom prehensible enigm a, a s there is
no electron present in the nucleus. H ow ever, the em ission of
electron from the nucleus can be thought of as a neutron
emitting an electron and becom ing a proton, although the
m odern explanation >s not that simple.

Th is m eans that the |5-particle is form ed at the time of

em ission. T h a t is w h y at the time o f em ission of a
(5-particle the charge num berof the nucleus increases by one
p-paibde but n o ch ange in its m a s s num ber takes place as the m a s s of
electron is exceedingly sm all as com p are d to the m a s s of a
!*>
proton or a neutron. T h e transformation of an electron at the
Th e emission or p-psrtlelo trom m om ent of its em ission is given below by an equation
P o lo n lu m -2 1 8 re s u lts m the
fermeaoooT Astsbno-218. :h °e
It has been observed that thorium * ^ T h is transfo rm e d
40 '
into protactinium ” *Pa after the e m issio n of 0 -p a rtic le
* h e follow ing equation re presents this reaction
» < -. J3«_ 0
4 0 * 91P a * - i e
W hen a y-radiat>on issues out of nucleus then neither the charge
D o You K n o w ?
number Z not the mass number A of the nucleus undergoes any
change. It is due to the fact that a y-radfation is simply a photon
Thorium ProUcbm um
daughttr that has neither any charge nor an y mass. Its emission from the
(electron) nucleus has som e resemblance with the emission of a photon
of light from an atom. W e know that when an y electron of an
atom absorbs energy it jum ps from the ground state to a higher
kJ energy state and the atom becomes excited. W hen the electron
BOB of this excited atom returns to its ground state then it emits the
absorbed energy in the form of a photon. In much the sam e way
p -d o o iy occurs when a noutron n a n the nucleus is sometimes exdted to a higher state following the
unsbibJo purer* nucleus decays •mo
■ preton and en electron. Oio electron emission of a or |5-partide. Th is excited state of the nucleus is
bo n o em tted as the p •perbde. In the unstable state, in coming back to its ground state from the
process.INs parent nucleus Is
vanstarmod into daughter n udou*
excited state, y-rarfcation is emitted.

T h e emission of y-radiabon from a nucleus is generally

represented by this equation

228
 J x ’ --------- ► $ X . y radiation

H ere * X represents a n excited nucleus whilo * X shows

ground state of the nucleus.

21.5 H A L F LIFE
W e have seen that w h e n e ve r an a o r (V partide is emitted
from a radioactive elem ent, it is transformed into som e other
element. Th is radioactive de cay process is quite random and
is not subjected to a n y sym m etry. T h is m e a ns that w o cannot
foretell about an y particular atom a s to w h e n will it decay. It
could de cay imm ediately o r it m ay rem ain unchanged for
millions of year. T h u s w e cannot say anything about the life of
a n y particular atom of a radioactive element.

Let us take the exam ple of a city with a population of one

million and w e know that on the average ten person die every
day. E v e n with this know ledge w e cannot say with certainty
that which particular person will die on w hich particular day.
W e can only s a y that on the w hole ten person will die. T h e
greater the population o f the city, the greater the accuracy of
such predictions Like the population of a city, it is not
possible to talk about a n atom of a radioactive element. For
m ore accurate result w e alw ays talk about large groups of
atom s and laws of statistics are applied upon them. Let us
suppose that w e bring a gro u p of 100.000 atom s under
consideration and w ait till such time that half of these i.e..
50.00 0 de cay into their daughter element. T h is time is called
the half-life 7 ,. of this elem ent. If the half-life of the said
elem ent bo one day. then after o n e da y on ly 25.000 atoms
will rem ain behind a n d after two da ys 12.500 atoms will
remain behind. Th a t is with the passage of every one day. the
n u m b e r of atom s rem aining behind becom es half of the
num ber already present. T h is exam ple provides us the
definition of half-life of a radioactive elem ent i.e..

" T h e half-life 7,„ o f a ra d io a c tiv e e le m e n t is that

p e rio d in w h ic h h a lf o f th e a to m s d e c a y ” .

Besides getting tho definition of half-life w e can deduce two

other conclusions from this exam ple. T h e s e are. firstly no
radioactive elem ent c a n com pletely decay. It is due to the
reason that in an y half-life period only half of tho nuclei decay
a n d in this w a y an infinite time is required for all the atom s to
decay.

229

o r ., 2r„,3 r„4 rw sr.,
T m e (f) >
F la. 21.6 Th * h * U* T „ of •
r80«*cf»vo d4c<iy i» Ihe wn* n wiWi
one-ha* o( V * radioactive nudo.
Secondly, the number of atoms decaying in a particular
period is proportional to the number of atoms present in the
beginning of the period. If the number of atoms to start with is
large then a large number of atoms will decay in this period
and if the number of atoms present in the beginning is small
then less atoms will decay.
W e can represent these results with an equation. If at any
particular time the number of radioactive atoms be N. then in
an interval A/, the number of decaying atom. A N is proportional
to the feme interval Af and the number of atoms N. i.e..
AN x -N A f
or A N ■ - a N Af .............. (21.8)
where >. is the constant of proportionality and is called decay
constant. Eq. 21.8 shows that if the decay constant of any
element is large then in a particular interval more of its atoms
will decay and if the constant >. is small then in that very
interval less number of atoms will decay. From Eq. 21.8 we
can define decay constant /. as given below
A
here A N / N is the fraction of the decaying atoms. Th u s decay
constant of an y element is equal to the fraction of the
decaying atoms per unit time Th e unit of the decay constant
is s . Th e negative sign in the Eq. 21 . 8 indicates the decrease
m the numbor of atoms N.
Th e decay ability of any radioactive element can be shown by
a graphic method also.
W e know that every radioactive element decay at a particular
rate with time. If w e draw a graph between number of atoms in
the sample of the radioactive element present at different times
and tho time then a curve as shown in Fig. 21.6 win be
obtained. This graph shows that in the beginning the number of
atoms present in the sample of the radioactive element was N„
with the passage of time the number of these atoms decreased
due to their decay. This graph is called decay curve.
After a period of one half-life N„ / 2 number of atoms of this
radioactive element are left behind. If wo wait further for
another half-period then half of tho remaining N ; / 2 atoms
decay, and 1 /2 x N . / 2 = (1 / 2)' N , atoms remain behind. After
230
the expiry of further period of a hatf-life. half of the rem aining
( 1 12 ? N„ atom s decay. T h e num ber of atom s that rem ain u n ­
decayed is 1 / 2 x (1 / 2 )' N , = (1 / 2)* N v W e can con clude from
this exam ple that if w e have N„ num be r of a n y radioactive
elem ent then after a period of n half-fives the num be r of
atom s left behind is (1 / 2 )' N„.

It has been found that the estimate of d e c a y o f every

radioactive olem ont is according to the graph of F ig .21 .6 but
the half-life of e v e ry radioactive elem ent is different. For
exam ple the half-life of uranium -238 is 4 .5 x 10* years while
tho half-life of radium -226 is 1620 years. T h e half-life of som e
radio active elem ents is very small, for exam ple, the half-life
of radon gas is 3.8 days and that of uranium -239 is 23 .5
minutes.

From the a b o ve discussion it is found that the estimate of any

radioactive elem ent can be m ade from its half-life or by
determining its de cay constant It can be proved with the
help of calculus that the following relations exist betw een the
d e c a y constant >. a n d the half-life

> .T„= 0 .693 (2 1 .9 )

E q . 21 .9 s h o w s that if the de cay constant >. of an y radioactive

element is know n, its half-life can be found.

A n y stable elem ent, besides the naturally occurring

radioactive elem ent, can be m ade radioactive. F o r this very
high e n e rg y particles are bom barded o n the stable elem ent.
T h is bo m ba rdm ent excites the nuclei and tho nuclei a/ter
be com ing unstable becom e radioactive elem ent, S uch
radioactive e lem en ts are called artificial radioactive
elements.

E x a m p l e 2 1 .2 : Iodine-131 is an artificial radioactive

isotope. It is used for the treatment o f hum an thyroid gland.
Its half-life is 8 days. In the drug store of a hospital 20 m g of
iodine-131 is present. It w as received from the laboratory 48
d a ys ago. Find the quantity of iodine-131 in the hospital after
this period.

S o lu t i o n :

A s the half-life o f iodine is 8 days, therefore in 8 d a y s half of

the iodine d e ca ys. G ive n below in the table is the am ount of
iodine present after every 8 days.

231
 In te rv a l in Q u a n tit y o f In te rv a l In Q u a n tity o f
d ays Io d in e days Io din e
0 20 m g 32 1.25 m g

. . 8 10 m g 40 0 .6 2 5 m g
16 5m g 48 0 .3 1 2 5 mg
24 2 .5 m g

Th u s 48 days after the receipt, the amount of iodine-131 left

behind is only 0.3125 mg.

21.6 IN TER A C TIO N O F RADIATION WITH

M ATTER
An a-particte travels a well defined distance in a medium
before coming to rest. Th is distance is called the range of the
particle. A s the particle passes through a solid, liquid or gas. it
loses energy due to excitation and ionization of atoms and
molecules in the matter. Th e ionization m ay be due to direct
elastic collisions or through electrostatic attraction. Ionization
is the main interaction with matter to detect the particle or to
measure its energy. Th e range depends on the

i. charge, m ass and energy of the particle and

ii. the density of the medium and ionization potentials
of the atoms of the medium.

Since a-particle is about 7000 times more massive than an

electron, so it does not suffer any appreciable deflection from
its straight path, provided it does not approach too closely to
the nucleus of the atom. Th u s a-particle continues producing
intense ionization along its straight path tin it loses all its energy
and comes almost to rest It. then, captures two electrons from
the medium and becomes a neutral helium atom.

(l-particles also lose energy by producing ionization, However,

its ionizing ability is about 100 times less than that of u-
partides. A s a result its range « about 100 times more than ex-
particles. (5-particles are more easily deflected by collisions
than heavy u-particies. Th us the path of |5-partides in matter is
not straight but shows much straggling or scattering. The
range of (Pparticles is measured by the effective depth of
penetration into the medium not by the length of erratic path.
Th e more dense the material through which the particle
moves, the shorter its range will be.

232
 a a n d |V-parttdes b o th rad iate o n e rg y a s X -r a y p h o to n s w h e n
th e y a re s lo w e d b y th e e lectric field o f th e c h a rg e d p article s in
a s o ltd m aterial.

P h o to n s of y -ra y s . b e in g u n c h a rg e d , c a u s e v e r y little
ion iza tio n. P h o to n s a re re m o v e d from a b e a m b y e ither
sca tte rin g o r a b s o rp tio n in the m e d iu m . T h e y interact w ith
m a tte r in three d istin ct w a y s , d o p o n d in g m a in ly o n their
e ne rgy.

(i ) A t lo w e n e rg ie s (le s s th an a b ou t 0 .5 M e V ). the
d o m in a n t p ro c e s s that re m o v e s p ho to n s fro m a b e a m
is th e p ho to e le ctric e ffect.

•(ii) A t inte rm e d ia te e n e rg ie s , the d o m in a n t p ro c e s s is

C o m p t o n scatte rin g.

(iii) A t h ig h e r e n e rg ie s (m o re th an 1 .0 2 M e V ). the
d o m in a n t p ro c e s s is p air p roduction.

