Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

Bechtel Telecommunications
Technical Journal
An Independent Analysis of Current
Telecommunications Operational Issues June 2006

Global Headquarters
Bechtel Telecommunications Authors Contents
5295 Westview Drive
Frederick, Maryland 21703-8306
Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

Tel: +1 301-228-7500 (Main) or v Foreword
Tel: +1 800-946-3632 (Toll Free)
vii Editorial
Fax: +1 301-694-6971
Fred Wettling 1 IPv6 – Implication of External Change Vectors
London
Sam Kettani 9 Mobile WiMAX: A Complementary or Competitive Technology?
245 Hammersmith Road Glenn A. Torshizi and 23 Mobile TV on the Move with Digital Video
Hammersmith Estefanos Woldemariam Broadcast-Handheld Standard
London W6 8DP
United Kingdom Christopher L. Arnold 29 Cybersecurity of PCS/SCADA Networks:
Tel: +44 208-846-5093 Half-Baked Homeland Security
Fax: +44 208-846-4938
S. Rasoul Safavian, PhD 37 FMC: Fixed–Mobile Convergence
Ron Menendez, PhD, and David Waring 55 Technology Options for Optical Access Networks
www.bechteltelecoms.com
(Telcordia Technologies) Offering Increased Bandwidth (Invited Paper)
Brian Coombe 69 Nanotechnology and Communications:

Extending Capability Through Nanoscale Innovation
Thrasivoulos (Sakis) Griparis and 77 HSDPA Network Dimensioning Challenges and

Esmael Dinan, PhD Key Performance Parameters
Esmael Dinan, PhD, and 83 High-Speed Packet Access Technologies for UMTS Networks
Thrasivoulos (Sakis) Griparis
Igor A. Chugunov, Aleksey A. Kurochkin, 91 Experimental Study of 3G Signal Interaction in

and Alex M. Smirnov Nonlinear Downlink RAN Transmitters
Murtaza Penwala 99 Ultra-Wideband Technology

Volume 4, No. 2
2006
T ELECOMMUNICATIONS Volume 4 No. 2

T ELECOMMUNICATIONS
7466
Bechtel Offices Worldwide
Abu Dhabi Hong Kong Montreal Seoul

Tel: (971-2) 699-8400 Tel: (852) 2169-0960 Tel: (1-514) 871-1711 Tel: (82-2) 318-2270
Fax: (971-2) 676-0899 Fax: (852) 2840-1272 Fax: (1-514) 871-1392 Fax: (82-2) 318-2273
Al Khobar, Saudi Arabia* Houston Moscow Shanghai

Tel: (966-3) 882-5288 Tel: (1-713) 235-2000 Tel: (7-095) 961-3020 Tel: (86-21) 2205-4500
Fax: (966-3) 882-5306 Fax: (1-713) 235-3006 Fax: (7-095) 961-3015 Fax: (86-21) 2205-4800
TURNKEY Bangkok Istanbul New Delhi Singapore

DEPLOYMENT Tel: (66-2) 545-7100 Tel: (90-212) 278-2900 Tel: (94-124) 509-8000 Tel: (65) 6557-4570
SERVICES Fax: (66-2) 545-7777 Fax: (90-212) 278-2913 Fax: (94-124) 234-3110 Fax: (65) 6557-4571
Network Planning Beijing Jakarta New York Taipei

and RF Tel: (86-10) 8453-9998 Tel: (62-21) 5291-6000 Tel: (1-212) 689-0100 Tel: (886-2) 2376-8000
Fax: (86-10) 8453-8303 Fax: (62-21) 5296-2278 Fax: (1-212) 689-4829 Fax: (886-2) 2738-2000
Engineering
Brisbane Kuala Lumpur Oak Ridge, Tennessee Tokyo
Tel: (61-7) 3295-1400 Tel: (603) 2078-2050 Tel: (1-865) 220-2000 Tel: (81-3) 3214-4481
Site Acquisition and
Fax: (61-7) 3295-1450 Fax: (603) 2078-1950 Fax: (1-865) 220-2100 Fax: (81-3) 3214-2596
Right of Way
Buenos Aires Lima Paris Tysons Corner, Virginia

Procurement
Tel: (54-11) 4315-8000 Tel: (51-1) 445-8746 Tel: (33-1) 4720-5304 Tel: (1-703) 748-9300
and Contracting Fax: (54-11) 4315-0081 Fax: (51-1) 446-1255 Fax: (33-1) 4720-5506 Fax: (1-703) 748-9442
Construction and Cairo London (Hammersmith Rd.) Rio de Janeiro Warrington, England
Equipment Installation Tel: (20-2) 754-6763 Tel: (44-208) 846-5111 Tel: (55-21) 2579-2370 Tel: (44-208) 846-4000
Fax: (20-2) 754-6804 Fax: (44-208) 846-6940 Fax: (55-21) 2579-2413 Fax: (44-208) 846-5469
Integration and
Optimization Calgary (Bantrel) London (Pilgrim St.) Riyadh Washington, D.C.
Tel: (1-403) 290-5000 Tel: (44-207) 651-7777 Tel: (966-1) 277-1884 Tel: (1-202) 828-5200
Fax: (1-403) 290-5050 Fax: (44-207) 651-7972 Fax: (966-1) 278-0607 Fax: (1-202) 785-2645
Doha, Qatar Louisville, Kentucky San Diego *Joint-Venture Office
Tel: (97-4) 467-9777 Tel: (1-502) 244-2574 Tel: (1-619) 687-8700

Fax: (97-4) 467-9582 Fax: (1-502) 244-2211 Fax: (1-619) 687-8787
Frederick, Maryland Manila San Francisco

Tel: (1-301) 228-6000 Tel: (63-2) 751-1000 Tel: (1-415) 768-1234
Fax: (1-301) 228-2200 Fax: (63-2) 751-1005 Fax: (1-415) 768-9038
Glendale, Arizona Mexico City Santiago

Tel: (1-602) 368-1500 Tel: (52-55) 5201-3500 Tel: (56-2) 675-1000
Fax: (1-602) 368-3361 Fax: (52-55) 5202-1785 Fax: (56-2) 232-5208
Bechtel
Telecommunications
Technical Journal
June 2006
Technical Journal
Volume 4, Number 2 Contents
Foreword v
ADVISORY BOARD
Jake MacLeod, Principal Vice President and Editorial vii
Chief Technology Officer
S. Rasoul Safavian, PhD, Vice President of Technology, IPv6 – Implications of External Change Vectors 1
Americas Regional Business Unit Fred Wettling
Aleksey A. Kurochkin, Executive Director of
Site Development Mobile WiMAX: A Complementary or Competitive Technology? 9
Brian Coombe, Systems Engineer Sam Kettani
EDITORIAL BOARD Mobile TV on the Move with Digital Video 23

S. Rasoul Safavian, PhD, Editor-in-Chief
Broadcast-Handheld Standard
Richard Peters, Senior Technical Editor Glenn A. Torshizi and Estefanos Woldemariam
Teresa Baines, Senior Technical Editor
Barbara Oldroyd, Technical Editor Cybersecurity of PCS/SCADA Networks: 29
Ruthanne Evans, Technical Editor Half-Baked Homeland Security
Christopher L. Arnold
GRAPHICS/DESIGN
Keith Schools, Art Director FMC: Fixed–Mobile Convergence 37
Luke Williams, Graphic Designer S. Rasoul Safavian, PhD
Susan Gann, Graphic Designer
Diane Cole, Desktop Publishing Technology Options for Optical Access Networks 55
Offering Increased Bandwidth (Invited Paper)
The BTTJ is also available on the Web at Ron Menendez, PhD, and David Waring (Telcordia Technologies)
www.bechteltelecoms.com/jsp/labs/pubs.jsp
Nanotechnology and Communications: 69
TRADEMARK ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Extending Capability Through Nanoscale Innovation
Brian Coombe
All product or service names mentioned in this Bechtel
Telecommunications Technical Journal are trademarks of
their respective companies. Specifically: HSDPA Network Dimensioning Challenges and 77
Key Performance Parameters
3GPP is a trademark of the European Telecommunications Thrasivoulos (Sakis) Griparis and Esmael Dinan, PhD
Standards Institute (ETSI) in France and other
jurisdictions.
Bluetooth is a trademark owned by the Bluetooth Special
High-Speed Packet Access Technologies for UMTS Networks 83
Interest Group, USA. Esmael Dinan, PhD, and Thrasivoulos (Sakis) Griparis
cdma2000 is a registered trademark of the
Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA-USA). Experimental Study of 3G Signal Interaction in 91
Microsoft, Windows, and Windows Server are registered Nonlinear Downlink RAN Transmitters
trademarks and Windows Vista is a trademark Igor A. Chugunov, Aleksey A. Kurochkin, and Alex M. Smirnov
of Microsoft Corporation in the United States and
other countries.
Ultra-Wideband Technology 99
MSSI and Multispectral Solutions, Inc. are registered
trademarks of Multispectral Solutions, Inc. Murtaza Penwala
Nokia is a trademark of Nokia Corporation.
PlayStation is a registered trademark of Sony Computer
Entertainment Inc.
Snort is a registered trademark of Sourcefire, Inc. Erratum for Volume 4, Number 1 (January 2006), page 4, line 6: For 1884 read 1984.
Telcordia is a registered trademark of Telcordia
Technologies, Inc., in the United States, other © 2006 Bechtel Corporation. All rights reserved.
countries, or both.
Bechtel Telecommunications is a business unit of the Bechtel group of companies, including Bechtel Corporation in
Tellabs is a registered trademark of Tellabs Operations, Inc. the United States.
Wi-Fi is a trademark of the Wireless Ethernet
Compatibility Alliance, Inc. Bechtel welcomes inquiries concerning the BTTJ. For further information or for permission to reproduce any paper
included in this publication in whole or in part, please contact Bechtel Telecommunications, 5275 Westview Drive,
WiMAX Forum is a trademark of the WiMAX Forum. Frederick, MD 21703, telephone 301-228-7500 or toll-free 800-946-3232, and ask for the Chief Technology Officer.
Although reasonable efforts have been made to check the papers included in the BTTJ, this publication should not
be interpreted as a representation or warranty by Bechtel Corporation of the accuracy of the information contained
in any paper, and readers should not rely on any paper for any particular application of any technology without
professional consultation as to the circumstances of that application. Similarly, the authors and Bechtel Corporation
T ELECOMMUNICATIONS disclaim any intent to endorse or disparage any particular vendors of any technology.
June 2006 • Volume 4, Number 2 iii

Foreword
T
he Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal provides a forum for addressing current
technology issues of concern to the communications industry—particularly issues affecting
operational and network performance. Bechtel Telecommunications is vendor-neutral and
technology agnostic, allowing us to provide an unbiased perspective of the technologies under
evaluation. This issue of the BTTJ addresses a broad spectrum of technologies ranging from
nanotechnology (as applied to communications networks) to ultra wideband (UWB) to mobile IPTV.
We are exceptionally pleased to have Dr. Ron Menendez and Mr. David Waring of Telcordia®
Technologies provide their expert opinion on “Technology Options for Optical Access Networks
Offering Increased Bandwidth.” Ron is a senior scientist on the technical staff of Telcordia’s
Broadband Networking Research department, and Dave is chief scientist and managing director of
Telcordia’s Applied Research organization. A special thanks to Dr. Adam Drobot, President and CTO
of Telcordia’s Advanced Technology Solutions, for coordinating this effort.
Bechtel Telecommunications provides continuous laboratory and field analysis for new and
promising technologies via our Bechtel Telecommunications Laboratories. We are very pleased to
announce that the BTL will host the 5th WiMAX Forum™ 802.16x Global Interoperability Plugfest at
its facilities in Frederick, Maryland, in September 2006. This represents the first time the plugfest will
be conducted in North America; previous plugfests were held in Beijing, China; Malaga, Spain; and
Sofia-Antipolis, France. The plugfest provides network equipment vendors a secure and neutral
environment in which to test their latest 802.16x equipment for interoperability with other vendors’
equipment. Deficiencies identified during the analyses can then be addressed and resolved before
formal certification testing. We at Bechtel Telecommunications are honored to have been asked to
sponsor such an important industry event. As a direct result of this event at the BTL, WiMAX Forum
members will be invited to supply papers on various aspects of WiMAX 802.16e development for the
next BTTJ.
In the meantime, it is with great pleasure that we bring you the latest BTTJ. As always,
we encourage and welcome your comments and suggestions for its improvement; simply
access the Bechtel Telecoms Web site at www.bechteltelecoms.com and click on the “Contact Us”
section. Past issues of the BTTJ can be downloaded from our Technology Web site at
www.bechteltelecoms.com/jsp/labs/pubs.jsp.
Wishing you a safe, productive, and enjoyable summer.
Sincerely,
Jake MacLeod
Principal Vice President and Chief Technology Officer
June 2006 • Volume 4, Number 2 v

Editorial
W
elcome to this latest issue of the BTTJ! After a period of telecommunications slowdown, the
industry is buzzing again with many new and exciting activities. Many enabling
technologies such as VoIP, IPv6, SIP, MIMO, EFM, MOBIKE, and nanotechnology are
opening new frontiers and creating new applications and services for customers, operators, and
manufacturers alike.
On the radio access network front, mobile WiMAX is moving full steam ahead, HSPA is gaining
deployment momentum, and the 3GPP™ has started work on long-term evolution (LTE). On the core
network front, the 3GPP IMS is quite stable, with first-generation deployments underway. And with
the onset of the fixed–mobile convergence, the long-awaited vision of global personal communication
systems is finally one step closer to reality!
Mirroring the upswing in activity, this issue examines a wide range of interesting, useful, and timely
topics; among them are IPv6 and mobile IPTV, the cybersecurity of PCS/SCADA networks, HSPA
design challenges, and experimental studies of various 3G signals in nonlinear transmitters.
I encourage you to pay particular attention to this issue’s timely and insightful invited paper by
Dr. Ron Menendez and Mr. David Waring of Telcordia Technologies on “Technology Options
for Optical Access Networks Offering Increased Bandwidth.” This is an important topic because—
even though PONs are finally being deployed and promise bandwidth performance superior
to that of DSL or cable—technologies with even greater bandwidth capacity will be needed in the
not-too-distant future!
I hope you find this new issue of the BTTJ informative and useful. Please share it with your
colleagues, and please share with us your thoughts and ideas for future issues.
Happy reading!
Dr. S. Rasoul Safavian

Editor-in-Chief
June 2006 • Volume 4, Number 2 vii

IPv6 – IMPLICATIONS OF
EXTERNAL CHANGE VECTORS
Issue Date: June 2006
Abstract—The expansion of the information society within and beyond the walls of the office is driving
fundamental shifts in information management, communications, and security. IP convergence and explosive
demands for secure resource access cannot be satisfied by the legacy networks of yesterday. IPv6 offers
significant improvements over the 20-plus-year-old IPv4. However, a phased, multi-year implementation will
be needed to minimize disruption and reap early benefits as products and standards mature. The technology
environment is primed to start transforming enterprise communications for the future, using processes inherent
in well-run organizations. This paper examines five significant change vectors that will influence the timing and
characteristics of an organization’s IPv6 deployment: IPv4 Internet address depletion, IPv6 standards
maturity, IPv6 product maturity, global adoption of IPv6, and IPv6 innovations.
INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND
ueled by a combination of business and P components have continued to evolve since
F technical motivations, and concurrent with
the installation of new products, the transition to
I the early work of Robert E. Kahn and Vinton G.
Cerf in the 1970s [1]. As participants in the
Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) will begin Internet Society (ISOC) Interconnectivity and
before 2010 for most large enterprises. The IP Standards Development program, the Internet
evolution is following the patterns of previous Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the Internet
major technology shifts. Organizations have gone Architecture Board (IAB) are responsible for
through other network migrations in the past, developing the architecture of the Internet's
including the transition to Ethernet, transmission technical underpinnings. Through the efforts of
control protocol/IP (TCP/IP), domain name these organizations, broad-based consensus on
service (DNS), local area networks (LANs), and bringing technical change to the Internet is
wireless LANs (WLANs). Early adopters of IPv6 achieved [2].
will have the opportunity to lay a foundation for
The IETF is responsible for many standards,
a smooth transition and gain a competitive edge.
including IP standards. Over 10 years ago, IPv6
A solid vision and strategy are required to guide
an enterprise through the multi-year transition.
IPv6 migration is not just about the network.
Devices, applications, and services also have
an integrated function in the enterprise
environment. Organizations’ architectures,
planning, and deployments will be more
successful when the multiple external-facing
change vectors are understood and squarely
addressed. Although some aspects of the new
protocol and its implementation are not fully
mature, several commercial IPv6-enabled
Fred Wettling products are already available, with more on the
fred.wettling@bechtel.com
horizon. Broad, stable, and secure production
deployment of these first IPv6 building blocks
can start today with careful planning.
© 2006 Bechtel Corporation. All rights reserved. 1

ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS, AND TERMS
3GPP™ Third Generation Partnership LAN local area network
Project
MIPv6 mobile IPv6
CERNET China Education and Research
Moonv6 A global effort led by the
Network
North American IPv6 Task Force
CIO chief information officer (NAv6TF) involving the
UNH-IOL, Internet2, vendors,
DNS domain name service
service providers, and regional
DoD Department of Defense IPv6 Forum Task Force
dual stack concurrent service for IPv4 and network pilots worldwide
IPv6 protocol stacks NAT network address translation
Anticipating a
FP6 Sixth Framework Program NMO network mobile operator
long transition
IAB Internet Architecture Board OMB Office of Management and
and eventual IPv4
IANA Internet Assigned Numbers Budget
address exhaustion,
Authority PSTN public switched telephone
the IETF designed network
ICT information and
IPv6 standards to communication technology QoS quality of service
serve the interest IETF Internet Engineering Task RFC (IETF) Request for Comments
of ISOC’s Force
RIR regional internet registry
international IMS IP multimedia subsystem
RUNES Reconfigurable Ubiquitous
membership in IP Internet Protocol Networked Embedded
maintaining the IPTV IP television Systems
Internet’s viability IPv4 IP version 4 TCP transmission control protocol
and global scaling. UNH-IOL University of New Hampshire
IPv6 IP version 6
Interoperability Lab
ISOC Internet Society
VoIP voice over IP
ISP Internet service provider
Wi-Fi™ wireless fidelity
IST Information Society
Technologies WiMAX worldwide interoperability for
microwave access
IT information technology
WLAN wireless LAN
JITC (US DoD) Joint Interoperability
Test Command
standards began their evolution to address legacy • Simplification through route aggregation,
IP version 4 (IPv4) deficiencies. Anticipating a use of simplified and extensible headers,
long transition and eventual IPv4 address elimination of network address translation
exhaustion, the IETF designed IPv6 standards to (NAT), etc.
serve the interest of ISOC’s international
• Transition from IPv4 to IPv6
membership in maintaining the Internet’s
viability and global scaling. The major • End-to-end interoperability
improvements offered by IPv6 cover several Networks are necessary plumbing that connect
broad areas: people, services, devices, and information.
“Connecting the dots” may involve a
• Global addresses
combination of internal and external constituents.
• Simplified auto-configuration of addresses Enterprises must consider all nodes and services
(“plug-and-play”) connected to the networks as the transition from
• Mobility IPv4 to IPv6 progresses. The transition will be
gradual for most organizations, starting with the
• Security (including authentication and
introduction of IPv6 onto existing IPv4 networks.
privacy)
Over time, a “dual-stack” environment will
2 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

emerge, supporting IPv4 and IPv6 concurrently. simply because this will be their only option.
Legacy IPv4 networks and services will This circumstance will globally alter existing
eventually be decommissioned as IPv6 demographics in relation to where emerging
becomes the dominant IP. The rate of adoption Internet technology products and services
will be influenced by five key external change are developed and adopted.
vectors that are the focus of this paper. • New and expanding organizations will find
it increasingly difficult to obtain IPv4
allocations as the available pool of IPv4
CHANGE VECTORS AFFECTING addresses shrinks.
IPv6 DEPLOYMENT
Enterprises should:
ive ongoing change vectors directly affect
F how and when an organization approaches
IPv6 and will determine its ultimate global
• Assess when IPv4 address depletion will
affect the organization and how long it will Vendors should
success or failure: take to respond.
take advantage of
• IPv4 Internet address depletion • Evaluate the impact of international
internationally
competitors moving to the forefront of
• IPv6 standards maturity recognized IPv6
IPv6-based technology growth or adoption.
• IPv6 product maturity compliance
• Learn about IPv6 addressing and
• IPv6 global adoption renumbering, including alternatives such as certification
• IPv6 innovations IPv6 provider-independent address space. programs to ensure
multivendor product
Entities implementing IPv6 must recognize and
IPv6 Standards Maturity Vector interoperability
respond to these realities. The convergence points
Mature standards are foundational elements
will vary by organization. within and between
supporting standards-based interoperability and
subsequent product development and enterprise organizations.
IPv4 Internet Address Depletion Vector deployment. Innovation and revision are part of
IPv4 has a globally routable limit of about the natural evolution of Internet standards.
4 million addresses. IPv6 is mathematically Because some IPv6 standards are insufficiently
limited to 2128 or 3.4 x 1038 addresses. For historic mature, organizations must understand the
reasons, the allocation of IPv4 addresses by points at which IPv6 functions can be enabled
country is not proportional to populations. In as the implementation program unfolds.
view of the IPv4 address limitation, NAT and Capitalizing on existing work and publications
private (non-routable) addresses have been can provide a map for enabling functions.
employed for some time. The NAT solution will Vendors should take advantage of internationally
not provide long-term support for the rapidly recognized IPv6 compliance certification pro-
growing number of IP-enabled devices on the grams to ensure multivendor product inter-
planet, however. Several attempts have been operability within and between organizations.
made to compute when the Internet Assigned
Numbers Authority (IANA) will no longer have In 1994, the IETF initiated the first IPv6 activities
IPv4/8 address blocks to allocate to regional [5], which were documented in Request for
Internet registries (RIRs). Estimates have ranged Comments (RFC) 1752, “The Recommendation
from as early as 2008 to as late as 2020. Analyses for the IP Next Generation Protocol.” Since then,
in the “IPv4 Address Report” by Geoff Hutson [3] more than 150 IPv6-related RFCs have been
and “A Pragmatic Report on IPv4 Address Space published [6]. Like other Internet standards, IPv6
Consumption” [4] by Tony Hain (Cisco) suggest has evolved based on experience and innovation.
that IPv4 address depletion will occur around Some IETF IPv6 RFCs and Internet drafts have
2012, ± 3 years. Projections based on historic been either updated or set aside, while others
address consumption patterns cannot fully have been written as “informational” to provide
account for changes in IANA or RIR policies or implementation guidance. Through this process,
the impact of significant IP convergence trends protocol stability has been achieved in several
such as voice over IP (VoIP), IP television (IPTV), areas, including routing, addressing, stateless
or industrial Ethernet. address auto-configuration, and transition
mechanisms. Stable portions of the IPv6
Key observations on address depletion are: standards are already being incorporated within
• Rapidly growing countries with sparse IPv4 commercial products, while other protocol
allocations will take early advantage of IPv6 features are not fully developed.
June 2006 • Volume 4, Number 2 3

Several organizations have grouped RFCs and IPv6 Product Maturity Vector
Internet drafts based on function to enable testing Commercialization of IPv6 started years ago for
and deployment planning. Representative products and services and is following a typical
groupings include: commercial progression. The pace of change is
driven by a combination of innovations, market
• Core requirements
demands, profit opportunities, national/regional
• Transition mechanisms strategies, and company/government policies.
• Connection technology Early products are appearing from leading
technology companies that produce network
• Security equipment, operating systems, and entertainment
• Quality of service (QoS) systems and that provide commercial and
• Mobility residential network services. IPv6-enabled
The IPv6 Forum products such as the Sony PlayStation® 2 and
• Wireless systems Nokia™ Communicator 9500 are broadly
is a global
• Network management deployed. Microsoft® Windows Vista™ will be
organization
shipped with IPv6 “default-ON” around the end
sponsoring the • Informational/best practice
of 2006. The progression of IPv6 maturity in
IPv6 Ready Logo The IPv6 Forum is a global organization Microsoft servers is shown in Table 1.
Program to sponsoring the IPv6 Ready Logo Program [7] to
provide IPv6 conformance test criteria and tools Table 1. IPv6 Maturity in
provide IPv6 Microsoft Windows Server® Platforms [11]
for multivendor interoperability testing. The Tahi
conformance test Project [8] and University of New Hampshire
Phase Year Product IPv6 Features
criteria and tools Interoperability Lab (UNH-IOL) [9]/Moonv6 [10]
for multivendor are examples of international test sites for IPv6
standards compliance certification that support Windows Server Limited
interoperability Introduction 2002
2000-SP1 Functionality
tests by vendors, carriers, end users, and
testing. government agencies. The US Department of
Defense (DoD) Joint Interoperability Test
Windows Server Basic
Command (JITC) regularly participates in testing Stability 2005
2003-SP1 Features Only
at UNH-IOL in conjunction with Moonv6
activities as part of its IPv6 implementation
program. Windows Server Basic
Default-ON 2008?
“Longhorn” Feature Set
Key observations on standards maturity are:
• All Internet standards are evolving,

IPv6 product maturity will require the enterprise
including IPv6.
to evaluate what versions of a product meet its
• Core IPv6 standards are stable and can be IPv6 delivery objectives. Complexity is added by
broadly deployed. the fact that the products of multiple maturity
• Several organizations have already phases may exist in the environment
quantified which standards are required to simultaneously. In many cases, economics will
perform IPv6 functions. dictate that internal refresh cycles be leveraged
with a phased introduction of IPv6. Some core
• Internationally sanctioned multivendor
services and products, such as backbone routers
standards compliance testing and
or DNS servers, may need to be replaced outside
certification can provide a level of assurance
of their normal refresh cycle.
that products can operate successfully in the
enterprise. A product’s IPv6 capabilities should be verified
within their context of operation. Hardware and
Enterprises should:
software advertised as being “IPv6-enabled” may
• Clearly and regularly update vendors on the have protocol implementation limitations. Will a
IPv6 standards or functions that are expected device, such as a printer, that auto-configures an
in their products. IPv6 address based on an advertised prefix, self-
register dynamically with a DNS server? “Not
• Understand which standards are needed for
always” is the answer. Enterprises need to be
each phase of their IPv6 implementation.
prepared for products that will soon be delivered
• Assess to what degree the organization with IPv6 “default-ON.”
should participate in the standards process.

Key observations on product maturity are: will be key to ensuring prosperous lives for the
Japanese people befitting the 21st century and
• IPv6 maturity in products and services will
strengthening Japan’s competitiveness…. [12]
improve over time.
This objective is supported by four pillars,
• The industry trend will rapidly shift to IPv6
including the active promotion of the information
“default-ON.”
technology (IT) revolution. The policy speech also
• Many enterprises can reduce deployment contained the following announcements:
costs by including IPv6 in their technology
• Formal support of IPv6 in the “e-Japan
refresh requirements.
Initiative,” 2000
Enterprises should:
• Governmental establishment of the IPv6
• Integrate IPv6 deployment planning with Promotion Council of Japan The geographic and
their technology refresh cycles, where
• Tax incentive program for 2002–3, which organizational rate
possible, to minimize their transition
allowed Internet service providers (ISPs) a of IPv6 adoption
expenses.
reduction in corporate tax and fixed property
has a strong
• Plan their response to new products tax for newly acquired IPv6-ready routers
introduced into the organization with IPv6 potential to change
The China Education and Research Network
“default-ON.” the distribution
(CERNET) IPv6 test bed was started in 1998.
• Clearly express their IPv6 product and China Telecom’s basic policy contains these core of sector ICT
service needs and procurement policies to elements [13]: dominance in
their suppliers. the world.
• Actively support IPv6
• Ensure that vendor claims of “IPv6-enabled”
• Develop trial projects and implement IPv6
clearly map to stable industry standards and
step by step
enterprise needs.
• Establish new requirements, standards, and
• Review suppliers’ IPv6 product and service
regulation to accelerate IPv6 market
“roadmaps” to ensure that they meet the
development
organization’s deployment timing needs. If
not, consider IPv6-enabled products and On December 25, 2004, China Telecom
services from another provider. announced that it had connected 20 cities and
25 universities in China employing pure IPv6
IPv6 Global Adoption Vector technology. The CERNET-2 is the largest
The geographic and organizational rate of IPv6 next-generation Internet network in operation
adoption has a strong potential to change the in the world [14]. The planning for the 2008
distribution of sector information and Olympic Games includes demonstrations of
communication technology (ICT) dominance in China’s IPv6 accomplishments. Huawei1 is
the world. The rate at which IPv6 is being emerging as a formidable network equipment
adopted varies by country and industry and is manufacturer supporting and advancing
influenced by multiple drivers, including: emerging technologies, such as IPv6.
• Strategic investments in the economic future The IT industry has emerged as a key driver in
of a country or region the Republic of Korea’s economy, accounting for
almost 30 percent of total exports. The country
• Global competitive positioning has ambitious but realistic national plans to
• IP convergence opportunities increase its trade surplus as well as the per capita
income of its citizens. The posture was clearly
• Development and delivery of new products stated by Minister Daeje Chin: “Today’s winner-
and services take-all society allows only a company or a
country with [the] world’s best technologies
• Government mandates
In a policy speech delivered in 2000, Japanese ____________________________

Prime Minister Yoshiro Mori stated, 1 Huawei Technologies Co. Ltd., a telecommunication
equipment manufacturer based in the People’s Republic
The most important pillar in the rebirth of Japan of China, is a private enterprise specializing in research
will be IT strategy, in other words, the initiative of and development, production, and marketing of
e-Japan. The realization of a Japanese IT society communications equipment and customized network
solutions for telecommunications carriers.

to survive the fierce competition across Key observations on IPv6 global adoption
international borders.” [15] The Ministry of include:
Information and Communication has developed
• Improving future IT market share or
the IT839 strategy, focusing Korea’s public and
achieving technology superiority is seen as a
private sectors on eight services, three
strong economic advantage.
infrastructures, and nine economic growth
engines. The inclusion of IPv6 as one of the three • Proactive government–industry collab-
infrastructures demonstrates its importance to oration will positively improve the pace of
Korea, which has a stated goal of having all IPv6- adopting IPv6 internationally.
based services in place by 2010.
• Certain commercial IPv6-enabled products
The European Commission has been funding the and services may first be available in other
The European development of IPv6 competence for years as parts of the world or from suppliers not used
an economic imperative. European research by enterprises today.
Commission has activities are structured around consecutive
been funding the Enterprises should:
4-year Framework Programs. The Sixth
development of Framework Program (FP6) sets out the • Seriously assess if early IPv6 adoption or
IPv6 competence priorities—including the Information Society product enablement by the organization or
Technologies2 (IST) priority—for the period competitors will affect long-term market
for years as 2002–6. As stated by IST in its Web site: share or profitability.
an economic
The rapid and continued growth of the Internet • Determine when carriers, customers, and
imperative.
requires new measures to ensure that it can business partners will want or be able to
continue to meet emerging requirements. Europe’s communicate with the organization over
ambition to be the most competitive and dynamic IPv6. Arrange pilot projects.
knowledge-based economy by 2010 can only be
realized if the EU is at the forefront of this
IPv6 Innovations Vector
upgrading of the Internet’s capabilities. Europe
New products and services based on IPv6 are
will only be able to maintain and build on its
emerging. The global trend of IP-based data,
leadership in wireless and mobile communications
voice, and video convergence has been addressed
if a rapid transition is made to the next generation
by organizations such as the Third Generation
Internet based on Internet Protocol version 6
Partnership Project (3GPP™), which developed
(IPv6). [16]
the IP multimedia subsystem (IMS) Standard.
On June 9, 2003, John Stenbit, chief information The IMS has stimulated hardware manufacturers
officer (CIO) – US DoD, announced that the US to standardize systems to bring a high level of
DoD would implement IPv6 by 2008 [17]. This interoperability to key services. The vision of
announcement directly supported DoD Directive broad, converged IP-based user networks spans
8100.1 Global Information Grid [18] and the multiple network delivery technologies,
DoD’s vision of network-centric operations and including cellular, wireless fidelity (Wi-Fi™),
warfare. The IPv6 product and service worldwide interoperability for microwave access
implications in the multi-billion-dollar DoD (WiMAX), and public switched telephone
budget are now reflected throughout DoD, from network (PSTN). IPv6 is a significant component
procurement actions, through JITC testing, to of mobility, with mobile IPv6 (MIPv6)
weapons and systems development. addressing challenges such as cross-transport
handoffs, QoS, security, billing, and even battery
A US Office of Management and Budget (OMB) life. Multi-year collaborative IMS-IPv6 initiatives
memorandum to all US federal agency CIOs has require active participation among network
set “June 2008 as the date by which all agencies’ mobile operators (NMOs), equipment vendors,
infrastructure (network backbones) must be and inter-operator carriers.
using IPv6 and agency networks must interface
with this infrastructure.” [19] The OMB IPv6 Industrial automation is also spurring IPv6
program checkpoints and deliverables have innovation. Sensor networks and wireless
spawned new levels of collaboration within the Ethernet are being addressed in organizations
Federal CIO Council to address cross-agency such as the European-based Reconfigurable
interoperability of emerging network technology. Ubiquitous Networked Embedded Systems
(RUNES) project. The vision of RUNES is “to
____________________________
enable the creation of large-scale, widely
2 IST is a research initiative of the European Commission distributed, heterogeneous networked embedded
that is funding thousands of near-market projects.

systems that interoperate and adapt to PlayStation is a registered trademark of Sony
their environments.” [20] Significant industrial Computer Entertainment Inc.
automation changes will be seen in building,
plant, and process automation, as well as in
Compatibility Alliance, Inc.
health care, emergency services, logistics, and
other applications. Telematics and vehicle-based
communications using IPv6 are being pursued by
REFERENCES
several companies, ranging from network
equipment makers to automobile manufacturers. [1] A Brief History of the Internet
(http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/
A key observation on IPv6 innovations is that: brief.shtml).
[2] About the Internet Society
• Network mobility, industrial networking, (http://www.isoc.org/isoc/).
peer-to-peer computing, and other [3] IPv4 Address Report, Jeff Huston
To minimize or avoid
technology domains are experiencing (http://bgp.potaroo.net/ipv4/). potential disruption,
significant technical changes that will require [4] T. Hain, “A Pragmatic Report on IPv4 Address organizations
IPv6 features. Space Consumption,” Internet Protocol Journal,
Vol. 8, No. 3, September 2005. should base IPv6
Enterprises should: [5] R.M. Hinden, “IP Next Generation Overview,” implementation and
May 14, 1995
• Participate in industry consortia and IPv6 (http://playground.sun.com/pub/ipng/html/ risk mitigation plans
standards compliance testing as part of their INET-IPng-Paper.html#CH1).
on a sound
strategic planning and product development. [6] RFC Editor [Internet-Society-funded publisher
of RFCs] (http://www.rfc-editor.org/ understanding of
• Understand when a new technology or cgi-bin/rfcsearch.pl).
external influences.
innovation will be usable to meet their [7] IPv6 Ready
(http://www.ipv6ready.org/frames.html).
business and technical goals.
[8] Tahi Project (http://www.tahi.org/).
[9] UNH-IOL
(http://www.iol.unh.edu/consortiums/ipv6/).
CONCLUSIONS [10] Moonv6 (http://www.moonv6.com/).
hether they intend to or not, most medium-
W to-large organizations will have IPv6
running on their networks before 2010. Strategic
[11] Microsoft Product Lifecycles
(http://www.microsoft.com/lifecycle).
[12] Policy Speech by Prime Minister Yoshiro Mori
technical and business needs may be influenced to the 150th Session of the Diet, September 21,
2000 – The IT Revolution as a National Movement
by uncontrollable dynamics of external change. (http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/souri/mori/
IPv6 transition planning should start now; 2000/0921policy.html).
internally focused technical competence is not [13] China Telecom Industry briefing for Bechtel
enough. The five external change vectors Corporation, October 21, 2005.
discussed in this paper will influence an entity’s [14] Science, Technology and Environment News
from the People’s Republic of China, Research
pace, scope, and strategy for IPv6 deployment. and Environment News from China, No. 7,
To minimize or avoid potential disruption, January 2005.
organizations should base IPv6 implementation [15] IT839 Strategy, Ministry of Information and
and risk mitigation plans on a sound Communication Republic of Korea
(http://www.ipc.go.kr/servlet/download?pt=/
understanding of external influences. ipceng/policy&fn=it839_eng.pdf).
[16] Information Society Technologies (IST)
(http://cordis.europa.eu/ist/rn/ipv6.htm).
TRADEMARKS [17] Next-Generation Internet Protocol to Enable
Net-Centric Operations, United States
3GPP is a trademark of the European Department of Defense News Release,
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) June 13, 2003
in France and other jurisdictions. (http://www.defenselink.mil/releases/2003/
nr20030613-0097.html).
Microsoft, Windows, and Windows Server are [18] DoD Directive 8100.1, “Global Information Grid
registered trademarks and Windows Vista is a (GIG) Overarching Policy,” September 19, 2002.
trademark of Microsoft Corporation in the United [19] Transition Planning for Internet Protocol
Version 6 (IPv6), OMB Memorandum M 05-22,
States and other countries.
August 2, 2005
(http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/
Nokia is a trademark of Nokia Corporation. memoranda/fy2005/m05 22.pdf).
[20] IST-RUNES (http://www.ist-runes.org/).

BIOGRAPHY
Fred Wettling joined Bechtel
Corporation in 1980. As the
technology strategy manager,
he manages technology
standards and strategies for
Bechtel Corporation and is
sponsoring the enterprise IPv6
initiative within Bechtel. In
2005, he had the honor of being
selected as one of 18 Bechtel
Fellows in recognition of his technical expertise and
contributions to the company.
Fred has been responsible for the architecture,

computing strategies, and standards in infrastructure
services, networks, and base computing. He has
extensive experience with project and office startups,
major technology transitions, and technology
operations at numerous Bechtel projects and offices.
Fred has led project IT and network innovations
for startup and operations at a variety of Bechtel
jobs, including a US Sprint PCS network build-out
and the USDOE’s Hanford Waste Treatment plant
network planning.
Fred is active within and outside of Bechtel in

promoting standards-based technology interoperability
that supports global enterprise business needs. He is a
member of the North American IPv6 Task Force, an
alliance partner and member of the Distributed
Management Task Force, and executive director of
the IPv6 Business Council. Active in the Network
Applications Consortium (NAC) since 1997, he has
served as the NAC’s chairman for the past 4 years.
Network World selected Fred as one of the 50 most
powerful people in networking in 2003, 2004, and 2005.
He is a senior member of Cisco’s Enterprise and Federal
Technical Advisory Boards.

MOBILE WiMAX: A COMPLEMENTARY
OR COMPETITIVE TECHNOLOGY?
Abstract—The energetic growth in the demand for data services in a mobile environment requires immediate
attention to fulfill the capacity load. Although operators are still focused on expanding voice services with
satisfactory QoS, an effort to deploy data services to meet market needs is evident. The initial approaches
to providing mobile broadband services have been cdma2000 ® and UMTS. In the meantime, WiMAX
802.16e-2005 is on the verge of providing true mobile broadband service. Thus, wireless operators face a
challenging decision in making a significant and wise technology choice to deploy for voice and data
applications in advanced market segments as the migration from fixed to mobile continues.
In today’s commercially challenging environment, capital investments must be well vindicated. This is already
putting pressure on some networks and may lead to difficulties in sustaining satisfactory levels of service. This
paper assesses WiMAX 802.16e as a complement to or competitor of cdma2000 and UMTS/HSDPA for
mobile/portable broadband data services. The paper describes what each technology’s performance means to
networks capable of efficiently delivering high-speed portable and mobile data services.
INTRODUCTION Because fixed WiMAX is, by definition, a

orldwide interoperability microwave complementary solution to support 3G, it is not
W access (WiMAX), also known as Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
included in the comparison.
802.16d-2004 for fixed and IEEE 802.16e-2005 for

mobile applications, is a standards-based wireless WiMAX PHYSICAL AND MEDIUM ACCESS
technology that provides high-throughput CONTROL LAYERS
broadband connections. Fixed WiMAX can be obile WiMAX, also known as IEEE 802.16e,
used for a number of applications, including last-
mile broadband connections, hotspots, cellular
M is based on OFDMA technology. WiMAX is
an Internet Protocol (IP) end-to-end network
backhaul, and high-speed enterprise connectivity architecture that provides high-speed broadband.
for business. Mobile WiMAX has an enhanced This section discusses OFDM, OFDMA, and the
modulation scheme called orthogonal frequency physical (PHY) and medium access control
division multiple access (OFDMA) that improves (MAC) layer architecture of WiMAX.
multipath performance in a non-line-of-sight
(NLOS) environment. OFDM
The development of other technologies such as Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
third-generation (3G) cellular services—evolution (OFDM) has become the most popular high-
data optimized (EV-DO) and universal mobile speed communications technique in the last
telephone system (UMTS)/high-speed downlink decade. It is a proven technique that alleviates
data packet access (HSDPA)—that already offer most of the disadvantages encountered with
mobile broadband connections can be a challenge multiplexing in wireless systems. Dividing the
to mobile WiMAX. This paper compares EV-DO spectrum into many orthogonal carriers and
and HSDPA with mobile WiMAX and verifies adding a cyclical prefix guard interval make the
Sam Kettani whether they compete with or complement each signal robust to multipath delay spread, allowing
other. This paper also discusses WiMAX 802.16e, a modulation scheme and, thus, higher data
oekettan@bechtel.com
EV-DO, and HSDPA characteristics and presents speeds to be used. The major contributor to the
the advantages and disadvantages of WiMAX. OFDM complexity problem has been the

1xEV-DO 1X evolution data optimized FA/HA foreign agent/home agent
2G second generation, the FDD frequency division
original digital mobile phone duplexing
service
FFT fast Fourier transform
3G third generation, enhanced
digital mobile phone service GGSN gateway GPRS support
at broadband speeds node
enabling both voice and GPRS general packet radio service
nonvoice data transfer
GSM global system for mobile
4G fourth generation, enhanced communications
OFDM has digital mobile phone service
boosting data transfer rates to HSDPA high-speed downlink data
become the packet access
20 Mbps
most popular IEEE Institute of Electrical and
AAA authentication, authorization,
high-speed and accounting Electronics Engineers
communications AES advanced encryption IFFT inverse FFT
technique in the standard IMS IP multimedia subsystem
last decade. AN-AAA access network AAA IP Internet Protocol
ASN access service network LAN local area network
ASN-DP ASN decision point MAC medium access control
ASN-EP ASN enforcement point MAN metropolitan area network
ASN-GW ASN gateway MC-CDMA multicarrier CDMA
ATM asynchronous transfer mode MC-EV-DO multicarrier EV-DO
BPSK binary PSK MIMO multiple-input, multiple-
BS base station output
BSC-DO base station control–data MIP-FA mobile IP-foreign agent

optimized MIP-HA mobile IP-home agent
BTS base transceiver station MS mobile station
BW bandwidth MSC mobile softswitch center
CDMA code division multiple access NLOS non line of sight
cdma2000® A family of standards, OFDM orthogonal frequency
developed through division multiplex
comprehensive proposals
from Qualcomm, describing OFDMA orthogonal frequency
the use of CDMA technology division multiple access
to meet 3G requirements for OSS operation support system
wireless communication
systems PDC personal digital
communication
CQI channel quality indicator
PDSN packet data serving node
CS content service
PDU protocol data unit
DACS digital access and cross-
connect system PHY physical
DES data encryption standard PMP point-to-point
DL downlink PS packet switched
DSL digital subscriber line PSK phase-shift keying
EAP extensible authentication PSTN public switched telephone

protocol network
EDGE enhanced data GSM QAM quadrature amplitude

modulation
EMS enhanced messaging service
QoS quality of service
EV-DO evolution data optimized

QPSK quadrature PSK Tx transmit
RAN radio access network UE user equipment
RF radio frequency UL uplink
RNC radio network controller UMTS universal mobile telephone
system
ROHC robust header compression
UTRAN UMTS terrestrial RAN
RTP real-time transport
protocol VoIP voice over IP
SDU service data unit WCDMA wideband CDMA
SGSN serving GPRS support WEP wired equivalent privacy OFDM uses
node Wi-Fi™ wireless fidelity adaptive
SHO soft handoff WiMAX worldwide interoperability modulation
TDD time division duplexing for microwave access capable of
TDM time division multiplex WLAN wireless LAN handling BPSK,
TDMA time division multiple QPSK, 16 QAM,
access
or 64 QAM.
application of the fast Fourier transform (FFT) where the QAM data symbol aim is sent on the mth
algorithm to the modulation and demodulation subcarrier of the ith OFDM symbol. The OFDM
process, which involves a technique that symbol index is omitted in the sequel.
assembles the input information into blocks of Figure 2 shows constellation diagrams of data
N complex numbers, one for each subchannel. An transmitted before and after channel estimation,
inverse FFT (IFFT) is performed on each block, taken from an actual measured waveform. This
and the result is transmitted serially. At the constellation shows a frame control header with
receiver, the information is recovered by binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) modulation—
performing an FFT on the received block of signal Downlink Burst 1 with quadrature phase-shift
samples. Figure 1 depicts OFDM modeling. keying (QPSK) modulation and Downlink Burst 2
An OFDM signal is the sum of N independent with 16 QAM. Because of amplitude scaling, the
modulated symbols mapped onto N different BPSK, QPSK, and 16 QAM decision points do not
subchannels with 1/T frequency separation, fall on top of one another.
where T is the OFDM symbol period. The discrete Each preamble, header, and burst is made up of
time-domain samples bi = (bi0 , bi1 ,… biN-1) to be at least one OFDM symbol. OFDM uses adaptive
transmitted are obtained by performing an modulation capable of handling BPSK, QPSK,
N-point IFFT on the complex quadrature 16 QAM, or 64 QAM. Signal conditions and
amplitude modulation (QAM) symbols block bandwidth (BW) requirements determine which
ai = (ai0 , ai1 ,… aiN-1): modulation is selected for individual data bursts.
N –1
The ability of the base transceiver station (BTS) to
Σ a im e j2π m n/N
1 use different modulation formats on each data
bmi = N
m=0
burst is particularly interesting.
Figure 1. OFDM System Block Diagram

An important and
very challenging
function of the
WiMAX system is its
support of various Figure 2. 16 QAM Signal Constellation Diagrams of Transmitted Data Using OFDM
advanced antenna
techniques, which OFDMA radio channel capability, OFDMA can provide a
are essential to The WiMAX system relies on an original radio high spectral efficiency of about 3 bits/s/Hz.
PHY layer and an appropriate MAC layer to However, in contrast to single-carrier
providing high
support all demands driven by the target modulation, the OFDMA signal has an increased
spectral efficiency, applications. The PHY layer channelization is peak-to-average power ratio and increased
capacity, system based on OFDMA, in combination with a frequency accuracy requirements. Therefore,
performance, and centralized MAC layer for optimized resource selecting appropriate power amplifiers and
allocation and support of quality of service (QoS) frequency recovery concepts is crucial. Values for
reliability.
for different types of services (e.g., voice over various OFDMA parameters are provided in
Internet Protocol [VoIP], real-time and non-real- Table 1.
time services, and best effort). As with OFDM, in
which all carriers are transmitted in parallel with WiMAX – Mobile
the same amplitude, OFDMA divides the carrier WiMAX provides flexibility in terms of channels,
space into SS subsets. Each has an SC subchannel, carrier frequency, and duplex mode (time
with one carrier per subset, as shown in Figure 3, division duplexing [TDD] and frequency division
for a total of 2,048 carriers; the remaining carriers duplexing [FDD]) to meet a variety of available
are used for guard subcarriers and pilots. spectrum resources and targeted services
Modulation and amplitude are set separately for requirements. An important and very challenging
each subchannel. function of the WiMAX system is its support of
The OFDMA PHY layer is well adapted to the various advanced antenna techniques, which are
NLOS propagation environment in the 2 to essential to providing high spectral efficiency,
11 GHz frequency range. It is inherently robust capacity, system performance, and reliability:
when handling the significant delay spread • Beam forming using smart antennas provides
caused by typical NLOS reflections. Together additional gain to bridge long distances or to
with adaptive modulation, which is applied to increase indoor coverage. It also reduces
each subscriber individually according to the inter-cell interference and improves
frequency reuse.
Table 1. OFDMA Parameters
• Transmit diversity and multiple-input,
Parameters Values
multiple-output (MIMO) techniques using
System BW (MHz) 1.25 2.5 5 10 20
multiple antennas take advantage of
Sampling Frequency (Fs , MHz) 1.429 2.857 5.714 11.429 22.857
multipath reflections to improve reliability
Sample Time (1/Fs , nsec) 700 350 175 88 44 and capacity.
FFT Size (NFFT) 128 256 512 1024 2048
Because the true promise of WiMAX is the fast,
Subcarrier Frequency Spacing 11.16071429 kHz
seamless, and mobile delivery of large data,
Useful Symbol Time (Tb = 1/∆ƒ) 89.6 µs
voice, and video streams to a full array of end-
Guard Time (Tg = Tb /8) 11.2 µs
user devices, one might think that its benefits are
OFDMA Symbol Time (Ts = Tb + Tg) 100.8 µs

similar to those of 3G and question its necessity not yet been developed. The metropolitan area
and ability to succeed. The primary difference network (MAN) is designed for the very high bit
between the two is that where 3G technology has rates (up to 268 Mbps in each direction) of the
struggled—in areas such as benchmark services truly broadband PHY layer, while delivering
and applications, backhaul, and convergence— ATM-compatible QoS. The WiMAX MAC layer
WiMAX can provide the necessary support to uses a variable length protocol data unit (PDU),
help augment 3G so that it can overcome those along with a number of other concepts that
challenges. significantly increase the efficiency of the
standard. Multiple MAC PDUs may be
Physical and MAC Layer Architecture concatenated into a single burst to minimize
WiMAX broadband wireless access takes action PHY overhead. Additionally, multiple service
at the MAC layer (Layer 2) and the PHY layer data units (SDUs) for the same service
(Layer 1, or the air interface). The mobile WiMAX may be concatenated into a single MAC The WiMAX
PHY layer is based on OFDMA technology. The PDU, minimizing MAC header overhead. MAC layer uses
network is an IP end-to-end conventional Fragmentation allows very large SDUs to be sent
a grant-request
architecture that provides high-speed broadband. across frame boundaries to guarantee the QoS of
competing services. Additionally, payload header mechanism to
With a modification from fixed WiMAX to
mobile WiMAX, the PHY layer also supports suppression can reduce the overhead caused by authorize the
BWs from 1.25 to 20 MHz. The standard is the redundant portions of SDU headers. exchange of data.
designed to accommodate either TDD or The WiMAX MAC layer uses a grant-request
FDD deployments, allowing for both full- and mechanism to authorize the exchange of data.
half-duplex terminals in the FDD case. This feature allows better exploitation of radio
The MAC layer was initially designed specifically resources, particularly with smart antennas, and
for the point-to-point (PMP) wireless access independent management of every user’s traffic.
environment. It supports higher layer or This simplifies the support of real-time and voice
transport protocols such as asynchronous transfer applications. One of the early inhibitors to
mode (ATM), Ethernet, or IP, and is designed to widespread deployment of wireless local area
easily accommodate future protocols that have networks (WLANs) was the poor security feature
Figure 3. OFDMA Subchannels

of the first releases. WiMAX proposes a full range instance, when global system for mobile
of security features to ensure secured data communications (GSM) took the lead in the
exchange: cellular phone world, the IS-95 code division
multiple access (CDMA) network was only
• Terminal authentication by exchanging
available in the US and a few other countries. But
certificates to prevent use of rogue devices
as the demand to offer data rose, CDMA became
• User authentication using the extensible the most favorable solution to provide data
authentication protocol (EAP) through cdma2000® EV-DO using 1.25 MHz and
• Data encryption using the data encryption wideband CDMA (WCDMA)-HSDPA using
standard (DES) or advanced encryption 5 MHz. WiMAX, using OFDM, is designed
standard (AES), which are much more robust to work in different channels from 1.25 to
than wired equivalent privacy (WEP) 20 MHz to conform to diverse worldwide
Although WiMAX requirements as the long-term medium to
and 3G are not achieve spectrum management.
necessarily equally COMPARISON OF WiMAX AND 3G TECHNOLOGIES Each technology offers advantages and
fashionable, disadvantages. Both are concise at the security
The Evolution of 3G and Mobile WiMAX level and both provide full protection. Currently,
operators can
Although WiMAX and 3G are not necessarily 3G systems rely on both IP for data and circuit
benefit from the equally fashionable, operators can benefit from switching for voice. However, 3G requires more
right blend of the the right blend of the two technologies. In the race components, resulting in integration complexity
two technologies. for deployment, however, the question lingers of that affects deployment and maintenance costs.
how WiMAX will co-exist with other mobile
technologies. Previously, in terms of their Figure 4 depicts evolution trends for the 3G and
evolution, technologies have potentially mobile WiMAX technologies.
converged to meet the demand for optimum The next section compares the 3G technologies—
access and efficiency at an affordable cost. For EV-DO and HSDPA—involved with mobile
Figure 4. Evolution Trend of 3G and Mobile WiMAX Technologies

WiMAX and illustrates the network architecture Characteristics of 1xEV-DO include:
and network elements involved with each
• BTS: The BTS processes the radio frequency
technology.
(RF) and manages channel element resources
for 1xEV-DO.
3G Mobile Network Architecture
• BSC-DO: The base station control–data
Both EV-DO and HSDPA are high-speed data
optimized (BSC-DO) performs 1xEV-DO
services in the traditional sense only. EV-DO
connection and session management and
Rev. A is currently based on 1.25 MHz BW;
controls radio resource paging and mobility
Rev. B will be based on 5 MHz. EV-DO supports
functions.
data rates up to 3.1 Mbps (Rev. A) downlink
(DL) and 1.8 Mbps (Rev. A) uplink (UL). HSDPA • PDSN: The PDSN provides the access
is an enhanced version of WCDMA R99, is based gateway between the 1xEV-DO network and
on 5 MHz for each DL and UL, and supports DL the packet data core. It also performs the
data rates up to 14 Mbps. The base station mobile IP-foreign agent (MIP-FA) function.
(BS) combines both UMTS and HSDPA; similarly, For real-time transport protocol (RTP)-based
EV-DO is combined with the cdma2000 BS. The applications, the PDSN provides header
1X evolution data optimized (1xEV-DO) compression for the RTP packets via robust
technology defines original procedures for call header compression (ROHC).
control/mobility management in which IP • AAA server: The 1xEV-DO network contains
packets are routed from the mobile station two authentication, authorization, and
(MS) to the packet data serving node (PDSN) in accounting (AAA) components: an access
the packet data core, eliminating the need for network AAA (AN-AAA) and a packet data
a circuit core. Figure 5 shows a typical EV-DO core AAA. An AN-AAA performs 1xEV-DO
access network. device authorization, and a packet data core
AAA performs the AAA functions for the
subscriber’s IP sessions.
Figure 5. Typical EV-DO Network Architecture (Rev. 0)

Figure 6. HSDPA Network Architecture (Rev. 5)
Figure 7. Mobile WiMAX Network Architecture
• EMS: The enhanced messaging service constitute the PS domain. The 3G RAN consists of
(EMS) performs element management and Node B and a radio network controller (RNC).
operational functions for the WLAN. The common PS core comprises a serving general
• Local feature servers: These servers provide packet radio service (GPRS) support node (SGSN)
CDMA-operator-specific services. and a gateway GPRS support node (GGSN). PS
services are accessed over the radio interface
The access network for 3G (UMTS) packet using shared traffic channels (in the case of GPRS)
switched (PS) services consists of radio access or either dedicated or shared traffic channels,
network (RAN)-unique 3G and a common PS including HSDPA (with UMTS). IMS uses the PS
core network. Together, the RAN and the PS core domain to transport multimedia signaling and

bearer traffic. The PS domain maintains service, Spectrum Efficiency
while the terminal roams. The 3G network has a complex architecture
(upgraded from second generation [2G]) that
Figure 6 illustrates the HSDPA network
was initially developed for voice services. Mobile
architecture.
WiMAX is an end-to-end IP platform to deliver
proficient broadband. The 3G network uses
WiMAX 802.16e Network Architecture FDD with 5 MHz DL and 5 MHz UL
Unlike 3G network architecture, mobile WiMAX UMTS/HSDPA and 1.25 MHz BW EV-DO and
end-to-end architecture is based on all-IP cdma2000 for each DL and UL, while WiMAX
platform packet technology and does not rely on uses TDD with 5 MHz and up to 20 MHz
any circuit telephony inheritance. As mentioned (scalable BW). The TDD concept requires a single
earlier, the benefit of an end-to-end IP network is channel for both DL and UL, which provides a
that the total cost of the circuit telephony in dynamic channel allocation and, hence, overall WiMAX uses
deployment and operation is reduced. The efficient spectrum allocation. TDD with
architecture tolerates different packaging
scenarios to meet urban or rural deployment As seen in Figure 8, EV-DO has its own dedicated 5 MHz and
needs. End-to-end architecture supports VoIP, channel to carry the data, while cdma2000 uses up to 20 MHz
broadband Internet, and other multimedia another carrier for voice.
(scalable BW).
services. The network can sustain interworking Transmit (Tx) power for HSDPA and UMTS R99
and roaming capabilities with other technology, is provided through a single RF carrier. This is
such as wireless fidelity (Wi-Fi™), EV-DO, an initial approach when deploying HSDPA,
and HSDPA. where penetration is gradual. Additional
Figure 7 depicts the mobile WiMAX network channel cards/RF carriers can be added as
architecture. traffic increases. Thus, HSDPA channels can
transmit on unused R99 power. The manu-
WiMAX 802.16e access network architecture facturer chooses how to implement DL power
consists of two parts—a BTS/access point and an control and management.
access service network (ASN). The ASN is further
partitioned into control functionality (the ASN Figure 9 shows two UL and DL spectrums for
decision point [ASN-DP]) and a bearer transport UMTS and HSDPA.
(the ASN enforcement point [ASN-EP]).
Figure 8. UL and DL Spectrums for cdma2000 and EV-DO
Figure 9. UL and DL Spectrums for UMTS and HSDPA

With OFDMA techniques, the BW uses sub- switching, and macro-diversity handoff. The hard
channels to carry data for each user. TDD, on the handoff is similar to that of the 3G network;
other hand, allows a single channel to be used for however, WiMAX has improved Layer 2 to a
both DL and UL, with a dynamic channel distri- delay of less than 50 milliseconds. Fast base
bution for the overall spectrum-efficient allocation. station switching means that the UE and BS retain
a list of BSs as an active set. The UE constantly
Figure 10 depicts two mobile WiMAX carrier
checks for available BSs that are on an active set
spectrums.
and exchanges messages with the BS that has the
highest signal. The handoff occurs when another
Handoffs BS with a strong signal moves to a dominant
EV-DO and HSDPA use three types of handoffs— active set. The BS sends a signal strength message
hard handoff, soft handoff (SHO), and softer to the UE through the channel quality indicator
WiMAX will handoff. (EV-DO uses sector-switching, which is (CQI) that authorizes the UE to lock onto the new
like a pseudo SHO. No SHO is allowed on the dominant active set. The macro-diversity handoff
provide the
forward link; the reverse link uses SHO.) Hard is where every BS in the active sets sends both DL
seamless mobility handoff means that the old radio links in the user and UL messages at the same time interval. The
that people need equipment (UE) are removed before the new UE then selects a blend of information from all
to access radio links are established. Hard handoff can be BSs and interpolates the absolute message.
seamless or non-seamless. Seamless hard handoff
applications at
means that the handover is not perceptible to the
work, at home, WiMAX Integration with EV-DO and UMTS/HSDPA
user. In practice, a handover that requires a
WiMAX's ability to deliver new, cheaper, faster,
and in transit. change of carrier frequency (inter-frequency
and better services to the market hinges on
handover) is always performed as a hard handoff.
several factors. Since WiMAX 802.16d has already
SHO means that radio links are added and
been ratified, standard certification of the
removed so that the UE always maintains at least
WiMAX 802.l6e profile based on this standard
one radio link to the UMTS terrestrial radio access
is a critical step to be taken by the WiMAX
network (UTRAN). An SHO is performed by
ForumTM, which holds the key to its adoption.
means of macro-diversity, which refers to the fact
WiMAX profiles and interoperability certification
that several radio links are active at the same
will enable multivendor interoperability among
time. Normally, SHO can be used when cells
access points, vendor devices, and network
operating on the same frequency are changed.
technologies, including Wi-Fi, digital subscriber
Softer handoff is a special case of SHO in which
line (DSL), and cable.
the radio links added and removed belong to the
same Node B (i.e., the site of collocated BSs from WiMAX will provide the seamless mobility that
which several sector-cells are served). In softer people need to access applications at work, at
handoff, macro-diversity with maximum ratio home, and in transit (see Figure 11). This will be
combining can be performed in Node B, whereas especially important to the growing mobile
in SHO on the DL, macro-diversity with selection workforce. With WiMAX, individuals will be able
combining is generally applied. to take advantage of complex applications such as
using IP-based telephony for video conferencing
Mobile WiMAX also uses three types of
from a hotel room, downloading equipment
handoffs—hard handoff, fast base station
repair guides at a client site, and even quickly
Figure 10. Spectrums of Two Carriers for Mobile WiMAX

Regardless of how
it is adopted and
what applications
first take hold,
WiMAX, as an
IP-based
technology,
will provide more
than just a strong
platform for
convergence.
Figure 11. Seamless Mobility
downloading a feature-length movie on their 3G-based technology such as HSDPA. Within the
handheld for viewing at a later time. next few years, as WiMAX “e” becomes available,
it will be essential for WiMAX to add to and
While full-fledged mobile wireless broadband
complement 3G in rural areas as well. The
applications like these are not expected to be
primary difference is that in areas where 3G
readily available until 2007, fixed WiMAX
technology has struggled—such as benchmark
innovations will be aggressively deployed over
services and applications, backhaul, and
the next several months to complement existing
convergence—WiMAX can provide the necessary
technologies, such as 2G and 3G cellular systems,
support to help augment 3G so that it can
circuit voice, and higher-tier mobile broadband
overcome those challenges. This scenario will
access services. The most common deployments
provide mobile high-speed data service,
will allow universal mobility, with voice and
including technology permutations to convert
simple data carried on cellular spectrum and
from a 3G network to a WiMAX 802.16e network
advanced high-speed data on WiMAX. In big
seamlessly. The proposal here is to allow
cities, WiMAX spectrum will be coverage-
operators to choose from a blend of these
oriented, much like hot zones.
technologies to design high-speed data service
Regardless of how it is adopted and what according to demographic demand and to offer it
applications first take hold, WiMAX, as an at an affordable cost to consumers.
IP-based technology, will provide more than just
By summer 2006, some vendors are expected to
a strong platform for convergence—it will
announce that they have been chosen to expand
provide the pathway for success by giving people
core network capabilities with new capabilities
what they want, when they want it, and where
designed to bridge the operator’s commercial
they want it.
UMTS wireless network with Wi-Fi networks
Since it is expected that 3G networks will be to provide seamless communications for
deployed in developed countries before WiMAX subscribers. The next step with today’s available
802.16e variant market availability, mobile technology will be for the UE to carry several
operators’ first choice for evolution to full technologies, including mobile WiMAX, to enable
mobility broadband services will likely be a a seamless inter-technology handoff.

Table 2. Comparison of EV-DO, HSDPA, and WiMAX 802.16e Technologies
EV-DO HSDPA WiMAX 802.16e
Completed In Market 2006 Estimate 2nd Half 2006
cdma2000/1xEV-DO 400, WCDMA/UMTS 1800, 1900, <11 GHz (<6 GHz Practical)
Spectrum 800, 1700, 1800, 1900, and 2100 MHz Licensed (and Unlicensed)
and 2100 MHz
Non Line of Sight Non Line of Sight Non Line of Sight

Channel Conditions Grant-Request-Based MAC
Enables QoS
Up to 2.5 Mbps Up to 10 Mbps HSDPA Up to 75 Mbps with 20 MHz BW

cdma2000/1xEV-DO Up to 2 Mbps WCDMA/UMTS Channels. Full Mobility: 80%
Mobile WiMAX Peak Raw Data Rate Channel BW Depends Performance of Fixed Usage Model.
on Technology Flexible Channel BWs Between
is truly capable 1.25 and 20 MHz
of providing
QPSK, 16 QAM, 64 QAM, QPSK, 16 QAM, 64 QAM, Scalable OFDMA (128-2k) QPSK,
Modulation
cable-like Others Others 16 QAM, 64 QAM
services with Mobility Mobility Nomadic Pedestrian

Mobility –Regional Roaming –Regional Roaming –Regional Roaming
high data rates
1–5 mi (7 km) 1–5 mi (7 km) 1–5 km (indoor)
at low cost. Typical Cell Radius 2–7 km (outdoor)
Table 2 compares the parameters of the three roaming support among these technologies is the
technologies—EV-DO, HSDPA, and WiMAX key to WiMAX becoming successful and, as a
802.16e—being implemented to provide result, complementing other technologies.
mobile/portable broadband services.
TRADEMARKS
CONCLUSIONS cdma2000 is a registered trademark of the
iMAX, 1xEV-DO, and HSDPA systems Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA-
W each have benefits and drawbacks. Each
technology provides innovative techniques to
USA).

enhance mobile high-speed data services. These
Compatibility Alliance, Inc.
capabilities offer the potential for significant
spectral efficiency advantages and better QoS in WiMAX Forum is a trademark of the WiMAX
both the DL and UL directions. Mobile WiMAX Forum.
has a scalable DL/UL ratio with TDD support,
providing greater flexibility and spectral
efficiency advantages to support varied types of ADDITIONAL READING
broadband traffic. On the other hand, 1xEV-DO
nformation sources used to develop this
and HSDPA have a fixed equivalent DL/UL ratio
determined by the difference in DL/UL spectral
I paper include:
efficiency and fixed FDD channel BWs. • T. Ojanpera and R. Prasad, “An Overview of Air
Interface Multiple Access for IMT 2000/UMTS,”
Mobile WiMAX offers greater QoS and gives IEEE Communications Magazine, September 1998.
operators an alternative for implementing • Motorola Seamless Mobility Connectivity
service level agreements to meet diverse Architecture, Motorola white paper.
consumer requirements. • Mobile WiMAX – Part I: A Technical Overview
and Performance Evaluation, WiMAX Forum,
Mobile WiMAX is truly capable of providing February 2006.
cable-like services with high data rates at low • CDMA2000 High Rate Packet Data Air Interface
cost. Furthermore, with end-to-end architecture, Specification, 3rd Generation Partnership Project 2
WiMAX supports VoIP, which diminishes the “3GPP2,” March 2004.
deployment cost for circuit switching. It can, • 3GPP TS 25.308, “High Speed Downlink Packet
Access (HSDPA) Overall Description,”
therefore, be concluded that, depending on September 2004.
the environment and the demand, each
• E. Dinan, A. Kurochkin, and S. Kettani, “UMTS
technology could compete to provide adequate Radio Interface System Planning and Optimization,”
services to meet consumer needs in a timely and Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal,
cost-effective manner. The ability to provide December 2002.

BIOGRAPHY
Sam Kettani, currently an RF
engineering manager with
Bechtel Telecommunications, is
responsible for mobile and fixed
wireless network design. He has
hands-on experience with
wireless technologies and
applications such as CDMA,
network performance analysis,
microwave design, and the
engineering of fixed wireless networks using point-to-
point and point-to-multipoint technology. Sam has
served in both domestic and international assignments
for Bechtel.
In previous positions at Bechtel and other companies,

Sam was responsible for network planning and
systems integration. He has also prepared guidelines
and processes and has coordinated and managed
numerous projects.
Sam is a graduate electrical engineer specializing

in wireless telecommunications. He has a BSEE
in Telecommunications from George Mason University,
Fairfax, Virginia, and is a certified Six Sigma Yellow
Belt. In 2004, Sam received Bechtel’s “Award of
Merit” for his outstanding contribution to a UMTS
optimization paper.