In a ir y -ra y s intensity faUs off a s the in ve rs e s q u a re o f the

d is ta n c e from th e s o u rc e , in m u c h the s a m e m a n n e r a s light
fro m a la m p . In so lid s , th e intensity d e c re a s e s e xp o n en tially
w ith in c re a s in g d e p th o f p enetration into th e m aterial. T h e
into nsity /. o f a b e a m after p a ss in g throu gh a d is ta n ce x in the
m e d iu m is re d u c e d to in te n s ity /g iv e n b y tho relation

w h e re p is the lin e a r a b so rp tio n coefficient o f th e m e d iu m .

T h is coefficient d e p e n d s o n the e n e rg y of th e p h o to n a s w ell
a s o n th e p ro p e rtie s o f th e m e d iu m .

C h a rg e d particles a o r ft a n d y-radiabon p ro du ce fluore scen ce

o r g lo w o n stnking s o m e su bs ta n ce like z in c su lp h id e, so dium
iodide o r b arium p latin ocyan ide coate d screens.

"Fluorescence is the property of absorbing

radiant energy of high frequency and re-
oinlttlng energy of low frequency in the visible
region of electromagnetic spectrum".

N e u tro n s , b e in g n eu tra l particles, a re e xtre m e ly p en etratin g

particles. T o b e s to p p e d o r s lo w e d , a n eu tro n m u s t u n d e rg o a
dire ct c ollisio n w ith a n u c le u s o r s o m e o th e r particle that has
a m a s s c o m p a ra b le to that o f th e neutron. M a te ria ls s u c h a s
w a te r o r p lastic, w h ic h c o n ta in m o re lo w -m a s s n u c le i p e r unit
v o lu m e , a re u s e d to sto p n eu tro ns. N e u tro n s p ro d u c e a little
in d ire c t io n iza tio n w h e n th e y interact w ith m a te ria ls
c o n ta in in g h y d ro g e n a to m s a n d k n ock o u t p ro to n s.

233
T a b le 21.1 T h e s um m a ry of the nature of a . p & y radiation

Characteristics a-particles ((-particles 7-r a y s

1. N a tu ro H e k u m nuclei of E le c tro n s o r p o sitro n s fro m E M w a v e s from
c h a rg e 2e th o n u c le u s o f c h a rg e i © e xc ite d n u d e i w ith n o
c h a rg e

2 . T y p ic a l R a d o n -2 2 2 S tro n b u m -9 4 C o b a it-6 0
s o u rc e s

3 . Io nization A b o u t 10* A b o u t 10* About 1

(Io n p a irs mrrfin a * )

4 R a n g o i n air S e v e ra l S e v e ra l m e tre s O b e y s in v e rs e s q u a re
c e n tim e tre s la w

5 . A b s o rb e d by A paper 1 -5 m m o f A l sheet 1 -1 0 c m o f le a d sheet

6 . E n e rg y E m itte d w ith tho V a ria b le e n e rg y V a ria b le e n e rg y

s p e c tru m s a m e e n e rg y

7 . Speed - 1 0 r m s '1 - 1 x 1 ( f ms'1 - 3 x 1 Cf ms'1

21.7 R A D IA TIO N D E T E C T O R S
N uclear radiations cannot be detected by o u r senses, hence,
w e use som e observable detecting m ethods em ploying the
interaction of radiation with matter. M ost detectors of
radiation m ake use of the fact that ionization is produced
along the path o f the particle. T h e s e detectors include W ilson
cloud cham ber. G e ig e r counter a n d solid state detectors,

W i ls o n C l o u d C h a m b e r

It is a device which shows the visible path of an ionizing

Carv*r» particle. It m akes use of the fact that supersaturated vapours
condense preferentially on ions. If an ionizing particle passes
through a region in which d o u d droptots are about to form, the
droplets will form first along the particle's path, showing the
path as a trad of droplets. T h e apparatus consists of a
cylindrical glass cham ber closed at the upper end by a glass
w indow and at the lower end by a m ovable piston (Fig. 21.7). A
black felt pad soaked in alcohol is placed on a metal plate
inside the chamber. T h e air soon becom es saturated with
alcohol vapours. A rapid expansion is produced by pulling
quickly the piston of the bicycle pum p having the leather
w asher reversed so that it rem oves air. T h e sudden cooling
F ig . 21.7 re s u lte d from a d ia b a tic e x p a n s io n h e lp s to form
supersaturated vapours. A s radiation passes through the
cham ber, ions are produced along the path. T h e tiny droplets

234
 o f rrxxsture c o n d e n s e a b o u t th e s e o n s a n d form v a p o u r tracks
sh o w in g the path of the radiation. T h e s e a ro the atom ic ve rsio n s
o f the ice crystate left in the s k y b y a jet plane w h e n suitable
conditions exist. T h e fo g tracks a re illum inated w ith a la m p a nd
m a y b e s e e n o r p h o to g ra p h e d th ro u gh the gla ss w in d ow .

T h e u -p a r t i d e s le a v e th ick, stra ig h t a n d c o n tin u o u s tra c k s

d u e to in te n s e io n iz a tio n p ro d u c e d b y th e m a s s h o w n in
F ig . 2 1 .8 (a ), |5-particles fo rm thin a n d d is c o n tin u o u s tra c k s
(* ) a -P a r t id e
e x te n d in g in e rra tic m a n n e r s h o w in g fro q u o n t d e fle c tio n s
(F i g . 2 1 .8 b ) a n d y -r a y s le a v e n o d e fin ite tra c k s a lo n g th eir
p a th (F i g . 2 1 .8 c ). T h e le n g th o f th e c lo u d tra c k s h a s b e e n
fo u n d p ro p o rtio n a l to th o e n e r g y o f th e in o d e n t particfe. A
h ig h p o te n tia l d iffe re n c e o f th e o r d e r o f 1 k V b e t w e e n th e to p
a n d b o tto m o f th o c h a m b e r p ro v id e s a n e le c tn c field w h ic h
d e a r s a w a y a ll th o u n w a n t e d io n s fro m th e c h a m b e r to m a k e
it re a d y for u s e . T h e tra c k s s e e n a r e . th e re fo ro . th o s e o f ra y s
that p a s s th o c h a m b e r a s th e e x p a n s io n o c c u rs .

T h e c h a m b e r m a y b e placed in a strong m agnetic field (b) ^ Par1,oe

w hich will be nd the paths providing information about the w
charge, m a s s a n d e n e rg y of the radiating partide. In this ^
way. it h as helped in the discovery o f m a n y new particles.

G e ig e r -M u lle r C o u n t e r
G eig er-M ulle r tube is a w ell-know n radiation detector - T ' '*'
(Fig. 21 .9 a ). T h e discharge in the tube results from the
ionization produ ced by the incident radiation. It consists Q
of a stiff central w ire acting a s a n a n o d e in a hollow metal (c) r-Rays
cylinder acting a s a cathode filled with a suitable mixture
of g a s at about 0.1 atm ospheric pressure. O n e end of the f ■ ctoud dumber tr*cu
tube h as a thin m ica w in dow to allow the entry of u or <#«. P. t i*<mhoo»
jl-particles a n d other end is sealed by non-conducting
material a n d carries the connecting pins for the two
electrodes. A high potential difference, (about 4 0 0 V for
n e o n -b ro m in e filled tu b e s ) but slightfy less than that

400V

T h n nwce mndow -

Argonge* Cathode Anode

F ig 21.9 (a) Geiger - Muller Tube

235
 n e c e s s a ry to p ro d u c e d is c h a rg e th ro u g h th e g a s is
m a in ta in e d b e tw e e n the e le c tro d e s . W h e n radiation
e n te rs th e tu b e , io n iza tio n is p ro d u c e d . T h e free
e le c tro n s a re a ttra c te d to w a rd s th e p o s itiv e ly c h a rg e d
c e n tra l w ire . A s th e y a re a c c e le ra te d to w a rd s th e w ire
b y a s tro n g e le c tric field, th e y c o llid e w ith o th e r
m o le c u le s o f th e g a s a n d k n o c k o u t m o re e le c tro n s
w h ic h in turn d o the s a m e a n d p ro d u c e a c a s c a d e of
e le c tro n s that m o v e to w a rd s th e c e n tra l w ire . T h is
m a k e s a s h o rt p u ls e o f e le c tric c u rre n t to p a s s th ro u g h
a n e x te rn a l resistor. It is a m p lifie d a n d re g is te re d
electronically. T h e c o u n te r, w h ic h a ls o p ro v id e s the
(b ) G M Tube w it\ v M t r on*
p o w e r, is c a lle d a scaler.
Fig 21J
T h e cascade of electrons produced by the entry o f an
ionizing particle is counted as a single pulse of approxim ately
of the sa m e size w hatever the e n e rg y or path of the particle
m aybe. It cannot, thus, discriminate betw een the energies of
the incident particle as output pulses are sam e. T h e entire
electron pulse takes less than 1p s. H ow ever, positive ions,
being very m assive than the electrons, take several hundred
times a s long to reach the outer cathode. D uring this time,
called the dead time ( “10“*s ) o f the counter, further incoming
particles cannot be counted. W h e n positive ions striko the
cathode, secondary electrons are em itted from the surface.
T h e s e electrons w ould be accelerated to give further
spurious counts. T h is is prevented by m ixing a sm all am ount
of quenching gas with the principal gas.

T h e quenching gas m ust have an ionization potential lower

than that of inert o r pnncipal gas. T h u s , the ions of quenching
g a s reach the cathode before principal g a s ions. W h e n they
reach near the cathode, they capture electrons and becom e
neutral molecules. Follow ing neutralization, the excess
en ergy of the quenching m olecules is dissipated in
dissociation of the molecules rather than in the release of
electrons from the cathode. For exam ple, brom ine gas is
added to neon gas. T h e brom ine m olecules ab so rb enorgy
from the ions or secondary electrons and dissociato into
brom ine atoms. T h e atom s then readily recom bine into
m olecules again for the next pulse. T h o gas quenching is
called self quenching A lthough all com m ercial G e ig e r tubes
are self quenched, it is c o m m o n practice to use electronic
quenching in addition. F o r this purposo. a large negative
voltage is applied to the anode im m ediately after recording

236
the output pulse. Th is reduces the electric field bleow the
critical value for ionization by collision. T h e negative voltage
rem ains until all the positive ions are collected at cathode
thus preventing secondary pulses.
G e ig e r counter can be used to determ ine the range or
penetration pow er of ionizing particles T h e reduction in the
count rate by inserting metal plates of varying thickness
betw een the source and the tube helps to estimate the
penetration pow er of the incident radiation.
G eiger counter is not suitable for fast counting. It is because
of its relatively long 'd e a d tim e ' of the order of m ore than a
millisecond w hich limits the counting rate to a few hundred
counts per second. If particles a re incident o n the tube at a
faster rate, not all of them will b e counted since som e will
arrive during the de ad time. Solid state detectors are fast
en ough , m ore efficient and accurate
S o li d S ta te D e t e c t o r
A solid state detector is a specially designed p -n Junction
(F ig . 2 1 .1 0 ) operating und er a reversed bias in w hich
electron-hole pairs are produced by the incident radiation to
cause a current pulse to flow through the external circuit. T h e
detector is m ade from a p-type silicon or germ anium . A n n -
type thin layer is produced by doping the top surface with
do nor type impurity. T h e lo p and bottom surfaces are coated
with a thin layer of gold to m ake g o o d conducting contact with
e x t e r n a l c ir c u it . T h e c o m b in e d t h ic k n e s s of
n-type a n d gold layer absorbs so less e n e rg y of the incident
particle that the junction m ay be assum e d to be situated at
the front surface. Th is is know n a s the surface barrier type
detector. A reverse bias is applied through the two
conducting layers of gold. T h is enlarges the charge free
region around the junction called depletion region. Norm ally
no current flows through the circuit. W h e n a n incident particle
penetrates through the depletion region, it produces
electron-hole pairs. T h e s e m obile charge carriers m ove
towards the respective sides d u e to applied electric field. T h is
g ive s rise to a current in the external circuit d u o to w hich a
pulse of voltage is generated across the resistance R . Th is
pulse is amplified a n d registered b y a scaler unit. T h e size of
the pulse is found proportional to the en ergy absorbed of the
incident particle. T h e en ergy needed to produce an electron-
hole pair is about 3 e V to 4 e V w hich m akes the device useful
for detecting low en ergy particles. T h e collection time of
electrons and holes is m uch less than gas filled counters and
hence a solid state detector can count very fast. It is m uch
smaller in size than a n y other detector and operates at low
voltage. T h e a b o ve m entioned type detector is used for
detecting « o r fl-partidos but a specially de sign ed device
can b e used for y-rays.

21.8 N U C L E A R R E A C T IO N S
W hile studying radioactivity, w e have seen that an a
particle is emitted from radium -226 and radon-222 is
obtained. Th is nuclear ch ange is represented by the
following equation
^ R a ►

S u c h an equation represents a nuclear reaction. A bo ve

m entioned nuclear reaction takes place on its o w n accord.
H ow ever, it w a s Rutherford w ho . first of all, expressed his
opinion that besides natural radioactive d e c a y processes,
other nuclear reactions can also occur. A particle x is
bom barded on an y nucleus X and this process yield a
nucleus Y and a light object y as g iven below

X + x - » Y « -y

Rutherford performed a n experim ent on tho nuclear reaction

In 1918. H e bom barded a -p a rtid e s o n nitrogon. H e observed
that as a result of this reaction, oxygen is obtained and a
proton is emitted. Th a t is
"N r- j H e ► ’J O + JH

T h is reaction indicated that w h e n u-particle enters the

nucleus of " N then an exortation is produced in it. A nd as a
result of it \ 0 and a proton are produced. Since the
oxpehm ent of Rutherford, innum erable n u d e a r reactions
have been observed. F o r n u d e a r reactions to take place,the
fulfillment of certain conditions is a must.

Before and after an y n u d e a r reaction the num ber of protons

and neutrons must rem ain the sam e because protons and
neutrons can neither be destroyed nor can they be created
W e elaborate this point from the exam ple of Rutherford's
n u d e a r reaction of ' , N a n d ‘ H e . here
’| N * j H e ►’J O + JH

N um ber of protons = 7 ♦ 2 = 8 ♦ 1
N um bor of neutrons = 7 + 2 = 9 + 0
A n u d e a r reaction can tako place only when the total energy of
the reactants mdudiog the rest m ass energy is equal to the
total energy of the products. For its explanations w e again take
the example of the nud e ar reaction of Rutherford involving
'‘ N and ‘ H e . in this reaction the m ass of the reactants is
 M a ss o f = 14.0031 u

M a s s o f jH e = 4 .0 0 2 6 u
Total m a s s of the reactants = 18.0057 u
In the sam e w a y the m ass of the products is
M a ss of ’J O = 16.9991 u
M a ss of JH = 1.0078 u
Total m ass of the products after the reaction = 18.0069 u

T h is s h ow s that the total m a s s after the reaction is greater

than the total m a s s before the reaction by 0.001 2 u. W e know
that a 1u m ass = 931 M e V energy, therefore, a m ass
difference of 0 .0012u is equivalent to an en ergy of
931 M e V x 0.001 2 u = 1.13 MeV. H e n c e this reaction is
possible only w hen a n additional m ass of 0.001 2 u is added
into the reactants o r the m inim um kinetic en ergy of the u -
partide is 1.13 M e V such a s obtained from 2JJ P o . T h e en ergy
of these u -p a rtid e s is oqual to 7.7 M o V w hich is greater than
1.13 M eV. H ad these u -p a rtid e s been obtained from a
source that give out u -p a rtid e s w hose en ergy w a s less than
1.13 M e V then this reaction w ould not h a v e taken place.

Fro m the conditions described above w o c a n tell w hether an y

n u d e a r roaction is possible o r not. T h e re is an interesting
aspect in a n u d e a r roaction that it can take place in the
opposite direction also. W e know th a t1J O is obtained by the
interaction’ with an u -p a rtid e of appropriate onergy. If w e
accelerate protons, with the help of a m achine like cydotron .
and increase their v e lo d ty and then bom bard these high
v e lo d ty protons on ’JO . Rutherford's n u d e a r reaction o f " N
a n d u -p a rtid e will proceed in the backw ard direction as
’J O + J H » 1J N + j H e

B y bom barding different elem ents with u -p a rtid e s . protons

and neutrons, m a n y n u d e a r reactions have been produced.
N o w w e describe one such n u d e a r reaction with the help of
w hich Ja m e s C h a d w ick discovered neutron in 1932. W h e n
j B e w a s bom barded with u -p a rtid e s emitted out of *JJP o,
then as a result of a n u d e a r re a c tio n .'JC and a neutron w ere
obtained. T h is reaction is s h ow n below with an equation

»B e + JH o ►’| C + <Jn
A s neutron carries n o charge, thereforo. it presented
a m e a t am ount of difficulty for its identification. A n y h o w

239
 w hen neutrons w e re passed through a block of paraffin, fast
m oving protons w e re ejected out and these w ere easily
identified. It m ay be rem em bered that a large am ount of

1
hydrogen is present in paraffin and the nuclei of hydrogen
Proton*
' n
atom s are protons. T h e em ission of protons is the
t > -*
0 -* con se que nce of elastic collisions betw een the neutrons and
© -*
the protons. T h is indicates that the m a s s of neutron is equal
» -* O -* to the m ass of the proton. It m a y be rem em bered that w hen
an object of certain m a s s collides with another object of equal
a —
O -* m a s s at rost. then a s a result of elastic collision, the moving
Po
K x rt* object c om e s to rest and the stationary object begins to m ove
80 P«r»ffln
with the velocity of the colliding object. T h e discovery of
Fig. J 1 .1 1 neutron has brought in a revolution in nuclear reactions, as
the neutrons carry no charge s o they can easily enter the
nucleus. Fig. 21.11 show s the arra ngem ent of Chadw ick’s
experiment for the discovery of neutron.

21.9 N U C L E A R FISSIO N
O tto H a h n a n d Fritz S trassm ann of G e rm a n y while working
upon the nuclear reactions m ade a startling discovery. T h e y
observed that w h e n slow m oving neutrons are bom barded
o n ^ U . then a s a result of the nuclear reaction’."B a .” K r and
an avera ge of three neutrons are obtained. It m ay be
rem em bered that the m ass of both krypton and barium is less
than that of the m a s s of uranium . T h is nuclear reaction w as
different from hither to studied other nuclear reactions, in two
w ays. First a s a result of the breakage of the uranium
nucleus, tw o nuclei of alm ost equal size are obtained,
w he rea s in the other nuclear reactions the difference
between the m asses of the reactants and the products was
not large. Seco n dly a very large am ount of en ergy is given
out in this reaction

" S u c h a reaction in w h ic h a h eavy nucleus like

that o f u ra n iu m splits u p into tw o nuclei o f rough ly
equal size along w ith the om issio n of e n e rg y
d u rin g the reaction is called fission reaction".

Fission reaction of ” j U can be represented by the equation

*gU +^n ---------► ’£ B a - £ K r ♦ 3gn ♦ Q

h e re Q is th e e n e rg y g iv e n o u t in this re a c tio n . B y
c o m p a rin g th e total e n e r g y o n th e left s id e o f th e
e q u a tio n w ith total e n e rg y o n th e right s id e , w e find that
in th e fission o f o n e u ra n iu m n u c le u s a b o u t 2 0 0 M e V

240
energy is given out. It m ay be kept in mind that there is no
difference between the sum of the m ass and the charge
numbers on both sides of the equation. Fission reaction
is shown in Fig. 21.12 (a ) and (b). Fission reaction can
be easily explained with the help of graph of Fig. 21.4.
Th is graph show s that the binding energy per nucleon is
greatest for the middle elements of the periodic table and
this binding energy per nucleon is a little less for the light
or very heavy elements i.e., the nucleons in the light or
very heavy elements are not so rigidly bound. For
example the binding energy per nucleon for uranium is

Fig 21.12 Proem* o4 FlM lon r*»cH©n

about 7.7 M e V and the products of the fission reaction of

uranium, namely barium and krypton, have binding
energy of about 8.5 M eV per nucleon. Th u s when a
uranium nucleus breaks up. as a result of fission reaction,
into barium and krypton, then an energy at the rate of
(8 5-7.6) = 0.9 M e V per nucleon is given out. This means
that an energy 235 x 0.9 = 211.5 M e V is given out in the
fission of one uranium nucleus.
T h e fission p ro ce ss of ura n iu m d o e s not ahvays p ro d u ce the
s a m e fragm ents (B a . K r). In fact a n y of the h vo nuclei p re se nt
in the u p p e r horizontal part o f binding e n e rg y could be
pro du ce d T w o p ossible fission reactions of ura niu m a re g iv e n
b e lo w a s a n e xa m p le :

Jo -------- ► ’^ S n + '^ M o + S in + Q

241
 * »U * o n * ’« X e + & S r + 2 i n + Q
H ence in the uranium fission reaction several products m ay
be produced. All of these products (fragm ents) are
radioactive. Fission reaction is not confined to uranium alone;
it is possible in m any other heavy elements. H ow ever, it has
been observed that fission takes place v e ry easily with the
siow neutrons in uranium -235 and plutonium -239, and mostly
these two are used for fission purposes.

F i s s i o n C h a in R e a c tio n

W e have observed that during fission reaction, a nucleus of

uranium -235 absorbs a neutron and breaks into two nuclei of
almost equal m asses besides emitting two o r three neutrons.
B y properly using these neutrons fission reaction can be
produced in m ore uranium atom s such that a fission reaction
c a n continuously maintain itself. T h is process is called
fission chain reaction. S uppose that w e have a definite
am ount of and a slow neutron originating from an y
source produces fission reaction in one atom of uranium. O ut
o f this reaction about three neutrons are emitted. If
conditions are appropriate these neutrons produce fission in
som e m ore atom s o f uranium. In this w ay this process
rapidly proceeds and in an infinitesimal small time a large
am ount of en ergy along with huge explosion is produced.
Fig.2 1 .13 is tho representation of fission chain reaction.