MOBILE TV ON THE MOVE
WITH DIGITAL VIDEO
BROADCAST-HANDHELD STANDARD
Abstract—DVB-H is the adaptation of DVB-T technology for use by handheld, battery-powered receivers. This
paper provides an overview of the functionalities that DVB-H technology must support and the enhancements
that allow it to meet these requirements. The paper also discusses the advantages of using an SFN rather than
an MFN when implementing DVB-H services.
OVERVIEW In the link layer, DVB-H has two new elements

igital video broadcast–handheld (DVB-H) when compared to DVB-T:
D is an adaptation of digital video
broadcast–terrestrial (DVB-T) to meet the
• Mandatory time-slicing to reduce average
power consumption and enable smooth and
requirements of handheld, battery-powered seamless frequency handover
receivers. Defined by a series of features with
detailed, open specifications found in various • Optional multiprotocol encapsulation-
European Telecommunications Standards forward error correction (MPE-FEC) to
Institute (ETSI) DVB and other standards [1–6], improve the carrier-to-noise (C/N) ratio and
DVB-H technology: Doppler performance in mobile channels and
to provide greater tolerance to impulse
• Allows receivers to repeatedly power off interference
some part of the reception chain to prolong
In the physical layer, DVB-H uses the following
battery usage
extensions to DVB-T:
• Maintains and eases access to services when
mobile users leave a given transmission cell • Mandatory DVB-H signaling—This up-
and enter a new one grades the transmitter parameter signaling
(TPS) bit to include two additional bits that
• Is flexible and scalable over a number indicate the presence of DVB-H services and
of reception scenarios: indoor, outdoor, the possible use of MPE-FEC to enhance and
pedestrian, and inside a moving vehicle speed up service discovery. A cell identifier
• Offers additional means of mitigating is also carried in the TPS bit to support faster
receiving capabilities in environments signal scan and frequency handover on
suffering from the effects of severe mobile mobile receivers.
Glenn A. Torshizi multipath channels and high levels of • Optional 4K-mode orthogonal frequency
gtorshiz@bechtel.com manmade noise division multiplexing (OFDM)—This can be
• Can be used in various parts of the world in adopted to trade off mobility and single
Estefanos various transmission bands and channel frequency network (SFN) cell size, allowing
Woldemariam bandwidths single antenna reception in medium SFNs at
ewoldema@bechtel.com very high speed, which adds network design
While maintaining backward compatibility with
flexibility.
DVB-T, DVB-H incorporates functional changes
in the link and physical layers.

demodulator includes a DVB-T demodulator, a
ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS, AND TERMS time-slicing module, and an MPE-FEC module.
C/N carrier-to-noise A time-slicing module reduces average terminal
COFDM coded OFDM power consumption and enables smooth and
seamless service handover. It does this by sending
DVB digital video broadcast
data in bursts using a significantly higher
DVB-H DVB handheld instantaneous bit rate compared to the bit rate
DVB-T DVB terrestrial required when data is transmitted using
traditional streaming mechanisms. Ten or more
ETSI European Telecommunications
bursted services in a DVB-H stream can save up to
Standards Institute
90 percent of front-end power. To indicate to the
FEC forward error correction receiver when to expect the next burst of a given
A time-slicing
GPS global positioning system service, the time to its beginning is indicated
module reduces within the burst. Between the bursts of a given
IP Internet Protocol
average terminal service, elementary stream data for that service is
MFN multifrequency network not transmitted, allowing elementary streams for
power consumption
MPE multiprotocol encapsulation other services to use the same bandwidth. Thus,
and can save up to
time-slicing enables a receiver to be active only a
90 percent of MPEG Moving Picture Experts Group
fraction of the time, while receiving bursts of a
front-end power. MUX multiplexer requested service. Note that the transmitter is
An MPE-FEC OFDM orthogonal frequency division constantly on (i.e., the transmission of the
multiplexing transport stream is not interrupted).
module improves
the C/N ratio QAM quadrature amplitude Time-slicing also supports using the receiver
modulation to monitor neighboring cells during the off-times
and Doppler
RAM random access memory (between bursts). Switching reception from
performance in one transport stream to another during an
RF radio frequency
mobile channels off period makes it possible to accomplish a
SFN single frequency network quasi-optimum handover decision as well as
and increases
TPS transmitter parameter signaling seamless service handover.
the tolerance
to impulse TS timeslot An MPE-FEC module improves the C/N ratio and
interference. Doppler performance in mobile channels and
increases the tolerance to impulse interference. It
• Optional in-depth symbol interleaving for the does this by introducing an additional level of
2K and 4K modes—This further improves error correction at the MPE layer. Adding parity
robustness in mobile environments and under information calculated from the datagrams and
impulse noise conditions. sending this parity data in separate MPE-FEC
sections allows error-free datagrams to be output
• Available 5 MHz channel bandwidth—This is
after MPE-FEC decoding, despite very poor
for use in nonbroadcast bands, e.g., 1.7 GHz
reception conditions. With MPE-FEC, a flexible
in the United States.
amount of the transmission capacity is allocated to
The conceptual structure of a DVB-H receiver is parity overhead. For a given set of transmission
shown in Figure 1. The receiver includes a DVB-H parameters that provide a parity overhead of
demodulator and a DVB-H terminal. The DVB-H 25 percent, the MPE-FEC may require about the
same C/N ratio as a receiver with antenna
diversity. At the same time, choosing a slightly
weaker transmission code rate can fully
compensate for the MPE-FEC overhead. Even
with this compensation, the end result is far better
performance than that provided by DVB-T
(without MPE-FEC) for the same throughput.
Figure 1. Conceptual Structure of a DVB-H Receiver

Figure 2 illustrates the use of DVB-H to
transmit Internet Protocol (IP) services. In this
example, both MPEG-2 services and time-sliced
DVB-H services are carried over the same
multiplex. The handheld terminal decodes/uses
IP services only.
Figure 3 illustrates the delivery of audio and

video to a receiver. In this example, a
programmer supplies network feed via an
existing satellite network. An operator receives
the feed and reformats it for its network. Tower
networks then deliver the signal to receivers.
SFN NETWORKS
VB-H is based on coded OFDM (COFDM).
D Since it has greater resistance to multipath
propagation, COFDM offers a better network by
increasing the number of channels with the
same frequency (this is called an SFN). One Figure 2. Conceptual Use of a DVB-H System (Sharing a MUX with MPEG-2 Services)
advantage of an SFN over
a multifrequency network
(MFN) is that the SFN
allows the same frequency
to be reused. This advantage
is made use of by
DVB-H, which operates by
having several cell sites
simultaneously transmit a
co-channel frequency.
When transmitting in an
SFN, each cell site must [7]: Figure 3. Delivering Audio and Video to a Receiver
• Transmit on the Because the network sites transmit from different

same frequency locations, the guard interval governs the echo
• Transmit at the same time delay that is allowed to travel. Table 1 gives
examples of how the guard interval can affect the
• Transmit the same data bits
maximum admissible echo delay, the maximum
The size of the guard interval used on a DVB-H distance between SFN transmitters, and the
SFN has major implications for its topology. maximum data rate.
Table 1. Sample Parameters for 2K, 4K, and 8K Modes on 16 QAM ½ (5 MHz) Modulation
PARAMETERS 2K MODE 4K MODE 8K MODE

Guard Interval 1/4 1/8 1/4 1/8 1/4 1/8
Sampling Frequency (MHz) 5.712 5.712 5.712 5.712 5.712 5.712
Subcarrier Spacing (KHz) 2.789 2.789 1.395 1.395 0.697 0.697
Symbol Duration (µs) 358.543 358.543 717.087 717.087 1,434.174 1,434.174
Cyclic Prefix Time (µs) 89.636 44.818 179.272 89.636 358.543 179.272
Subcarrier Symbol Rate (symbol/s) 2,231.250 2,479.167 1,115.625 1,239.583 557.812 619.792
Delay Spread Tolerance (µs) 89.636 44.818 179.272 89.636 358.543 179.272
SFN Correlation Distance (mi) 16.71 8.35 33.42 16.71 66.84 33.42
Max Data Rate (Mbps) 4.664 5.182 6.218 6.909 6.218 6.909

A DVB-H network uses a global positioning • 8K Mode: This mode is suitable for sites
system (GPS) receiver to provide a universal time with a large cell radius. The 8K mode has up
reference at the front end of the primary to 66.84 miles of self-interference tolerance at
distribution network by inserting time stamps in ¼ guard interval. The 8K mode also provides
the multiplex. Figure 4 shows the basic Doppler tolerance, again allowing high-
implementation of time domain synchronization, speed reception. The 8K mode is not a good
which uses, for reference, a nearly one-pulse-per- choice for DVB-H when very high speed is
second (1 pps) signal. [7] needed.
As shown in Figure 2, DVB-H offers three For the 2K and 4K modes, the in-depth
transmission modes: 2K, 4K, and 8K. These interleavers increase the flexibility of symbol
modes give network operators the opportunity to interleaving by decoupling the choice of the inner
choose and design the SFN to different interleaver from the transmission mode used.
The 4K mode
advantages levels: This flexibility allows a 2K or 4K signal to benefit
is a tradeoff from the memory of an 8K symbol interleaver to
between coverage • 2K Mode: This mode is suitable for sites effectively quadruple (for 2K) or double (for 4K)
with a small cell radius. The 2K mode has a the symbol interleaver’s depth, which improves
and speed, limited transmitter distance, with a tolerance reception in fading channels. This also provides
compared with for self-interference of only up to 16.7 miles an extra level of protection against short noise
the 2K and at the ¼ guard interval. The 2K mode also impulses caused by, for example, vehicle
8K modes. has Doppler tolerance, which allows ignitions and various electrical appliances.
extremely high-speed reception. These
characteristics make the 2K mode Although 4K mode and in-depth interleavers
particularly suitable for use with DVB-H affect the physical layer, their implementation
when mobile reception is needed at does not imply a large increase in the number of
extremely high speeds (e.g., on high-speed either transmitters or receivers. A typical mobile
interstate highways and trains). demodulator already incorporates enough
random access memory (RAM) and logic to
• 4K Mode: This mode is suitable for sites
manage 8K signals, which exceed that required
with small and medium cell radiuses. The
for 4K operation.
self-interference limit increases to 33.42 miles
at the ¼ guard interval. The 4K mode also Multiple cell sites can take advantage of the SFN
has Doppler tolerance, again allowing very design to create natural positive echoes. This
high-speed reception. These characteristics allows the network to improve quality of service
provide the 4K mode with good potential for by creating SFN gain. At any given location, the
use with DVB-H in most scenarios where amount of gain achieved is a function of the
moving reception is a factor (e.g., on streets number of sites contributing to the signals.
and highways).
Figure 4. Time Domain Synchronization

To demonstrate SFN gain, coverage calculations
were made for 16 arbitrary sites in Westchester
County, New York. Figure 5 shows the coverage
provided by an MFN, and Figure 6 shows the
coverage provided by an SFN. Assuming that all
contributing factors (e.g., transmit power,
antenna heights, pattern) are the same for the
two networks, the SFN provides a 4–8 dB gain
in signal level at any particular point versus
the MFN.
CONCLUSIONS All factors

VB-H standards address the shortcomings being equal,
D of DVB-T technology in its application to
mobile handheld receivers. To address power
an SFN provides
a 4–8 dB gain in
consumption and service handover, the
standards mandate the use of time-slicing
signal level at
technology, whereby the periodic transmission of any particular
data bursts allows the receiver to turn the point versus
handset off when inactive and to monitor an MFN.
neighboring cells between burst transmissions. Figure 5. MFN Coverage
To improve mobile reception quality, the
standards promote the use of MPE-FEC to
decrease the C/N ratio and push the receiver’s
Doppler acceptance limits.
Additionally, the COFDM on which DVB-H is

based supports the use of SFNs, which, in turn,
enhances spectrum efficiency by allowing the
same channel to simultaneously broadcast
various programs. An SFN with multiple cell
sites transmitting over the same channel at the
same time gives DVB-H the advantage of
immunity to multipath propagation.
REFERENCES
[1] ETSI EN 302 304: “Digital Video Broadcasting
(DVB); Transmission System for Handheld
Terminals.” (DVB-H)
(DVB); Framing Structure, Channel Coding and
Modulation for Digital Terrestrial Television.”
(DVB-T)
(DVB); Specification for Service Information (SI) Figure 6. SFN Coverage
in DVB Systems.” (DVB-SI)
(DVB); DVB Specification for Data Broadcasting.”
(DVB-DATA)
[5] ETSI TS 101 191: “Digital Video Broadcasting
(DVB); DVB Mega-frame for Single Frequency
Network (SFN) Synchronization.”
[6] ISO/IEC 7498-1: “Information Technology –
Open Systems Interconnection – Basic Reference
Model: The Basic Model.”
[7] Gerard Faria TeamCast white paper,
“The Magic of Terrestrial Digital TV,”
(http://www.teamcast.com/).

BIOGRAPHIES
Glenn Torshizi joined Bechtel Estefanos Woldemariam, a
Telecommunications in 2001 senior RF specialist with the
and is currently working on Bechtel Telecommunications
the Bechtel Modeo DVB-H Network Planning Group, is
project as a senior RF design currently the RF manager for
engineer. He has finished the Modeo DVB-H project. Since
the preliminary SFN DVB-H joining Bechtel in 2003 as a
design for Boston; New senior RF engineer, he has
York expansion; Philadelphia; successfully led the RF design
Baltimore; Washington, DC; for AWS GSM/GPRS in
and Pittsburgh. Glenn is now working with the Bechtel the Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Harrisburg, and New
implementation team on the final design for Baltimore York markets. He also was the RF specialist lead on the
and Washington, DC. Before this, he was a staff Bechtel BNI Integrated Wireless Network project, for
scientist/engineer at the Bechtel Telecommunications which he designed LMR services for different agencies
Training, Demonstration, and Research (TDR) in the Southwest.
Laboratory in Frederick, Maryland. For 1 year, Glenn
was involved with Bechtel’s Virtual Survey Tool (VST) Before joining Bechtel, Estefanos worked for more
and received the award for most innovative exhibit at than 12 years as an RF engineer on various
Bechtel’s sixth Frederick Technology Fair. Glenn also telecommunications projects. He designed, optimized,
finished an evaluation test on a 2.4 GHz Wi-FiTM and managed medium-to-large national and
phased array antenna and published the results in BTTJ international projects. His telecommunications
Vol. 4, No. 1 (January 2006). Before relocating to experience also includes working on satellite
Frederick, he spent more than 3 years as an RF design communication for NASA’s tracking and data relay
engineer on the Bechtel AWS GSM, GPRS, and UMTS satellite systems.
Program in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and as the Estefanos has a BS in Electrical Engineering and
market RF lead in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, and Applied Mathematics from the University of Maryland
Hackensack, New Jersey. at College Park and an MS in Electrical Engineering
Before joining Bechtel, Glenn helped plan, optimize, from Howard University, Washington, DC.
and integrate the Triton PCS TDMA system in
Norfolk, Virginia, and the Cricket Communications
CDMA system in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. As a
technical expert witness on numerous planning and
zoning boards, he was very successful in obtaining
final site approvals.
Glenn has a BS in Physics from Southwestern

Oklahoma State University and an MS in Physics
from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. He
has done research in relativistic heavy ion physics at
Oak Ridge National Laboratory and Brookhaven
National Laboratory.

CYBERSECURITY OF
PCS/SCADA NETWORKS:
HALF-BAKED HOMELAND SECURITY
Abstract—As the number of network-enabled devices in critical infrastructure control systems increases,
vulnerabilities in these systems also tend to increase. The creation of national cybersecurity and protection
strategies, along with work being performed by national laboratories, is an exceptional start to assessing and
addressing critical infrastructure vulnerabilities. With a myriad of threats now identified and a diversity of
control and data acquisition systems in operation, the industry is begging for security to be “baked in” to the
next generation of PCS/SCADA network software and hardware. Suppliers will face a number of challenges in
providing this security, and critical infrastructure owners will continuously be challenged to understand and
mitigate vulnerabilities.
BACKGROUND Bush in December 2003. This directive set the

n the last several years, the US has survived a stage for counteracting the homeland security
I number of disasters, from terrorist attacks and
violent hurricanes to blackouts along the eastern
challenges facing the country and defined the
agencies that were to assess and protect against
seaboard. Such brutal events, which triggered threats. The next landmark document pending
huge financial as well as non-monetary losses, issuance is the National Infrastructure Protection
have spurred a new-found resolve within the Plan (NIPP) [3]. The NIPP will be the overarching
public sector. One result was the creation of the framework for the nation’s plan to protect its
Department of Homeland Security. Today, in critical infrastructure.
addition to physical security, the challenge of Against the backdrop of the aforementioned
protecting our country must extend to a new national policies on security issues, this
realm of concern: cybersecurity. paper discusses the evolution and challenges of
In 2003, recognizing the critical security threats process control system (PCS)/SCADA system
facing the nation, the White House issued two cybersecurity and measures that can be taken to
key policy documents addressing cybersecurity address these challenges.
issues. The National Strategy to Secure
Cyberspace outlined priorities for protecting
against cyber threats and their potential damage RELIABLE, NOT SECURE
to critical infrastructure, such as utility control any SCADA systems and PCSs still in use
systems controlling production and distribution
of electricity for US industrial, commercial, and
M today were designed for operability and
reliability during an era when security received
residential users. This document specifically low priority. These systems typically operate
mentioned the need to 1) increase the security of in fairly isolated environments and rely
distributed control systems (DCSs)/supervisory on proprietary software, hardware, and
control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems communications technology. Dedicated, leased
through best practices and new technology, and plain old telephone service (POTS) lines are all
2) determine the most critical DCS/SCADA- that are needed for communication. Infiltrating
related sites and priorities for improvement [1]. these systems often requires specific knowledge
Christopher L. of individual system architectures and physical
Arnold The second document, Homeland Security
access to system components [4]. For example,
clarnold@bechtel.com Presidential Directive 7 (Hspd-7): Critical
legacy remote telemetry units (RTUs) in a
Infrastructure Identification, Prioritization, and
SCADA system typically operate at 9,600 bps and
Protection [2], was issued by President George W.

use the standard distributed network protocol
ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS, AND TERMS (DNP) if located in the US. The DNP runs with
ARP address resolution protocol low bandwidth but provides high data security in
the context of bit and frame errors when operated
CIO chief information officer
in harsh environments. DNP (international
CIP critical infrastructure protection counterpart protocol IEC 60870-5-101) provides a
COTS commercial off-the-shelf hardened, reliable, and basic link allowing RTUs
and intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) to
DB database
communicate in the face of electromagnetic
DCS distributed control system interference (EMI), difficulties associated with
DMZ demilitarized zone aging equipment, transmission disturbance, etc.
DNP distributed network protocol
TCP/IP solutions
DNS domain name system
are slowly IP CONVERGENCE ARRIVES
EMI electromagnetic interference
apidly developing Internet Protocol (IP)
permeating the
PCS/SCADA
GUI
HMI
graphical user interface
human-machine interface
R networking technologies that provide
simple, low-cost solutions with easy-to-use, Web-
environment, based front-ends fueled an immense desire in the
Hspd-7 Homeland Security
sometimes creating Presidential Directive 7 industry to upgrade legacy systems with
new cyber commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) technologies.
IDS intrusion detection system
The transmission control protocol (TCP)/IP
vulnerabilities that IEC International Electrotechnical quickly became the global standard by virtue
did not exist Commission
of its flexibility. These promising IP solutions
previously. IED intelligent electronic devices are slowly permeating the PCS/SCADA
INL Idaho National Laboratory environment, sometimes creating new cyber
vulnerabilities that did not exist previously.
Luckily, upgrading critical controls systems is
IPS intrusion prevention system usually a slow, staged process, resulting in an
IS&T information systems and abundance of hybrid systems. Once these systems
technology are augmented, their connections may become
IT information technology available to the rest of a corporate network for
LAN local area network companywide distribution of information by
means of an integrated Web server.
MAC media access control
The implications of employing integrated Web
MitM man in the middle
servers can be illustrated by describing a simple
NERC North American Electric scenario. If an office worker can open a Web
Reliability Council
browser at his/her desk to check on the
NIPP National Infrastructure temperature in Honolulu before leaving for
Protection Plan vacation, why not use that same browser to, say,
PCS process control system check on the average temperature of a
PLC programmable logic controller thermocouple at one of the company’s
manufacturing plants? The difference can be
POTS plain old telephone service
summed up in two words: critical infrastructure. If
RTU remote telemetry unit the prospective vacationer checks a national
SANS SysAdmin, Audit, Network, weather site that is injected with false
Security (Institute) temperature information, there would be
SCADA supervisory control and data consequences—perhaps he/she would not have
acquisition realized the need to pack a sweater for cooler-
SNAC Systems and Network Attack than-normal Hawaiian weather. In contrast, if the
Center (of the National thermocouple’s data packet is injected with false
Security Agency) information and the programmable logic
SOA service-oriented architecture controller (PLC) takes an unnecessary action—
overfilling a chemical storage tank, for example—
SQL structured query language
critical infrastructure would be placed at risk,
TCP transmission control protocol with consequences of an entirely different
USB universal serial bus magnitude. The economy could be negatively

affected, lives placed in jeopardy, and major NATIONAL LABORATORIES STEP IN
environmental damage caused—simply by he US government’s concern regarding
pressing a few buttons. T cybersecurity is apparent in the efforts
launched by two major national laboratories now
working on the problem: The Center for SCADA
WEB SERVERS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS Security at Sandia National Laboratories and the
eb services and service-oriented National SCADA Test Bed at the Idaho National
W architecture (SOA) constitute a significant
global trend. Many improvements have been
Laboratory (INL).
Earlier this year, while attending the SysAdmin,

made in security for these services on the
Audit, Network, Security (SANS) Institute’s
Internet; even so, the heart of control systems is
SCADA Security Conference in Orlando, Florida,
now found on company intranets. These
INL “hackers” took their test bed on the road. Trusting in the
enterprise networks are sometimes assumed to be
With laptops, firewalls, a mockup of a mini-
safe due to security at the local area network’s security of company
chemical storage tank, and a PLC hidden in a box,
(LAN’s) Internet interface. An analogy comes to intranets is a little
the INL personnel demonstrated how easy it is to
mind that, while a bit whimsical, may
hack a control system. The “hackers” had done like a king declaring
nonetheless be helpful in evaluating the relative
this many times before—through outreach that, because the
security of company intranets: Trusting in the
programs involving North American Electric
security of these enterprise networks is a little like castle walls are
Reliability Council (NERC)-certified training for
a king declaring that, because the castle walls are guarded, the
equipment vendors, utility companies, security
guarded, the kingdom’s golden treasure can be
professionals, and other skeptics—to prove that kingdom’s golden
left in plain sight, rather than put under lock and
investing in security for SCADA systems is treasure can be
key. What if the king’s enemies storm the castle—
worthwhile. Naturally, this leads to the question,
will the walls hold? And, of more immediate left in plain sight,
“What security features should companies add to
concern, what about the king’s subjects on the rather than put
protect their systems?” Examining how a cyber
inside? Can they always be trusted?
attack takes place sheds light on some answers. under lock and key.
Figure 1 shows a typical layout of what was
considered a fairly secure PCS. Note that the
control system, although IP-based, is separated
Figure 1. Control Network Topology Vulnerable to Control System Attack

from the corporate network using a slave kit installation (see Figure 2 and Table 1).
database server located in a demilitarized zone Configuration assumptions include no intrusion
(DMZ) to pass information to a Web server detection system (IDS) or intrusion prevention
accessed by users on the enterprise network. This system (IPS), no identity and access management
arrangement is usually employed by companies systems, firewalls minimally configured without
wishing to monitor data points remotely. Note custom rules for the PCS LAN, a network path
the prudent use of firewalls—one between the between the Internet and control networks, and
Internet and the corporate LAN and another non-encrypted PLC commands.
between the corporate LAN and the PCS LAN.
Combining the foregoing assumptions with the
Note also that the only machine eligible to
premise that the hacker has the time to patiently
connect to the master database to receive
penetrate the system using resources from a
information is the slave database located in the
terrorist organization or an unfriendly nation
It is possible for DMZ.
holds the prospect of a frightening outcome,
a hacker to One might assume that this setup would be safe depending on what is on the other side of the
infiltrate a from hackers. However, as the INL PLC. The INL used only buckets of water in its
corporate network demonstrated, it is possible for a hacker to demonstration, but real-life consequences would
and to send infiltrate a network like this and to send exploited be much more daunting.
data packets to the PLC, instructing it to open and
exploited data close valves, start and stop pumps, and perform
packets to any other action it is capable of performing. PROTECTION AND REMEDIATION
the PLC. hat can be done to prevent these types of
Of course, this attack involves numerous steps
and techniques based on assumptions regarding W attacks from gaining control of the nation’s
SCADA/PCSs? Here are a number of
the network’s configuration. Hackers use
multiple techniques, among them phishing (the recommendations:
initial firewall penetration), structured query • Add physical protection to critical
language (SQL) injection, address resolution components. In line with good engineering
protocol (ARP) poisoning, man-in-the-middle practice, never leave a single point of failure
(MitM) attack methods, packet spoofing, and root on critical systems. Add manual switches,
Figure 2. Control System Network Attack Scenario

Table 1. Types and Descriptions of Attacks
Type of Attack
Description Comments
(see also Figure 2)
1. Spear Phishing Attack A well-crafted e-mail specifically addressing When the user accesses the Web site, an
a profession or subject of interest to the user exploit is launched that obtains control of
to lead the user to an exact copy of a trusted the user’s machine and then calls out to
Web site (e.g., www.IEEE.org). the hacker over the Internet (i.e., this
attack opens the locked door from within).
2. SQL Injection A technique for exploiting Web applications The attacker carefully crafts a query with
(Web Application Exploit) that allows client-supplied SQL queries extra SQL commands that fool the
to access relational database information. application into authenticating the attacker.
3. ARP Poisoning An attack method that sends fake media Packets are redirected to the attacker using
access control (MAC) addresses to a switch ARP poisoning for manipulation.
on an Ethernet LAN and then fools the switch
into routing packets to the wrong machine.
4. MitM Attack An attack method that uses ARP poisoning The attacker first listens to communication
to allow packets from one machine to be between the master database (DB) and
redirected to another user before being the slave DB. The slave DB is not directly
forwarded to their intended destination. controlled; instead, packets are captured
and the protocol is reverse-engineered to
look like valid traffic from the slave DB.
A “root kit” is then sent to the master DB
using SQL injection to obtain control.
5. ARP Poisoning Same as above The same technique is used again to allow
the attacker to get between the human-
machine interface (HMI) and the PLC.
6. MitM Attack Same as above The same technique is re-used along with
ARP poisoning to allow the attacker to get
between the HMI and the PLC.
7. Hacker Controls Plant A screen shot of the HMI that sometimes If the HMI cannot be compromised, the
can be obtained by the attacker. Controlling attacker will require specific knowledge
the plant is easy once the graphical user of proprietary PLC protocols. The attacker
interface (GUI) is revealed. can purchase manuals via the Internet
that provide this information once the
manufacturer is discovered.
level sensors, and pressure relief valves as a sensors and cameras do not count in
last-resort line of defense. Using a silicon providing cyber intrusion detection. Do not
sealant to physically seal unused Ethernet assume that one IDS on a corporate LAN will
and universal serial bus (USB) ports in the catch all intrusions. Allocate sufficient
field is very effective in protecting against budget for extra detection in critical control
local vulnerabilities. system sub-networks. Carefully follow
• Secure the endpoints. Assume that the the National Security Agency’s recommen-
network is hostile. Install secure identity and dations for placing IDS sensors [5],
access management services for nodes and recognizing that proper placement and use
services. of correct types of sensors are critical for
proper detection.
• Add intrusion detection and/or prevention
systems. Add properly configured IDSs • Use “least privileges” firewall policy. Use
and/or IPSs such as Snort®. Note that video a compact set of firewall rules that deny
access to all but specific, essential traffic.

• Encrypt control communications, if information technology (IT) professionals, and
possible. Remember that hackers are lazy; chief information officers (CIOs) must work
they do not want to take the time to crack together to understand their systems and to
encryption and will move on to easier targets. implement creative security solutions unique to
• Cross-train control systems engineers. Note their business. Equipment manufacturers,
that it is helpful if information systems and owners, and operators also need to proactively
technology (IS&T) security employees address vulnerabilities and take measures to stay
understand control systems. Do not exempt ahead of the curve. Effective SCADA and PCS
SCADA/PCS subnets from standard cybersecurity will remain an ever-changing battle
configuration management procedures; in of international proportions that must be fought
fact, configuration management procedures not only at the outer perimeter of network walls,
should be revised to provide more stringent but from the plant and office floors as well.
Products offering
control over critical networks.
baked-in security
• Stay abreast of the latest standards. TRADEMARKS
by no means Maintain awareness of the latest standards
provide a that apply to the infrastructure sector in Snort is a registered trademark of Sourcefire, Inc.
final solution. question, i.e., the NERC critical infrastructure

protection (CIP) standards for the utility
New attack REFERENCES
industry.
techniques are [1] The White House, “National Strategy to Secure
• Secure the transport. Encrypt the control
born every day. Cyberspace,” February 2003.
system traffic, if possible.
[2] The White House, “Homeland Security
• Prepare a plan and a protocol. Put a recovery Presidential Directive 7” (Hspd-7), Critical
Infrastructure Identification, Prioritization, and
plan and a protocol in place to address Protection, December 2003.
problems that may arise.
[3] Department of Homeland Security,
• Plan for emergency first response. Establish “National Infrastructure Protection Plan” (NIPP),
Version 2.0, January 2006.
a plan for first responder involvement in case
[4] Energetics, Inc., “Roadmap to Secure Control
of a physical incident. Systems in the Energy Sector,” USDOE and DHS,
January 2006.
[5] Systems and Network Attack Center (SNAC),
BAKED-IN SECURITY “The 60-Minute Network Security Guide
(Reference 7)” National Security Agency,
ue to regulations being imposed by public
D and commercial governing entities, the
concern for cybersecurity in SCADA/PCSs is
(http://nsa2.www.conxion.com/support/
download.htm), July 2002.
mushrooming. In the coming months, numerous ADDITIONAL READING

products and solutions offering “baked-in dditional information sources used to
security” will be available. Vendors such as
Microsoft and Cisco will claim that they provide
A develop this paper include:
• http://www.dnp.org/About/Default.aspx
“out-of-the-box” hardware and software
• http://www.sandia.gov/SCADA
solutions to secure LANs involving critical
• http://www.snort.org
infrastructure. These developments have
• IEC 60870-5-101, Telecontrol Equipment and
stemmed primarily from large government
Systems – Part 5, “Transmission Protocols,”
procurements forcing vendors to offer more International Electrotechnical Commission, Second
secure solutions. These offerings will employ Edition, 2003.
standard security features reflecting priorities • J. Hammer and C. Michel, “Securing Control
on par with the operability and reliability Systems & SCADA Environments,” Idaho National
Laboratories, March 2006.
features that, at one time, contributed to
• J. Miller, “Agencies Pushing Security Requirements
compromised security.
Through Contracts,” Government Computer News,
September 2005.
• J. Stamp, P. Campbell, J. Deploy, J. Dillinger, and
CONCLUSIONS W. Young, “Sustainable Security for Infrastructure
SCADA,” Sandia National Laboratories, May 2004.
hile enhanced standard security features
W will raise the bar for SCADA system and
PCS security, products offering baked-in security
• The President’s Critical Infrastructure Protection
Board, “21 Steps to Improve Cyber Security,”
USDOE, 2004.
by no means provide a final solution. New attack
techniques are born every day, and engineers,

BIOGRAPHY
Chris Arnold is part of
the Strategic Infrastructure
Group (SIG) within Bechtel
Federal Telecommunications.
He joined the SIG group in
2005 to focus on critical
infrastructure protection as
well as telecommunications
systems master planning for
the country of Iraq.
Previously, with the Bechtel Systems and Infrastructure

Incorporated (BSII) business unit, Chris worked as an
electrical systems engineer on the Iraq Infrastructure
Reconstruction Phase 2 project as well as the Waste
Treatment Plant project at the Hanford US Department
of Energy site in Washington State.
Chris received his BS in Electrical Engineering from

Clarkson University in Potsdam, New York. He is a
member of the IEEE’s Security and Privacy society and
is working toward obtaining a Professional Engineering
license in the state of Maryland.