It is possible to produce such conditions in which only one

neutron, out of all the neutrons created in o n e fission reaction,
becom es the cause of further fission reaction. T h e other
neutrons either escape out or are absorbed in an y other
m edium except uranium. In this case the fission chain
reaction proceeds with its initial speed. To understand these
conditions carefully look at Fig. 21.14. In Fig. 21.14 (a ) a
fission reaction in a thin sheet of is show n to be in
progress. T h e resulting neutrons scatter in the air and so they
cannot produce an y fission chain reaction. Fig. 21.14 (b )
shows som e favourable conditions for chain reaction. Som e
of the neutrons produced in the first fission reaction produce
only one m ore fission reaction but here also no chain reaction
isproduced. ln F ig .2 1 .1 4 (c )a s p h e r e o f issh ow n. If the
sphere is sufficiently big. then most of the neutrons produced
by the fission reaction get absorbed in before they
escape out of the sphere and produce chain reaction. Such a
m ass of uranium in which o n e neutron, out of all the neutrons
produced in o n e fission reaction, produces further fission is
called critical m ass. T h e volum e of this m ass of uranium is
called critical volum e. For Your Information

If th e m a s s o f u ra n iu m is m u c h g re a te r th a n the critical Neutron

m a s s , th e n the c h a in re a c tio n p r o c e e d s at a ra p id s p e e d
a n d a h u g e e x p lo s io n is p r o d u c e d . A to m b o m b w o rk s at
this p rin c ip le . If th e m a s s o f u ra n iu m is le s s th a n the
critical m a s s , th e c h a in re a c tio n d o e s not p ro c e e d . If
the m a s s o f u ra n iu m is e q u a l to th e critical m a s s , the
c h a in re a c tio n p r o c e e d s at its initial s p e e d a n d in this
w a y w e g e t a s o u rc e o f e n e rg y . E n e rg y , in a n a to m ic
re a cto r, is o b ta in e d a c c o rd in g to this p rin c ip le . T h e
c h a in re a c tio n is n o t a llo w e d to ru n w ild , a s in a n a to m ic
b o m b b u t is co n tro lle d b y a s e rie s o f ro d s , u s u a lly m a d e
o f c a d m iu m , that a re in s e rte d into the reacto r. C a d m iu m
is a n e le m e n t that is c a p a b le o f a b s o rb in g a la rge
n u m b e r o f n e u tro n s w ith o u t b e c o m in g u n s ta b le o r
ra d io a c tiv e . H e n c e , w h e n th e c a d m iu m c o n tro l ro d s a re
In a oonlroBaO tftam raacaon. on*y
in s e rte d in to th e re a c to r, th e y a b s o rb n e u tro n s to cut on* n a jy o n , o n a v r a g a , Irom oac/i
d o w n o n th e n u m b e r o f n e u tro n s that a re a v a ila b le for fiaaion * v* n t c a u » « « a no the r
nudaus to flaaton As a raauft.
th e fission p ro c e s s . In th is w a y th e fission re a c tio n is energy a raieaead at a steady or
ccrtnMdrm
c o n tro lle d .

In a nu cle a r pow er station the reactor plays the s a m e part

a s d o e s furnace in a therm al p o w e r station. In a furnace,
coal o r oil is burnt to p ro d u c e heat, while in a reactor fission
reaction p ro d u ce s heat. W h e n fission takes place in the
atom of u ranium or a n y othe r h e a v y atom , then an e n e rg y at
the rate of 200 M e V per nucleus ts produ ced T h is en ergy
a p p e a rs in the form of kinetic e n e rg y o f the fission
fragm ents. T h e s e fast m o v in g fragm ents be sid e s colliding
with o n e an oth er also collide with the uranium atom s. In this
w a y their kinetic e n e rg y gets transform ed in heat energy.
T h is heat is used to produ ce ste a m w hich in turn rotates the
turbine. T u rb in e rotates the gen era tor w hich produ ces
electricity. A sketch of a nu cle a r p o w e r station is s h o w n in
F ig . 2 1 .1 5 .

243
Hoat exeh o o g o out

Fig. 2 1 .IS

A reactor usually has four important parts. T h e s e are:

1 • T h e m ost important and vital part of a reactor is called

core. H ere the fuel is kept in the shape of cylindrical
tubes. Reactor fuels are of various types. Uranium
w as used as fuel in the olem entary reactors. In this
fuel the quantity of 2^ U is increased from 2 to 4
percent. It m ay be rem em bered that the quantity of
2» U in the naturally occurring uranium is only 0.7
percent. N o w -a -d a y s plutonium -239 a n d uranium -
233 are also being used as fuel.

2 T h e fuel rods are placed in a substance of small

atomic weight, such as water, h eavy water, carbon or
hydrocarbon otc. T h e s e substances are called
moderators. T h e function of these m oderators is to
slow do w n the speed of the neutrons produced
during the fission process and to direct them towards
the fuel. H e avy water, it m a y be rem em bered, is
m ade of 2H . a h eavy isotope of hydrogen instead of
J H . T h e neutrons produced in the fission reaction are
very fast and energetic and are not suitable for
producing fission in reactor fuel like 2£ u o r ^ J P u e tc .
For this purpose slow neutrons are m ore useful. To
achieve this, moderators are used.

B esides m oderator there is a n arra ngem ent for the

control of num ber of neutrons, s o that of all the

244
 neutrons produced in fission, on ly one neutron
produces further fission reaction. T h e purpose is
achieved either by cadm ium o r by boron because
they have the property of absorbing fast neutrons.
T h e control rods m ade of cadm ium o r boron are
m oved in or out of the reactor core to control the
neutrons that can initiate further fission reaction. In
this w a y the speed of the chain reaction is kopt under
control. In c a s e of e m e rge ncy o r for repair purposes
control rods are allow ed to fall back into the reactor
and thus stop the chain reaction a n d shut do w n the
reactor.

4 Heat is produced d u e to chain roaction taking place in

the core of the reactor. T h e temperature of the core,
therefore, rises to about 500 ’C . T o produco steam
from this heat, it is transported to heat exchanger with
the help of water, h eavy w ater o r a n y other liquid
under high pressure. In the heat ox changer this heat
is used to produce high temperature steam from
ordinary w ater T h o stoam is then used to run the
turbine w hich in turn rotates the generator to produce
electricity. T h o temperature of the steam com ing out
of the turbine is about 300 *C. Th is is further cooled to
convert it into w ater agam . To cool this steam, w ater
from som e river o r sea is. generally, used..In Karachi
nuclear pow er plant (K A N U P ). h e a v y w ater is being
used as a m oderator and for the transportation of
heat also from the reactor core to heat exchanger,
heavy w ater is used. To cool steam com ing out of the
turbine, sea w ater is being used.

T h e nuclear fuel o n ce used for charging the reactor can keep

on operation continuously for a few months. T h e re after the
fissile material begins to decrease. N o w the used fuel is
rem oved and fresh fuel is fed instead. In the used up fuel
intensely radioactive substances rem ain. T h e half-life of
these radioactive rem nant materials is m a n y thousand years.
T h e radiations and the particles emitted out of this nuclear
w aste is very injurious and harmful to the living things.
Unfortunately there is no proper arrangem ent of the disposal
of the nuclear w aste. T h is cannot be d u m p e d into o ce a ns or
left in a n y place w h e re they will contam inate the
environm ent, such as through the soil o r the air. T h e y m ust
not be allowed to get into the drinking water. T h e best place
so far found to store those w astes is in the bottom of old salt

245
 m ines, which are very d ry and are thousands of metres below
the surface of tho Earth. H ere they can remain and decay
without polluting the environment.

Th e re are two m ain typos of nuclear reactors. T h o s e are:

(i) Th e rm a l reactors (ii) Fa s t reactors

T h e thermal reactors are called th erm al* because the

neutrons m ust be slowed do w n to ’ thermal energ»es* to
produce further fission. T h e y use natural uranium or slightly
enriched uranium as fuel. Enriched uranium contains a

O
r -K *y greater percentage of U -2 3 5 than natural uranium does
Th e re are several designs of thermal reactors. Pressurized
w ater reactors (P W R ) are the m ost w idely used reactors in
^ 23 5 mm the world. In this type of reactors, the w ater is prevented from
boiling, being kept und er high pressure. Th is hot w ater is
used to bo*l another circuit of w ater w hich produces steam for
Npl M * 0 *1
o turbine rotation of electricity generators.

n . Fast reactors are designed to m ake use of U -2 3 8 . w hich is

v about 9 9 % content of natural uranium. E a c h U -2 3 8 nucleus
absorbs a fast neutron and changes to plutonium -239.
’X j - O + r ’> ♦ >

»N p --------- » *£Pu ♦
** nvck’*' r*#tt>on Plutonium c a n be fissioned by fast neutrons, hence.
•Men tr*n«nwM mto is ^ need e d in fast reactors T h e core of fast
ije tfe n e u re n iu m • react0fS consists 0f a mixture of plutonium and uranium
pMon*w •* dioxide surrounded by a blanket o f uranium -238.

Neutrons that escape from the core interact with uranium-

238 in the blanket, producing thereby plutonium -239. Th u s
m ore plutonium fuel is bred in this w a y and natural uranium is
used m ore effectively.

21.10 F U S IO N R E A C T IO N
W o know that the en ergy given out per nucleon per fission of
heavy elem ent like that of uranium is 0 .9 MeV. It is due to the
fact that the binding en ergy p e r n u d e o n of the fission
fragments is greater than uranium In fact e n e rg y is obtained
from an y nuclear reaction in w hich the binding en ergy per
nucleon of the products increases. Is there a n y other reaction
besides the fission reaction from w hich en ergy could be
obtained? In order to an sw er this question w e must ponder

246
o v e r Fig-21.4 again. Th is graph shows that the binding energy
per nucleon increases upto A = 50. H e n c e w h e n two light
nude* m erge together to form a heavy nucleus w hose m ass
num ber A is less than 50. then en ergy is given o u t In section
on 'M a s s Defect and Binding Energy” w e have observed that
w h e n two protons and two neutrons m erge to form a helium
nu d o u s . then about 28 M e V energy is given out.

"S u c h a nu cle a r reaction in w h ic h tw o light nuclei m erge

to form a h e a v y nucleus is called fusion reaction".

During a fusion reaction so m e m ass is lost and its equivalent

en ergy is given out. In a fusion reaction, m ore en ergy per
n u d e o n c a n be obtained as com pared to the fission reaction.
But unfortunately it is com paratively m ore difficult to produce
fusion. T w o positively charged light n u d e i m ust be brought
very d o s e to o n e another. To d o s o work has to be done
against tho olcctrostatic force of repulsion between the
positively charged nudei. T h u s a very large am ount of
en ergy is required to produce fusion re adion . It is true that a
greater am ount o f energy can be obtained during a fusion
reaction com p are d to that produced during a fission reaction,
but in order to start this re a d io n a very large am ount of
en ergy is spent. O n the contrary no difficulty is faced to start
the fission reaction because neutron has no charge on it and
it has to face no repulsive force while reaching the n u d e u s .