FMC: FIXED–MOBILE CONVERGENCE
Abstract—FMC is providing a new direction for the future of telecommunications, with a potentially profound
impact on various segments and industries. As the boundaries between various services blur, so do the rules of
engagement of various industries. The impact is more than purely technical. FMC could potentially redefine
the nature of telecommunications, information, and entertainment services and how various types of service
providers compete. This paper looks into FMC drivers; various technical aspects of FMC; and the current
evolutionary steps toward FMC implementation, such as GAN, cellular–WLAN integration, and NGNs.
INTRODUCTION protocol (SIP) and IP multimedia subsystem

ixed–mobile convergence (FMC) is not new! (IMS)—both wireless and wireline—has made it
F The original concept has been around since
the early 1990s and was originally perceived as
possible and efficient to share not only network
infrastructure, but also application and billing
representing the ultimate telecommunications layers, thus reversing the technical limitations.
merger. The future would be one in which there The paper is organized under five headings:
would be little or no difference between fixed
and mobile phone services. Each user would have • What is FMC?—Defines FMC and its main
a single number and receive a single bill. drivers.
There would be quality of service (QoS) range, • Different FMC Approaches and Solutions—
end-to-end security, and a single point of contact Addresses various evolutionary steps toward
for customer service. The key focal points in full FMC, beginning with an examination of
this vision were, and still are, services built wireless local area network (WLAN)–cellular
around individual users, independently of their integration, generic access networks (GANs),
access networks! and related issues.
So what went wrong? The answer varies • Next-Generation Networks—Examines a
depending on whom you ask, but perhaps the comprehensive new approach to FMC
main shortcomings could be attributed to known as next-generation networks (NGNs)
technology immaturity; lack of unified standards; and addresses NGN requirements,
slow acceptance of packet services in the architecture, functional elements, etc.
mobile arena; lack of (or delay in) delivery of • Security Concerns—Addresses the all-
the appropriate terminal devices; and, perhaps important issue of end-to-end security.
most importantly, absence of the appropriate
market business drivers. Adding a further • Conclusions—Provides concluding remarks
blow, the slowdown of the telecommunications and future research directions.
boom has had a huge impact on capital
expenditures (CAPEX).
WHAT IS FMC?
Technologically, FMC on the core network was
he European Telecommunications Standard-
hampered by the QoS issues of the Internet
Protocol (IP) backbone. On the mobile side,
T ization Institute (ETSI) is an independent,
not-for-profit organization whose mission is to
Rasoul packet data services had a much slower than
produce telecommunications standards for the
Safavian, PhD desired or expected takeoff. Fortunately, the
global marketplace. ETSI members come from
srsafavi@bechtel.com recent emergence of common multimedia
network operators, equipment manufacturers,
services standards such as session initiation
government, and academia. ETSI’s various

3G third generation, enhanced digital ESP encapsulating security payload
mobile phone service at broadband ETSI European Telecommunications
speeds enabling both voice and Standardization Institute
nonvoice data transfer
FCC Federal Communications
3GPP™ Third Generation Partnership Commission
Project
FE functional entity
3GPP2 Third Generation Partnership
Project 2 FMC fixed–mobile convergence
AAA authentication, authorization, and F-MMS fixed line MMS
accounting FNO fixed network operator
AC authentication center FNP fixed network portability
AGCF access gateway control function FTTH fiber to the home
AGW access gateway GAA generic authentication architecture
AKA authentication and key agreement GAN generic access network
A-MGF access MGF GANC GAN controller
AN access node GBA generic bootstrapping architecture
ANSI American National Standards GERAN GSM/EDGE RAN
Institute
GGSN gateway GPRS support node
AP access point
GMSC gateway MSC
API application program interface
GPRS general packet radio service
APN access point name
ARPU average revenue per user communications
AS application server HLR home location register
ASP application service provider HPLMN home PLMN
AuC authentication center HSS home subscriber server
BSC base station controller HTN handoff trigger node
BTS base transceiver station HTTP hypertext transport protocol
CAPEX capital expenditures IETF Internet Engineering Task Force
CCF charging collection function IKE Internet key exchange
cdma2000® A family of standards, developed IM instant messaging
through comprehensive proposals
from Qualcomm, describing the IMS IP multimedia subsystem
use of code division multiple IP Internet Protocol
access technology to meet
IPSec IP security
3G requirements for wireless
communication systems IPv4 IP version 4
CGW charging gateway IPv6 IP version 6
CN core network ISDN integrated services digital network
CS circuit switched ISIM IMS subscriber identity module
CSCF call session control function ISP Internet service provider
DoS denial of service ISUP ISDN user part
DSL digital subscriber line IT information technology
DSS digital subscriber signaling ITU-T International Telecommunication
Union–Telecommunication
DTM dynamic asynchronous transfer
Standardization Sector
mode
IUA ISDN Q.921 user adaptation layer
EAS emulation AS
MBMS multimedia broadcast multicast
EDGE enhanced data rates for GSM
service
evolution
MGC media gateway control
EMTEL emergency telecommunication

MGF media gateway function SMLC serving mobile location center
MitM man in the middle SPAN Services and Protocols for Advanced
MMS multimedia messaging service Networks (ETSI TC)
MNO mobile network operator TC (ETSI) technical committee
MNP mobile number portability TDM time-division multiplexing
MoU minutes of use TGW trunking gateway
MP3 MPEG-1 Audio Layer 3 TIPHON Telecommunications and Internet

Protocol Harmonization Over
MS mobile station Networks (ETSI TC)
MSC mobile switching center TISPAN Telecommunications- and Internet-
MSF Multiservice Forum converged Services and Protocols
for Advanced Networking (ETSI TC)
NASS network attachment subsystem
TLS transport layer security
NAT network address translation
UE user equipment
NGN next-generation network
UMA unlicensed mobile access
OA&M operation, administration, and
management UMAC UMA Consortium
OCS online charging system UMAN UMA network
OEM original equipment manufacturer UMTS universal mobile
telecommunications system
OMA Open Mobile Alliance
UNC UMA network controller
OPEX operating expenditures
UPSF user profile server function
OSA open service access
USIM UMTS SIM
PBX private branch exchange
UTRAN UMTS terrestrial RAN
PDA personal digital assistant
V5UA V5.2-user adaptation layer
PDG packet data gateway
VCC voice call continuity
PDSN packet data serving node
VDSL very high data rate DSL
PES PSTN/ISDN emulation subsystem
VHE virtual home environment
PLMN public land mobile network
VLR visitor location register
POTS plain old telephone service
VOD video on demand
PS packet switched
VoIP voice over IP
PSTN public switched telephone network
VPLMN visited PLMN
WAG WLAN access gateway
RACS resource and admission control
subsystem Wi-Fi™ wireless fidelity
RAN radio access network WiMAX worldwide interoperability
microwave access
RGW residential gateway
WISP wireless ISP
R-MGF residential MGF
WLAN wireless local area network
RNC radio network controller
XCAP XML configuration access protocol
SDO standardization development
organization xDSL any type of DSL
SDR software-defined radio XML extensible markup language
SEGW security gateway
SG-17 (ITU-T) Study Group 17
SGSN serving GPRS support node
SIM subscriber identity module
SIP session initiation protocol
SLF subscriber location function

technical committees (TCs) work on different blur significantly as workplace, home, and
projects. ETSI defines FMC as being concerned personal spaces converge.
with providing network and service capabilities
These different types of convergence can also
independently of the access technique. It is
profoundly change how telecommunications
concerned with developing converged network
sectors compete nationally and internationally.
capabilities and supporting standards. This
Until recently, competition was limited to
does not necessarily imply the physical
enterprises within a given sector; for example, a
convergence of networks. These standards may
mobile network operator (MNO) competed only
be used to offer a set of consistent services via
with other MNOs, a fixed network operator
fixed or mobile access to fixed or mobile, public
(FNO) competed only with other FNOs, and
or private, networks.
Internet service providers (ISPs) competed only
In other words, FMC allows users to access a with other ISPs. But this is no longer the case;
The different
consistent set of services from any fixed or mobile instead, various industries are now converging
types of terminal via any compatible access point. An into a single telecommunications industry.
convergence can important extension of this principle relates to
profoundly roaming: users should be able to roam from What Drives FMC?
network to network while using the same As of 2005, there were more than 2 billion
change how
consistent set of services throughout those visited wireless consumers and only approximately
telecommunications networks. This feature is referred to as the virtual 1.2 billion wireline subscribers. These numbers
sectors compete home environment (VHE). are reflected in significant changes in recent
nationally and The key word in FMC is convergence, and it is telecommunications trends. For example, fixed
internationally. crucial to understand what convergence means line usage is decreasing dramatically for classic
and what convergence implies. services, and mobile usage is increasing steadily.
Likewise, fixed line minutes of use (MoU) have
been steadily declining, while mobile MoU have
What Does Convergence Mean?
been rising. On the other hand, the fierce
There are several fundamentally different types
competition among MNOs and saturation of
of convergence:
subscriber penetration have led to a decline in
• Voice/data/multimedia convergence, which mobile average revenue per user (ARPU).
has the ultimate goal of providing intelligent Nevertheless, the current global fixed voice
and personalized services to subscribers and revenue of about $89 billion has been surpassed
can be referred to as service convergence by mobile voice revenue at about $98 billion; by
2009, it is expected that these numbers will
• Information/communications/entertain-
diverge even further to $110 billion for mobile
ment convergence, which can also be
voice and $66 billion for fixed voice.
perceived as Internet or information
technology (IT)/telecommunications/broad- Furthermore, broadband Internet deployment
casting or media convergence and implies has grown rapidly from 100 million subscribers in
industry convergence 2003 to 280 million in 2006. At the same time,
• Broadband, heterogeneous, all-IP conver- cable companies have gone from delivering just
gence, which implies network convergence entertainment services to delivering dial tone as a
bundled part of triple-play (entertainment,
• Terminal/computer/electronic home appliance
Internet, and voice). Significantly, voice over
(game consoles, video cameras, personal
Internet Protocol (VoIP) usage is on the rise: In
digital assistants [PDAs], MPEG-1 Audio
2005, the number of US VoIP subscribers tripled
Layer 3 [MP3] players, etc.) convergence,
to 4.5 million and VoIP revenue surpassed
which is referred to as device convergence
$1 billion, with the strongest growth occurring in
the fourth quarter. Although Vonage is currently
What Does Convergence Imply? the leader in providing VoIP services in the US,
So, what does convergence in the context of FMC Time Warner Cable could overtake them in the
imply? Potentially, all of the above different types very near future.
of convergence! Convergence also applies equally
to consumer and enterprise users. Although So what does one do with too much competition
enterprises potentially stand to benefit sooner by and too few customers? One approach is to start
increased employee productivity attributed to buying up competitors, but other tactics could
nomadic activities, the distinction between include seeking new markets, new services, and
consumer and enterprise users will eventually new ways of offering services. This is exactly
where FMC enters the picture.

What Benefits Does FMC Offer? basically only one network operator and few
In general, FMC offers two basic benefits: equipment vendors that provided limited
services. After all, some believe, it was
1. It guarantees interoperability.
diversification that fueled competition in the
2. It reduces CAPEX and operating expenditures telecommunications industry, leading to a
(OPEX) by using common resources; broader set of services, more operators competing
transports; operation, administration, and in price and quality, the Internet explosion,
management (OA&M) functions; services; etc. and so forth.
More specifically, FMC can provide: The security requirements of FMC also pose a
concern. These requirements are currently based
• Benefits for network operators—For operators
on IMS requirements, which may be challenging
that own both fixed and mobile networks,
for FNOs to meet. Security issues are addressed
FMC makes it easier and cheaper to launch Current
in more detail later in this paper.
new services. It provides service continuity legacy networks
for customers, raising their network are basically
performance experience and thus reducing What Does FMC Bring to Pre-Convergence
churn, thereby maintaining or increasing Networks? single-purpose
revenue. FMC also makes it easier to manage Current legacy networks are basically single- networks
services, thereby leading to potential purpose networks that provide silo solutions.
that provide
reduction in OPEX. For operators that have These are also referred to as vertically integrated
networks. Each provides its own services: A fixed silo solutions.
either fixed or mobile networks, FMC builds
new services that leverage on the other network offers fixed services, a mobile network These are also
network, thereby providing service offers mobile services, an entertainment network referred to as
differentiators. This becomes particularly offers entertainment services. A user who wants
vertically integrated
important where there are no longer just to access different services must go back and forth
between these silos to get the complete set. This is networks.
MNOs competing with MNOs or FNOs
competing with FNOs and the focus shifts called the “spaghetti” solution (see Figure 1). In
from delivering connectivity to delivering the FMC approach, applications and services are
cost-effective services. Furthermore, MNOs placed in one layer, there is a service control
can realize a reduction in CAPEX brought layer, and all users, regardless of access
about by a) less spectrum being required as technology, can access the applications or
they employ wireless fidelity (WiFi™) services using the service control layer. The
technology to offload traffic from cellular obvious benefits of this horizontally layered
networks to WLANs and b) fewer cell sites, approach (called the “lasagna” solution) include
repeaters, etc., being needed as, for example, the capacity to provide all services to all
they leverage fixed networks via WLANs. eligible subscribers; the diversity to provide
market/service differentiators for different
• Benefits for equipment vendors—Original operators; the consistency to use standard
equipment manufacturers (OEMs) benefit technologies such as IP, SIP, IMS, etc.; and the
from FMC through developing common ability to reduce the OPEX explosion.
products (reusable software/hardware
components); gaining a larger addressable
market (increased revenue); and producing
better, richer, more cost-effective products.
• Benefits for customers—FMC provides
customers with new services, continuity of
service, personalized services (same
ergonomics, same feel and look), mobility,
simplicity (via a single number independent
of network connectivity and via single
billing), guaranteed QoS, security, and single
customer care interface.
What are FMC’s Potential Drawbacks?

One concern with FMC is that the business model Figure 1. Vertically Integrated Networks vs. Horizontally Layered Networks
may regress toward that in place before the 1984 (Traditional “Silos” of Services vs. Future Converged Services)
diversification in the US; then, when there was

What Technology Enables FMC? governing network and service providers
The emergence of the following technologies has should change accordingly to encourage
been instrumental in the development of FMC: fair and healthy competition. For instance,
when the Telecommunications Act of 1996
• VoIP, SIP, IP version 6 (IPv6), GAN/
was passed, the capability to provide
unlicensed mobile access (UMA)
VoIP was virtually unanticipated,
• Multimode/multiradio phones (e.g., Wi-Fi/ and “telecommunications services” and
cellular, softphones, software-defined radio “information services” had different
[SDR]) meanings. Regardless of their differences,
• New access and core network solutions, such both camps agree that new policies
as very high data rate digital subscriber line regarding FMC should provide a stable and
(VDSL), mobile worldwide interoperability secure legal and regulatory environment
In addition to for microwave access (WiMAX), IMS, etc. to enable innovation and competition and
improving and encourage investment.
extending the What Current Issues and Challenges Face FMC?
UMA standard, the Some of the current issues and challenges facing
FMC are: DIFFERENT FMC APPROACHES AND SOLUTIONS
GAN specification urrent FMC solutions can be classified into
allows any generic • Number plans and number portability—Fixed
numbers and mobile numbers come from
C three basic categories:
IP-based access separate blocks. Prefixes contain important 1. GAN–cellular integration
network to provide information for interconnection charging and
2. Third Generation Partnership Project
connectivity number portability. Interconnection charges
(3GPP™)–WLAN interworking
between the usually have symmetrical arrangements
between two fixed networks and 3. NGNs
handset and the asymmetrical arrangements between a fixed
GANC, through and a mobile network. Typically, charges GAN–Cellular Integration
the Up interface. increase fixed network costs and reduce The first phase of FMC started with
mobile network costs; only the consumers WLAN–cellular integration via UMA technology.
are the beneficiaries. Currently, there is The initial activities were defined by
separate fixed number portability (FNP) and the Unlicensed Mobile Access Consortium
mobile number portability (MNP), but no (UMAC) and published in September 2004 for
fixed/mobile number portability. global system for mobile communications
• Directory services—Fixed carriers provide (GSM)/general packet radio service (GPRS)
unified directory service to their customers integration with WLAN (Wi-Fi) service. The key
through a unified directory database drivers behind this development were a) the
containing information on all fixed line need for a quick fix to address the challenges
customers. Currently, mobile carriers have of improving coverage for markets deploying
no such obligations. In fact, mobile numbers higher frequency GSM networks and b) the
are considered personal data. Changes to desire for brand association for the early
this situation may be subject to public convergence offerings and the higher data speed
consultation. advantage implied by Wi-Fi access.
• Handset availability—This is a typical issue in In this approach, a Wi-Fi network is perceived
the early stages of the introduction of any simply as an extension of a GSM/GPRS network
telecommunications technology. and UMA as a new access technology. The main
• Role of regulators—There are two opposing element in UMA is a UMA network controller
views about the role of regulators in FMC. (UNC), which provides the same basic
One viewpoint is that it is not for regulators functionality as a conventional base station
(the Federal Communications Commission controller (BSC). That is, the UNC handles
[FCC] and/or the US Congress) to decide mutual authentication and encryption and data
whether there should be FMC and what its integrity. The UNC enables mobile devices to
pace of implementation should be. Rather, access circuit-switched (CS) services via A
regulators should set up the environment so interfaces with mobile switching centers (MSCs)
that market forces guide direction, extent, and to access GPRS services via Gb interfaces
and pace. The other viewpoint is that, since with serving GPRS support nodes (SGSNs). The
the definitions of information, data, and UNC maintains session control during handoff.
entertainment have changed, the rules The basic UMA network is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. UMA (GAN)–Cellular Networks
UMA development work was transferred to • Third, there is also an optional additional
3GPP in April 2005 and renamed GAN [1]. application level security mechanism that
may be employed in the packet-switched (PS)
In addition to improving and extending the UMA
domain to secure end-to-end communication
standard, the GAN specification allows any
between the handset and the application
generic IP-based access network to provide
server (AS).
connectivity between the handset and the GAN
controller (GANC), through the Up interface. The
GANC also includes a security gateway (SEGW)
that terminates secure remote access tunnels from
the handset. The SEGW interfaces with the
authentication, authorization, and accounting
(AAA) proxy-server via the Wm interface, and the
AAA proxy-server retrieves the user information
from the home location register (HLR). GAN
(UMA) functional architectural is shown in
Figure 3.
GAN Security Issues

GAN supports security mechanisms at different
levels and interfaces, as shown in Figure 4.
There are three levels of security:
• First, the security mechanisms over the Up

interface protect signaling, voice, and data Figure 3. GAN (UMA) Functional Architecture
traffic flows between the handset and the
GANC from unauthorized use, data
manipulation, and eavesdropping.
• Second, authentication of the subscriber by
the core network (CN) occurs at the
MSC/visitor location register (VLR) or SGSN
and is transparent to the GANC; however,
there is cryptographic binding between the
handset and the CN, as well as handset and
GANC authentication, to prevent man-in-
the-middle (MitM) attacks.
Figure 4. GAN (UMA) Security Mechanisms

GAN Advantages/Disadvantages services, location-based services, instant
As mentioned, GAN uses lower cost Wi-Fi access messaging (IM), presence-based services,
points to improve and extend cellular network multimedia broadcast multicast service
coverage. When using service at home or inside a (MBMS), and any service built on a
building, a subscriber could have excellent combination of several of these components.
coverage. GAN may also potentially relieve Even though this scenario allows access to all
congestion on the GSM/GPRS network. That is, services, it is a question of implementation as
GAN will shift traffic to unlicensed spectrum. to whether only a subset of services is
This means, however, that if another service actually provided. Also, service continuity is
provider is legally operating service in the same not required between the 3GPP system part
spectrum, available bandwidth could become and the WLAN part.
limited or even be eliminated. Traffic Figure 5 shows the 3GPP–WLAN interworking
The specification prioritization techniques can significantly architecture. The key network components are:
defining the improve Wi-Fi performance and, of course, voice
and data paths can be separated. Also, because • Packet data gateway (PDG)—3GPP PS-based
interworking services are accessed via a PDG. PDG has
the handset must listen to two different radio
between 3GPP technologies, it must have two radios on board. functionality like that of the gateway GPRS
systems and WLAN Both radios must scan for networks at all times, in support node (GGSN), e.g., charging data
is not limited to case the user roams into an area where a Wi-Fi generation, IP address management, tunnel
network exists. This could affect battery life. And endpoint, QoS handling.
WLAN but is also
since all the data from the handset goes through • WLAN access gateway (WAG)—Data to/from
valid for other the carrier’s servers, it may be chargeable! the WLAN access node (AN) is routed
IP-based Subscribers might wonder why they are being through the WAG via a public land mobile
access networks charged for the data going over their own network (PLMN) through a selected PDG to
Internet connections, when they can use other provide a WLAN terminal with third
that support the
devices such as laptops for no extra charge. generation (3G) PS-based services.
same capabilities
toward interworking • 3GPP AAA proxy-server—This proxy-server
3GPP–WLAN Interworking handles all AAA-related tasks and performs
that WLAN The interworking between 3GPP systems and relaying when needed.
supports. WLAN has been defined in [2]. This specification
is not limited to WLAN but is also valid for other • HLR/home subscriber server (HSS)—The HLR
IP-based access networks that support the same and HSS contain the required authentication
capabilities toward interworking that WLAN and subscription data to access the WLAN
supports (e.g., any type of digital subscriber interworking services. They are located
line [xDSL]). The intent of 3GPP–WLAN within the 3GPP subscriber’s home network.
interworking is to extend 3GPP services and The WLAN user profile should be stored in
functionalities to the WLAN access environment, the HSS. For the HLR, the user profile may be
where the WLAN effectively becomes a located in the 3GPP AAA server. The user
complementary radio access technology to the profile contains such information as user
3GPP system. The interworking levels have been identification, operator-determined barring
categorized into six hierarchical service scenarios of 3GPP–WLAN interworking subscription
[3]. Of these, scenarios 2 and 3 are of the most and tunneling, charging mode (prepaid, post-
interest; more specifically: paid, both), roaming privileges, and so forth.
• Online charging system (OCS)/charging
• Scenario 2—This scenario deals with 3GPP
collection function (CCF)/charging gateway
system-based access control and charging.
(CGW)—These entities collect charging data,
Here, AAA is provided by the 3GPP system
perform accounting and on-line charging,
for WLAN access. This ensures that the user
and carry out similar functions.
does not see significant differences in the
way access is granted. This may also provide The critical issue is network (both WLAN and
the means for the operator to charge access in PLMN) selection and advertisement. The standard
a consistent manner over the two platforms. allows two modes: automatic and manual.
WLAN access network selection is technology
• Scenario 3—The goal of this scenario is to
dependent, although user and operator may have
allow the operator to extend 3GPP system
“preferred” lists of access networks. PLMN
PS-based services (e.g., IMS) to the WLAN.
network selection and advertisement, however,
These services may include, for example,
should be WLAN agnostic.
access point names (APNs), IMS-based

In loose coupling,
the WLAN gateway
connects to the
Internet and
does not have
a direct link to
the 3G network
elements.
Figure 5. 3GPP–WLAN Roaming Reference Model
3GPP–WLAN interworking is part of 3GPP to implement all 3G protocols (mobility

Release 6. On the cdma2000™ side, the Third management, authentication, etc.) required in a
Generation Partnership Project 2 (3GPP2) has also 3G radio access network (RAN). This approach
undertaken similar activities, and there are now could have several disadvantages [7], two of
3GPP2–WLAN interworking specifications [4, 5]. which bear mentioning. First, since the 3G CN
directly exposes its interfaces to the WLAN
WLAN–Cellular Handover Issues network, and direct connectivity to the 3G core is
The make-before-break handover provided by required, the same operator must own both the
WLAN–cellular interworking and GAN enables WLAN and the 3G network. Second, since
seamless service provisioning. There are intra- WLAN traffic is injected directly into the 3G CN,
system (horizontal) handovers and intersystem 3G core elements have to be dimensioned
(vertical) handovers. Handovers from 3GPP properly for the extra WLAN traffic.
access networks to WLAN (or GAN) are called In loose coupling, the WLAN gateway connects
handover in, and handovers from WLAN (or to the Internet and does not have a direct link to
GAN) to 3GPP access networks are called the 3G network elements. Here, the WLAN and
handover out.
WLAN–cellular integration architecture is

characterized by the degree of interdependence
between the two component networks. There
are two types of integration architectures: tightly
coupled interworking and loosely coupled
interworking (see Figure 6).
In tight coupling, the WLAN (gateway) is

integrated into the cellular infrastructure
(connected directly to either the SGSN for 3GPP
or the packet data serving node (PDSN) for
3GPP2) and operates as a slave to the 3G network.
Here, the WLAN network appears to the 3G CN
as another 3G access network, and the WLAN
gateway hides the details of the WLAN network
Figure 6. 3G and WLAN Integration Architectures
from the 3G core. The WLAN gateway also needs

3G data paths are kept completely separate. There Telecommunication Union–Telecommunication
are several obvious advantages to this approach; Standardization Sector (ITU-T) through ETSI.
again, two bear mentioning. First, this approach ETSI’s Telecommunications- and Internet-
allows the 3G and WLAN networks to be converged Services and Protocols for Advanced
independently deployed and engineered for Networking (TISPAN) TC deals with fixed
traffic. Second, via roaming agreements with networks and migration from CS networks to
many partners, the 3G operator can have PS networks. TISPAN was formed in September
widespread coverage without extensive CAPEX. 2003 by the merger of the Telecommunications
and Internet Protocol Harmonization over
Unfortunately, the latency associated with
Networks (TIPHON) and Services and Protocols
vertical handoffs could be long, leading to
for Advanced Networks (SPAN) TCs. The
unacceptable dropped call rates; this may be
TISPAN TC focuses on all aspects of
particularly true for voice calls. To make matters
The full evolution standardization for present and future converged
worse, the transition between WLAN hotspots
to FMC networks, including NGNs, and produces
and cellular coverage is typically very abrupt
implementable deliverables that cover NGN
will be through (e.g., upon entering or leaving a building). One
service aspects, architectural aspects, protocol
the NGN path. approach to potentially alleviate this issue is to
aspects, QoS studies, security-related studies, and
use handoff trigger nodes (HTNs) at the transition
NGNs promise mobility aspects within fixed networks. Major
areas [8]. An HTN generates link layer triggers
to be multiservice, standardization development organizations
that cause early initiation of the vertical handoff.
(SDOs) such as the Internet Engineering
multiprotocol, During a successful handoff, the terminal is
Task Force (IETF), 3GPP, 3GPP2, American
multi-access, assigned capacity in the cellular network. In
National Standards Institute (ANSI), CableLabs,
tightly coupled architecture, it is possible to
IP-based networks: MultiService Forum (MSF), and Open Mobile
reserve capacity for WLAN–cellular handoff, thus
secure, reliable, Alliance (OMA) are actively involved in defining
improving performance (reducing the dropped
NGN standards. The TISPAN TC structure
and trusted. call rate). In loosely coupled architecture, a
(working groups and projects) is summarized
cellular base transceiver station (BTS) may not be
in Figure 7.
able to distinguish the vertical handoff from a
new call request.
TISPAN NGN Roadmap
It is important to note, as mentioned at the NGN Release 1, published on December 9, 2005,
beginning of this section, that the 3GPP–WLAN incorporates the following capabilities: real-time
interworking specification is also valid for any conversational services, messaging (IM and
other IP-based access network that supports the multimedia messaging service [MMS]), and
same capabilities toward interworking as WLAN, content delivery (e.g., video on demand [VOD]).
such as xDSL. This release provides limited mobility support,
with user-controlled roaming but no in-call
handover. It allows a wide range of access
NEXT-GENERATION NETWORKS technologies (xDSL, Ethernet, WLAN, cable) and
he full evolution to FMC will be through allows for interworking with public switched
T the NGN path. NGNs promise to be
multiservice, multiprotocol, multi-access,
telephone network (PSTN), integrated service
digital network (ISDN), PLMN, and other
IP-based networks: secure, reliable, and trusted. IP networks.
The NGN framework is set by the International
NGN Release 2, scheduled for mid-2007, will
focus on optimizing access resource usage
according to user subscription profile and
service use.
NGN Release 3, scheduled for late 2008 or early

2009, will include full inter-domain nomadicity.
It will also accommodate higher bandwidth
access such as VDSL, fiber to the home (FTTH),
and WiMAX.
Figure 7. ETSI TISPAN TC Structure

NGN Requirements divided into the network attachment subsystem
An ideal network would fuse the best of today’s (NASS) and the resource and admission control
networks and capabilities and allow the subsystem (RACS).
incorporation of tomorrow’s inventions; it would
The NASS provides registration at the access level
have the following characteristics:
and initializes terminal accessing to NGN
• The reliability of a PSTN services. More specifically, the NASS provides
• The mobility of a cellular network the following functionalities [10]:
• The bandwidth of an optical network • Authorization of network access based on

user profile
• The security of a private network
• Dynamic provisioning of IP addresses and
• The flexibility of the Ethernet
other terminal configuration parameters
• The video delivery of cable television
NGN architecture
• Authentication at the IP layer, before or
enables new
• The content richness of the Internet during the address allocation procedure
subsystems to be
• A decoupling of services from networks and • Location management at the IP layer
transports added over time
There may be more than one NASS to support
to cover new
• Open interfaces multiple access networks.
demands and
• Full QoS selection and control The RACS provides applications with a
service classes.
• The capability to support legacy as well as mechanism for requesting and reserving
resources from the access network. More It also provides
NGN-aware terminal devices
specifically, the RACS provides the following the ability to
• Simplicity and reasonable price
functionalities [11]: import subsystems
NGNs promise to provide exactly all of these and
more! • Session admission control defined by other
• Resource reservation, permitting applica- standardization
NGN Architecture tions to request bearer resources in the bodies.
The TISPAN TC has developed a functional access network
architecture [9] consisting of a number of • Service-based local policy control to
subsystems and structured in a service layer and authorize QoS resources and define policies
an IP-based transport layer. This subsystem-
• Network address translation (NAT) traversal
oriented architecture enables new subsystems to
be added over time to cover new demands and As mentioned, the major subsystems in
service classes. It also provides the ability the service layer are the PES, core IMS, and
to import subsystems defined by other other multimedia subsystems, such as a
standardization bodies. Each subsystem is streaming subsystem.
specified as a set of functional entities and related
interfaces. Figure 8 shows the overall NGN
functional architecture.
The NGN service layer comprises the following:
• PSTN/ISDN emulation subsystem (PES)

• Core IMS
• Other multimedia subsystems (e.g.,
streaming subsystem, content broadcasting
subsystem)
• Common components used by several
subsystems (e.g., subsystems required for
accessing applications, charging functions,
user profile management, security
management)
The transport layer provides the IP connectivity
for NGN users. The transport layer is composed
of a transport control sub-layer on top of transfer
functions. The transfer control sub-layer is further Figure 8. NGN Overall Architecture

PSTN/ISDN Service Continuity in an NGN IP end-to-end and allows applications and
The NGN supports the legacy plain old telephone services to be supported seamlessly across all
service (POTS). That is, an NGN mimics a networks. The IMS is defined by 3GPP [14] and
PSTN/ISDN from the point of view of legacy builds on IETF protocols; 3GPP has enhanced
terminals (or interfaces) via an IP network those protocols to allow for mobility. The
through a residential gateway (RGW) or an TISPAN TC has decided to adopt the IMS and
access gateway (AGW). This is referred to as work with 3GPP on any modifications or
PSTN/ISDN emulation. All PSTN/ISDN services improvements that may be needed for the NGN
remain available and identical (i.e., with the same [15]. The main differences between the core IMS
ergonomics) so that end users are unaware that and the 3GPP IMS are as follows:
they are not connected to a time-division
• Access networks differ significantly (xDSL
multiplexing (TDM)-based PSTN/ISDN. This
and WLAN versus universal mobile
The NGN supports allows TDM equipment replacement, while
telecommunications system [UMTS]),
the legacy POTS. keeping legacy terminals unchanged. The ITU-T
although 3GPP Release 6 provides WLAN
H.248 protocol is used by the emulation AS
That is, an NGN access and Release 7 provides xDSL access.
(EAS) to control the gateway. A typical PES
mimics a configuration is shown in Figure 9. PES is • There are bandwidth and transmission delay
PSTN/ISDN from defined in [12]. constraints.
the point of view of The NGN also supports PSTN/ISDN simulation, • NGN terminals are usually more feature-rich
legacy terminals allowing PSTN/ISDN–like services to be and have less stringent requirements, such as
provisioned to advanced terminals (IP phones) or for a UMTS subscriber identity module
(or interfaces) via
IP interfaces. Although there are no strict (USIM)/IMS subscriber identity module
an IP network (ISIM).
requirements to make all PSTN/ISDN services
through an RGW available or identical, end users expect to have • Location information is fundamentally
or an AGW. access to the most popular ones, possibly with different.
This is referred to different ergonomics. Either the pure or the
• Explicit resource reservation signaling is not
3GPP/TISPAN version of the SIP is used to
as PSTN/ISDN available in terminals and access edge points;
provide simulation services.
emulation. there is no dedicated channel for signaling.
• IP version 4 (IPv4) is still very much in use on
Core IMS
the NGN.
The IMS is the main platform for convergence
[13]. Currently, the IMS is at the heart of
convergent NGNs. The mobile SIP-based IMS is
SECURITY CONCERNS
also the core of both 3GPP and 3GPP2 networks.
he telecommunications and IT industries are
It is expected that tomorrow’s entire multimedia
mobile world will be IMS-based. The IMS is T seeking cost-effective, comprehensive, end-
to-end security solutions. ITU-T Study Group 17
(SG-17) is the designated lead study group for
telecommunications security. Working groups
within SG-17, called Questions (Qs), are tasked
with looking into specific areas of
telecommunications security and produce
technical specifications that are published as
Recommendations. Q7 is chartered to look into
telecommunications security management,
Q5 into security architecture and framework,
and Q9 into mobile secure communications.
Q5 has published key Recommendations X.800
[16] and X.805 [17], and Q9 has published
X.1121 [18] and X.1122 [19]. Recommendation
X.800 deals mainly with security architecture,
and X.805 addresses security architecture for
end-to-end communications.
Figure 9. Emulation Configuration

SECURITY-RELATED TERMS
Confidentiality The concealment of information or resources
Authenticity The identification and assurance of the origin of information
The trustworthiness of data or resources in terms of preventing

Integrity
improper and unauthorized changes
Non-Repudiation The prevention of the ability to deny that an activity on the network occurred
Availability The ability to use the information or resources desired

The security
Threat A potential violation of security architecture
logically divides the
Any action that violates security. An attack has an implicit concept of intent. A router
misconfiguration or server crash can also cause loss of availability, but they are not complex set of
attacks. There are passive attacks and active attacks. A passive attack refers to eaves-
end-to-end network-
Attack dropping on or monitoring transmissions to obtain message content or monitor traffic
flow, whereas in an active attack, the attacker modifies the data stream to masquerade security-related
one entity as another, to replay previous messages, to modify messages in transit, or
features into
to create denial of service (DoS).
separate
Policy A statement of what is and is not allowed
architectural
A procedure, tool, or method of enforcing a policy. Security mechanisms implement components:
functions that help prevent, detect, and respond to recovery from security attacks.
Mechanism Security functions are typically made available to users as a set of security services
security dimensions,
through application program interfaces (APIs) or integrated interfaces. Cryptography security layers, and
underlies many security mechanisms.
security planes.
A set of elements made up of the security policy, security authority, and security-
relevant activities. The set of elements is subject to the security policy for the specified
Security Domain
activities, and the security policy is administered by the security authority for the
security domain.
ITU-T Recommendation X.800 [16] provides a ITU-T Recommendation X.805 [17] defines the
systematic way of defining security requirements. security architecture for systems providing
It defines security services in the five major end-to-end communications. This security
categories of authentication, access control, data architecture was created to address the global
confidentiality, data integrity, and non- security challenges of service providers,
repudiation, and it defines five threat models, as enterprises, and consumers and is applicable to
listed in Table 1. wireless and wireline, including optical and
converged networks. The security architecture
Table 1. Threat Models Defined by
logically divides the complex set of end-to-end
ITU-T Recommendation X.800
network-security-related features into separate
Model Definition/Description Attack On
architectural components: security dimensions,
security layers, and security planes as follows:
Destruction of information • Security dimensions—A security dimension is
Destruction Availability
and/or network resources
a set of security measures designed to
Unauthorized tampering address a particular aspect of network
Corruption Integrity
with an asset security. Recommendation X.805 identifies
Theft, removal, or loss eight sets of dimensions that protect
Removal of information and/or Availability against all major security threats. These
other resources eight sets are: access control, authentication,
Unauthorized access to non-repudiation, data confidentiality,
Disclosure Confidentiality
an asset communication security, data integrity,
availability, and privacy.
Unavailability or unusability
Interruption Availability
of the network

• Security layers—To provide an end-to-end Some of the main security issues currently under
security solution, the security dimensions are study are:
applied to a hierarchy of network equipment
• Security to support xDSL, WLAN, cable, etc.
and facility groupings, referred to as security
layers. There are three security layers: • NAT/firewall traversal of NGN signaling
applications, services, and infrastructure. and media protocols
These layers identify where security must be • Authentication of NASS and IMS services
addressed in products. Each security layer
• Security to RGWs and AGWs
has unique vulnerabilities, threats, and
mitigations. The infrastructure security layer • Interworking of various security mechanisms
enables the services layer, and the services • Interdomain/interconnection security
layer enables the application layer.
The NGN • Lawful interception
• Security planes—Security planes address the
Release 1 security security of activities performed in a network. • Legacy terminals (without ISIM)
architecture There are three security planes: end-user, The NGN Release 1 security architecture assumes
assumes the control, and management. Each security the existence of a well-defined NGN architecture
plane is applied to every security layer. that includes the IMS, NASS, RACS, and PES, and
existence of This yields nine security perspectives. basically consists of the following major parts:
a well-defined Each security perspective has unique
• NGN security domains
NGN architecture vulnerabilities and threats. Since there are
eight security dimensions for each security • Security services (authentication, authori-
that includes
perspective, this implies 72 combinations zation, policy enforcement, key management,
the IMS, NASS, that need to be addressed! confidentiality, and integrity)
RACS, and PES.
The architecture for the end-to-end network • Security protocols (IMS access security, SIP
security proposed by Recommendation X.805 is hypertext transport protocol [HTTP]-digest,
shown in Figure 10. presence security)
• Application key management
NGN Security Issues
• SEGW functions
NGN security requirements are addressed in [20],
and security architecture is addressed in [21]. The • IMS RGWs (to secure access of legacy
security requirements for IMS applications are, to terminals)
a large extent, based on 3G requirements for the • NGN subsystem-specific security measures
IMS, although there are some differences and (e.g., for PES)
challenges related specifically to fixed networks.
Within the NGN security architecture, the
The TISPAN NGN TC is working with 3GPP to
following logical security planes with their
add, modify, or extend the existing 3GPP IMS to
respective security functional entities (FEs)
encompass the fixed network requirement.
are distinguished:
Figure 10. Security Architecture for End-to-End Network Security

• NASS security plane—This plane encompasses
the security operations during network
attachment for gaining access to the NGN
access network.
• IMS security plane—This plane encompasses
the call session control functions (CSCFs) and
the user profile server function (UPSF). UPSF
is the NGN version of HSS in the 3GPP IMS.
• Generic authentication architecture (GAA)/
generic bootstrapping architecture (GBA) key
management plane—This plane is optional and
is provided for in application layer security. Figure 11. NGN Security Architecture with Access security,
The NGN security architecture partitions the NASS and RACS and Different Domains also known as
NGN into the following security domains [21]: first-hop or
The security architectures of the NGN application
• Access network security domain—FEs are and the IMS application are also similar. The first-mile security,
hosted by the access network provider. NGN also defines a security protocol (HTTP is a difficult part
• Visited NGN security domain—FEs are hosted digest over transport layer security [TLS]) to of the
by a visited network provider, where the protect PSTN/ISDN simulation services. It
NGN architecture
visited network may provide access to some uses an extensible markup language (XML)
application services. The visited network configuration access protocol [XCAP] on the Ut to achieve
provider may host some applications and interface between the terminal(s) as the XCAP because of the
may own its own database of subscribers. client and the AS as the XCAP server [22]. Use of different access
Alternatively, or additionally, the visited an authentication proxy for user authentication is
technologies within
network provider may outsource some optional (see Figure 12).
applications services to the home interconnects.
network provider or even a third-party Access security
application provider. consists of the
• Home NGN security domain—FEs are hosted network attachment
by the home network provider, where the part and the
home network may provide some
service layer part.
application services. The home network
Figure 12. Application Security Architecture
provider hosts some applications and owns a
database of subscribers.
• Third-party application service provider (ASP) NGN security can also be divided into the
network security domain—FEs are hosted by following three basic areas:
the ASP, and the ASP provides some • Access security
application services. The ASP may be a
• Core security
separate service provider different from the
visited or the home network provider. The • Interconnection security
ASP may need to deploy authorization Access security, also known as first-hop or first-
information offered by the visited or home mile security, is a difficult part of the NGN
network provider. architecture to achieve because of the different
The NASS and RACS FEs are mapped to these access technologies within interconnects. Access
four NGN security domains. Figure 11 shows the security consists of the network attachment part
NGN security architecture with the NASS and and the service layer part. Network attachment
RACS. SEGW functions within each security includes network authentication between the UE
domain protect the exposed interfaces between and the NASS; network authentication is access
security domains and ensure that a minimum technology dependent. For IMS access security,
security policy is enforced among the domains. TISPAN has adopted the 3GPP solution of using
the IP security (IPSec) transport mode and SIP
The NGN IMS security architecture is very
digest authentication and key agreement (AKA).
similar to that of the 3GPP IMS. In the NGN, the
The presence of NAT introduces some
3GPP-specific transport domain is replaced by
difficulties, but several potential solutions are
the generic IP transport domain.
currently under investigation.