Let us now take the exam ple of a fusion reaction w h e n two

deuterons are m erged to form a helium nucleus. 24 M e V
en ergy is released during this process i.e..
2H ♦ 2H ►j H o ♦ 24 M e V

But there is a v e ry little chance of the formation of j H e

n u d e u s by the m erg er of two deuterons. T h e probability of
occurring such a readion is great w he re one proton or one
neutron is produ ced as given below:
2H + 2H ¥ *,H ♦ JH + 4 .0 M e V

Of ^ H + 2H -------------► j H e + ,Jn + 3 .3 M e V

In both of these reactions about 1.0 M e V onergy per n u d e o n

is produced w hich is equal to the on o rgy produced during
fission. If 2H a n d 3,H are forced to fuse then 17.6 M e V en ergy
is obtained i.e..
2,H * *H --------- ► j H e + o n + 17.6 M e V
W e know that for fusion of tw o light n u d e i the work has to be

247

O o You K now ?
O zo n * on t w M r f t M of E lrtti it •
c o rro w * and poMcnou* g a t but «
t w holflN o< 2 0 -5 0 b n fro n lh « E w f »
hA m bK onw v M l o A n l
a b tc rta rfm ost a l u v rwfctton*
v M d ia r a h a r m U lo lv 'n g M n g *
F o r Y o u r In fo r m a t io n
Ufc-a x o M raduito-o cauta
(I ) Sunburn. M n d rw M and tkin
cmom
(1 ) Savara crop damage
(» ) dacay o ( m ieroorganM ina
(k>) d brupr *»• oeaan aooayMem
d o ne to overcom e the repulsive force w hich exists between
them . F o r this the tw o n u d e i are hurled towards o n e another
at a very high speed. O n e method to d o so is to give these
nuclei a very large velocity with the help o f an accelerator.
Th is method has been used in the research study of nuclear
fusion of *H and j, h . But this method o f nuclear fusion for
getting en ergy cannot be used on a largo scale.
T h e re is another m ethod to produce fusion reaction .It is
based upon the principle that the speed of atom s of a
substance increases with the increase in the temperature of
that substance. To start a fusion re adion the temperature at
w hich the required speed of the light n u d e i can be obtained is
about 10 million d e g ree s Celsius. A t such extraordinarily high
temperature the reaction that takes place is called thermo­
nuclear reaction. Ordinarily such a high tomperature cannot
be achieved. H o w e ve r during tho explosion of am atom
b o m b this temperature can be had for a v e ry short time.
Until now the fusion re a d io n is taking place only in a
h ydrogen bom b. Th a t extraordinary high temperature is
obtained d u rirg the explosion of an atom bo m b, due to this
high temperature the fusion re a d io n betw een 2H and J,H sets
in. In this w a y a ve ry large am ount of en ergy is given out with
the explosion.
A very large am ount of en ergy can be had from a fusion
reaction, but till n o w this re a d io n has not been brought under
control like a fission re a d io n and s o is not being used to
produce eledrid ty. Efforts are in full swing in this field and it is
hoped that in near future som e method w ould be found to
control this re a d io n a s w e ll.
T h e S u n is com p osed primarily of hydrogen. It has a little
am ount of helium and a slight am ount of other heavy
elements. A trem endous am ount of en ergy keeps issuing out
of it continuously at all times. Th o temperature of its core is
about 20 million de g roe s Celsius and its surface temperature
is about 6000 de groe s Celsius. Its e n e rg y is d u e to fusion
re a d io n called p -p re a d io n . During this process two
hydrogen nuclei or two protons fuse to from deuteron Th is
reaction takes place as
]H + J H > 2H + ° e * E n e rg y
W ith the fusion reaction of deuteron with proton, s ^ e an
isotope of helium is form ed i.e..
248
 *H+!H ---------> * H e + y + E n e r g y

In the last stage the two nuclei of jH e react in the following For Your Information
m anner
^H e « jH c > j H e ♦ ]H ♦ 1,H * E n e rg y
In this reaction six protons take part and finally a helium
nucleus a n d tw o protons a re formed. Th a t is. the result of
different stages of this reaction is that four protons have
formed o n e helium nucleus. It has been estimated that in this
p -p chain reaction, 25 .7 M e V energy is given out i.e.. 6.4 M eV
per nucleon en ergy is obtained which is m uch greater than
the e n e rg y given out per nucleon (1 M e V ) during a fission
reaction.

21.11 R A D IA TIO N E X P O S U R E
W h e n a G e ig e r tube is used in an y experiment, it records
fho-chart show ing proportion ©<
radiation even w h e n a radioactive source is nowhere near it. radiation from diflerenl sources
Th is is caused by radiation called background radiation. It is absorbed b y avorage person

partly d u e to cosm ic radiation which c om e s to us from outer

space and partly from naturally occurring radioactive
substance in tho Earth’s crust. T h e cosm ic radiation consists
of high en ergy charged particles and electromagnetic
radiation. T h e atm osphere acts as a shield to a bsorb so m e of
these radiations a s well a s ultraviolet rays. In recent past, the
depletion of o zone layer in the upper atm osphere has been
detected w hich particularly filters ultraviolet rays reaching us.
T h is m a y result in increased eye and skin diseases. T h e
depletion of o zone layer is suspected to be caused due to
excessive release of som e chemicals in the atm osphere such
as chloroflourocarbons ( C F C ) used in refrigeration, aerosol
spray a n d plastic foam industry. Its use is now being replaced
by environm entally friendly chemicals. M a ny building
materials contain small am ounts of radioactive isotopes.
Radioactive radon gas enters buildings from the ground. It
gets trapped inside the building which m akes radiation levels
m uch higher from radon inside than outside. A good
ventilation can reduce radon level inside the building. All
types of food also contain a little radioactive substance. Th e
T H » symbol * u rw o rsa ty used to
m ost com m on are potassium -40 and ca rb o n -14 isotopes.
m diM le an area whore raOoochnty
is b o n g h* nd * d or artdoal radabons
S o m e radiation in the environm ent is added by human are bemg produced
activities. Medical practices, m ostly diagnostic X -ra y
probably contribute the m ajor portion to it. It is an unfortunate
fact that m any X -ra y exposures such as routine chest X -ra y

249
 and dental X -ra y are m ade for no strong reason and m ay do
For Your Information m ore harm than good. E v e ry X -ra y s exposure should have a
definite justification that outweighs the risk. T h e other
Source* or normal radobon sources include radioactive w aste from nuclear facilities.

i -V"
hospitals, research and industrial establishments, colour
television, lum inous w atches and tobacco leaves. A smoker
not onty inhales toxic sm oke but also h aza rdo us radiation.
L o w level background radiation from natural sources is
norm ally considered to be harm less. H ow ovor. higher levels
of exposure are certainly dam aging. W e cannot avord
exposure to radiation. H ow ever, the best advice is to avoid
unnecessary exposure to a n y kind of ionizing radiation.

21.12 B IO L O G IC A L E F F E C T S O F R ADIATIO N
Tibi* 212
R iU tN * Bkfegkal Efl*C«K*n*M (RBE) To study the effects of radiation, w e need to define som e of
the units of radiation. T h e strength of the radiation source is
X 4M . , indicated by its activity m easured in becquorel (B q ). O n e
e lX U V o n n
.( M i H i r i m W K U V becqucrcl is o n e disintegration per second. A larger unit is
'Olto«»>
MtV M !•»*») curie (C i) which equals 3.7 x 10’: disintegrations per second.
M m w N n M m 10
T h e effect of radiation o n a body absorbing it relates to a
N * M to o l *X »» quantity called absorbed d o se D defined as the en ergy E
absorbed from ionizing radiation per unit m a s s m of the
absorbing bedy.
D=„ £
(2 1 .10)

250
Its SI unit is gray (G y ) defined as one joule per kilogram.
Table 21.3
1 G y = 1 Jk g ’ Average « M c n Ooaet h * a mwoer
et a w m vxree* e» e n z n g redeton
A n old unit is rad, an acronym for radiation absorbed dose.
Type* of Expo*ure mSvi
1 rad = 0.01 G y
W e v « « « lor • yew 10
Equa l doses of different radiations d o not produce sam e Redefton from nude* power 10
biological effect F o r the sam e absorbed dose. n-particJes lU U n W t iw
are 20 times m ore dam aging than X -rays. T h e effect also W M 'r v j « k fflK W I »
■atefi fc* • ( t v (now not very
depends on the part of the body absorbing the radiation. For COrwrOlJ
exam ple, neutrons are particularly m ore dam aging to eyes MevegatfeatXve * 200
than other parts of the body. To allow this, the absorbed dose Redadon lw > a try* route per 7J0
is multiplied by a quality factor know n as relative biological leer

effectiveness o r R B E (Ta b le 2 1 .2 ). T h e equivalent dose D, of M t u n s r dote alceed to 1000

genertt putte Iron rtf o a l
a n y absorbed radiation is defined as the product of absorbed vorce* ter year
dose and R B E of the kind of radiation being absorbed. .Vcrxrv; to a men*! « i a oariM Ti WOO
mrm
0. = O x RBE ....... (21 .1 1) Type* dote lecerved bye 2M 0
- e r * t r d In* g m l fuMc n
T h e SI unit of equivalent dose is sieved (S v ). a y M rf ro m a liM c m

1 Sv = 1 Gy x RBE U iu n n M t a U M ie 5CO»
• y t r . ngoiedtoredetoncer
A n old unit, the rem is equal to 0.01 Sv. .1***

1 rem = 0.01 S v dosage >n

rrnc/o » e ve it
T h e background radiation to w hich w o are exposed, on the
average, is 2 m S v per year. D oses of 3 S v will cause radiation
b um s to the skin. F o r w orkers in the n u d e a r facilities or
4 000 000 _ deatr> oT 60 percent
m ines, a w eekly dose of 1 m S v is norm ally considered safe <* peopw ex(>2ted
(Table 21.3).

T h e dam age from a-particles is sm all unless the source

enters the body, a a n d p -p a rtid c s can cause redness and 3000000

sores on the skin. S o m e other low level radiation cffed s are

- ateoity lo r about two
loss of hair, ulceration, stiffening of the lungs, and a drop in yean
the white blood cells w hich is followed by a sickness pattern
of diarrhea, vom iting and fever known as radiation sickness 2000000
(F ig 2 1.16 ), H igh levels of radiation m a y disrupt the blood
- temporary tow letbMy
cells seriously leading to diseases such a s anaem ia and
leukaemia. C h ro m o s o m e abnorm alities or mutation m ay
cause delayed genotic effects such as cancer, eye cataracts 10 00 000 — radueen sickness

and abnormalities in the future generations Th e se m ay

develop m any years after exposure to harmful radiation

E x a m p l e 2 1 .3 : H o w m uch e n e rg y is absorbed by a m a n of 0 1-
m a s s 80 kg w h o receives a lethal w ho le body equivalent ^ .
dose of 4 0 0 rem in the form of low en ergy neutrons for which
R B E factor is 10?

251

For Your Information
F*m t o » j e doum otor art, u v M to
monitor rsdobonroceivod by workers
« i nodonr tnoloos
D o You K now ?
Radtoocbvo wastes are ot throe t»p**
i .« .h g h t o v d .n e d u m a rd tcw l«v* t
A l th o i« wastes aro darvgarout lor
ground water and land anvtronmam
F o r Y o u r In fo r m a t io n
It it vory d ffla rt to d t»p o «« off
radioactvo w a tte aatoly due to the*
long half tKae e g . P u 'ha ff M s a
24.000 years. therefore. it rom ans
dangerous tor about 1.92.000 year*.
S o lu t i o n :
R B E factor = 10
D . = 400 rem = 4 0 0 x 0.01 S v = 4 S v . D=?
Using E q . 21.4
D °* — 0 .4 G y
RBE 10 y
S in ce 1 G y is 1 J kg ’. hence total e n e rg y absorbed by the
w ho le body = m 0 = 8 0 x 0 .4 G y = 32 J
It is a very small am ount of therm al energy. O bviously, the
d a m a g e done by ionizing radiation has nothing to do with
thermal energy. T h e harmful effects arise due to disruption of
the normal functions of the tissues in w hich it is absorbed.
21.13 B IO L O G IC A L A N D M E D IC A L U S E S
O F R A D IA TIO N
Radioisotopes of m any elem ents can be m ad e easily by
bom bardm ent with neutrons and other particles. A s such
isotopes have be com e available and are inexpensive, their
use in m edicine, agriculture, scientific research and
industries has expanded tremendously.
Radioisotopes are used to find out what happens in m any
com plex chem ical reactions and how they proceed. Similarly
m biology, they have helped m investigating into chemical
reactions that take place in plants and animals. B y mixing a
small am ount of radioactivo isotope with fertilizer, w e can
easrty m easure how m u ch fertilizer is taken u p by a plant
using radiation detector. Fro m such m easurem ents, farmers
know the proper am ount of fertilizer to use. Th ro u g h the use of
radiation-induced mutations, improved varieties of certain
crops such as rice, chickpea, w heat and cotton have been
developed. T h e y have improved plant structure. T h e plants
have show n m ore resistance to diseases and pest, and give
better yield and gram quality. Radiation is also used to treat
cancers Radioactivo tracers and im aging devices havo
helped in the understanding and diagnosis of m a n y diseases.
T r a c e rT e c h n iq u e s
A radioactive isotope be haves in just the sa m e w a y as the
norm al isotope inside a living organism . B ut the location and
concentration of a radioactive isotope can be determ ined
easily by measuring the radiation it emits. Th u s , a radioactive
252
isotope acts as an indicator o r tracer that m akes it possible to
follow the course of a chem ical o r biological process. T h e TaM a 2 1 .4
technique is to substitute radioactive atom s for stable atom s i»o too » " H I V , Eiampk*
of the sa m e kind in a substance and then to follow the 0»
u*v
Tagg e d- atom s with the help of radiation detector in the u*.
Sodom

II
process. Tra c e rs are w idely used in medicine to detect -N J
i S h o m 137.275
m alignant tum ors and in agriculture to study the uptake of a
Iron Rnn
fertilizer b y a plant. F o r exam ple, if a plant is given radioactive 45 day* 129.110
"ft 019 ftM TO
c arbon -14, it will use it in exactly the sa m e w ay as it always
Thyrod
u s e s stable c a rb o n -12. B ut the c a rb o n -14 releases 6 lm n 014 KW -
n .
p-radiations and thus by m easuring radioactivity in different Kam

parts of the plant, the path taken by the carbon atom s c a n be lodno
072.064
titty* 036.026 KiJTay
know n. T h is technique h a s helped to understand m ore ”1
006
elaborately the com plex process of photosynthesis. T h e

m
tracer technique w a s also used to identify faults in the eoatyt 0035
-1
underground pipes of the fountain system of the historical
S halim ar garde n s of Lah ore b y the scientists of Pakistan
A tom ic E n e rg y Com m ission.

M e d ic a l D i a g n o s t i c s a n d T h o r a p y

Tra c e rs are w idely used in m edicine to study the process of

digestion and the w a y chem ical substances m o ve about m
the body.

S o m e chem icals such as h ydrogen and sodium present in

w ater a n d food are distributed uniformly throughout the body.
Certain other chem icals are selectively absorbed by certain
organs. R adio-iodine, for exam ple, is absorbed mostly by the
thyroid gland, phosphorus b y bo nes and cobalt by liver. T h e y
can s e rve a s tracers. Sm all quantity of low activity
radioisotope mixed with stable isotope is adm inistered by
in je c t io n o r otherw ise to a patient and its location in diseased
tissue c a n be ascertained by m o a ns of radiation detectors.
F o r exam ple, radioactive iodino c a n be used to check that a
person's thyroid gland is w orking property. A diseased or
hyperactive gland absorbs m ore than twice the am ount of
norm al thyroid gland. A similar m ethod can bo used to study
the circulation of blood using radioactive isotope so d iu m -2 4 .

Experim ents on cancerous cells have show n that those cells

that multiply rapidly absorb m ore radiation and are moro
easily destroyed than normal cells by ionizing radiation.
Radiotherapy with y-rays from cobalt-60 is often used in the
treatment of cancer. T h e y-rays are carefully focussed on to
the malignant tissue. Strict safety precautions are necessary

253
 for both patient and attendant medical staff. Radioactive
iodme-131 is usod to combat cancer of the thyroid gland.
Since iodine tends to collect in the thyroid gland, radioactive
isotopos lodge whero they can destroy tho malignant colls. In
some cases encapsulated 'seeds’ are implanted in the
malignant tissue for local and short ranged treatment. For
skin cancers, phosphorus-32 or strontium-90 m ay be used
instead. Those produce p-radiation. Th e dose of radiation
has to be carefully controlled otherwise the radiation could do
more dam age than help. Patients undergoing radiation
treatment often feel M. because the radiation also damages
tho healthy cells.

R a d io g r a p h y

Th e y-rays radiographs are used in medical diagnosis such

as internal imaging of the brain to determine precisely the
size and location of a tumor or other parts of the body. Cracks
or cavities in castings or pipes can also be detected by
scanning. Any sudden increase in couni rate indicates a
cavity within the object.

Th e gam m a camera is designed to detect y-radiations from

Fig . 21.I T sites in the body where a y-emitting isotope is located. An
image as shown in Fig. 21.17. consisting of many dots of the
y-emitting sources in the patient body is formed. Th e camera
can also be used to obtain a sequence of images to observe
an organ such as a kidney in action.

21.14 BASIC FO R CES O F NATURE

Th e man has always desired to comprehend the complexity of
nature in terms of as few elementary concepts as possible.
Among his quest, in Feynman's words, has been the one for
"wheels within wheels', the task of Natural Philosophy being to
discover the nn cr most wheels if any such exist. A second quest
has concentrated itself with the fundamental forces, which make
the wheels go round and enmesh with one another.
Although w e have been familiar with the basic forces and
about some of the basic building blocks of the matter, but
here w e are going to study the modern concepts about both
of these. W e know that the basic forces are:
1 . Gravitational force 2 Magnetic force
3. Electric force 4 W eak nuclear force
5 Strong nuclear force

254
T h e electric and magnetic forces were unified to get an
electromagnetic force by Faraday and Maxwell, who were For Your Information
able to prove that a current is induced in a coil whenever the
C o m p o s itio n o f M a tter
magnetic flux passing through the coil is changed; leaving
behind four fundamental forces, the strong nud ear force, the UMOM
electromagnetic force, the weak nudear force and the
gravitational force. These four fundamental forces of nature
have seemed for some time quite different from one another.
Despite its different effective strength, the strong nudear
f t
10‘ m
force is effective only within sub-nudear distances and
therefore, confines tho neutrons and protons within the
nudeus. Th e electromagnetic force is long-range and causes
all chemical reactions. It binds together atoms, molecules,
crystals, troes, buildings and you. This force acting on a
microscopic level is responsible for a variety of apparently
different macroscopic forces such as fridion. cohesion and
adhesion. T h e weak nuclear force is short range, liko the
strong nudear force, and is responsible for spontaneous 10” m
breaking up of the radioactive elements. It is a sort of
repulsivo force of very short range (1 0 " m ). It is usually
masked by the effed of the strong and eledromagnetic
forces inside the nuclei. Th e gravitational force, like the Nucteus
electromagnetic force, is again long range, extending upto
and beyond the remotest stars and galaxies. It keeps you. the
atmosphere and the seas fixed to the surface of tho planet. It
gives rise to the ocean tides and keeps the planets moving in
‘ 10“ m
their orbits around the Sun.
Th e se widely disparate properties of the four basic forces
have not stopped the sdentists from finding a comm on cause NauQron or Proton

for them all.

O r e hundred years after the unification of electric and

magnetic forces into electromagnetic force, in 1979. the
physics nobel prize was conferred on Glashow. Weinberg lO^m
and Abdus Slam for the unification of eledrom agnetic and
weak forces.

It is further expeded that a strong nudear force will

eventually unite with eledroweak force to make up a single Quart
entity resulting in the grand unified olectro-nudear force.

21.15 BUILDING B LO C K S O F M A TTER

Subatomic partides aro divided into three groups.
1 Photons 2. Leptons 3. Hadrons L e tt m an 1 0 " m

255
 Table 21.5 E le m e n ta ry p article s a re the b a s ic build in g b locks of m atter.
Quark* and Antiquark*
A ll p h o to n s a n d le p to n s a re e le m e n ta ry particles. H a d ro n s
Name Charge
V a re n ot e le m e n ta ry particles b u t a re c o m p o s e d of e lem en ta ry
Oo-n d particles c a lle d q u a rk s . S cie n tists n o w b e lio ve that all m atter
Sear.* s -4 *
Cham c ♦4e b e lo n g s to e ith e r the q u a rk g ro u p o r th e le pto n g ro u p .
Tog 1 *4®
-4 ® H a d ro n s
Antique rk*
H a d ro n s a re particles that e xp erie nce th e stron g nuclea r force. .

-4® In addition to protons, neutrons a n d m e s o n s a re hadrons. T h e

3 • to particles e qu al in m a s s o r g rea te r than protons a re called
I *4®
e b aryo ns a n d those lighter th an pro ton s a re c a le d m esons.
T *4®
-- 6 ♦4®

Proton
Le p to n s a re particle s that d o n ot e x p e rie n c e stron g n uc le a r
force. E le c tro n , m u o n s a n d n e u trin o s a re leptons.

Q u a rk s

A c c o rd in g to q u a rk th eo ry initiated b y M . G e ll-M a n n a n d
G Z w e ig , th e q u a rk s a re p ro p o s e d a s the b a sic building
b lo c k s of th e m e s o n s a n d b a ry o n s . A pair of q u a rk and
a ntiqu ark m a k e s a m e s o n a n d 3 q u a rk s m a k e a b a ry o n . It is
p ro p o se d that th ere a re six q u a rk s, the (1 ) up (2 ) d o w n (3 )
NMron stra n g e (4 ) c h a rm (5 ) bottom a n d , ( 6 ) top. T h e c h a rg e s on
th ese q u a rk s a re fractional a s s h o w n in T a b le 21.5 .

A p ro ton is a s s u m e d to b e m a d e u p o f tw o u p q u a rk s a n d on e
d o w n q u a rk a s s h o w n in F ig 2 1 .1 8 a. T h e neutron is a s s u m e d
to b e m a d e of o n e u p q ua rk a n d tw o d o w n q u a rk s a s s h o w n in
F ig . 2 1 .1 8 (b ). C u rre n tly, the h u n d ro d of h a d ro n s c a n be
a c c o u n te d for in te rm s o f six q u a rk s a n d their a ntiquarks. It is
b e lie ve d that q u a rk s c a n n o t exist o n their o w n . their
Charge
2/3- 1/3- 1/3*0 e xiste n c e h a s b e e n indirectly verified.
Fig. 21.18

C B

T h e c o m b in e d n u m b e r of all th e p ro to n s a n d n e u tro n s in a n u c le u s is k n o w n a s m a s s
n u m b e r a n d is d e n o te d b y A

256
T h e protons and neutrons prosent in tho nucleus are called nucleons

T h e num ber of neutrons present in a nucleus is called its neurons num ber and is
denoted b y N.

T h e num ber of protons n s id c a nudeus or the number of electrons outside of tho nudeus
■scaled the atom c number or the charge number of an atom and is denoted by Z
Isotopes a re such n u d e i of an oloment that have tho sam e charge num ber Z . but
have different m ass num ber A .

T h e m a s s of the n u d e u s is alw ays loss than tho total m ass of the protons and
neutron that make up the n u d e u s . Th o difference of the two m asses is called mass
defect T h o missing m a s s is converted to en ergy m the formation of the n u d e u s and
is called the binding energy.

T h e em ission of radiations (u . and y) from elem ents having charge num ber Z
greater than 82 is called radioactivity.

T h e c h a n g e of an elem ent into a new olomont due to em ission of radiations is called

radioactivo decay. T h e original element is called parent element and the element
form ed d u e to this de cay is called daughter elem ent.

Half-life of a radioactive elem ent is that period in w hich half of the atom s of the parent
elem ent d e c a y into daughter element

S u c h a reaction in w hich a h eavy n u d e u s like uranium splits up into two nuclei of

equal sizo along with the em ission of e n e rg y during reaction is called fission
reaction.