Core or intra-domain security is mainly the most worried about theft of service via identity
responsibility of the network operator. Protection theft and DoS attacks. The former threatens
at the domain borders is insufficient; experience revenue, while the latter endangers service
has shown that many attacks are launched from delivery and consequently service quality. Poor
inside the network. The separation principle, service quality often leads to higher churn, which,
whereby information flow types (signaling, in turn, leads to loss of revenue.
management, and media) and node types are
As a closing remark, it is worth mentioning that,
isolated and individually protected, could
until recently, handover between a CS voice (or
significantly reduce the extent of an attack [23].
potentially video or other multimedia services)
Interconnection or interoperator security is call and a PS (WLAN or IMS) call was not
addressed by SEGWs, which enforce a domain’s addressed. This issue is now being addressed by
security policy toward the SEGW of another 3GPP as voice call continuity (VCC), and the
The wheels of
domain. The use of the IPSec encapsulating final specifications are scheduled to be part of
convergence are security payload (ESP) tunnel mode with 3GPP Release 7.
already in motion. Internet key exchange (IKE) is a recommended
We can choose option for mutual SEGW authentication,
information integrity, and anti-replay. CONCLUSIONS
to embrace,
Confidentiality is optional [13]. MC has strong market drivers, and
participate in,
and prepare for The one remaining issue is security for non-IMS F convergence is inevitable! FMC promises
to provide something for everyone—from
services, which are currently mainly PSTN/ISDN
convergence services. VoIP can be supported by the IMS but end-user to network operator to application or
or be caught can also be provided via a PES configuration. service provider. Current FMC solutions are
unprepared! The PES is well positioned to replace the PSTN. evolutionary steps toward full convergence,
The PES uses the ITU-T H.248 protocol instead of which is envisioned as occurring via the NGNs.
SIP between its AGW control function (AGCF) The wheels of convergence are already in
and media gateways. For security aspects, a motion. We can choose to embrace, participate
distinction must be made between the AGWs at in, and prepare for convergence or be caught
the operator’s premises and the RGWs in the unprepared!
subscribers’ homes. For AGWs, no authentication
is required, since AGWs have a one-to-one
relationship with an AGCF and security features TRADEMARKS
can be provisioned. The security solutions for 3GPP is a trademark of the European
RGWs are somewhat more difficult because Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)
authentication is required. Authentication should in France and other jurisdictions.
be performed while maintaining the user’s PSTN
experience. Security negotiations should be fully cdma2000 is a registered trademark of the
embedded in the RGW, and the RGW and AGCF Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA-
should belong to the same security domain. USA).
See Figure 13. Wi-Fi is a trademark of the Wireless Ethernet
From a business standpoint regarding risks and Compatibility Alliance, Inc.
vulnerabilities, network operators are typically
Figure 13. PSTN Emulation Security

REFERENCES BIOGRAPHY
Rasoul Safavian brings more
[1] 3GPP TS 43.318, “Generic Access to the A/Gb
than 15 years of experience
Interface,” Release 6.
in the wired and wireless
[2] 3GPP TS 23.234, “3GPP System to WLAN communications industry to
Interworking – System Description.” his position as Bechtel
[3] 3GPP TS 22.934, “Feasibility Study on 3GPP Telecommunications’ vice
System to WLAN Interworking.” president of Technology,
[4] 3GPP2 X.P0028-200, “Access to Operator Service Americas Regional Business
and Mobility for WLAN Interworking.” Unit. He is charged with
establishing and maintaining
[5] 3GPP2 S. R0087, “3GPP2 – WLAN Interworking.”
the overall technical vision for Bechtel’s American
[6] 3GPP TS 33.234, “3G Security: WLAN markets and providing guidance and direction to its
Interworking Security.” specific technological activities. In fulfilling this
[7] M. Buddhikot et al., “Design and Implementation responsibility, he is well served by his background
of a WLAN/CDMA2000 Interworking in cellular/PCS, fixed microwave, satellite
Architecture,” IEEE Communications Magazine, communications, wireless local loops, and fixed
November 2003, pp. 90–100. networks; his working experience with major 2G, 2.5G,
[8] P. Khadivi et al., “Handoff Trigger Nodes for 3G, and 4G technologies; his exposure to the leading
Hybrid IEEE 802.11 WLAN/Cellular Networks,” facets of technology development as well as its
Proceedings of the First International Conference financial, business, and risk factors; and his extensive
on Quality of Service in Heterogeneous academic, teaching, and research experience.
Wired/Wireless Networks, 2004.
Before joining Bechtel in June 2005, Dr. Safavian
[9] ETSI ES 282 001, “NGN Functional Architecture.” oversaw advanced technology research and
[10] ETSI ES 187 004, “NGN Functional Architecture; development activities, first as vice president of the
Network Attachment Sub System (NASS).” Advanced Technology Group at Wireless Facilities, Inc.,
[11] ETSI ES 187 003, “Resources and Admission then as chief technical officer and vice president of
Control Sub-system (RACS); Functional engineering at GCB Services. Earlier, over an 8-year
Architecture.” period at LCC International, Inc., he progressed
through several positions. Initially, as principal
[12] ETSI ES 187 002, “PSTN/ISDN Emulation
Sub-system (PES); Functional Architecture.” engineer at LCC’s Wireless Institute, he was in charge of
CDMA-related programs and activities. Next, as lead
[13] R. Safavian, “IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS): systems engineer/senior principal engineer, he
A Standardized Approach to All-IP Converged
provided nationwide technical guidance for LCC’s XM
Networks,” Bechtel Telecommunications Technical
satellite radio project. Then, as senior technical
Journal, January 2006, pp. 13–36.
manager/senior consultant, he assisted key clients with
[14] 3GPP TS 23.223, “IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) the design, deployment, optimization, and operation of
(Stage 2) – Release 5.” 3G wireless networks.
[15] ETSI ES 282 007, “TISPAN: IP Multimedia Dr. Safavian is quite familiar with the Electrical
Subsystem (IMS): Functional Architecture.”
Engineering departments of four universities: The
[16] ITU-T Recommendation X.800, “Security George Washington University, where he has been an
Architecture.” adjunct professor for several years; The Pennsylvania
[17] ITU-T Recommendation X.805, “Security State University, where he is an affiliated faculty
Architecture for Systems Providing End-to-End member; Purdue University, where he received his
Communications.” PhD in Electrical Engineering, was a graduate research
[18] ITU-T Recommendation X.1121, “Framework of assistant, and was later a member of the visiting faculty;
Security Techniques for Mobile End-to-End and the University of Kansas, where he received both
Communications.” his BS and MS degrees in Electrical Engineering and
[19] ITU-T Recommendation X.1122, “Guidelines was a teaching and a research assistant. He is a senior
for Implementing Secure Mobile Systems member of the IEEE and a past official reviewer of
Based on PKI.” various transactions and journals.
[20] ETSI TS 187 001, “NGN SECurity (SEC);
Requirements.”
[21] ETSI TS 187 003, “NGN Security; Security
Architectures.”
[22] ETSI TS 183 023, “TISPAN; PSTN/ISDN
Simulation Services; XML. Configuration
Access Protocol (XCAP) over Ut Interface for
Manipulating NGN PSTN/ISDN Simulation
Services.”
[23] M. Mampaey et al., “Security from 3GPP IMS to
TISPAN NGN,” Alcatel Telecommunications
Review, 4th Quarter 2005.

I N V I T E D PA P E R
TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS FOR

OPTICAL ACCESS NETWORKS
OFFERING INCREASED BANDWIDTH
Abstract—The marketplace is currently on the cusp of the mass deployment of fiber-based broadband access
directly to individual residences. Optical access networks take a variety of forms that will extend optical fibers
all the way to or near the residence. Architectures known as PONs are likely to play a dominant role in optical
access in the near term. However, broadband services, which ultimately drive the bandwidth requirements for
the access network, are growing steadily and in the coming years may exhaust the capacity of these first-
generation PON deployments. This paper examines several promising next-generation technology options for
optical networks with even greater bandwidth capacity.
INTRODUCTION Operating Companies (RBOCs). This rollout is

he ultimate drivers for the adoption of proceeding due to the twin pressures of
T broadband access systems are the broadband
services sought by end users and offered by
consumer demand for broadband access and the
competitive entry into the broadband access
service providers or peers. While core network arena by cable operators (which currently serve
infrastructures are generally broadband capable, more than half of residential broadband users in
dial-up connections and other narrowband access the US). While first-generation PON systems can
infrastructures largely obviate the usefulness significantly increase the available bandwidth per
of many of these services. However, if traffic is user over that provided by DSL and cable
no longer throttled at the access connection, modems, it can be foreseen that the growing
the entire broadband service environment demand for broadband services could outstrip
can flourish. the capacities of first-generation PON systems.
This paper outlines key technology options
Passive optical network (PON) technology available to increase the bandwidth delivered to
underlies the emerging generation of fiber-based residential end users beyond that provided by the
access systems and relies on passive optical current vintage of PON systems.
splitter/combiners to distribute shared
downstream signals from the central office (CO)
to multiple end points. These PON systems are STATUS OF RESIDENTIAL BROADBAND SERVICES
targeted to serve both residential and small-to- AND ACCESS NETWORKS IN THE UNITED STATES
medium business customers and can support
a variety of fiber-to-the-premises (FTTP) Residential Services
architectures. PONs are intended to leapfrog the Residential broadband access in the US is
capabilities of the two current broadband access dominated by cable modems and asymmetric
Ron Menendez, PhD options: digital subscriber line (DSL) and cable DSL (ADSL) with, until recently, roughly a 60/40
Telcordia® Technologies modems, which leverage the latent capabilities of split. However, the gap has been closing and
rcm@research.telcordia.com existing access infrastructures (twisted-pair or ADSL penetration is expected to pass that of cable
coaxial cable). In contrast, PONs require that modems in the near future [1]. Both approaches
David Waring an entirely new fiber access infrastructure leverage the installed infrastructures of the two
Telcordia® Technologies be installed. legacy network operators. The main contenders
waring@research.telcordia.com
PON technologies date back to the mid-1980s, but to replace these networks are fiber-based
first-generation PON systems are only now being approaches such as fiber to the home (FTTH),
installed by some (but not all) of the Regional Bell fiber to the curb (FTTC), and fiber to the cabinet

ADSL asymmetric DSL MQW multiple quantum well
APD avalanche photodiode mux/demux multiplexer/demultiplexer
ASIC application-specific integrated NG-PON next-generation PON
circuit
NT network terminal
AWG American Wire Gauge
OCDMA optical code division
BC broadcast channel multiple access
BER bit error rate O/E optical/electrical
BPON broadband PON O/E/O optical/electrical/optical
CO central office OLT optical line terminal
CSMA-CD carrier sense multiple access ONT optical network termination
with collision detection
OSP outside plant
DFB distributed feedback
PC personal computer
DSL digital subscriber line
PIN positive intrinsic negative
DWDM dense WDM photodiode
EA electroabsorption PON passive optical network
EPON Ethernet PON POTS plain old telephone service
FSAN Full Service Access Network RBOC Regional Bell Operating
(Group) Company
FSO free space optics RF radio frequency
FTTB fiber to the business SDTV standard definition
FTTC fiber to the curb television
FTTCab fiber to the cabinet SG-DBR sampled grating-distributed

Bragg reflector (laser)
FTTH fiber to the home
SN service node
FTTP fiber to the premises
SNI service node interface
FWA fixed wireless access
SOHO small office/home office
GbE gigabit Ethernet
SONET synchronous optical
GPON gigabit PON network
HD high definition TDM time-division multiplexing
HDTV high definition television TDMA time division multiple
HFC hybrid fiber coax access
IEEE Institute of Electrical and TV television

Electronics Engineers TX transmitter
IP Internet Protocol VDSL very high data rate DSL
IPTV IP television VOD video-on-demand
ITU International VoIP voice over IP
Telecommunication Union
WDM wavelength division
MLL mode-locked laser multiplexing
(FTTCab). Other broadband access technologies, The range of current interactive residential
such as direct satellite or powerline carrier, services (see Figure 1) includes plain old
are expected to remain niche applications. telephone service (POTS) (in digital format,
Broadband wireless access (with fiber backbone 64 kb/s, originally 50 msec latency for T1) and
networks) remains a potentially disruptive data services, primarily Internet access, which is
entrant into the race to deploy broadband access, used for a variety of services such as Web
but its deployment is minimal at present. access/browsing/e-mail and online gaming.
Until recently, most video services were not

interactive (and were, therefore, completely HD displays, representing the high end of
asymmetric), as exemplified by broadcast video the Internet access range. The peak upstream
(analog 6-MHz channels and/or 4–6 Mb/s digital requirement might be dominated by a desire
standard definition television [SDTV]). Some to send signals from an HD video camera,
video offerings require a degree of access representing the low end of the Internet
management to use services such as premium access range.
video channels (on a subscription basis) or pay-
per-view video (on a per-offering basis). More Residential Broadband Access Networks
recently, video-on-demand (VOD), a truly Access networks connect multiple residential and
interactive video service, has become available. business end users to CO, hub, or head-end
Finally, high definition television (HDTV) locations over spans of up to 20 km. Residential
programming is currently available via over-the- customers can be further separated into single-
air broadcast or cable networks. In its current family dwellings and multifamily dwellings Broadband services
form, this programming requires roughly (apartments, condominiums, etc.). Similarly, and their associated
20 Mb/s per channel. Figure 1 compares business customers can be segmented into small- bandwidth
upstream/downstream bandwidth requirements to-medium businesses (e.g., real estate offices,
for various existing or near-term services and requirements drive
stockbrokers, strip malls) and large businesses
upstream/downstream capabilities of three types (e.g., a single large corporation or a large office the adoption
of broadband access networks (note that the complex housing several smaller businesses). of broadband
bandwidth scales are logarithmic). Typically, broadband access is delivered to large access systems.
In the future, homes might commonly include business locations in different ways than it is to
one-to-four high definition (HD) displays, video residential or small-to-medium businesses, e.g.,
phones, Internet radios, two-to-six personal via direct point-to-point fiber. This paper focuses
computers (PCs), an HD gaming center, an HD on access to residential and small-to-medium
video camera, still digital cameras, and dozens of business customers.
Internet appliances. The peak downstream The rich portfolio of physical access architecture
requirements are likely to be dominated by the and fiber topology options available to the access
Figure 1. Comparisons of Upstream/Downstream Bandwidth Requirements for Various Services and

Upstream/Downstream Capabilities of Three Types of Broadband Access Networks

A rich portfolio
of physical access
architectures and
fiber topologies is
currently available.
Figure 2. Range of Fiber-Based Access Architectures
network is illustrated in Figure 2, which shows Thus, the FTTC, FTTCab, FWA, and FSO
some leading options for the physical layout of architectures are active, and there is an active
the plant. These network options can be variety of all-fiber architectures in which fiber
categorized in many ways, including alternatives links the CO equipment to an optical/
that completely or partially extend fibers to the electrical/optical (O/E/O) node, which is
end users and are built on a passive or active followed by a second fiber link to the end user.
infrastructure. On the left of Figure 2, the options A number of municipality-operated networks,
are divided into two sets—all-fiber and fiber- such as Project Utopia1 [2], are based on active,
plus-other-media options. In the all-fiber option, all-fiber networks.
a single-mode fiber extends all the way to the end
Figure 3 compares the upstream and downstream
user’s premises. Examples of the all-fiber option
data capacities of several broadband access
include FTTP and fiber to the business (FTTB).
networks: ADSL/very high data rate DSL
In the fiber-plus-other-media option, the fiber
(VDSL), HFC, two types of PON systems, and
link stops short of the end user’s premises, at
dedicated gigabit Ethernet (GbE) links. For each
an optical/electrical (O/E) node, and other
system, the peak data rates obtainable
broadband technologies span the remaining gap.
(logarithmic vertical axis) and the average or
Examples of these architectures include FTTC,
sustainable data for both upstream and
FTTCab, and hybrid fiber coax (HFC), all of
downstream traffic (logarithmic horizontal axis)
which employ metallic media (unshielded
are plotted. Peak rates are important for bursty
twisted pair and/or coaxial cable) for the final
services, since they are indicative of the
link beyond the O/E node. For the sake of
maximum achievable performance experienced
completeness, fixed wireless access (FWA) and
by an end user. Average rates are more
free space optics (FSO), which use wireless links
representative of the capabilities under heavy
in the radio frequency (RF) and photonic
usage or sustained traffic such as video.
domains, respectively, are also included.
These systems can be classified on the basis ____________________________

of whether they employ a totally passive
1 Utopia = Utah Telecommunications Open Infrastructure
outside plant (OSP) or use active elements in the
Agency, encompassing 14 cities in northeastern Utah,
OSP (as shown at the far right of Figure 2). deploys a 100 percent fiber optic network to every
household and business.

For dedicated systems such as ADSL/VDSL or split ratio, the points plotted in Figure 3 would
GbE links, the peak and average rates coincide. shift to the right (no increase in peak rates and
Regarding ADSL/VDSL links, note that the greater average rate per user).
performance is both technology- and link-length
Current widespread optical broadband access
dependent, which causes the stretched ovals
deployments involve overwhelmingly active
indicating the performance range of these
architectures: HFC and FTTC. HFC systems are
systems. Symmetric DSL systems exist, primarily
widely deployed to support cable modem service.
for business customers, but are not illustrated in
Commonly, two fibers are deployed in the feeder
Figure 3. DSL bonding technology, which is
connected to optical nodes typically supporting
emerging, would enable the capacities of multiple
500 to 2,000 homes. The HFC system supports
DSL links to be merged in parallel, increasing
broadcast analog and digital video and cable
both the peak and average rates available to an
modems for Internet access. Cable modems are
end user. Access
used by about 25 million users or about
Note that these so-called “dedicated” systems 40 percent of available cable subscribers in the architectures differ
typically terminate on shared multiplexers or US. Cable operators are beginning to offer widely in terms
switch/routers, with traffic concentration that triple-play services, and VOD services are of their available
can substantially affect the average rate per end emerging that allow the HFC operator to
upstream and
user. The implicit assumption in Figure 3 is compete with direct satellite video.
that such concentration or over-subscription is downstream
FTTC deployments (largely by BellSouth) are
not limiting. capacities and
currently serving about 1 million homes. The
For shared systems such as PONs or HFC, architecture is based on a bidirectional (one their respective
the explicit degree of sharing affects the average wavelength for upstream and another for peak and average
rate per end user. For the two PON cases, downstream), single-fiber link connected to data rates
asymmetric 622/155 Mb/s broadband PON an O/E node serving six to eight homes.
per end user.
(BPON) and symmetric 1 Gb/s Ethernet PON These FTTC systems, which are deployed
(EPON) or gigabit PON (GPON), the plotted data predominantly in new-build areas, support
points correspond to a 1:32 split. For a reduced standard telephony (POTS), high-speed data
Figure 3. Comparison of Peak and Average Upstream/Downstream Data Capacities of Access Architectures

(originally 10BaseT on twisted-pair drops, now Some doubt yet exists as to whether these higher
ADSL2+ and moving to VDSL as that technology rate systems will provide sufficient service
matures), and broadcast analog and digital video capacity in light of ever-increasing demands for
on coax drops. bandwidth. If HDTV becomes the norm for video
content, there may be a need for multiple HD
SBC Communications is pursuing an FTTCab
streams per household, and new services and
with its Project Lightspeed deployment. (FTTP is
service models may emerge. One example is
being pursued for new-build deployment.) The
applications based on peer-to-peer networking;
system supports television (TV), VOD, music,
these applications are growing rapidly and
voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), and
consuming large amounts of bandwidth. With the
high-speed Internet access. Project Lightspeed is
emergence of HD video, peer-to-peer, and other
slated to reach about 18 million homes in its
applications, operators may even need to
initial deployment.
Near-future upgrade their EPON and GPON systems. Clearly,
service demands Deployment of active FTTP, FWA, and FSO is options for fiber-based access architectures and
currently negligible; they are not viewed as networks with the ability to support significantly
can outstrip the
ubiquitous solutions, although FWA may be more bandwidth need to be examined.
bandwidth delivery well-suited to low-density homes or public
capabilities of even wireless access. Operators’ First Options for Increased
first-generation Per-user Capacity
all-fiber access Measures to increase the capacity provided to
FUTURE ACCESS NETWORKS end users can take two very different forms:
systems.
ome large metropolitan businesses are already (1) increase the per-user capacity of an already
S served by direct “home-run” fiber links
(synchronous optical network [SONET] or
installed, current-generation PON network and
(2) select an entirely new, next-generation system
Ethernet). For small-to-medium business and design for use from the outset. In the former
new-build residential areas, splitter-based PONs scenario, operators are strongly motivated to
are likely to be the architecture of choice. maximize the reuse or extension of the installed
Currently, Verizon is the main incumbent base of equipment (both fiber plant and O/E).
operator pursuing extensive PON deployment in
Existing PON networks can be enhanced in a
an FTTP configuration. Verizon has deployed
straightforward manner by reducing the sharing
sufficient fiber infrastructure to pass 3 million
ratio from 1:32 to, say, 1:16 or 1:8. In doing so, the
homes and plans to pass several million more
existing splitter, feeder, and distribution fibers,
in 2006.
the optical line terminations (OLTs), and the
One might assume that when an FTTP system is optical network terminations (ONTs) can remain
deployed and a home is connected by a single- in service. Most importantly, no changes are
mode fiber, there will be no shortage of required in the ONT installation or O/E
bandwidth from that point on. However, the equipment or distribution/drop fiber. Additional
limitations of current systems are becoming PON feeder links can be activated by adding a
apparent almost before they are placed into new OLT card(s) at the CO or a new splitter(s) at
service. Initial FTTP deployment has been based the splitter node and by either activating dark
largely on the BPON standard developed by the fibers previously installed in the feeder plant or
Full Service Access Network (FSAN) Group reinforcing the feeder link by pulling in a new
and standardized by the International fiber feeder. (A feeder plant is typically designed
Telecommunication Union (ITU). BPON provides with reinforcement in mind; this should also
622 Mb/s of downstream and 155 Mb/s of figure in the sizing of the splitter node enclosure.)
upstream bandwidth that is shared by over With the new OLT card, feeder link, and PON
32 homes. This yields an average of about splitter in place, the operator must disconnect
20 Mb/s of downstream bandwidth per home in some of the users from the original splitter and
a fully loaded system, which would appear to reconnect them to the newly lit PON. Individual
support a single HDTV channel plus data access. customers would experience a brief service
However, system overheads and buffers must be interruption during the disconnect/reconnect
taken into account, and detailed computer operation, after which the ONT would be
simulations show that actual throughputs with re-ranged and its services re-established on the
acceptable delays may be even less. This has led new PON. Connectorized splitter ports can
to the recent consideration of GPON and EPON shorten the duration of the operation.
systems, given their higher throughputs.

Reducing the amount of sharing on current GPON and Institute of Electrical and Electronics
systems will only go so far. Broadband services Engineers (IEEE) EPON architectures are
with bandwidth demands that ultimately outstrip examining next-generation systems operating at
the capacity of EPON and GPON systems may this 10 Gb/s line rate. Physically, the fiber plant
emerge. System designers and manufacturers depicted in Figure 4 can be identical to that
will not sit idle, and new higher capacity systems deployed today for BPON systems.
will be developed. Operators, when confronted
The downstream link should operate very
with a procurement choice, will switch to higher
similarly to commercial point-to-point 10 Gb/s
capacity systems, just as they are now switching
systems, with the exception of the added splitter
from BPON to GPON deployment. Eventually,
losses. Some combination of higher power
operators will have to upgrade older systems.
transmitters and more sensitive receivers
While little hope exists that the older system
(avalanche photodiodes [APDs] in place of
electronics can be salvaged, operators will Higher-speed
positive intrinsic negative [PIN] diodes) will
attempt to reuse the in-place glass—both the TDM-PONs are
likely be used to accommodate the PON loss
fiber and the passive splitters. Therefore, this
budgets. The question here is not basic technical in the offing,
paper considers new systems in which the fiber
feasibility as much as cost and temperature increasing
is reused in the PON architecture, but with
sensitivities.
new electronics applied at the network and aggregate data
subscriber ends. If the next-generation TDM system continues to rates by a factor
use the current FSAN wavelength plan (1.5 µm
In fact, the study of next-generation FTTP of four or more.
downstream, 1.3 µm upstream), the upstream link
systems is already well underway. The FSAN
faces an even more formidable challenge due to
Group has launched an initiative called Next
the higher fiber losses at 1.3 µm. In addition, due
Generation PON (NG-PON), and research
to variable path lengths on the PON, different
laboratories are exploring new optical devices
upstream signals can arrive at the OLT receiver
and technologies. Some of the emerging
with substantially different optical powers,
approaches are described below.
necessitating a highly agile receiver. Switching to
an asymmetric system is one logical alternative to
Unrepeated NG-PON (Higher Speed TDMA) help ease the constraints on the upstream link.
Historically, the primary approach to increasing
PON capacity has been to increase time-division Given the past success of TDM/TDMA
multiplexing (TDM) and time division multiple technology, it is likely that some form of higher-
access (TDMA) line rates. Downstream and rate PON systems will be developed, especially in
upstream line rates have risen steadily, from early the downstream direction, with perhaps a modest
narrowband systems through a series of reduction in the upstream rates. Assuming a 2:1
broadband architectures operating at 155/155, asymmetry in downstream and upstream rates,
622/155, and, most recently, 2,400/1,200 Mb/s. a 10G/5G 1:32 PON would provide an
The next logical step in this hierarchy is to average/sustained bit rate of about 300 Mb/s
consider 10 Gb/s line rates. Both the FSAN/ITU (downstream)/150 Mb/s (upstream) for each end
Figure 4. Higher Capacity TDM/TDMA PON Operating Over Distributive/Power Splitter Network

user. However, to achieve this level of average Dedicated WDM-PON
performance, each transceiver must cope with the WDM-based access systems (WDM-PONs) are a
peak line rates of 10 Gb/s (or 5 Gb/s), which can second near-future contender for the next
be a costly approach. generation of passive optical access networks [3].
In Figure 5, the shared TDM/TDMA OSP access
The broadcast video overlay of current PON
network established for a conventional PON
systems can be accommodated on the distributive
is upgraded by replacing the power splitter
PON architecture shown in Figure 4. However,
with a passive WDM multiplexer/demultiplexer
with dedicated transport capabilities of hundreds
(mux/demux). In terms of retrofitting an existing
of megabits per second per user, it is likely that
PON, the remaining fiber plant (feeder,
the PON itself could deliver all video
distribution, and drop) can be retained without
programming to each household (albeit
change, but the OLT and all of the ONTs would
exclusively in all-digital format). Further, the
A potential future have to be replaced.
higher optical powers associated with the
access architecture, 10 Gb/s system may generate excessive In the limiting case, the WDM component routes
WDM-PON, non-linear crosstalk in an overlay analog signal. N dedicated wavelength channels to the N users.
replaces the For these reasons, providing an analog overlay In this way, each channel’s bandwidth is
wavelength is problematic for next-generation dedicated to just one user and can vary from user
shared bandwidth
TDM/TDMA PONs. to user. Thus, in a mixed-use PON (mixed
of a TDM-PON residential and small businesses), it would be
with dedicated If the goal is to approach dedicated per-user rates
possible to provide different ONTs with different
of 1 Gb/s, TDM/TDMA technology may be
wavelength peak rate capabilities to low-demand and high-
reaching its limit on PON structures. The
demand users. Because each user has a dedicated
channels to 30+ Gb/s composite data is close to the maximum
two-way channel to the CO, time-ranging issues
end users. 40 Gb/s line rate currently in use for interoffice
associated with TDM-PONs and privacy
and long-haul links, but these are point-to-point
concerns associated with the broadcast nature of
links that do not face the splitting losses and
TDM-PONs are eliminated. Also, the loss
dynamic upstream signal found on a PON.
associated with the WDM component can be far
Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)-
less than the splitting losses associated with
PONs, the second alternative for the NG-PON
conventional PONs, which permits the use of
system, include multiple downstream and
lower power transmitters and lower sensitivity
upstream wavelengths, as described below.
receivers. Furthermore, the ONT receiver at each
user residence only needs to contend with
Figure 5. Upgrading a Shared TDM/TDMA OSP Access Network by Replacing the

Power Splitter with a Passive WDM Mux/Demux

the data rate for that single user and not but technically challenging, since it requires an
the composite data rate supporting about alignment protocol to establish and maintain
30 users. An intermediate form of hybrid wavelength alignment. Such a protocol would
TDM/TDMA/WDM-PON is also an option in not be necessary if all wavelengths were fixed
which M wavelengths (M<N) are in operation and stable. However, if the alignment protocol is
with, on average, N/M users sharing needed, it would be much less complex than the
each wavelength. TDMA protocols in conventional PONs. While
wavelength reuse has been proposed for many
In a sense, this evolution from shared TDM-PONs
years and can eliminate the need for the ONT to
to dedicated channels on a WDM-PON is
address wavelength alignment, the downstream
analogous to the evolution of Ethernet from
signal will have to undergo a full round-trip loss
shared (carrier sense multiple access with
(not just one-way through the fiber plant). The
collision detection [CSMA-CD] protocol) to
“white light” ONT solves the problem of making Hybrid
dedicated formats (10/100BaseT, GbEthernet).
the ONTs uniform from unit to unit but incurs a combinations of
However, rather than extending dedicated fibers
large signal loss. Since only a small sliver of the
to each end user, the WDM-PON uses a single TDM and
light from the ONT passes through the WDM
fiber with dedicated wavelength channels that act WDM-PON
channel, the loss on the upstream link could be
as “virtual fibers.” If each of the 32 virtual fibers
large enough to significantly limit the upstream systems can
transported a 1 Gb/s data stream, the total PON
data rate. partition a
throughput would substantially exceed the
10 Gb/s TDM-PON level discussed above. At the CO, laser transmitter and receiver arrays splitter-based PON
While each WDM-PON user would have access will be required, along with a second WDM into smaller
to a sustained 1 Gb/s data rate, this level would mux/demux. Both the laser/receiver array and
“virtual PONs.”
be the peak data rate that could be accessed tunable laser technologies, as well as integrated
by a user. On a 10 Gb/s TDM-PON, the WDM components, are being developed for core
average/sustained data rate would be only about networks, but cost factors will limit their early
0.3 Gb/s, but the end users could, in principle, deployment for local access until volumes drive
burst to rates approaching 10 Gb/s. costs down substantially.
Optical challenges remain before such WDM- Finally, a WDM-PON with dedicated channels is
PONs can be ready for deployment. In both the largely incompatible with any sort of broadcast
upstream and downstream directions, ONT/OLT video overlay. As with the enhanced TDM-PON,
transmissions must be wavelength-aligned with one might argue that such data delivery
the appropriate WDM channel passband at the capabilities make such an overlay unnecessary.
WDM mux/demux. The difficulty is that the Nevertheless, the absence of this capability makes
WDM mux/demux is situated in the OSP and it more difficult to implement this architecture as
subject to very large temperature variations (and an upgrade to an existing first-generation PON.
therefore wavelength changes) if careful
Several other architectures are being studied,
compensations are not made.
including hybrid WDM-PON and TDM systems,
The wavelength alignment problem is broadcast hybrid WDM-PON plus TDMA
particularly acute for the ONT transmitter, which systems, and extended reach systems that are of
can also be subject to OSP temperature variations interest to some operators. The following
but must align to the channel passbands in the discussion examines advances in component
WDM. Unlike the OLT cards, which must optical technologies that will not only support
generate all of the N wavelengths, the ONTs WDM systems, but lead to the possibility of novel
ideally should generate only one channel new architectures such as optical code division
for upstream transmission. This one channel multiple access (OCDMA)-PON systems.
must be different for each ONT; yet, for inventory
reasons, all ONTs should be identical (no
“colored” ONTs). COMPONENT NEEDS FOR WDM-PONs
he deployment of broadband access
Proposed solutions to the ONT wavelength
alignment problem include using tunable laser T infrastructures is driven by service demand,
but the technologies developed for core and
technology, reusing a downstream channel
arriving at the ONT, or using a broadband metro networks generally are the innovation
(“white light”) source and exploiting the spectral engine for developing future access systems. In
slicing capabilities of the WDM mux. The tunable general, technologies for some access networks
laser option is attractive from a loss perspective are typically developed first for core and metro

fiber interface; the WDM multiplexer (based on
an array waveguide grating router) is integrated
on the same chip with the wavelength-stepped
distributed feedback (DFB) laser array. The
10-wavelength spectrum of the package is shown
in the lower portion of Figure 6. Similar
integrated receiver packages are also available
with a WDM demux and high-speed receiver
arrays integrated in a single package.
At the ONT, a conventional optical receiver is

sufficient for the dedicated channel WDM-PON
application, but a tunable laser is desirable for the
Integrated
upstream link.
WDM transmitter
Figure 7 illustrates the structure of a 2.5 Gb/s
and receiver arrays
DWDM transmitter developed for long-haul
used in long-haul applications. The laser is tunable over about
transmission 30 nm (or roughly twice the wavelength range of
could be adapted the integrated transmitter array), and the bit error
rate (BER) curves shown in the lower part of the
for use at the
figure indicate the uniformity of its performance
central office end over that range. Wavelength-tunable lasers
of a WDM-PON. are also under development for metro and
long-haul applications and are a natural match
to the need for a tunable source at the user end
of a WDM-PON.
EMERGING OPTICAL TECHNOLOGIES:

OCDMA-PONs
(Source: Dr. David F. Welch, Chief Strategy Officer, Infinera)
n addition to standardized and emerging
Figure 6. Integrated O/E Arrays of Lasers
(on Fixed Wavelength Grid) and On-Chip Optical
I TDMA-based PONs and near-future WDM-
PONs, research is underway on alternative
Multiplexers (Array Waveguide Grating Routers) at
CO End of WDM-PON (top); Optical Spectrum and architectures based on OCDMA techniques that
DWDM Channel Passbands (bottom) would operate on a splitter-based PON. These
approaches permit end user transmissions to be
network applications where the higher degree of differentiated on the basis of optical code
sharing makes initial (low volume) costs less of signatures applied to each bit of the downstream
an issue. New optical technologies become and upstream transmissions. Thus, rather than
attractive for access applications as the cost identifying a user by time slot or wavelength (as
per element drops with increasing volume and, in WDM-PONs), OCDMA users employ the same
in some cases, the reduced performance set of wavelengths and can transmit upstream
requirements associated with access networks. without the need for the time-synchronization
Most technology developments that would be and ranging protocols necessary with TDMA.
desirable for next-generation access systems are Like WDM-PONs, OCDMA-PONs promise high-
associated with WDM-PON networks. Many capacity dedicated channels for the end users in
of these technical features are currently place of the shared access on conventional PONs.
under development for point-to-point dense While WDM-PONs use emerging WDM
WDM (DWDM) core and metro applications. technologies as described in Figures 6 and 7,
Specifically, a WDM-PON is a potentially OCDMA-PONs require more exotic technologies
disruptive technology that would dramatically such as mode-locked lasers and very-high-
benefit from the availability of WDM transmitter resolution WDMs, which have not reached the
and receiver arrays for use at the CO end of the commercial deployment stage (laboratory devices
loop. As indicated in Figure 6, suitable WDM are commercially available).
laser transmitter arrays are now available for Overall, both OCDMA-PONs and WDM-PONs
DWDM links. The advantage of these integrated could operate on splitter-based PON
arrays is that they would operate with a single infrastructures and accommodate dedicated

channels with very high bandwidths. What, then, 32 users would require 32 wavelengths, while an
might be the advantage of OCDMA-PONs with OCDMA-PON would require significantly fewer
respect to WDM-PONs? OCDMA provides a wavelengths. Overall, this leads to a relaxed
measure of physical layer security, which may be tolerance for OCDMA operation without spectral
desirable in the downstream direction, since the efficiency constraints and for temperature
ensemble of downstream signals is broadcast to variations. Second, because codes are logical
every ONT from the PON splitter. However, the entities, the PON can gracefully evolve to
greater advantage lies in the fact that, with incrementally greater bandwidth by adding
asynchronous OCDMA, the number of codes virtual PONs to the physical PON. The virtual
supported by N wavelengths can be substantially PONs would be shared by the same TDM/TDMA
greater than N. For instance, Princeton University mechanisms used today. While WDM-PONs can
has proposed an asynchronous system in which be expanded in a similar manner, the number of
four wavelengths can theoretically support virtual PONs is hard-limited by the maximum Wavelength-tunable
101 codes and has demonstrated a four- number of wavelengths on the system. For transmitters
wavelength system with 41 codes [4]. In practice, OCDMA-PONs, four-wavelength PONs could
developed for
not all of these codes can be active simultaneously evolve from eight virtual PONs to nine, simply by
without affecting BER performance, but the adding an unused code and logically assigning long-haul transport
expansion factor (ratio of codes to wavelengths) some ONTs to that code. systems would
still remains substantial. In short, OCDMA can be desirable for
Another distinguishing feature of OCDMA-PON
support the same maximum number of users
systems is that, because they operate on a splitter- use at the ONT
with fewer wavelengths.
based distributive PON, they are compatible of a WDM-PON.
From the PON perspective, the expansion factor with broadcast delivery of an analog video
is important in two ways. First, in the limit of overlay, unlike the advanced TDM and WDM
dedicated channels, a WDM-PON supporting architectures discussed previously.
(Source: Ron Nelson, President and CEO, Agility Communications, Inc.)

Figure 7. Wavelength-Tunable Lasers

Finally, some of the more advanced WDM-PON Current research is focused on PON capacity
architectures require the PON splitter itself expansion based on extending TDM/TDMA to
to be replaced, as in the example described higher bit rates, adding multiple wavelengths to
above wherein a WDM mux/demux device is the PON, or using hybrid combinations of these
substituted. OCDMA architectures potentially two approaches. In addition, extended-reach
reuse both the in-place fiber and the splitter—a PONs are of interest to some network operators.
feature offering advantages from the standpoints An open question at this point is whether any of
of both cost and practicality. OCDMA systems these NG-PONs can physically support a
have the potential for an all-electronic upgrade broadcast video overlay or whether, with the
of the access network, delivering one to two emergence of Internet Protocol television (IPTV)
orders of magnitude more bandwidth to and peer-to-peer distribution of video, such a
subscribers, and remote software provisioning broadcast overlay is even desirable. Finally,
Advances in and administration for the network operator. a third PON technology option, OCDMA-PONs,
optical technologies is in the laboratories. While the technical
OCDMA is unlikely to be used in PON
feasibility of this approach has been
and systems applications in the near future due to the
demonstrated, its economic feasibility remains
offer the promise greater maturity of TDM and WDM technologies.
to be seen. Table 1 compares the TDM, WDM,
The primary impediments to OCDMA deploy-
of substantially and OCDMA approaches.
ment are cost-related. While great strides have
increased been made in the past few years toward chip- Operators can hope to reuse their investment in
throughput to style integration in encoder and decoder facilities—optical fiber and passive splitters. This
end users in technologies, the requisite mode-locked laser plant is now being extended to residences and
(MLL) sources remain costly. smaller businesses and institutions around the
support of known
globe, representing a once-in-a-100-year change
and emerging in the public network infrastructure.
or unforeseen ACCESS NETWORK ASSESSMENT
Although network operators would surely like
broadband services. or the near term, PON systems based on
F well-established gigabit-rate TDM/TDMA
techniques are likely to be sufficient. If, however,
their investments in network equipment to
remain viable over a long service lifetime, the
truth is that the life cycle of communications
service needs to evolve to the point where electronics has been decreasing steadily. This will
residential end user average rates approach a be as true for broadband optical access networks
significant fraction of a gigabit per second, newer in the future as it is now for PCs and cell phones.
generations of PON technologies will probably Operators must resign themselves to the fact
be required. that a steady stream of advances in optical
Table 1. Comparison of Technology Options for NG-PON-Based Optical Access Networks
AVERAGE BROADCAST
PEAK COMPATIBILITY LIMITING
DATA RATE LATENCY OVERLAY
DATA RATES WITH OSP FACTORS
PER USER POSSIBLE?
TDM 1–2G Shared 0.02–0.04G Higher N/A Yes TDMA on

and Shared
Bandwidth
TDMA 0.1–1G Shared 0.01–0.02G
WDM 0.1–10G 0.1–10G Low Replace PON No Tunable TXs or

Splitters with Spectral Slicing
WDMs
WDM 0.1–10G 0.1–10G
OCDMux 0.1–10G Synch 0.1–10G Low Works with Yes Cost of MLLs and
Existing OSP Coders
Splitters
OCDMA 0.1–10G Asynch 0.1–10G
(Slotted?)

technologies and systems will continue, with Dr. Menendez received a BS in Physics from
ever-increasing throughputs. As new access Washington University in St. Louis and an MSEE and
PhD from the University of Illinois. In 1989, he was
systems become cost-effective, user and co-recipient of the IEEE Communications Society’s
marketplace demands can be expected to drive William R. Bennett Prize awarded for best paper in the
the deployment of these systems. Assuming field of Communications Circuits and Techniques. In
a 1 Gb/s capacity per fiber termination, the 1993, he was co-author of the paper receiving the
ISSLS ‘93 Best Paper Award in the Operations and
collective bandwidth in the addressable
Management Theme. Dr. Menendez was selected as an
marketplace of approximately 500 million access individual recipient of a Telcordia CEO Award in 1998.
lines world-wide is 500 petabits/second. Other
David Waring is chief scientist
than optical access, few technologies have the and managing director in the
potential to bring this magnitude of bandwidth Applied Research organization
to society. of Telcordia Technologies.
He has more than 27 years
of experience in the
telecommunications industry.
REFERENCES David began his career at Bell
Laboratories designing loop
[1] C. Wilson, “IGI: Bells on Track to Take
Broadband Lead,” Telephony Online, May 10, 2006 carrier systems. At Bellcore, the
(http://telephonyonline.com/home/news/ R&D organization for the Baby Bells, he was project
IGI_Bells_broadband_051006/). manager for early work on metropolitan area networks,
DSL, video dial tone, and home networks. David
[2] S. Cherry, “A Broadband Utopia,” IEEE Spectrum
currently leads research focused on “last-mile”
Magazine, Vol. 43, No. 5, May 2006, pp. 48–54.
broadband networks. He was program manager of a
[3] A. Banerjee et al., “Wavelength-Division- NIST research grant on critical infrastructure
Multiplexed Passive Optical Network (WDM- protection, and leads related research initiatives in
PON) Technologies for Broadband Access: support of government clients.
A Review,” Journal of Optical Networking,
Vol. 4, No. 11, November 2005, pp. 737–758. David received a BS in Electrical Engineering from
[4] W.C. Kwong, G.-C. Yang, V. Baby, C.-S. Bres, Drexel University and an MS in Electrical Engineering
and P.R. Prucnal, “Multiple-Wavelength Optical from Georgia Tech. He is a senior member of the IEEE.
Orthogonal Codes Under Prime-Sequence
Permutations for Optical CDMA,” IEEE
Transactions on Communications, Vol. 53, No. 1,
January 2005.
BIOGRAPHIES
Ron Menendez is a senior
scientist on the technical staff of
the Broadband Networking
Research department at
Telcordia Technologies. For
much of his tenure at Telcordia,
Bellcore, and Bell Laboratories,
his focus has been on
investigating full-service access
networks, including xDSL
systems, HFC, and FTTC/FTTH systems. In past years,
he has been involved in efforts to define the domains of
applicability of these architectures and has participated
in international standards efforts to define a family
of full-service next-generation fiber-based access
architectures based on PONs. Dr. Menendez has
recently contributed to Telcordia’s optical networking
simulation development and is playing a major role in
the simulation of OCDMA systems and associated
coding studies.

NANOTECHNOLOGY AND
COMMUNICATIONS:
EXTENDING CAPABILITY THROUGH
NANOSCALE INNOVATION
Abstract—Enhancements in silicon components, computing techniques and cryptography, optical components,

and component power density can be realized by using nanoscale components. All of these elements offer
improvements in communications technology. A diverse range of nanotechnology applications is summarized,
particularly with respect to communications and system design.
BACKGROUND 2 years, the innovations in silicon circuitry have

anotechnology refers to the science of enabled the applications and pervasive
N materials on the nanometer scale—typically
between 1 and 100 nm. Materials of this size have
computing that drive our digital economy.
Gilder’s Law, posited by telecommunications
many unique properties that can be exploited for pundit George Gilder, states that the total
gain in numerous applications. The disciplines of bandwidth of a communications system triples
materials science, physics, chemistry, and every 12 months, outstripping even Moore’s
engineering all contribute to the field of Law. While many of Gilder’s pre-2000
nanotechnology; in the US, the National telecommunication “bubble” predictions have
Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) has been not held true, systems designers continue to
established by the federal government to increase both individual channel line rates and
coordinate the work of 23 federal agencies, 11 of the number of concurrent channels carried on a
which participate in nanotechnology research [1]. fiber cable.
Nanotechnology research also occurs at the The progression of communications technologies
university and corporate levels; both large, and bandwidths is linked directly to the
established firms and startup ventures continued doubling of transistor density reflected
are undertaking nanotechnology research. in Moore’s Law. Increases in silicon density
Applications of nanotechnology are poised to translate to increased packet processing and
improve communications technologies on many information retrieval; smaller packaging and
fronts; this paper summarizes activities in footprints; and reduced power utilization,
nanotechnology development that will enhance cooling requirements, and overall costs.
such technologies. Merchant silicon in the form of network
processing units (NPUs) appears to challenge
application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC)-
NANOTECHNOLOGY AND SILICON based designs, particularly on the fronts of
ormulated in 1965 by Gordon Moore of Intel, time-to-market and overall system design cost.
F Moore’s Law states that transistor density,
and therefore chip complexity, doubles every
Will Moore’s Law continue uncontested, or will
communications designers need to seek
18 months. In the 40 years since its formulation, alternative means to advance their systems?
numerous bets have been placed on when the law
Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor
would no longer hold true, but thus far the
(CMOS) designs have been used for processor
Brian Coombe density of silicon in both processors and memory
and memory circuitry because they feature low
devices has followed Moore’s prediction very
bcoombe@bechtel.com power consumption and high logic function
closely, as seen in Figure 1. Although progress
density. As the features on each design become
has lagged slightly, realistically doubling every
smaller, researchers face new challenges posed by

the complexities of the physics involved in such
ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS, AND TERMS tiny devices. Nanoscale technology is defined as
ASIC application-specific integrated any system with features less than 100 nm wide;
circuit as a point of reference, the diameter of the
influenza virus is roughly 100 nm, as shown in
CMOS complementary metal-oxide
Figure 2. Commercial processes using strained
semiconductor
silicon technologies have reduced the feature size
holey fiber fiber cable with an array of even further, down to 65 nm. Processes currently
tiny holes in its core in the research and development stage should
NNI National Nanotechnology further reduce feature size to 32 nm; the gates on
Initiative the resulting devices will be only 18 nm long.
Current predictions indicate that the scalability of
NPU network processing unit
CMOS devices will continue for another decade:
Nanoscale PC personal computer the limit of an ideal transistor is stated to be 5 nm.
technology is QKD quantum key distribution Beyond this level, truly innovative methods, such
defined as any as quantum computing, must be implemented to
qubit a “bit” represented by the spin
system with of an individual atom extend Moore’s Law [2].
features less than RAM random access memory One limitation in moving to nanoscale silicon has
100 nm wide; as a been lithography, the process by which features
SOE subwavelength optical element
are etched onto the silicon substrate. Optical
point of reference, (an optical component with
nanoscale features) lithography, the predominant method used over
the diameter of the the past few decades, is capable of producing
influenza virus is soliton a specially shaped waveform
features less than 100 nm wide with very short
that tends to not disperse in
roughly 100 nm. wavelengths, centered at approximately 193 nm.
a fiber
Estimates indicate that this method will not be
cost-effective below 30 nm, and a new method
will be required. Several candidates are emerging
Figure 1. Moore’s Law

Increases in
silicon density that
translate to pure
performance gains
are no longer the
Figure 2. Comparison of Influenza Virus and Transistor Diameters
only motivators of
to replace optical lithography. Some techniques devices, and the “boot up” period for an communications
use wavelengths in the extreme ultraviolet and operating system to be loaded into random access systems designers.
X-ray spectrum, but these techniques have memory (RAM) would disappear [5].
displayed limitations preventing their wide-scale
implementation. Another technique is dip-pen
nanolithography, where the tip of an atomic force NANOTECHNOLOGY AND POWER DENSITY
microscope is used to manipulate individual ncreases in silicon density that translate to pure
atoms, building the features required on the
silicon one atom at a time, as shown in Figure 3.
I performance gains are no longer the only
motivators of communications systems designers.
This method may not be feasible for large-scale Operators are now able to increase the data center
production. The most cost-effective method has performance/cost ratio through a massive scaling
been nanoimprint lithography, where a polymer approach, tying together multitudes of lower-cost
stamp of the individual features is developed and commodity personal computer (PC) equipment
a pattern transfer process is used to imprint the instead of purchasing multiprocessor systems or
design on a wafer of silicon [3]. specialty storage media. This approach leads,
A novel idea to replace all methods of however, to a problem that may be addressable
lithography has gained significant traction,
namely the bottom-up approach of self-assembly.
Borrowed from nature, self-assembly makes use
of molecules with structures encoded in their
shapes and properties; features on the order
of 20 nm have been demonstrated with this
technique [4].
The prime candidate to replace CMOS-based

logic is the molecular device, in which individual
molecules act as switches, maintaining a logic
state. Researchers have already demonstrated
devices based on molecules, such as a three-input
sorter five orders of magnitude smaller than the
smallest equivalent silicon transistor circuit.
Molecular devices offer significant power
advantages; molecular interactions are governed
by weak van der Waals equations. Furthermore,
molecular devices offer non-volatility; unlike
electronic circuits, the state of each logic element
is preserved in the absence of applied current.
This could vastly improve battery life in mobile Figure 3. Dip-Pen Nanolithography

by nanotechnology—power density. The focus on were significantly larger, but this has been
solving the power density problem, particularly overcome through novel fabrication techniques.
in data centers and other large-scale Nanowires still must surmount many challenges;
communications sites, is starting to eclipse the because they may be as small as 10 atoms wide, a
former drive for raw performance improvements. single atom of impurity can ruin their
performance. Researchers are still challenged in
Given environmental and power system
characterizing the conductivity of nanowires and
requirements and typical performance, a standard
in understanding the electrical behavior of the
central office or data center has a maximum
regions where nanowires connect to traditional
power density approaching 150 W/ft2. Clusters of
silicon. Future improvements in these areas may
commercial PC hardware quickly outstrip this
solidify using nanowires to reduce power
capacity, forcing operators to install special
consumption caused by resistance [7].
cooling equipment or secure additional floor
Manufacturers
space. These steps result in higher-than-necessary Today, carbon-doped oxide is being used in
have pioneered operational and capital expenses. The benefits of commercial 90 nm and 65 nm processes to reduce
methods to reshape lower power use go well beyond data center the capacitance of interconnects; future
the individual applications, particularly when addressing enhancements in nanowire technologies are
mobility and battery life limitations [6]. expected to reduce interconnect capacitance even
components that
further. This has been supported by research that
make up the Nanoscale transistors reduce one source of
has shown that manipulating nanowire
increased power consumption—the leakage
transistor, geometries can reduce nanowire capacitance
current occurring when electrons mobilize as
stretching and levels; triangular cross-sections offer marked
transistors are turned on. However, although both
improvements over cylindrical designs.
compressing the shorter gate distances and the lower-resistance
different parts to dielectric materials made possible by While interconnect capacitance must be low to
nanotechnology reduce leakage current, this reduce power, leakage current is reduced when
improve overall
reduction is offset by the sheer number of transistor capacitance is increased. Transistor
current flow transistors involved and by the higher overall capacitance is directly related to how well the
and reduce static leakage that also occurs when those device can switch from the “on” to the “off” state.
current loss. transistors are turned off. Manufacturers have Increasing transistor capacitance is possible by
pioneered methods to reshape the individual manipulating the gate dielectric material. Silicon
components that make up the transistor, dioxide (SiO2) dielectric materials have been the
stretching and compressing different parts to mainstay in semiconductor designs since their
improve overall current flow and reduce advent; today’s dielectrics are on the order of
current loss. 1.2 nm, the width of five atoms, for a 90 nm
process. A new “high-k” material having a
In addition to changes in transistor topology to
dielectric constant much higher than SiO2 has
reduce leakage current, nanomaterial technologies
been developed and is likely to be implemented in
are being used. Power requirements are a function
future commercial processes. The dielectric
of resistance and capacitance; reducing both
constant “k” is a measure of how well a device can
lowers overall power consumption. Resistance is a
hold a charge and is directly linked to capacitance.
function of cross-sectional area and length—as
New materials, as shown in Figure 4, will prevent
cross-sectional area decreases or length increases,
leakage current from becoming the limiting factor
resistance increases. Thus, even though nanoscale
in semiconductor designs [8].
silicon devices gain from the reduction in
interconnect length, the resulting resistance
reductions are offset by the smaller cross-sectional
area of the interconnect wire. Pure copper
interconnects are used in sub-100 nm designs to
lower resistance when compared to aluminum
and other previously used metals. Beyond 35 nm,
even copper may not be suitable for use due to its
intrinsic resistivity. Researchers are examining
new components, such as carbon nanontubes and
nanowires, to overcome this limitation.
Nanowires 5 to 20 nm wide can be grown by new

processes. Previously, a limitation on these small
sizes was that the tools to build the nanowires Figure 4. High-k Materials

Two properties
of quantum
mechanics,
superposition and
entanglement,
make the use of
qubits unique and
potentially very
powerful for
computing
applications.
Figure 5. Tri-Gate Transistor
Researchers are using another novel method for NANOTECHNOLOGY AND QUANTUM COMPUTING
nanoscale silicon that increases performance and eyond extensions of current devices and
reduces power: adding another dimension. The
last 40 years of semiconductor development have
B molecular devices are quantum computers,
which use qubits—the spin of individual atoms—
always featured planar, or “flat,” transistors with to represent information. Two properties
two-dimensional features. A new technique of quantum mechanics, superposition and
implements a three-dimensional “tri-gate” entanglement, generally referred to as “spooky”
transistor designed to overcome leakage current by the scientific population, make the use of
issues that plague devices with features less than qubits unique and potentially very powerful for
30 nm wide. The tri-gate device inherently computing applications.
provides electronic signals three “roads” to travel
on—one along the face of the transistor, as in Superposition enables a qubit to be both a “1” and
typical silicon, and one on each side of the device. a “0” at the same time, as shown in Figure 6, a
The new transistor uses the same amount of “real construct that is impossible with traditional
estate,” but with less overall power. A tri-gate electronics. As stated in Heisenberg’s uncertainty
transistor is shown in Figure 5 [9]. principle, the qubit will always read as a “1” or
“0” when measured, even if it represents many
It is imagined that a combination of the above
techniques will be used to deploy commercial
silicon that operates at the lowest possible
power. Nanowires, high-k dielectrics, and
three-dimensional circuitry are all compatible
design techniques that can be used together
harmoniously to produce chipsets that
overcome the power density limitations of
today’s data centers.
Figure 6. Qubits

states. Successive measurements of the same NANOTECHNOLOGY AND OPTICS
qubits will result in the values determined by all nother opportunity for nanoscale technology
of the combination possibilities; qubits inherently
enable parallel processing and require less
A is innovation in the area of optical
communications. A family of optical
information than a standard computer. It has subcomponents known as subwavelength optical
been claimed that, for certain types of problems, a elements (SOEs) typically possesses dimensions
computer with 300 qubits has more processing less than 100 nm wide, which is much smaller
power than a traditional computer with as many than the wavelengths used for optical
bits as there are particles in the universe. communication. Unlike in traditional com-
If a logic operation occurs on two or more qubits, ponents, where features are much larger, both
those qubits become “entangled.” As a result, any quantum and classic physics effects are observed.
operation or manipulation on one of the qubits The smaller dimensions allow for several specific
Encryption advantages in system-level design.
results in predictable behavior of the other
standards that have
qubit(s), even if the qubits become separated over SOEs can be manufactured to have much smaller
been deemed great distance(s). Precise control of entanglement, dimensions than traditional components that
unbreakable in combined with a classical communications perform the same function. In addition to their
practical time channel from qubit to qubit, could be used to smaller size, SOEs offer lower insertion losses and
develop communications applications. Instead of can be placed much closer to other optical
could be easily
a photodetector sensing the millions of photons elements. SOEs also have a much higher
broken by a that signify a “1” or “0” bit over a clock cycle, acceptance angle, allowing designers more
quantum computer a single entity would represent the same piece flexibility in how and where they place the
using a brute force of information, offering a much more components on a circuit board. Together, these
efficient structure. Implementation of quantum qualities will enable much smaller, less costly
approach.
communications systems using such techniques subsystems of optical communications devices
has not yet progressed beyond the theoretical to be built. Applications for SOEs include
stage [9]. polarization management, filters, and
A powerful application of quantum computing is photodetectors [11].
cryptography; encryption standards that have The future for nano-optical systems is
been deemed unbreakable in practical time could monolithic integration — construction of nano-
be easily broken by a quantum computer using a optical components together with optically
brute force approach, due to the computer’s sheer active components on a single substrate,
power and the ability of a qubit to represent realizing an optical “system-on-a-chip.”
many states. The most logical method to prevent Continued integration promises cost and
this from occurring is to develop a quantum space improvements that will drive optical
cryptography system in which techniques to communications further to the edge of
encode the information use infrastructure as the network [12].
powerful as that used to decode the information.
Optical fiber itself offers opportunities for
Quantum key distribution (QKD) relies on the nanotechnology. A product of this technology
property of entanglement to create a shared key dubbed “holey fiber” uses an array of nanoscale
that is used to encrypt information to be longitudinal holes constructed in a periodic form
transmitted [10]. around the axis of the fiber. Holey fiber is
generally fabricated in a fashion similar to that of
traditional fiber: a macroscopic model of the fiber
is inserted on a fiber draw tower and, once
drawn, is inserted into a jacket and made into
fiber. Figure 7 shows a traditional cross-section of
a holey fiber core.
Holey fiber offers very unique applications. Built

with the correct properties, holey fiber can
modulate the phase of the signal it carries. This
makes the cable an effective optical switch in
which a noisy input signal yields a much cleaner
output signal. Because this process is
accomplished passively, this type of fiber may
Figure 7. Holey Fiber Core allow “power-free regeneration,” enabling much

less expensive optical systems to be built. [11] R. Pease, “Nano-technology Poised for First
Potentially, holey fiber even offers optical (but not last) Optical Applications,”
Lightwave Magazine, March 2002.
network designers possibilities for repeaters
[12] H. Kostal, “Nano-Optics: Changing the Rules for
where traditional active components would not Optical System Design,” NanoOpto Corporation,
be suitable [13]. June 2003.
[13] T. Monro, “Holey Fibers!” Light Reading
Holey fibers can also be used in discrete Raman (http://www.lightreading.com/document.asp?d
amplifier applications. Other applications include oc_id=21449&page_number=5).
soliton generation and fiber Bragg gratings. A
future expected benefit of holey fibers is in-fiber
component integration; instead of using discrete, BIOGRAPHY
on board components, holey fibers acting in the Brian Coombe joined Bechtel
Telecommunications in 2003.
various applications mentioned above could Holey fiber even
Currently, as program manager
perform similar functions. Doing so will further of the Strategic Infrastructure
offers optical
reduce the cost, complexity, and size of active Group, a pivotal unit of the
optical components. Bechtel Federal Telecoms network designers
organization, Brian manages
a program that involves
possibilities for
telecommunications systems repeaters where
CONCLUSIONS and critical infrastructure
modeling, simulation, analysis, and testing. He traditional active
he broad range of possibilities enabled by
T nanotechnology and nanoscale components
promises to greatly enhance communications and
evaluates government telecommunications markets,
formulates requirements for telecommunications and
water infrastructure work, and develops the Strategic
components would
not be suitable.
computing. Nanotechnology is just beginning to Infrastructure Group’s scope.
cross from the research phase into the As Bechtel’s technical lead for all radiofrequency issues,
development phase; society is just starting to Brian draws on his extensive knowledge of wireless and
realize the benefits of its enabled applications. fiber optic networks. In his first position with the
company, he engineered configurations to allow for
capacity expansion of the AT&T Wireless GSM network
in New York as part of a nationwide buildout contract.
REFERENCES Later, he was the lead engineer for planning, designing,
and documenting a fiber-to-the-premises network
[1] “The National Nanotechnology Initiative,” serving more than 20,000 homes. He is the Bechtel
http://nano.gov/html/about/home_about.html, Telecommunications Laboratory’s resident expert for
accessed April 21, 2006. optical network planning, evaluation, and modeling.
[2] P. Gargini, “Intel Nanotechnology Overview,”
October 22, 2004. Before joining Bechtel, Brian was a systems engineer at
Tellabs®, where he launched the company’s dense
[3] R. Eby and J. Leckenby, “Enabling
wavelength-division multiplexing services and
Nanofabrication Through Dip-Pen Lithography,”
NanoInk, Inc. managed network design and testing. He developed
solutions to complex network issues involving echo
[4] H. Sugimura, “Nanoscopic Surface Architecture cancellation, optical networking, Ethernet, TCP/IP,
Based on Molecular Self-assembly and Scanning
transmission, and routing applications.
Probe Lithography,” International Journal of
Nanotechnology 2005, Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 314–347. Brian is currently completing work toward an
[5] M. Stan, S. Goldstein, and M. Ziegler, MS in Telecommunications Systems Engineering at
“Molecular Electronics: From Devices and the University of Maryland. He earned a BS with
Interconnect to Circuits and Architecture,” honors in Electrical Engineering at The Pennsylvania
Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 91, No. 11, State University.
November 2003.
[6] S. Shankland, “Power Could Cost More Than Brian is a member of the Institute of Electrical and
Servers, Google Warns,” December 9, 2005 Electronics Engineers; INSA; AFCEA; and Eta Kappa
(http://www.CNET.com). Nu, the national electrical engineering honor society.
He has published technical articles in the Bechtel
[7] R.C. Johnson, “Nanowires vie with Carbon Tubes
Telecommunications Technical Journal, and his tutorial on
for Next-gen Transistors,” EE Times Magazine,
Micro-Electromechanical Systems and Optical
March 8, 2004.
Networking was presented by the International
[8] R. Chau, S. Datta, M. Doczy, J. Kavalieros, and Engineering Consortium.
M. Metz, “Gate Dielectric Scaling for High-
Performance CMOS: From SiO2 to High-k,”
Intel Corporation.
[9] “Unlocking Quantum Secrets,” National Institute
of Standards and Technology.
[10] D. Gottesman and H-K. Lo, “From Quantum
Cheating to Quantum Security,” Physics Today,
Vol. 53, Issue 11.

HSDPA NETWORK
DIMENSIONING CHALLENGES AND
KEY PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
Abstract—HSDPA is a WCDMA key feature that provides high data rate transmission to enhance UMTS
support of multimedia services. HSDPA offers many advanced features to both operators and end users. In
practice, it provides higher data rates for end users, higher capacity in the radio network, and the opportunity
for network operators to deliver services (both existing and new) at a lower cost by supporting a large number
of high data rate users with significant spectral efficiency. HSDPA offers maximum bit rates of 14.4 Mbps (with
15 spreading codes and no channel coding) in a 5 MHz channel. Moreover, packet data throughput is improved
significantly in HSDPA, compared with standard UMTS. This paper discusses specific issues regarding
HSDPA RAN dimensioning and describes some considerations for HSDPA performance monitoring and
related KPIs.
HSDPA DIMENSIONING air interface usage are known, initial

he first phase of network planning is network dimensioning can be performed. In HSDPA,
T dimensioning. Before the planning tool is
used with topology information, a network size,
however, because all user traffic is carried
through a downlink shared channel (DSCH), a
capacity, and quality “figure of merit” is different approach to dimensioning is necessary.
calculated. Network dimensioning is also used to The most critical dimensioning input in this case
specify and baseline all margins, link budget is the average throughput expected from the sole
parameters, coverage requirements, and capacity DSCH.
assumptions. The approximate number of base The amount of throughput that a DSCH can carry
transceiver stations (BTSs); average power depends on many variables, the most important
budget, cell size, and capacity values; and initial being its power allocation. Because HSDPA is a
network configuration are estimated at this simple “add-on” feature to existing BTSs and
phase. Furthermore, traffic assumptions and a fixed amount of power is allocated for use by
overall network load estimates feed transmission the DSCH, the designer’s target during
planning and radio network controller the dimensioning phase is to specify the exact
(RNC) dimensioning. In universal mobile amount of that power. HSDPA power should be
telecommunications system (UMTS) network sufficient to meet expected HSDPA throughput
design, coverage and capacity planning are demand. On the other hand, enough power
interrelated, and several iterations between should be reserved for all DCH traffic.
coverage and capacity might be necessary to
obtain an initial estimate of the network After initial dimensioning, a “global” allocated
dimensions. DSCH power figure can be set at the system level.
Subsequently, by using traffic evolution and real
As with general UMTS dimensioning, high-speed usage figures, this initial figure can be
Thrasivoulos (Sakis)
downlink packet access (HSDPA) dimensioning individually fine-tuned for areas of interest at the
Griparis
requires that network coverage, capacity, and BTS level. Finally, at the cell level, throughput can
tgripari@bechtel.com
quality of service (QoS) be assessed based on link be quantified as:
budget parameters and offered throughput. In
Esmael Dinan, PhD standard third generation (3G) systems, traffic is • Average cell throughput
ehdinan@bechtel.com quantified in terms of number of users and • Cell edge throughput
corresponding channel usage. Each user is
assigned a dedicated channel (DCH) or bit pipe. • Average user throughput
Once the number of users and the corresponding

3G third generation, enhanced PDP programmed data processor
digital mobile phone service
PDU protocol distribution unit
at broadband speeds enabling
both voice and nonvoice data PHY physical
transfer
PS packet switched
AMC adaptive modulation and
coding
RACH random access channel
BTS base transceiver station
RAN radio access network
CPICH common pilot channel
RANAP RAN application part
DCH dedicated channel
RLC radio link control
DL downlink
DSCH DL shared channel
RRC radio resource controller
Eb/No ratio of signal energy to
additive noise and RSSI received signal strength
interference indication
Ec/Io ratio of average channel Rx receive
power to total signal power SF spreading factor
EIRP effective isotropic radiated SINR signal to (interference +
power noise) ratio
FACH forward access channel TTI transmission time interval
GPRS general packet radio service Tx transmit
HS high speed UE user equipment
HSDPA HS DL packet access UL uplink
KPI key performance indicator UMTS universal mobile
MAC medium access control telecommunications system
NBAP Node B application UTRAN UMTS terrestrial radio
part/protocol access network
NRT non-real time WCDMA wideband code division
multiple access
These parameters can serve as independent The HSDPA peak data rate calculation is based
dimensioning targets. It should be noted that they on the following main parameters:
are difficult to align and yield different results.
• Path loss as calculated by the HSDPA link
Because the first two parameters are independent
budget
of the number of users, they are most commonly
used for network dimensioning. • Percentage of Node B power allocated to
HSDPA data users—Because HSDPA and
HSDPA Link Budget Parameters UMTS channels operate on the same
Since HSDPA is expected to be overlaid on a frequency, power sharing becomes an
wideband code division multiple access important issue for UMTS operators, who
(WCDMA) network, the objective of HSDPA link must find a good tradeoff between voice
budgeting is to estimate the maximum data rate capacity, data sector throughput, and offered
achievable in the DL at the cell edge, assuming data rates.
that coverage is uplink (UL) limited. A sample • Scheduler margin—For HSDPA, the
HSDPA link budget is shown in Table 1. In this adaptive modulation and coding (AMC)
sample budget, the fading margins and combination allows different operating
penetration losses are not shown. By considering points to be selected based on initial
these two parameters for different morphology transmission power. It is, therefore, possible
types and the propagation model, the to adopt either a more conservative strategy
corresponding cell radius can be calculated. that uses more power but results in fewer

retransmissions, or a more aggressive β can be estimated from [1] or [2], or alternatively
strategy that uses less power but results in by considering that β is also correlated to the ratio
more retransmissions. of average channel power to total signal strength
(Ec/Io):
• Orthogonality factor—This accounts for
nonorthogonal interference received by the PCPICH
Ec
serving cell because of multipath. =
Io PTotal (1 + 1 ) (2)
The link budget provides a user channel quality β
estimate that is then mapped to the maximum
achievable physical (PHY) layer data rate. The and β can thus be solved to:
resulting user HSDPA data rates can vary from
Ec
900 kbps to 14.4 Mbps. P
Io Total
β = (3) The link budget
E provides a user
HSDPA SINR Calculation PCPICH – c PTotal
Power control and rake receivers can be used to Io channel quality
combat varying channel conditions and any where:
estimate that is
corresponding performance degradation. In
PTotal = total BTS transmit (Tx) power then mapped to
HSDPA, link adaptation methods provide
a further enhancement. Using channel PCPICH = power allocated to the common the maximum
measurements, link adaptation can change the pilot channel (CPICH) achievable PHY
channel configuration of each 2-ms transmission
Finally, the average throughput is usually given layer data rate.
time interval (TTI) and vary the following
parameters: by the vendor as a function of Ec/Io or SINR in
terms of plots.
• Modulation
Table 1. Simplified HSDPA Link Budget
• Number of codes used
Transmit Path
• Medium access control (MAC) protocol
distribution unit (PDU) size Tx Power HSDPA 37.40 dBm 5.5 W
CPICH Tx Power 33 dBm 2.0 W