S u c h a nuclear reaction in w hich two light n u d e i m e rge to form a h eavy nucleus

along with the em ission of e n e rg y is called fusion reaction

T h e strength of the radiation source is indicated by its activity m easured in

bocquorol. O n e becquerel (B q ) is one disintegration per second . A larger unit is curie
(C i) w hich equals 3.7 x 10 Mdisintegrations per second

T h e effect of radiation on a body absorbing it relates to a quantity called absorbed

dose D defined as the en ergy E absorbed from ionizing radiation per unit m ass m of
the absorbing body

T h e basic forces are:

i. Gravitational force ii. Electrom agnetic force

iii. W e a k n u d e a r force iv. Th o strong force

Subatom ic particles are divided into following three groups:

i. P hotons ii. Leptons iii. Hadrons
Elem e nta ry partides are the ba sic building blocks of matter.

257
 egm m
2 1 .1 W h a t a re Is o to p e s? W h a t d o th e y h a v o in c o m m o n a n d w h a t a re thetr d iffere nces?
2 1 .2 W h y a re h o a v y n uclei u n sta ble?
2 1 .3 If a n u c le u s h a s a half-life o f 1 y e a r, d o e s this m e a n that it w ill b e c o m p le te ly
d e c a y e d after 2 y e a rs ? Ex p la in .
2 1 .4 W h a t fraction of a rad ioa ctive s a m p le d e c a y s after tw o half-live s h a v e e la p s e d ?

2 1 .5 T h e rad ioa ctive ole m e n t 7J jR a h a s a half-life o f 1 .6 x 10* y e a rs . S in c e th e E a rth is

a b o u t 5 billion y e a rs o ld . h o w c a n y o u e xp la in w h y w e still c a n find this
e le m e n t in n a tu re ?
2 1 .6 D e s c rib e a b rie f a c c o u n t o f interactio n o f v a rio u s ty p o s o f radiations w ith m atter.

2 1 .7 E x p la in h o w a a n d p -p a rtid e s m a y io n iz e a n a to m w ith o ut d irectly hitting the

e le c tro n s ? W h a t is the difference in the action o f the tw o particles for p ro d u cin g
ion iza tio n?

2 1 .8 A particlo w h ic h p ro d u c e s m o re ion iza tio n is le ss p en etratin g. W h y ?

2 1 .9 W h a t inform ation is re v e a le d b y the length a n d s h a p e o f th e tracks of a n incident

particle in W ils o n c lo u d c h a m b e r?

2 1 .1 0 W h y m u st a G e ig e r M u ller tu b e for d e te ctin g a -p a r t id e s h a v e a v e r y thin e n d

w in d o w ? W h y d o o s a G e ig e r M u lle r tub e for d e te ctin g y -ra y s not n e e d a w in d o w at
all?
21.11 D e s c rib e th e principle o f o p e ra tio n o f a solid state d ete cto r o f io n izin g radiation in
te rm s o f gen e ra tio n a n d d etection o f c h a rg o carriers.
2 1 .1 2 W h a t d o w e m e a n b y the term cntical m a s s ?
2 1 .1 3 D is c u s s the a d v a n ta g e s a n d d is a d v a n ta g e s of n uc le a r p o w e r c o m p a re d to the u s e
o f fossil fuel g e n e ra to d p ow er.

2 1 .1 4 W h a t fa ctors m a k e a fusion rea ction difficult to a c h ie v e ?

2 1 .1 5 D is c u s s th e a d v a n ta g e s a n d d is a d v a n ta g e s of fission p o w e r fro m th e p oint of

sa fety, p ollution a n d ro s o u rc e s
2 1 .1 6 W h a t d o y o u un d ersta nd b y 'b a c k g ro u n d ra d ia tio n '? State tw o s o u rc e s o f this
radiation.
21 17 If s o m e o n e a ccid en tfy s w a llo w s a n a -s o u r c e a n d a p -s o u rc e
w h ic h w o u ld b e th e m o re d a n g e ro u s to h im ? E x p la in w h y ?

2 1 .1 8 W h ic h radiation d o s e w o u ld d e p o sit m o re e n e r g y to th e b o d y ( a ) 1 0 m G y to the

h a n d , o r (b ) 1 m G y d o s e to the entire body.

2 1 .1 9 W h a t is a rad ioa ctive tra c e r? D e s c rib e o n e a pp lica tio n e a c h in m e d ic in e , a griculture

a n d industry.

2 1 .2 0 H o w c a n rad ioa ctivity h e lp in the trea tm en t o f c a n c e r?

258
 essssm
21.1 Find the m a ss defect a n d the binding e n e rgy for tritium, if the a tom ic m a ss of tritium
is 3.016049 u (A n s : 0 .0 0 8 5 7 u. 7.97 M e V )
2 1.2 T h e h a lf-life o f’ J S ris 9 .7 0 h o u rs .F io d its d e c a y c o n s ta n t. (A n s : 1.99 x 1 0 ’ s )

2 1.3 T h e elem ent** P a is unstable a nd de c a ys b y ^-em ission with a half-life 6 .6 6 hours,

state the n u d e a r reaction a nd the daughter nuclei. (A n s : * U )

21.4 Find the e n e rgy associated with the following reaction: (M a s s of ',H =1.00784 u )

* }N + ,H e --------- > ” 0 + ',H

W h a t d oes negative sign indicate? ( A n s : 1.12 M e V )

2 1 .5 Determ ine the e n e rgy associated with the following reaction: (m a ss of “ C=14.0077u)

’J C --------- » ’ j N + °e ( A n s : 3 .77 M e V )

2 1.6 If d e c a ys twice b y a -em issio n. w h at is tho resulting isotope? (A n s :^ jR n )

2 1.7 C alculate the e n e rg y (m M e V ) released in the following fusion re a ctio n ;

*H+*H --------- ► j H e + ^ n ( A n s : 17.6 M eV/event)

2 1.8 A sheet of lead 5 .0 m m thick reduces the intensity of a beam of r -r a y s b y a factor 0.4.
F ind half value thickness of lead sheet w hich will reduce the intensity to half of its
initial value. (A n s : 3 .7 9 m m )
2 1 .9 R adiation from a point source o b eys the Inverse square law. If th e count rate at a
distance of 1.0 m from G e ig e r counter is 3 6 0 counts p er minute, w h at will be its count
rate at 3 .0 m from the source? ( A n s : 4 0 counts p e r m in.)
2 1 .1 0 A 7 5 kg person receives a w hole b o d y radiation dose of 24 m -ra d . delivered by
a -p a rlid e s for w hich R B E factor is 12. C alculate (a ) the a bso rbe d e n e rg y in Joules,
a nd (b ) the equivalent d o se in rem . [A n s : (a ) 18 m J (b ) 0 .2 9 rem )

N o t e : C o n s u l t t h e ta b le o n p a g e 2 2 2 , w h e r e r e q u ir e d , f o r a t o m i c m a s s e s .

259
 C W H JJik'J

> A lte rn a tin g C u rre n t Current produced by a voltage source whose polarity
keeps on reversing with time

> A m o rp h o u s Those solids in which arrangement of atoms or

motoculos aro not regular

> A m p lif ie r A device that increases the output of electrical signal

fed as input

> A t o m ic N u m b e r Th e number of protons in the nucleus

> B in d in g E n e r g y Th e work done on the nucleus to separate it into its

constituent neutrons and protons

> B la c k B o d y A body that absorbs all tho radiations incident upon it

> B u lk M o d u lu s Ratio of applied stress to volumetric strain

> C a p a c ito r A dovicc that can store charge

> C a th o d e ra y High speed graph plotting device

O s c illo s c o p e
> C o m p t o n effect A n increase in the wavelength of X -rays when
scattered by bound electrons

> C ry s ta llin e S o lid s Substances having regular arrangement of atoms or

ii
molecules

> C u rr e n t A device which converts mechanical energy into

G e n e ra to r electrical energy

> D ig ita l S y s t e m It deals with only those quantities which have only two
discrete values
> E la s tic lim it Th e limit beyond which the sample becomes
permanently deformed

> E le c tric C u rr e n t Rate of flow of electric charge

> E le c t ric F ie ld Electric field force per unit charge at a point

In te n s ity

260
r E le c tric F lu x N u m b e r of electric field lines passing through certain

surface elem ent

> E le c tric P ote n tia l A m oun t of wort; done in bringing a unit positive charge

from infinity to a point

> E le c tro ly s is C onduction of electricity due to chem ical reaction in

liquids

> E le c tro m a g n e tic W a v e s w hich d o not require an y medium for their

W aves
propagation

> E le c tro m o tiv o A m easure of tho en ergy supplied by a source of

F o rc e electric current per unit charge

E le c tro n v o lt Unit of en ergy equals to 1.6*1 0'1#J

E le c tro p la tin g Electric metallic coating

> F o rw a rd B ia s Bias vo ltage w hich w h e n applied to a p - n junction

produce large curron* flow

> F re qu e n cy N um ber of c y c le s per unit time

F u s io n S u c h nuclear reaction in w hich tw o bght nuclei m erge

to form a h e a v y nucleus with tho emission of energy

> H alf life It is the period in w hich half of the radioactive element

atom s de cay

> H o lo g ra p h y A m ethod of recording three dim ensional image

> Im p e d a n c e C om b in ed effect of resistances and reactances in an

A C . circuit

> In d u c ta n c e T h e ph en om en on in w hich changing current in a coil

produces an om f in itself

> Inertial fra m e o f Coordinate system in which the law of inertia is valid
reference

> In s u la to rs A material w ith a very high electrical resistivity

Io nizatio n P ote n tia l T h e en ergy needed to rem ove the electron from an

atom o r m olecule to infinite distance

261
 Laser Light amplification by stimulated em ission of radiation

L o g ic G ate Electronic circuits w hich implements various logic

operations

> M a g n e tic In d u c tio n M agnetization of a substance by a n external magnetic

field

> M a s s Defect It is the difference betw een tho m ass of the separated

nucleons and the com bined m ass of the nucleus

> M ass N um ber Total num ber of protons and neutrons in a nucleus

> M o d u la tio n T h e process of com bining the low frequency signal

with a high frequency radio w ave

> M utual In d u c ta n c e A phenom enon in w hich a changing current in o n e cod

produces em f in other coil

> N A V A S TA R Navigation system based on Einstein theory of

relativity

> N u c le a r E n e r g y E n e rg y derived from nuclear reactions either by fission

or b y fusion

> N u c le a r fis s io n Disintegration of atom ic nucleus into tw o o r m ore

fragments with tho em ission of h uge am ount of energy

> N u c le a r R e a c to r A device in w hich controlled nuclear fission reaction

takes place

> N u c le o n s Protons and neutron in the nucleus.