These changes result in varying end user bit rates,
depending on channel conditions. Total BTS Tx Power 43 dBm 20.0 W
Antenna Gain 18 dBi

Traditionally, one of the most important values
in a UMTS link budget is the required ratio of Cable Loss 4 dB
signal energy to additive noise and interference DSCH EIRP 51.4 dBm
(Eb/No) for the desired service. In HSDPA,
DL-CPICH EIRP 47 dBm
however, the varying nature of offered services
with the use of link adaptation makes this Receive Path
figure of no use. Instead, the signal to UE Noise Figure 8 dB
(interference + noise) ratio (SINR) is used:
Thermal Noise –108 dB
PtxDSCH DL Load Factor 90%

SINR = SFDSCH (1)
Ptot (1 – α + 1 )
RSSI –100 dB
β Interference Margin 9 dB
where:
Interference Floor –91 dB
SFDSCH = spreading factor of the DSCH; Minimum Ec/Io –14 dB
fixed at 16
Orthogonality Factor 0.2
PtxDSCH = transmit power of the DSCH
β –4.4 dB
Ptot = total BTS power, including SINR 1.3 dB
DSCH power
DSCH SF 12.0 dB 16
α = orthogonality factor Rx Antenna Gain 0 dB
β = ratio of own interference to Body Loss 0 dB

other interference plus noise Receiver Sensitivity –101.1 dB
( Iown )
Iother + Noise Max. Path Loss 152.1 dB

HSDPA KPI PARAMETERS
SDPA key performance indicators (KPIs)
H vary from the standard DCH “model” in the
sense that it is hard to measure the number of
connections when all users are using the same
PHY channel and the degree of usage varies in
time. Before delving into KPI considerations, a
review of system counters and their relation to
KPIs is necessary.
System Counters
Every vendor equips its system with counters
While stability
that measure events of interest (e.g., alarms) for
monitoring is the purpose of monitoring and analyzing
somewhat performance and stability. While stability
straightforward and monitoring is somewhat straightforward and
generally not of much interest, performance
generally not of
monitoring is a truly differentiating factor among
much interest, vendors, and the implementation of the counter
performance structure should be carefully considered when
monitoring is a truly selecting a vendor.
differentiating Performance counters usually measure
factor among predefined events such as signals in the data flow
vendors, and the or event triggered. Each counter is defined by two
quantities: Figure 1. Example of Counters in an HSDPA Connection
implementation
Setup Signal Flow
of the counter • The trigger point, which can be anything
from a signal to a customizable event
structure should be
carefully considered • The measurement frequency, which dictates
counters 1, 2, and 3 increase every time an
how often the counter value is probed by the
when selecting RRC_Connection_Request message is received
network management system and saved at
a vendor. via the random access channel (RACH) at the
the database
RNC. Each counter’s number increases for a
For a 3G UMTS terrestrial radio access network different RACH connection request type, such as
(UTRAN), counters are traditionally split into the voice, video, or packet switched (PS). Counter 4
following categories: in the example, however, increases when an
RRC_Connection_Setup_Complete message is
• Cell level, where cell-related functions are sent from the RNC to the UE.
captured
Literally hundreds of vendor-specific counters
• BTS level accompany each network element, giving
• Iub interface level optimization and performance management
engineers the ability to implement KPIs that help
• RNC level monitor, optimize, and benchmark the network.
These broad categories can be further divided to
offer additional visibility for UTRAN KPIs
performance analysis (e.g., call level, user level, Counters are a vendor’s intellectual property for
cell/BTS/RNC traffic level, radio resource monitoring system performance, and operators
controller [RRC] signaling). The structure define and implement KPIs using the offered
depends entirely on vendor system counters. KPIs, on the other hand, are an
implementation. operator’s intellectual property with regard to
network maintenance and optimization. Indeed
Figure 1 illustrates the deployment of counters in
the formulas, measurement methodologies, and
a connection setup signal flow between user
implementations of operator KPIs constitute a
equipment (UE), a BTS, and an RNC.
major differentiation factor in determining
The counters in the example are related to 3G network quality.
RRC signaling measurements; more specifically,

Following the previous counter example, an For example, during a PS connection setup, an
appropriate KPI to measure the RRC connection operator can measure as a separate metric the
setup failure ratio for all connection causes percentage of users who go through the first step,
can be: general packet radio service (GPRS) attach.
Similarly, the percentage who go through the
RRC_Connection_Setup_Failure_Ratio =
second step, programmed data processor (PDP)
context activation, can be measured. Finally, the
⎞⎟⎠ Σ Σ RRC_Connection_Setup_
⎞⎟⎠
number of users who successfully establish a data
WD Cell Complete_for_All_Cause channel can also be measured. By comparing
1– =
Σ Σ RRC_Connection_
WD Cell Request_for_All_Cause
these three KPIs, an engineer can quickly
pinpoint where the problem lies. Then, by cross-
(4) checking with other KPIs, such as RACH usage
⎞⎟⎠ Σ Σ COUNTER 4
⎞⎟⎠
and coverage levels, the engineer can make a By measuring
WD Cell decision regarding the nature of the problem and accessibility,
1– choose a course of action.
Σ Σ COUNTER 1 to3
WD Cell Retainability
an operator can
determine the
Retainability relates to successfully allocated
probability of user
HSDPA Counters and KPIs HS_DSCH NRT traffic.
Currently, the number of counters provided by
success in getting
An example KPI is abnormal release rate. This
vendors for monitoring HSDPA performance is onto the system.
metric can be given by:
small compared to the number of normal DCH
connections, thus limiting the creation of KPIs. Σ HS_DSCH_Abnormal_Release * 100%
(6)
Nevertheless, HSDPA counters cover the
following broad categories:
Σ HS_DSCH_Successfully_Established
Alternatively, a similar metric can be established
• Accessibility, where the ability to
by:
successfully establish a network connection
is assessed
⎞⎟⎠1 – HS_DSCH_Normal_Release
HS_DSCH_Successfully_Established
⎞⎟⎠ *100% (7)
• Retainability, where the ability of
maintaining a link is measured
As with the accessibility example, different
• Usage, where all traffic volume is measured variations of this generic retainability KPI can
help with system debugging. An engineer might
• Mobility, where all handover statistics are
choose to view the last message before connection
delivered
release and, by statistically analyzing the reasons
Accessibility for release, trace the problem.
The metric for HSDPA accessibility for non-real-
Usage
time (NRT) traffic is given by:
KPIs in the usage field can measure the usage of
⎞⎟⎠ Σ
⎞⎟⎠
HS_DSCH_ the shared channel in terms of throughput, in
Cell Establishment_Success terms of the number of connections over time, or
1– * 100% (5)
Σ HS_DSCH_ in terms of code tree usage (the number of
Cell Establishment_Request HSDPA preassigned codes allocated over time).
For example, the NRT HS_DSCH DL RLC

The messages involved are: The RNC sends a
efficiency percentage is given by:
RANAP HS_DSCH ASSIGNMENT RESPONSE
upon receipt of a RANAP HS_DSCH
Bit_Rate (NRT_HS_DSCH_RLC_PDUi )
ASSIGNMENT REQUEST. * 100%
N (8)
By measuring accessibility, an operator can
Bit_Rate ( Σ NRT_HS_DSCH_RLC_PDUn)
n =1
determine the probability of user success in
getting onto the system. To aid debugging, where i is a specific NRT user of the HS_DSCH
further variations of the same metric can be and N is the total number of HS_DSCH users.
implemented that represent the various steps a
user goes through to get access. These KPIs can be used in conjunction with
accessibility KPIs to help engineers decide on
connection type and throughput.

CONCLUSIONS Previously Sakis spent 3 years as a researcher at Fujitsu
Research Labs, working on WCDMA technology. His
SDPA is a major feature for UMTS networks
H because it enhances the efficient use of the
air interface and offers operators and customers
activities included designing and testing a WCDMA
digital beam former hardware test bed and performing
UMTS pilot trial testing in Japan (NTT DoCoMo) and
higher throughput and, thus, better user France (Alcatel) and with Orange in Bristol, UK. Sakis
initially became involved with UMTS at the Kings
experience. Because HSDPA uses a single DSCH, College Centre of Telecommunications Research,
a different dimensioning methodology than that where he researched channel estimation techniques
of traditional DCH connections must be used. for WCDMA receivers. As a result of his research
This paper presented the main challenges in and employment background, his expertise spans the
full range of network planning activities, including
dimensioning an HSDPA network, including the
planning, equipment evaluation, integration,
link budget considerations. Complementing acceptance, and optimization.
HSDPA is a set of counters, which varies
HSDPA is a major Sakis holds a degree in Electronic Engineering from
from vendor to vendor, that helps operators National Technical University in Athens and a master’s
feature for UMTS maintain optimum HSDPA performance. The degree in Telecommunications from Kings College
networks because methodologies for calculating the main HSDPA London.
performance parameters, including counters, Esmael Dinan is principal
it enhances the
accessibility, retainability, and spectrum usage, engineer/technologist—Bechtel
efficient use of the were discussed. Telecommunications. A key
air interface and specialist for Bechtel’s Global
Technology Team, he has been
offers operators and leading the effort to support
customers higher REFERENCES customers with plans for
WiMAX equipment inter-
throughput and, [1] A.J. Viterbi, A.M. Viterbi, K.S. Gilhousen, and
operability and conformance
E. Zehavi, “Soft Handoff Extends CDMA Cell
testing. He has performed
thus, better user Coverage and Increases Reverse Link Capacity,”
IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, numerous key wireless technology assignments and has
experience. Vol. 12, No. 8, October 1994. been instrumental in many aspects of the business unit’s
research activities, as well as on the Cingular RF
[2] A.J. Viterbi, A.M. Viterbi, and E. Zehavi, “Other-
engineering project. Dr. Dinan designed and
Cell Interference in Cellular Power-Controlled
engineered an RF engineering data management
CDMA,” IEEE Transactions on Communications,
Vol. 42, Nos. 2, 3, and 4, February 1994. system, developed Cingular project RF engineering
processes and procedures, designed and optimized
UMTS networks, and verified and tested Dupont
cryogenic TMA performance.
BIOGRAPHIES
Before joining Bechtel in 2002, Dr. Dinan was product
manager for the GMPLS control plane of the RAYStar
joined Bechtel in July 2004.
DWDM optical switch at Movaz Networks, and lead
His in-depth knowledge of
network architect at Worldcom. He has conducted
3G technology makes him
research and development on access methods and
Bechtel’s leading 3G technology
performance modeling of 3G wireless communications
specialist. In fact, he is currently
and high-speed optical networks.
involved in the acceptance and
optimization of a new 3G Dr. Dinan received his PhD in Electrical Engineering
network built by Bechtel in from George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, and is
Australia. Before this, Sakis a registered Professional Engineer in Maryland. He has
worked for about 6 years with various vendors and authored more than 25 conference papers and journal
operators around Europe, mainly on preparing and articles and has two patents on novel signaling
deploying new UMTS networks. Projects for clients mechanisms developed for 3G cellular networks.
such as Siemens in Munich; PT-Telecomm, ONIWAY- He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and
Telecomm, and Nortel in Portugal; and Orange in the Electronics Engineers.
UK (Nokia) required his involvement in bids, network
planning, network acceptance, parameterization,
network optimization, and trial setup and testing.

HIGH-SPEED PACKET ACCESS
TECHNOLOGIES FOR
UMTS NETWORKS
Abstract—This paper presents technologies developed to enable operators to provide high-speed wireless
access and to cost-effectively evolve their networks to support broadband multimedia packet-based services.
Technology evolution in the access portion of the UMTS network is presented, including HSDPA, HSUPA,
MIMO, OFDM, IMS, and broadcasting. As operators compete for subscribers and strive to differentiate
themselves with the most broadband multimedia services, these technologies are becoming an essential part of
their infrastructure.
UMTS EVOLUTION PATH This paper focuses on features related to the radio
apid growth in the availability of universal access network (RAN).
R mobile telecommunications system (UMTS)
services has contributed to the evolution of UMTS
While Release 4 (R4) of the Third Generation
Partnership Project (3GPP™) standards enhanced
through Releases 4, 5, 6, 7, and beyond. Each the transport, radio interface, and other features
release has included many new core and access defined in Release 99 (R99), Release 5 (R5) has
features (see Table 1), incorporated in hundreds many important enhancements that are easy
of individual standards documents, each of upgrades to the currently deployed R99 UMTS
which may have been through many revisions. networks and that have been deployed in many
Table 1. Major Features in UMTS Evolution Path
Release 99 – 1999 Release 4 – 2001 Release 5 – 2002
FDD and TDD at 3.84 Mbps TDD at 1.28 Mbps Evolution of UTRAN Transport to IP
GSM/GPRS Services UTRA Repeater IP-based Multimedia Services
GSM/GPRS Handoffs Transcoder/Tandem-Free Operation HSDPA
Support for Multicall Location Services over Network Interfaces Reliable QoS for PS Domain
Basic UMTS Security CS Emergency Call Enhancements
Location Services over Air Interface Evolution toward Core IP Network
Esmael Dinan, PhD

Release 6 – 2004 Release 7 – 2006 Beyond Release 7 – Long-Term Evolution
ehdinan@bechtel.com
HSUPA Enhanced TDD Operation OFDM Modulation
Thrasivoulos (Sakis)
Griparis Major Evolution toward All-IP RAN and
MIMO Technology
Other Features Currently under
Core Network Investigation
tgripari@bechtel.com
Theoretical Data Rate of ~ 14 Mbps (DL)
Improved Support of IMS
and 5 Mbps (UL)
Integration with Other WLANs

3GPP™ Third Generation Partnership IMS IP multimedia system
Project
ACK acknowledgment
LTE long-term evolution
ARQ automatic repeat request
MAC medium access control
BTS base transceiver station
MAC-HS MAC high speed
CQI channel quality indicator
MIMO multiple-input, multiple-
CS circuit switched output
DCH dedicated channel NACK negative acknowledgement
DL downlink OFDM orthogonal frequency
division multiplexing
E-AGCH E-DCH absolute grant
channel PMP point-to-multipoint
E-DCH enhanced uplink DCH PS packet switched
E-DPCCH E-DCH dedicated physical QAM quadrature amplitude
control channel modulation
E-DPDCH E-DCH dedicated physical QoS quality of service
data channel
QPSK quadrature phase shift
E-DHICH E-DCH HARQ indicator keying
channel
E-RGCH E-DCH relative grant channel
RF radio frequency
FACH forward access channel
FDD frequency division duplex
TDD time division duplex
TTI transmission time interval
communications
Tx transmit
UE user equipment
HARQ hybrid ARQ
UL uplink
HS-DPCCH high-speed dedicated
physical control channel UMTS universal mobile
telecommunications system
HS-DSCH high-speed DL shared
channel UTRA UMTS terrestrial radio
access
HS-PDSCH high-speed physical DL
shared channel UTRAN UMTS terrestrial radio
access network
HS-SCCH high-speed shared control
channel VoIP voice over IP
HSDPA high-speed DL packet WiMAX worldwide interoperability
access for microwave access
HSUPA high-speed UL packet WLAN wireless local area network
access
trial systems. UMTS R5 provides wireless station; this enables true broadband experience
operators and consumers with improvements by offering near-symmetrical throughput
that enable higher speed wireless data services for applications such as interactive mobile
with vastly improved spectral efficiencies. It does gaming, two-way file transfers, camera-phone
this via high-speed downlink packet access picture transmission, and voice over Internet
(HSDPA), which enables much greater Protocol (VoIP). Release 6 (R6) addresses this
throughput by providing a faster downlink (DL) enhancement by introducing high-speed UL
from the base station to the mobile. packet access (HSUPA), along with major
enhancements in the radio link—including
The next enhancement is faster uplink (UL)
multimedia broadcast multicast service—and
throughput from the mobile to the base

major evolution toward an all-IP RAN network. Table 2. New Physical Channels for HSDPA
Thus, the implementation of R6 increases
throughput, spectral efficiency, and capacity even Channel Direction Purpose
further on both the UL and DL.
Carries DL user data at up to
In Release 7 (R7) and beyond, even better HS-PDSCH DL
14.4 Mbps
performance is in the works, based on orthogonal
frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) Carries control information for
combined with multiple-input, multiple-output HS-SCCH DL
HS-PDSCH
(MIMO) antenna technology. Together, these
enhancements will significantly improve spectral Carries control information:
HS-DPCCH DL
efficiency and capacity. This evolutionary path, HARQ ACK/NACK and CQI reports
called 3G long-term evolution (LTE), is leading to
In HSDPA,
many new revisions from the respective
In the UL, each mobile informs the Node B the MAC
standards bodies.
about the channel quality indicators (CQIs) and
packet reception (acknowledgement/negative
functionality that
acknowledgement [ACK/NACK]) on a high- fully resided in
HSDPA
speed dedicated physical control channel the RNC in R99
SDPA is based on a new distributed
H architecture that enables low delay link
adaptation, channel quality feedback, and hybrid
(HS-DPCCH). Table 2 lists the physical channels
in HSDPA.
is split between
the RNC
automatic repeat request (HARQ) processing. The key features of HSDPA technology are: and Node B.
These features are enabled by incorporating • Fast scheduling—Node B fast scheduling
many of the key scheduling and control processes allows the system to take full advantage of
at the base station, as opposed to the radio short-term variations and thus attempts to
network controller (RNC), and thus closer to the maximize the overall aggregate throughput.
air interface. Specifically, the medium access
control (MAC) functionality that fully resided in • Fast retransmission and HARQ—When
the RNC in R99 is split between the RNC and channel decoding of a data packet fails, a
Node B in R5. In R5, most key MAC functions mobile terminal immediately requests the
critical to delay and performance are defined by retransmission of the packet. Node B handles
the MAC high speed (MAC-HS), which is located the fast retransmission and a mechanism
in the Node B (see Figure 1). HSDPA introduces a called HARQ, which provides improved
new paradigm for packet data in which the fast decoding efficiencies.
power control and variable spreading factor • Adaptive modulation and coding—QPSK and
principles inherent in R99 are replaced by 16-QAM are used with various coding
dynamic adaptive modulation and coding, mechanisms, depending on the link quality,
multicode operation, fast scheduling, and to improve performance.
physical layer retransmissions.
Three new physical channels are introduced in

HSDPA technology, as shown in Figure 1.
HSDPA defines a new transport channel type,
known as high-speed DL shared channel
(HS-DSCH), which allows several users to share
the air interface channel dynamically at peak
channel rates of up to 14 Mbps. The HS-DSCH
uses 2-ms transmission time intervals (TTIs) and
a fixed spreading factor of 16, which allows for a
maximum of 15 parallel codes for user traffic and
signaling. The HS-DSCH supports quadrature
phase shift keying (QPSK) and 16-quadrature
amplitude modulation (QAM), link adaptation,
and the use of HARQ to combine retransmissions
at the physical layer. HSDPA DL control needs
are accommodated by a high-speed shared
control channel (HS-SCCH) that informs Figure 1. Physical Channels in a Network Supporting both
the terminals how to decode the HS-DSCH. HSDPA and HSUPA Technologies

Together, these features offer significant Table 3. New Physical Channels for HSUPA
advantages over R99 UMTS in peak throughput,
latency, and data capacity. These three features Channel Direction Purpose
are the main enhancements that enable low

packet transmission latency and up to 14 Mbps Carries UL user data at up to
HS-PDSCH UL
5.76 Mbps
peak throughputs for HSDPA (compared to
2 Mbps peaks for R99). The HSDPA data rate
Carries control information for
varies depending on channel quality; 12 HSDPA E-DPCCH DL
E-DPDCH
user equipment (UE) categories are defined,
supporting data rates ranging from 0.91 to Carries absolute grants for UL
E-AGCH DL
14 Mbps. E-DCH scheduling
Together, HSUPA E-DHICH DL Carries HARQ ACK/NACK indicator

and HSDPA HSUPA
SUPA improves the performance of UL
enhancements
make possible H dedicated transport channels by scheduling
UL UE data rates according to channel quality
E-RGCH DL
Carries relative grants for UL
E-DCH scheduling
the deployment of and using the HARQ protocol to increase deployment of services that require high-speed
services that require radio interface robustness. The key technical access in both DL and UL—such as VoIP—and
high-speed access capabilities introduced with HSUPA are: interactive multimedia services.
in both DL and UL. • New dedicated UL channel and associated
control channels—A series of new signaling
and traffic channels is introduced (see UMTS PHYSICAL LAYER EVOLUTION
Figure 1) to improve overall UL capabilities. BEYOND HSDPA/HSUPA
ireless mobile radio communication
• Introduction of HARQ in the UL and fast
Node-B scheduling—This is similar to the
W generates an endless demand for increased
capacity and improved quality. With HSDPA
mechanisms developed for HSDPA.
about to launch, new technologies promise even
Overall, HSUPA improves coverage and more bandwidth and new services, such as
throughput and reduces UL channel transmission HSUPA in R6, MIMO in R7, and OFDM in the
delay. HSUPA baseline requirements are similar LTE of 3GPP radio access technology, which is
to those of HSDPA; however, some major currently under investigation in the RAN
differences exist: Working Group. Accommodating the very high
bit rates achievable by OFDM-MIMO requires
• In the UL, buffers are distributed in the
architectural improvements such as moving even
mobile terminals and transmissions must be
more functionalities to the BTS and having a
remotely controlled by the scheduler in the
many-to-many relationship among BTSs and
base transceiver station (BTS), adding
RNCs, based on a meshed IP network. Some of
complexity to the system. Unlike HSDPA,
the major UMTS technologies in the evolution
HSUPA remains based on a dedicated
toward faster access data rates are presented here.
channel (DCH) in the UL.
• Tighter interference control is required in the MIMO

UL, and some support is needed for soft A part of 3GPP R7, MIMO is a very promising
handoff. Unlike with HSDPA, soft handoff is technology for empowering UMTS networks
supported in the UL to improve link quality, by providing more throughput than
and the mobile must be able to synchronize HSDPA/HSUPA. MIMO increases capacity
to both base stations. through multistream transmissions, code
reuse, and transmit diversity using multiple
• Because of interference concerns and link
antennas on both the transmitter and receiver
quality, no new modulation scheme has been
sides. Although MIMO has been studied
introduced in HSUPA.
for a long time, the very high processing
Six terminal categories are defined for HSUPA, power it needs to recover transmitted signals
supporting data rates in the range of 0.71 to has made it impossible to implement using
5.74 Mbps. The HSUPA channel structure is earlier processors.
described in Table 3. Together, HSUPA and
HSDPA enhancements make possible the

OFDM HSDPA/HSUPA is still able to deliver data while
Expected to offer higher data rates than preserving the capacity of the neighboring cells.
HSDPA/HSUPA technologies, OFDM distributes Based on the many link budget analyses and
data over a large number of carriers spaced at simulations performed in the industry, it has been
precise frequencies. OFDM has already been shown that, in the initial phase, the migration
used in wireless local area network (WLAN) toward HSDPA/HSUPA will not affect current
and worldwide interoperability for microwave 64 kbps network designs. As both demand for
access (WiMAX) technologies. It performs very high data rates (above 1 Mbps) and number
better than QPSK and n-QAM technologies in of users increase, it is recommended that more
multipath environments and provides a higher carriers be implemented per site. If additional
spectral efficiency compared with other types spectrums are not available for new carriers,
of modulations. more sites can be implemented.
HSDPA/HSUPA
It is possible for HSDPA/HSUPA and R99 to
Broadcasting and Multicasting Technology share transmit power on a single RF carrier. This and R99 can share
A key feature of 3GPP R6 is multimedia broadcast would be an initial approach when deploying transmit power on
and multicast service, which defines capabilities HSDPA/HSUPA with gradual penetration. a single RF carrier.
to address the same information to many users in Additional channel cards/RF carriers can be
one cell using the same radio resources. In This would be an
added based on traffic demands. As shown in
this unidirectional point-to-multipoint (PMP) Figure 2, HSDPA channels can thus transmit on initial approach
service, data is transmitted from a single source unused R99 power. DL power control and when deploying
entity to multiple recipients. This allows management are implementation choices of the HSDPA/HSUPA
network resources to be shared among different manufacturer and the operator. Because HSDPA
users and provides spectral efficiency in the with gradual
can co-exist with R99 UMTS on the same
DL transmission. RF carrier, the upgrade from R99 UMTS to penetration.
HSDPA/HSUPA is smooth. HSDPA’s dynamic
Fully IP Multimedia System Access Platforms code sharing capability makes it possible to
IP multimedia system (IMS) provides a flexible dynamically share code resources between R99
architecture for rapidly deploying innovative and and HSDPA. The upgrade can be done via remote
sophisticated features. The IMS standard will software downloads to the Node B but could
speed the adoption of IP-based multimedia on require new hardware (e.g., new channel cards).
handsets, allowing users to communicate via The RNC requires only a software upgrade to
voice, video, or text through a single client on the support HSDPA, and no substantial impact to the
handset. Focused on providing wireless access core network is expected.
independent of core technology, IMS will provide
a new medium for using wireless access
efficiently.
CHALLENGES IN NETWORK PLANNING

AND UPGRADES
n most cases, wireless operators have already
I deployed a large number of UMTS Node Bs
by using radio frequency (RF) dimensioning
for 64 kbps service. It is very important
to understand the impact of a migration
toward HSDPA/HSUPA in terms of capacity
and coverage. HSDPA/HSUPA enables wider
coverage than UMTS R99 through adaptive
modulation and coding and the fast scheduler
in the BTS; these provide more granularity in
terms of radio and resource management.
Although the highest HSDPA/HSUPA data rates

are not expected at the cell edge, services with Figure 2. Power Delay Profile Showing Node B Transmit Power for
higher than 64 kbps can be offered with HSDPA and R99 Voice Users Simultaneously
the updated network. At the cell edge,

Three possible implementation scenarios are: CONCLUSIONS
ogether, HSDPA and HSUPA promise to take
• Scenario 1: Two or More Carriers
— Two or more carriers can be used

T UMTS networks to the next stage and enable
a true multimedia experience for voice and data.
per cell. This paper has presented the principles and
— One carrier (f1) serves R99 voice users concepts of HSDPA and HSUPA technologies.
only, and the other carriers (f2, f3) serve The main features and technological advances,
both R99 and HSDPA/HSUPA users. including physical channels, transmission
Carriers f2 and f3 can serve R99 data mechanisms, coding, and scheduling, are
users if needed or can accommodate discussed. To further enhance physical layer
overflow from f1. efficiency and data rate, technologies such as
MIMO, OFDM, broadcasting and multicasting,
Last-mile — Load balancing is critical. Power and
and IMS will be introduced in the LTE path
code management techniques are
high-speed access of UMTS.
effective only if the right traffic models
can be provided are used.
using
• Scenario 2: Single Carrier TRADEMARKS
HSDPA/HSUPA
— A single frequency serves all R99 users 3GPP is a trademark of the European
technology.
and possible HSDPA/HSUPA users. Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)
in France and other jurisdictions.
— Cell load is assumed to be minimal.
• Scenario 3: HSDPA/HSUPA-only Cells
— In very dense urban neighborhoods, ADDITIONAL READING

nformation sources used to develop this paper
several overlapping cells can be used to
provide HSDPA/HSUPA-only services
to serve bandwidth-hungry users at
I include:
• 3GPP TS25.308, “UTRA High Speed Downlink
specific times of the day. Packet Access (HSDPA); Overall Description;
Stage 2,” version 5.5.0.
— Last-mile high-speed access can be
• 3GPP TR 25.896, “Feasibility Study for Enhanced
provided using HSDPA/HSUPA Uplink for UTRA FDD (Release 6),” version 6.0.0.
technology.
• H. Holma and A. Toscala, “HSDPA/HSUPA for
UMTS: High Speed Radio Access for Mobile
Scenario 3 is depicted in Figure 3. Communications,” Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2006.
BIOGRAPHIES
Esmael Dinan is principal
engineer/technologist—Bechtel
Telecommunications. A key
specialist for Bechtel’s Global
Technology Team, he has been
leading the effort to support
customers with plans for
WiMAX equipment inter-
operability and conformance
testing. He has performed
numerous key wireless technology assignments and has
been instrumental in many aspects of the business unit’s
research activities, as well as on the Cingular RF
engineering project. Dr. Dinan designed and
engineered an RF engineering data management
system, developed Cingular project RF engineering
processes and procedures, designed and optimized
UMTS networks, and verified and tested Dupont
cryogenic TMA performance.
Figure 3. Example of HSDPA/HSUPA Implementation Before joining Bechtel in 2002, Dr. Dinan was product
manager for the GMPLS control plane of the RAYStar
DWDM optical switch at Movaz Networks, and lead
network architect at Worldcom. He has conducted
research and development on access methods and
performance modeling of 3G wireless communications
and high-speed optical networks.

Dr. Dinan received his PhD in Electrical Engineering
from George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, and is
a registered Professional Engineer in Maryland. He has
authored more than 25 conference papers and journal
articles and has two patents on novel signaling
mechanisms developed for 3G cellular networks.
He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers.

joined Bechtel in July 2004.
His in-depth knowledge of
3G technology makes him
Bechtel’s leading 3G technology
specialist. In fact, he is currently
involved in the acceptance and
optimization of a new 3G
network built by Bechtel in
Australia. Before this, Sakis
worked for about 6 years with various vendors and
operators around Europe, mainly on preparing and
deploying new UMTS networks. Projects for clients
such as Siemens in Munich; PT-Telecomm, ONIWAY-
Telecomm, and Nortel in Portugal; and Orange in the
UK (Nokia) required his involvement in bids, network
planning, network acceptance, parameterization,
network optimization, and trial setup and testing.
Previously Sakis spent 3 years as a researcher at Fujitsu

Research Labs, working on WCDMA technology. His
activities included designing and testing a WCDMA
digital beam former hardware test bed and performing
UMTS pilot trial testing in Japan (NTT DoCoMo) and
France (Alcatel) and with Orange in Bristol, UK. Sakis
initially became involved with UMTS at the Kings
College Centre of Telecommunications Research,
where he researched on channel estimation techniques
for WCDMA receivers. As a result of his research
and employment background, his expertise spans the
full range of network planning activities, including
planning, equipment evaluation, integration,
acceptance, and optimization.
Sakis holds a degree in Electronic Engineering from

National Technical University in Athens and a master’s
degree in Telecommunications from Kings College
London.