> P a ir P ro d u c tio n Production of cloctron-position pair from a photon

> P h o to v o lta ic cell A device that detects or m ea sures electromagnetic

radiation b y generating a potential at a junction

> P h o to d io d e A device used to delect light falling on it

> P h o to e le c tric Em ission of electrons from metallic surface w hen

Effect exposed to electrom agnetic radiations

> P la s tic d e fo rm a tio n A perm anent deform ation of a solid object to an

applied stress

262
 P o ly m e r ic S o lid s T h e solid m aterials with a structure that is intermediate

between ordered and disordered structure

> R e c tifica tio n C onversio n of alternating current into direct current

> R e s is tiv ity Ten den cy of material to o p p o s e the flow of current

> R e v c r s o B ia s Bias voltage w hich w h e n applied to a p - n junction

produces a very sm all or n o current flow

> S p e c tro g ra p h A n instrument for producing photographic record of

spectrum

> S p e c t ro s c o p y T h e investigation of w a ve le n gth and intensities of

electrom agnetic radiations emitted or absorbed by the

atoms

> S train T h e ch a n ge produced in the size o r shape of the body

by applying a stress

> S tre s s Fo rc e per unit area

> S u p e r C o n d u c to r s T h o s e material w hose resistivity becom os zo ro below

a critical temperature

> T h e r m is t o r H eat sensitivo resistor

> T im e P e rio d Th a t interval during w h ic h the voltage source changes

its polanty once

> T ra n s fo rm e r A device w hich converts h igh A C . voltage to lo w A . C .

voltage or low A .C . voltage to high A . C . voltage

> T r a n s is to r S e m i conducting m aterial to w hich at least three

electrical contacts are m a d e

> U ltim a te te nsile T h e m axim um stress that a material can withstand

s tre s s

> Y o u n g 's M o d u lu s Ratio of the tensile stress applied to the material to the

resulting tensile strain

263
 EEm gp
1. Colle ge P h ysic b y H arris Benson.

2. P h ysic s for Scientist and En gin ee rs b y R a y m o n d A . S erw ay

3. P h ysic s C o n c e p ts and Applications b y J e r r y W ilson.

4. T h e Ideas of P hysics b y D oug la s G Giancofa.

5. C o n cep tual P h ysics b y P a u l G Hewitt.

6. C olle ge P h ysic b y R obert. l.W e b e r.

7. C a m b rid g e P h ysics b y J o n e s a nd M archington.

8. Principles of P h ysic s b y F .J . B u e ch o and D a v id A . Jcrd e .

9. Fu nd am e n ta ls of P h ysic s b y D avid Holliday. Rob ert R esnik a nd Jeart Walker.

10. A d va n c e d P h ysics b y Jo n a th a n Ling.

11. Colle ge P h ysics b y S e a rs . Z e m a n s k y a n d Young.

12. Fu nd am e n ta ls of C o lle g e P h ysics b y P ete r J Nolan.

13. Ph ysics b y R obert H utchings.

14. Nuffield P h ysic s b y Geoffery Dorling.

15. A d va n ce d level P h ysic s b y Nelkon a nd Parker.

16. A d va n ce d P h ysic s b y T. D u n ca n.

17. Understanding P h ysic s b y Poplo.

18. Fu nd am e n ta l of P h ysic s b y Tahir H ussain .

19. Ph ysics for A d va n ce d Le ve l b y J im Breithhaupt.

20. C olle ge P h ysics b y Vincent P. Coietta.

21. P h ysic s b y J .B . M arion

22. P h ysics b y Ata'm P. A rya .

2 3. Co n tem po ra ry C o lle g e P h ysics b y E . R . J o n e s and R . L . Childers

24. P hysics b y Jo h n D . Cutnetl and Kenn eth W . Jo h n so n .

25. P h ysics b y K a n e and S tem hcin.

264
 A C a p a c ita n c e 22
A C . g e n e ra to r 9 7 -9 9 C a p a c ito r 22
A b s o rb e d dose 250 CAT Scanar 211
A lp h a p a n ic le s 226 C h n r a c t e r i s t i c X -r a y s 2 0 9 -2 1 0
A lte rn a tin g c u rre n t t il Choko 1 23
A m m e te r 74 C o lle c t o r 1 59
A m o r p h o u s so lid 1 36 C o m p a ra to r 1 6 6 -1 6 7
A m p e r e 's la w 6 1 -6 2 C o m p r o s s i o n n l s tre s s 1 38
A m p litu d e m o d u la tio n . 131 C o m p r o s s i v c S tro m 138
A N D g a te 1 68 C o m p t o n e ffe c t ’ 9 0 -1 9 1
A N D O p e r a t io n 168 C o m p t o n s h ift 1 9 0 -1 9 1
A n n ih ila tio n o t m a tte r 1 9 2 -1 9 3 C o m p t o n w a v o lc n g th 1 9 0 -1 9 1
A t o m ic n u d e u s 220 C o n d u c ta n c e 38
A t o m ic n u m b e r 220 C o n d u c t io n b a n d 1 43
A v o m o te r 76 C o n d u c to rs 1 4 3 -1 4 4
C C o n v e n t io n a l c u rre n t 32
B a im e r s e rie s 203 C o ro 244
B a ryo n s 256 C o r c s iw it y 1 50
B ase 159 C o s m i c ra d ia tio n 249
B a s ic t o rc c s 2 5 4 -2 5 5 C o u lo m b 's la w 2
B o c g u c ra i . 250 C ritic a l m a s s 2 4 2 -2 4 3
B e t a p a r t id e s 226 C ritic a l t e m p o r a t u r o 1 46
B m dm g e n e rg y 223 C r y s ta llin e s o lid - 1 36
B la c k b o d y 1 83 C u r ie 250
B la c k b o d y ra d ia tio n 1 8 2 -1 8 3 C u r r e n t g a in 1 60
B o h r 's a to m ic m o d e l 2 0 4 -2 0 5 D
B o h r 's orb it 205 D C . g e n e iu iv ^ i 1 0 0 -1 0 1
B o o le a n v a ria b le 1 68 O .C . m o t o r 1 02
B r a c k e n s e rie s 204 D a u g h t e r e le m e n t 230
B r a g g 's e q u a tio n 1 9 4 -1 9 5 D e a d b e a t g a lv a n o m e te r 74
B ro m s s tra h Ju n g 210 d e - B r o g l i e r o t a t io n 1 93
B h n io s u b s ta n c e s 1 40 D ecay c o n s ta n t 230
B u ild in g bto ek o l m a tte r 2 5 5 -2 5 6 D e p e lo tio n r e g io n ‘ 1 54
B u lk m o d u lu s 139 D cu te ri u m 221
C D e u tro n 221
C .R . O . 6 8 -7 0 D ia m a g n e t ic s u b s ta n c e s 1 48

265
Dielectric constant 24 G
Digital multimeter 77-78 Gam 164-165
Digital system 167-168 G alvanom eter 71-74
D om ains 148-149 G a m m a rays .2 2 6 -2 2 7
Ductilo substancor. 140 G o ig c r Muller counter 235-237
E G eneral thoory of relativity 178
o.m.f. 43-44 G ra y 251
Emstom photo etoctnc equation188 G u a s s 's law 12
Elastic deformation 140 H
Electric current 32 Hadrons 2S6
Electric field strength 7 Half life 229
Electric flux 9-1 0 Half w avo rectification 156
Etoctnc intensity 5 H e -N o laser 215
Etoctnc polarization 24-25 H onery 9 2 -94
Eloctric potontial 15 H olography 216
Electrom agnet 149 H ooko's law 140
Electrom agnetic spectrum 185 H ydroge n em ission spectrum 207 -2 08
Eloctrom agnotic w aves 128-129 Hysteresis 150
Electron microscope 197 Hysteresis loop 148-150
Electron volt 19 Hysteresis loss 150
Emittor 159 : i f
E n e rg y band theory 143-144 Im pcdanco 120
E n o rg y dens.ty 96 Induced current 8 2 -84
E n e rg y -m a s s relation 180-181 Induced e.m.f. 82-84
Equivalent dose 251 Inertial framo of reference 177
Excitation potontial 207 Insulators 143-144
Extrinsic semiconductor 144 Intrinsic sem iconductor 144
F lomzation energy 207
Farad 22 Ionization potential 207
Farad ay’s law 87 Isotopos 221
Fast reactor 246 K
Ferrom agnetic materials 148 Kirchhoffs first law 46
Fission chain reaction 242 Kirchhoffs second law 47
Fluorescence 233 L
Forbidden er ergy gap 143 Laser 213
Forw ard resiitanco 155 Leakago current 155
Fram e of referenco 177 Length contraction 179
Frequ ency modulation 131-132 L e n z's law 88
Full w avo rectification 157 Leptons 256
Fussion reaction 247 157
U g h t emitting diode

266
 ficlative bological effectiveness 2 5 1 T
Relative motion 177 Ten sile strain 138
Rem 251 Ten sile stress 138
Resistivity 38 Th e rm a l reactor 246
R csonanco 125 Therm istor 42
Rctantivity 150 Th resho ld frequency 188
Rheostat <11 Tim o dilation 179
Right hand rule 57 Tra c e r techniques 252-253
R u th e ^ o 'd atomic model 220 Transform er 103-106
R yd berg constant 2 0 3 .2 0 8 Transistor 159
S Tritium 221
Saturation 150 U
Sett inductance 93 Ultimate tensile strength 140
Self quenching 236 U n c c d a m ty prm oplo 197-199
Semiconductors 143 Unified m ass 220
Sensors 170-171 U s o s of loser 216-216
Shear modulus 139 V
S h e a r strain 139 Voltage gam 101-162
S hear stress 138 Voltmeter 75
S ie v e d 251 Volum etric strain 138-139
Solid state detector 237 W
Special theory of relativity 178-181 W a v e particle dua w y 195-196
Speclrafseries 203 W eb er 60
Spectroscopy 202 W h ealstone bridge 50-51
S te p do w n transformer 104 W ilson cloud cham ber 234 -2 35
Step up transformer 104 W o rk function 188
S tephan Boltzm ann's law 184
X
S tephan’s constant 184
Xerography 8-9
Stimulated absorption 213 170
X N O R gale
Stimulated emission 213
X N O R operation 170
Stopping potential 187
X O R gate 169-170
Strain 138 X O R operation 169
Stress 138
X -ra y s 209-211
S trc s s stra in curvo 140
Y
Superconductor 146-147
Y o u n g 's modulus 139

26X
Linear absorption co-efficient 233 Operational amplifier 162-163
Lym a n series 203 O R gate 168
M O R operation •168
Magnetic dipole 148 P
Magnetic flux 60 p - n junction 154
Magnetic flux density 60-61 Pair production 192
M a ss defect 223 Parent element 227
M a ss spectrograph 222-223 Paschen series 204
M a ss variation 180 Pfund series 204
M easurem ent ot e/m 66-67 Photo diode 158
M esons 256 Photo electron 187
Miliikan's method 20-21 Photo electron 187
Moderator 244 Photo voltaic cell 158
Modulation 131 Photocell 189
Modutus of elasticity 139 Photoelectric effect 187-189
Motional e.m.f. 84 Photon 185
Mutual inductance 90-91 P lanck s constant 184
N Plastic deformation 140
N A N D gate 169 Plasticity 140
N A N D operation 169 Polym eric solids 136-137
N A V A S T A R Navigation system 180 Population inversion 214
N A V A S TA R 180 Positron 192
Night switch 171 Potentiometer 51-52
Nonmtertval frame of reference 178 Principle quantum num ber 204
N O R gate 169 Proportional limit 140
N O R operation 169 Protium 221
N O T gate 169 Q
N O T operation 169 Q uan tized energy 206
n -p -n transistor 159 Q uan tized radii 206
N uclear fission 240 Q uarks 256
Nucloar pow er station 243 -2 45 n
N uclear reaction 238 -2 39 Radiation absorbed doso 251
N uclear reactor 243 -2 46 Radiation detector 234-237
Nuclear transmutation 227 -2 28 Radiation exposure 249-250
Nucleon num ber 220 Radiation sickness 251 •
0 Radioactive decay 227
Ohm 37 Radioactive elements 226
O h m meter 76-77 Radioactivity 226
O h m 's law 36 Radiography 254
O p e n loop gain 163 Rectification 156

267