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF 3G SIGNAL
INTERACTION IN NONLINEAR DOWNLINK
RAN TRANSMITTERS
Abstract—While RF communication signal distortions in nonlinear transmission paths have been predicted
theoretically and studied experimentally for various signals, it is interesting to examine a wideband nonlinear
system reaction to a wideband 3G signal and a narrowband 2G signal. Research and testing have demonstrated
that, while most vital signal parameters remain within the limits specified by applicable standards even if
composite signal power approaches specified maximum power, a relatively high level of spurious emissions
caused by cross- and intermodulation can result. To avoid degrading both existing and new systems, this and
other signal quality issues must be considered when designing and deploying multitechnology systems.
INTRODUCTION service) and are adding universal mobile

his paper presents the experimental study of telecommunication system (UMTS) wideband
T signal distortion in third generation (3G)
radio access network (RAN) downlinks caused by
code division multiple access (WCDMA) service
to their networks. The downlink signals of these
nonlinearity. The common nonlinear element in technologies are likely to be mixed at low power
downlink transmitters is the power amplifier levels and then amplified in one multichannel
(PA); however, in a distributed antenna system amplifier. Similar multichannel amplification
(DAS), the up and down converters and digitizers (along with other signal transformation) takes
may be factors as well. Most contemporary place in a multicarrier DAS, which is widely used
base station (BS) transmitters and DASs use to provide coverage in complicated areas.
multichannel PAs, which only increase nonlinear Consequently, the problem of signal interaction
distortion. The amplification of several signals in the case of multichannel, multitechnology
leads to cross-modulation in addition to other amplification becomes significant. This paper
well-known phenomena, such as saturation and focuses on the practical aspects of overlay
intermodulation (IM). Cross-modulation is a deployment of WCDMA on a GSM network and,
fundamental performance-limiting factor that is specifically, on the results of co-amplification and
responsible for co-site interference and jamming co-processing of the two signals at the same site
[1]. It is especially important to evaluate cross- in the same transmission path.
modulation and accompanying nonlinear Nonlinear distortions of communication signals
phenomena in wideband nonlinear radio are well known and have been studied widely.
frequency (RF) systems such as DASs, which may References cited here focus on the study of
distribute and amplify the communication signals wideband signal (CDMA and the like) behavior
Igor A. Chugunov
of various technologies. in nonlinear systems. In a theoretical and
iachugun@bechtel.com
experimental study of cross-modulation in
multichannel amplifiers [1], cross-modulation
Aleksey A. BACKGROUND was examined for CDMA Interim Standard 95
Kurochkin
ajor cellular and personal communication (IS-95) signals in the presence of a single tone
aakuroch@bechtel.com
M system (PCS) carriers in the US have
implemented global system for mobile
being offset in frequency. Based on computer
simulation confirmed by measurements, it was
Alex M. Smirnov communications (GSM) technology (along with shown that cross-modulation manifested itself as
asmirnov@bechtel.com general packet radio service [GPRS] or enhanced two band-limited spectral components centered
data rates for GSM evolution [EDGE] data at the tone frequency and at the CDMA carrier

2G second generation, the original GSM global system for mobile
digital mobile phone service communications
3G third generation, enhanced IIP3 third-order intermodulation
digital mobile phone service at intercept point
broadband speeds enabling
IM intermodulation
both voice and nonvoice data
transfer IS-95 Interim Standard 95
(the first CDMA-based
3GPP™ Third Generation Partnership
digital cellular standard)
Project
PA power amplifier
ACLR adjacent channel leaking ratio
The following PCDE peak code domain error
AltCPR alternate channel power ratio
metrics were PCS personal communication
BO backoff
chosen to system
characterize BS base station
nonlinear CDMA code division multiple access
RBW resolution bandwidth
distortions: CW continuous wave
RF radio frequency
(a) the level DAS distributed antenna system
RV reverse (i.e., reverse path
changes of EDGE enhanced data rates for GSM [from phone to BS] in cellular
adjacent/alternate evolution network; same as uplink)
channels and ERP effective radiated power Rx receive
(b) modulation EVM error vector magnitude SU subscriber unit

accuracy FDD frequency division duplex UMTS universal mobile
telecommunication system
degradation. FW forward (i.e., forward path
In addition, [from BS to phone] in cellular VBW video bandwidth
network; same as downlink)
cross-modulation WCDMA wideband CDMA
was qualitatively
characterized.
frequency. The distortions of a single WCDMA MEASUREMENTS OF 3G SIGNAL PARAMETERS IN

signal were examined in [2], and distortion and DAS FED BY SIGNAL MIXTURE
interaction of two WCDMA signals were ased on the references cited above, the
analyzed in [3]. The case of a single CDMA (IS-95)
signal was studied in [4]. Although [5] examined
B following metrics were chosen in this paper
to characterize nonlinear distortions: (a) the
the performance of a WCDMA 1900 MHz system level changes of adjacent/alternate channels
in the presence of a GSM interferer, this study and (b) modulation accuracy degradation. In
was aimed at evaluating high-level system addition, cross modulation was qualitatively
parameters such as coverage and capacity. characterized. The observed nonlinear signal
Moreover, the GSM interferer was assumed to impairment was not attributed to a specific
have originated at a neighboring cell, and no component of the DAS (amplifier, down
comparable data was presented in [5]. Therefore, converter, etc.).
it was necessary to collect measurements from a
nonlinear system. In this case, extensive The measurements presented here were taken
measurements were taken of multitechnology using various Rohde & Schwartz devices: an
(GSM and WCDMA) signals in a DAS. SMU200A vector signal generator, an FSQ26
vector signal analyzer (which can also operate as
a spectrum analyzer), and an NRP-Z11 power
meter. The input signals for the transmission
device to be studied were forward link GSM and
frequency duplex division (FDD) WCDMA
signals imitated by the SMU200A vector signal

A typical
multichannel DAS
having one central
Figure 1. Measurement Setup Diagram
unit and one remote
radio unit
generator. GSM signals contained all eight active value is used as a reference point for
time slots; five were full-rate voice slots and three power/spectrum measurements, and all signal
interconnected by
were EDGE slots. (It should be noted that the parameters are evaluated relative to power digital cable was
proportion of EDGE and GSM slots was arbitrary. backoff (BO), which is the difference between used as a subject of
The presence of one or more EDGE time slots current composite output power and maximum study. It operated in
affects the signal spectrum; however, the output power for a sine wave signal. This kind of
particular ratio of EDGE to GSM slots does not presentation of results is more general than a
the North America
noticeably affect the system’s response.) The simple relationship to output power. It should be PCS frequency band
WCDMA signal was a 3.84 Mchips/sec 3G signal noted that the maximum power value obtained in (1900 MHz). Only
with a spreading factor of 256 in the pilot the evaluation strictly equals the maximum the forward path
channel, loaded with 64 physical channels, each composite power specified by the manufacturer.
with a 15 ks/sec rate.
(downlink) of this
wideband system
Signal impairments were measured with the
was investigated.
FSQ26 vector signal analyzer using its firmware istributed antenna systems, or DASs,
options for Third Generation Partnership Project
(3GPP™)-compliant signals. For spectrum scans,
D have been widely implemented in
state-of-the-art cellular communication
resolution bandwidth (RBW) was set to 30 kHz, systems to cover spots with poor or no
with video bandwidth (VBW) of 100 kHz; the coverage. Such spots can occur within the
power reference level and frequency scan cell coverage area due to shadowing,
parameters were adjusted in accordance with building attenuation, terrain or clutter
output signal characteristics. The composite features, etc. A DAS usually consists of
output power was monitored by the power a central unit, or hub, and several
meter. Figure 1 depicts the measurement setup. radio heads interconnected by cables. In a
A typical multichannel DAS having one central typical case, the hub is fed by the
unit and one remote radio unit interconnected by signal(s) from a BS, while radio heads
digital cable was used as a subject of study. It are distributed across the area of
operated in the North America PCS frequency coverage (indoor or outdoor installation).
band (1900 MHz). Only the forward path A DAS can be analog or digital; i.e.,
(downlink) of this wideband system was the communications between hub and
investigated. radio head via cable can be in analog
or digital format. Digital DASs offer
As a part of system baselining, common several advantages, including two
measurements included a 1 dB compression especially desirable features: precisely
point, a third-order intermodulation intercept controlled signal delays between hub
point (IIP3), and input saturation power and radio heads and great tolerance to
measurements. The measurements were needed cable attenuation.
to define the maximum output power of the PA
radio unit for a continuous wave (CW) signal.
Later in this paper, the maximum output power

diagrams in Figures 2 and 3 show two cases:
PGSM/PWCDMA = 15 dB and PGSM/PWCDMA =
0 dB, with BO being a parameter. In these
diagrams, relative power value is defined as
output power less maximum output power.
Signal carrier frequencies were 10 MHz apart
and were placed in different sub-bands of the
1900 MHz PCS frequency band.
Figures 2 and 3 reflect the whole spectrum of

nonlinear phenomena. The WCDMA spectrum
demonstrated regrowth when IM and cross-
modulation products appeared around the
As expected, the
fundamental WCDMA spectrum. The cross-
cross-modulation modulation products also showed up around the
level was Figure 2. Output Spectrum, PGSM/PWCDMA = 15 dB narrow-band GSM spectrum, and third-order IM
inversely related products appeared at 10 MHz below the GSM
carrier spectrum and at 10 MHz above the
to power BO.
WCDMA carrier spectrum.
As expected, the cross-modulation level was

inversely related to power BO.
The fact that the products of GSM-to-WCDMA

cross-modulation were centered around the GSM
spectrum, i.e., in a sub-band other than that
occupied by the WCDMA signal, is important. At
the same time, IM products were observed in yet
another sub-band. In other words, transmitter
spurious emissions (in the form of nonlinear
products) polluted neighboring sub-bands of the
forward 1900 MHz band. Figure 4 shows the
relative power level of IM products in upper
Figure 3. Output Spectrum, PGSM/PWCDMA = 0 dB
neighboring sub-bands versus power BO, with
PGSM/PWCDMA being a parameter.
Intermodulation Study: Adjacent and Alternate

Channel Levels
In the same signal mix, levels of adjacent channel
leaking ratio (ACLR) for WCDMA channels and
alternate channel power ratio (AltCPR) for GSM
channels were evaluated. While ACLR is defined
in the respective 3GPP specification [6], no
definition of either adjacent or alternate channels
appears in the GSM 3GPP specification for
transmitters [7]. Instead, an emission spectrum
mask is defined for GSM signals. For this paper,
an alternate channel level with an absolute
frequency offset value between 400 kHz and
600 kHz was chosen to characterize IM distortion
of a GSM signal. The GSM 3GPP specification for
Figure 4. Relative IM Power Versus Power BO transmitters [7] states that the level of this channel
must be –60 dBc or less.
Figures 5 and 6 show neighboring channel levels

Cross-Modulation Study
for both WCDMA and GSM signals, with the
Cross-modulation was studied for a mix of GSM
PGSM/PWCDMA ratio being a parameter. The
and WCDMA signals with various GSM-to-
WCDMA ACLR level remains within the range
WCDMA mean power ratios. The spectral

of three major accuracy indicators (peak code
domain error [PCDE], error vector magnitude
[EVM], and ρ) on power BO.
Measurements showed that modulation accuracy

stayed within the limits specified by [6].
NETWORK DESIGN IMPLICATIONS

he use of nonlinear devices in the downlink
T path leads to elevated levels of spurious
emissions as well as to an increase in neighboring
channel levels. Such emissions can cause The GSM alternate
unwanted interference with the signals of other channel level
systems, either through overlapping coverage or
easily rises above
by being amplified in the same downlink path
(except for a sole radiator in an isolated area, such the value specified
Figure 5. WCDMA ACLR Versus Power BO
as a single DAS radio head within the building). as soon as
Therefore, steps need to be taken at the network power BO
planning stage to eliminate interference.
decreases to
7 dB or less
(assuming roughly
equal mean powers
for both signals).
Figure 6. GSM AltCPR Versus Power BO
specified in [6], even in the worst case

Figure 7. PCDE and EVM Versus Power BO
(PGSM/PWCDMA = 0 dB, power BO = 1 dB). The
ACLR level just approaches the value of –33 dBc
specified in [6]. At the same time, the GSM
alternate channel level easily rises above the
value specified in [7] as soon as power BO
decreases to 7 dB or less (assuming roughly equal
mean powers for both signals).
Modulation Accuracy Study

For GSM, phase error measurements did not
reveal any substantial dependence on power BO
or power ratio. Phase error values remained well
below the level specified in [7], even in the worst
case.
Modulation accuracy indicators for the WCDMA

signal demonstrated a different behavior. These
indicators exhibited degradation as power BO
decreased. Figures 7 and 8 show the dependence
Figure 8. ρ Versus Power BO

When performing link budget and expected In case (a), the maximum composite power of all
coverage radius calculations, the network planner signals in the mix (taking into account future RF
should properly identify the allowable composite channel addition) must be at least 7 dB less than
output power of the PA. An amplifier should that specified by the manufacturer. For case (b),
not be driven to the maximum power specified the stated power value should be used as a
for a CW signal. This is why attention must be maximum composite of all signals (even if some
paid to the type of maximum output power signals in the mix are GSM). Such an approach,
stated in the manufacturer’s specifications1. It is although somewhat conservative, allows
important to distinguish between statements of interference to be eliminated, reduces the noise
(a) maximum CW power and (b) maximum mean floor level, and only negligibly degrades the
WCDMA power. modulation accuracy indicators in the downlink.
A simplified link budget calculation for a known

When performing
____________________________ CW power output is given in Table 1. In this
link budget and hypothetical example, a DAS with a maximum
1 Brief Internet research on six major amplifier/DAS
expected coverage manufacturers by the authors showed that a wide variety of CW output power of 30 dBm (0 dBW) was
radius calculations, power values exists: maximum power for sine wave, intended to radiate two signals with equal mean
maximum power for one or more WCDMA signals, power. Note that the maximum output power per
the network planner maximum power for GSM signals, and even all of these
values for one product. None of the manufacturers radio channel was determined by taking power
should properly provided data for signal mix, however. BO into account.
identify the
allowable
composite output Table 1. Link Budget Calculation — 30 dBm Maximum CW Output Power
power of the PA. RX BAND FREQUENCIES (MHZ)
1850 1930
BS/DAS SU
1865 1945
FORWARD LINK REVERSE LINK
BS/DAS Antenna Gain (dBd) 10.5 SU Antenna Gain (dBd) 0
Max Amplifier Output CW Power (dBW) 0 Amplifier Output Max (W) 0.2
Power BO (dB) 7
Number of RF Channels/Antenna 2
Max Amplifier Output/Channel (dBW) –10
BS/DAS to Antenna Cable Run (m) 6 SU to Antenna Cable Run (m) 0
SU Diversity Gain (dB) 0.0 BS/DAS Diversity Gain (dB) 0.0
BS/DAS Receive Sensitivity (dBm) –105 SU Receive Sensitivity (dBm) –105
LINK BUDGET CALCULATION AREA
Central Frequency for Calculation (MHz) 1890 1890
BS/DAS RF Cable Loss (dB) 0.64 SU RF Cable Loss (dB) 0
FW Max Allowable Path Loss (dB) 134.9 RV Max Allowable Path Loss (dB) 138.5
Suggested Amplifier Output/Channel (dBW) –10
Suggested Amplifier Output/Channel (W) 0.1
Balanced Model ERP (dBm) 29.9 System ERP (dBm) 29.9
Balanced Model ERP (W) 1 System ERP (W) 1
Balanced Link (dBm) 134.9

CONCLUSIONS TRADEMARKS
ignal interaction and signal parameter 3GPP is a trademark of the European
S degradation were experimentally studied for
the GSM/WCDMA signal mix that was processed
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)
in France and other jurisdictions.
and amplified by the DAS sample. The study
showed that when power BO decreased below
7 dB, most of the signal quality metrics degraded. REFERENCES
Nonetheless, the metrics were still within the
[1] K.M. Gharaibeh and M.B. Steer, “Characterization
limits defined by the respective recommendations of Cross Modulation in Multi-channel Amplifiers
in [6] and [7]. One exception, however, was the Using a Statistically Based Behavioral Modeling
Technique,” IEEE Transactions on Microwave
AltCPR for GSM signals. If GSM and WCDMA
Theory and Techniques, Vol. 51, No. 12,
mean powers were roughly equal and BO fell pp. 2,434–2,444, December 2003.
below 7 dB, the alternate channel level exceeded
In determining
[2] A. Springer, T. Frauscher, B. Adler, D.
the value specified in [7]. Pimingsdorfer, and R. Weigel, “Effects of downlink output
Nonlinear Amplifier Distortions on UMTS
Another phenomenon to be considered is power Transmitter System Performance,” Proceedings power, the PA
of the 2000 European Conference on Wireless must not be driven
leakage into neighboring sub-bands caused
Technology (ECWT), Paris, France,
by cross- and intermodulation. For signal ISBN: 0-86213-217-7, pp. 159–162, October 2000. to the maximum
co-amplification in various sub-bands by a DAS [3] K.M. Gharaibeh and M.B. Steer, “Modeling power specified for
(the most likely use of a DAS), such leakage might Distortion in Multi-channel Communication
cause serious interference problems. To avoid the Systems,” IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory a CW signal.
and Techniques, Vol. 53, No. 5, pp. 1,682–1,692,
degradation of both existing and new systems, May 2005.
these signal quality and interference issues must [4] K.M. Gharaibeh, K.G. Gard, and M.B. Steer,
be taken into account when designing and “Accurate Estimation of Digital Communication
deploying multitechnology systems. System Metrics — SNR, EVM and ρ in a
Nonlinear Amplifier Environment,”
These manifestations of nonlinearity have direct 64th Automatic RF Techniques Group Conference,
Orlando, Florida, December 2004.
implications for link budget calculations in the
[5] H. Holma and F. Velez, “Performance of
network planning process if a multichannel PA is WCDMA1900 in the Presence of Uncoordinated
intended to amplify a GSM/WCDMA signal mix. Narrow-band GSM Interference,” Proceedings of
In determining downlink output power, the PA the 56th IEEE Semiannual Vehicular Technology
Conference, IEEE VTC 2002-Fall, Vancouver,
must not be driven to the maximum power Canada, September 2002.
specified for a CW signal. Instead, the composite [6] 3GPP TS 25.143 V6.2.0 (2004-09), “Technical
mean power of all signals to be amplified must be Specification Group Radio Access Network;
at least 7 dB less than the maximum specified UTRA Repeater Conformance Testing,” Release 6.
power. Under this condition, the system will not [7] 3GPP TS 11.21 V8.9.0 (2003-06), “Technical
Specification Group GSM/EDGE Radio Access
cause harmful interference in either occupied or Network; Base Station System (BSS) Equipment
neighboring sub-bands. Specification; Radio Aspects,” Release 1999.
As a follow-on to the study of possible nonlinear

communication signal distortions, future research
BIOGRAPHIES
steps might focus on a theoretical and Igor Chugunov is currently a
experimental examination of the downlink senior engineer in the Bechtel
performance in cellular or PCS networks. The Telecommunications Training,
presence of nonlinear products in the BS or DAS Demonstration, and Research
(TDR) Laboratory in Frederick,
emissions reduces the signal-to-(interference +
Maryland. He is experienced in
noise) ratio and could degrade vital system wireless network design and
parameters such as coverage, interference level, optimization, as well as in
probability of successful call setup, and dropped software and hardware testing.
His engineering background
calls. The study should evaluate the possible
gives him both theoretical and practical knowledge of
dependence between system performance and wireless access technologies.
equipment nonlinearity.
Before joining Bechtel, Igor was a senior RF engineer
A similar study of uplink performance would also with Cingular Wireless and Hughes Network Systems,
be valuable. where he designed radio access networks for data and
voice communication.
Igor has an MSEE/CS degree from Kazan Tupolev State

Technical University, Russia.

Aleksey Kurochkin, executive
director of Site Development
and Engineering for Bechtel
Telecommunications, manages
the Network Planning and Site
Acquisition departments. He is
responsible for process and
team integration and oversees
the functional operations of
more than 300 telecommu-
nications engineers, specialists, and managers. Aleksey
is also a member of Bechtel’s Chief Engineering
Committee, Global Technology Team, and BTTJ
Editorial Council.
Formerly, Aleksey was senior director, Network

Planning, in Bechtel’s Telecommunications Technology
group, which he originated. He also introduced the
Six Sigma continuous improvement program to this
group. Aleksey is experienced in international
telecommunications business management and
network implementation, and his engineering and
marketing background gives him both theoretical and
hands-on knowledge of most wireless technologies.
Before joining Bechtel, Aleksey established an efficient

multiproduct team at Hughes Network Systems,
focused on RF planning and system engineering.
In addition to his North American experience, he has
also worked in Russia and the CIS.
Aleksey has an MSEE/CS degree in Automatic

Telecommunications from Moscow Technical
University of Communications and Informatics, Russia.
Alex Smirnov is currently

a test engineer in the
Training, Demonstration, and
Research (TDR) Laboratory
in Frederick, Maryland. He
conducts tests and prepares test
reports for telecommunications
equipment. He has also
performed DAS testing to
demonstrate product compliance with functional
specifications for Cingular Wireless. Earlier, as a
network planning engineer, he planned and designed
an FTTP project for Maryland and Delaware.
Before joining Bechtel in 2004, Alex was an electronic

engineer at Technology Device International, Inc., and
Re-Certify, Inc. He has over 10 years of information
technology experience in all areas of life-cycle program
development, including analysis, design, maintenance,
support, and testing of various systems and platforms.
Alex holds a master’s degree in Science and Optical

Engineering from Moscow State University, Russia. In
addition, he has a bachelor’s degree in Financial
Management from the Russian Academy of
Management, Moscow.

ULTRA-WIDEBAND TECHNOLOGY
Abstract—UWB is a radio communications technology that promises very high data rates over short distances.
Although the concept has been around since the early 1970s, recent advances in semiconductor electronics have
made UWB devices a reality. This paper undertakes an exploration of the technology and discusses some of its
more significant applications.
INTRODUCTION hardware had seen nearly 30 years of extensive

ltra wideband (UWB) is, as the name development, and several patents had been
U suggests, a radio communications
technology that uses very large bandwidths—
awarded for UWB applications in the areas of
communications, radar, automobile collision
500 MHz or more—to transmit information at avoidance, positioning systems, liquid level
very high rates over relatively short distances. sensing, and altimetry. Today, literally hundreds
This is accomplished by using sub-nanosecond of patents, papers, books, and bibliographical
pulses to carry the information, which allows references cover all aspects of UWB technology
data rates up to a few hundred megabits per [1].
second while using very low energy. The In the United States, a considerable portion
principle has been around since the 1970s, but of UWB work performed before 1994, especially
only now have technological advances made in impulse communications, was in connection
UWB devices a possibility. UWB has generated a with classified US government programs. Since
lot of excitement within the telecommunications 1994, however, most of the work has been
community, but whether or not it will be able to unclassified, significantly accelerating the
challenge established technologies and overcome development of UWB technology. Figure 1
regulatory hurdles remains to be seen. provides a timeline for the development of UWB.
BACKGROUND
nce techniques were
O developed to directly
observe and measure the impulse
response of microwave
networks, they were quickly
applied to the design of short-
pulse radar and communications
systems. The invention of a
sensitive short-pulse receiver
further accelerated system
development. The first UWB
communications patent was
awarded to Sperry in 1973 [1].
Murtaza Penwala The term “ultra-wideband” was
mspenwal@bechtel.com applied around 1989 by the US
Department of Defense. By then,
UWB theory, techniques, and
Figure 1. Timeline of UWB Development [adapted from 2]

The Federal Communications Commission’s
ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS, AND TERMS (FCC’s) 2002 Report and Order defines UWB as
AJ anti-jamming any signal occupying more than 500 MHz in the
3.1 to 10.6 GHz spectral band or having a
AWICS aircraft wireless ICS fractional bandwidth (measured at the –10 dB
BPF bandpass filter points) greater than 20 percent [3]. Fractional
bandwidth is defined by the equation
CDMA code division multiple access
EIRP effective isotropic radiated Fractional Bandwidth = (fH – fL)/fC (1)
power
FCC Federal Communications where fH is the higher –10 dB frequency, fL is the
Commission lower –10 dB frequency, and fC is the center
frequency. As illustrated by Figure 2, for the sake
The FCC defines GPR ground-penetrating radar
of comparison, the fractional bandwidth of a
UWB as any GPS global positioning system narrowband signal would be less than 1 percent.
signal occupying GSM global system for mobile The FCC’s current regulation governing UWB
communications operation is based on frequency occupancy with
more than
500 MHz in the ICS intercommunications systems power restrictions, not on the type of data
IEEE Institute of Electrical and modulation and multiple access schemes.
3.1 to 10.6 GHz
Electronics Engineers Previously, UWB was defined as a strictly
spectral band or carrierless technology, occupying in excess of
LAN local area network
having a fractional 1.5 GHz or having a fractional bandwidth
bandwidth greater LPD low probability of detection greater than 25 percent. The new regulation has
LPI low probability of interception prompted UWB developers to adopt more
than 20 percent.
flexible technologies—not just the impulse-based
MSSI® Multispectral Solutions, Inc.®
approach—to fully realize the potential of UWB.
PAN personal area network Figure 3 compares the spatial capacity of UWB to
PDA personal digital assistant that of current technologies.
PSD power spectral density

RX receiver OPERATIONAL DETAILS
SIG special interest group WB uses extremely short pulses (from tens
ToA time of arrival U of picoseconds to a few nanoseconds in
duration) to carry information. The energy
TX transmitter
spectrum of the resulting signal is, therefore, very
UWB ultra wideband wide and leads to the system having a very low
Wi-Fi™ wireless fidelity power spectral density (PSD) across the entire
spectrum.
WLAN wireless LAN
WPAN wireless PAN The low operating frequencies allow the signal to
penetrate walls and other obstructions; such
penetration is more difficult for higher
frequencies. A primary carrier is optional and can
lead to a very simple, all-digital communications
system. Any standard modulation scheme (i.e.,
amplitude, time, or phase) can be used to carry
the information.
As can be seen from Figure 4, the extremely wide

bandwidth of the pulses necessitates overlap of
the spectrum with that occupied by existing
narrowband systems, like global positioning
systems (GPSs) and satellite radios. Interference
with narrowband systems operating in dedicated
spectrum is avoided by strict regulation of the
power levels.
Figure 2. Spectral Occupancy of UWB Signals [3]

Baseband vs. Bandpass UWB
A directly transmitted UWB pulse has no definite
carrier or center frequency in the classical sense.
The signal would occupy frequencies from near
direct current to a few gigahertz, and the
transmission would require very wideband
antennas. Such a signal would potentially
interfere with other licensed bands.
A possible solution is bandpass UWB, where

pulses are processed by a bandpass filter (BPF), as
shown in Figure 5. Modulation by a carrier is
optional. The center frequency is controlled by
the filter’s center frequency; the pulse shape and
spectrum are controlled mainly by the filter
impulse response.
Pulse Selection (Source: Scientific American, Time Domain, MSSI®)

The short pulses that carry the information need Figure 3. Spatial Capacity Comparison
to be generated first. This is done by starting with
a Gaussian pulse, which has the form
2
p(t) = e –t /τ
2
(2)
The first derivative of this equation yields a

Gaussian monocycle, which has the form
2
v(t) = αte–t /τ
2
(3)
where α is a parameter related to the amplitude

of the pulse.
The Gaussian monocycle has a single zero

crossing point. Taking additional derivatives
produces waveforms with additional zero
crossings—one additional zero crossing per
additional derivative taken. This results in a
decrease in relative bandwidth and an increase in
center frequency for a fixed value of τ. The
equivalent of taking derivatives is filtering, which
provides a choice of waveforms to be used as (Source: www.soumu.go.jp)
short pulses, depending on system requirements.
Figure 4. Co-existence of Radio Communication Systems Technologies
For example, if it is necessary to eliminate signal
energies at lower frequencies to protect global
system for mobile communications (GSM) and
GPS networks, at least one derivative should be
considered, since taking derivatives moves the
signal to higher frequency bands.
Multiple Access and Modulation

A sequence of Gaussian monocycles provides a
“pulse train,” which consists of several pulse
repetitions to represent each data symbol. Such a
uniform pulse train creates energy spikes, which Figure 5. Simplified Model of Bandpass UWB Transmitter [3]
can lead to not meeting FCC-mandated emission
limits. It can also lead to catastrophic collisions in
a multi-access environment.

Figure 6 shows a uniform pulse train with no ADVANTAGES
modulation and no dithering whatsoever. Only he following characteristics set UWB apart
one pulse is transmitted per frame, which results
in a very low duty cycle.
T from the competition:
• Very low transmission energy (on the order

To achieve the dual purpose of smoothing the of 1 mW or less)
spectrum and allowing for multiple access, the
— Low probability of
pulse can be pseudo-randomly positioned in time
detection/interception
within the frame to one of eight possible slots, as
shown in Figure 7. — Good battery life
To transmit information, this pulse train is — Minimal interference to other systems

modulated by data in amplitude, time, or phase. • Very high data rates over short distances
The permitted Bit error performance is influenced by the (200 Mbps over 10 m)
emission level modulation scheme chosen. Figure 8 shows four
— Useful for high-speed personal area
different modulation schemes—pulse position
within the allocated networks (PANs)
modulation, pulse amplitude modulation, on-off
band is the same keying, and biphase modulation. • Excellent time resolution and good multipath
as the unintentional immunity
radiator limit Emission Mask — Useful for communications systems in
(–41.3 dBm/MHz). As can be seen in Figure 9, the spectrum emission cluttered environments
mask for indoor applications is more lenient than — Valuable to geolocation and radar
for outdoor applications outside of the allocated applications
3.1 to 10 GHz band. European regulations are
expected to define a more practical slope for out- • Ability to penetrate walls and other
of-band limits, rather than the ideal rectangular obstructions
form adopted by the FCC. — Application in medical imaging and
ground-penetrating radar (GPR)
It is important to note that the permitted emission
level within the allocated band is the same as the • Almost all-digital architecture
unintentional radiator limit (–41.3 dBm/MHz). — Entire system can be miniaturized onto a
However, no limits are set in the US on maximum chipset
signal level—only on average PSD. Additionally,
— Low cost
no specific ruling has been made regarding signal
modulation methods.
APPLICATIONS
WB system applications include [3]:
U
• Wireless communications systems
— Military communications
— Local area networks (LANs) and PANs
— Roadside information stations
Figure 6. Uniform Pulse Train with No Modulation or Dithering [3] — Short-range radios
• Radar and sensing
— Vehicular radar (proximity detection,
aid for airbag/restraint deployment,
resolution to distinguish objects, road
condition sensing)
— GPR
— Through-the-wall imaging (police, fire,
rescue)
Figure 7. Pseudo-Random Positioning of Pulse Within Frame for Time Hopping [3] — Medical imaging
— Surveillance

• Geolocation Short-pulse radars can be used for collision and
— Precision location (inventory, GPS aid) obstacle avoidance, radar altimetry, suspended
wire detection, and through-the-wall sensing,
— Asset tracking among other applications.
• Networking
— PANs connecting cell phones, laptops,
personal digital assistants (PDAs),
cameras, MP3 players (much higher data
rates than BluetoothTM or Wi-FiTM)
— Integration into automotive in-car
services and entertainment
— Driving directions downloadable from Short-pulse radars
PDA/laptop for use by on-board can be used for
navigation system using GPS collision and
— Music and videos downloadable for obstacle avoidance,
passenger entertainment
radar altimetry,
— Cable replacement technology suspended wire
• Information services detection, and
— Roadside “markers” containing UWB through-the-wall
transmitters sensing, among
— Short bursts of very high rate data other applications.
(100s of Mbps for 1–3 seconds at a time)
— Messages that could contain road Figure 8. Different Modulation Schemes:
(a) Pulse Position Modulation;
condition, construction, or weather
(b) Pulse Amplitude Modulation;
advisories (c) On-Off Keying;
— Provisions for emergency assistance (d) Biphase Modulation [4]
communication
Radar and Sensing

Short-pulse UWB techniques exhibit at least
the following seven advantages over more
conventional radar approaches [5, 6]:
• Higher range measurement accuracy and

resolution due to shorter spatial extent of the
transmitter waveforms
• Enhanced target recognition due to detection
of additional information from the target’s
separate elements
• Immunity to passive interference
• Increased immunity to collocated radar
transmissions due to decreased pulse-on-
pulse probabilities
• Increased detection probability for certain
classes of targets due to the elimination of the
lobing structure of the targets’ secondary
patterns, i.e., signals scattered by separate
target elements do not interfere
• Increased radar operational security due to
the extremely large spectral spreading
Figure 9. Emission Spectrum Mask for Communications Applications [3]
• Ability to detect very slowly moving or
stationary targets

Communications
High immunity to multipath, low interference
with legacy systems, increased communications
security, and low duty cycles leading to higher
battery lives all make UWB systems very good
candidates for communications applications.
UWB can be used as a cable replacement

technology in cluttered environments, such as
for the intercommunications system inside a
Figure 11. Standards for LAN and PAN Applications [9]
military aircraft (see Figure 10); in addition,
the inherent low probability of interception
(LPI) characteristics make it a very secure UWB are based on time-of-arrival (ToA)
High immunity to estimation; location information is derived from
system. Further, the capability of UWB signals to
multipath, low round-trip time-of-flight measurements using
penetrate obstructions makes it possible to
interference with sustain communications even if a crew member packet burst transmissions. The impulse response
legacy systems, is outside the aircraft. Finally, the UWB of a transmitter (TX)/receiver (RX) pair can be
system causes very little interference with considered almost unique, given by the many
increased resolvable multipath components that result from
on-board electronics [7].
communications the individual geographical constellation of the
security, and low RX and TX; the impulse response due to any TX
Precision Location Finding
duty cycles leading is, therefore, essentially a signature of that TX’s
Like GPS, UWB can be used to locate and track
position. If two TXs have very similar signatures,
to higher battery objects. GPS uses a constellation of satellites to
then they are probably very close to each other;
lives all make locate and track an object. A GPS receiver
thus, an area can be roughly geo-regioned on the
compares timing information from each satellite
UWB systems very basis of these TX signatures. A device that could
to calculate the receiver’s location. UWB, whose
good candidates accomplish this positioning was originally
large bandwidth gives it a high temporal
designed to locate a soldier within a resolution of
for communications resolution of multipath components, can measure
1 foot in an urban environment.
applications. both distance and position with or without a
reference infrastructure. While multipath is a
major problem for GPS, UWB is robust in
STANDARDIZATION
cluttered multipath environments [8].
WB has been standardized by the Institute of
Since a GPS receiver must be in clear sight of
satellites, UWB could be used for positioning
U Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
as Standard 802.15.3a. Other related standards
applications indoors, while GPS could be used (see Figure 11) are:
outdoors. In addition, UWB can also be used for
outdoor applications such as personnel and target • IEEE 802.15 – Wireless personal area
tracking and navigation systems for vehicles. network (WPAN)
• IEEE 802.15.1 – Bluetooth, 1 Mbps
The channel impulse response obtained from a
certain transmitter can be seen as a signature of its • IEEE 802.15.3 – WPAN/high rate, 50 Mbps
position. These signatures can be used to perform • IEEE 802.15.3a – WPAN/higher rate,
a rough localization in a multipath environment. 200 Mbps (UWB)
Most localization and ranging approaches in
• IEEE 802.15.4 – WPAN/low rate, low
power, 200 kbps
SHORTCOMINGS
s with any other technology, UWB’s strong
A points determine its shortcomings. UWB
emissions can potentially interfere with many
other users. Supporters of GPS, particularly those
who use GPS data for navigation and landing,
have serious reservations about mobile devices
that introduce even very low levels of
Figure 10. Simplified Block Diagram of AWICS System [7] interference into the 1.2 GHz and 1.5 GHz

bands. A study was conducted to show that the [5] R.J. Fontana, “Recent System Applications of
presence of UWB devices caused degradation in Short-pulse Ultra-wideband (UWB) Technology,”
IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and
code division multiple access (CDMA) cellular Techniques, Vol. 52, No. 9, September 2004.
service as well. Law enforcement officials and [6] I. and D.V. Fedotov, “Ultra Wideband Radar
firefighters complain that the FCC’s restrictions Systems: Advantages and Disadvantages,” Proc.
make UWB too low-powered to “see” through IEEE Ultra Wideband Systems and Technologies
Conference, Baltimore, MD, May 2002, pp. 201–205.
walls—something it could do at higher powers,
[7] A. Ameti, R.J. Fontana, E.J. Knight, and E.
but that could have privacy implications in a Richley, “Ultra Wideband Technology for Aircraft
wider commercial context. Wireless Intercommunications Systems (AWICS)
Design,” IEEE Conference on Ultra Wideband
Clearly, while the majority of technological issues Systems and Technologies, November 2003.
have been sorted out, the problems that must still [8] F. Althaus, F. Troesch, and A. Wittneben,
be overcome are largely regulatory in nature. “Geo-regioning for UWB Networks,” 14th IST
Mobile & Wireless Communications Summit, Although, for the
Dresden, Germany, June 2005. most part, the
[9] T. Kim, “High Throughput Wireless Home
CONCLUSIONS Network Solutions,” Connectivity Lab, Digital technical issues
Media R&D Center, Samsung Electronics. have been sorted
ith its promise of extremely high data rates
W over short distances, relative immunity to
multipath effects, LPI, low probability of
out, the regulatory
ADDITIONAL READING issues need to be
detection (LPD) and anti-jamming (AJ)
dditional information sources used to resolved before
characteristics, and minimal interference with
legacy systems, UWB seems to be an excellent A develop this paper include: widespread
candidate technology for PANs, radars, and • M. Abdel-Hafez, F. Alagöz, M. Hämäläinen, and deployments can
geolocation systems of the future. This M. Latva-Aho, “Effect of Pulse Selection on the
Capacity of Multi-user UWB Systems,” IST Mobile &
take place.
technology can be applied to fairly diverse Wireless Communications Summit, 2005.
applications. Although, for the most part, the
• R.J. Fontana, “Recent Applications of Ultra
technical issues have been sorted out, the Wideband Radar and Communications Systems,”
regulatory issues need to be resolved before submitted for publication in Ultra-Wideband
widespread deployments can take place. Short-Pulse Electromagnetics.
BIOGRAPHY
TRADEMARKS
Murtaza (Taz) Penwala joined
Bluetooth is a trademark owned by the Bluetooth Bechtel in September 2004.
Special Interest Group, USA. Currently, as an RF field
engineer with the New Site
MSSI is a registered trademark of Multispectral Builds team on the Cingular
Genesis project in the NY/NJ
Solutions, Inc.
market, he is involved in
Wi-Fi is a trademark of the Wireless Ethernet designing the GSM network in
the tri-state area for Cingular.
Compatibility Alliance, Inc. On previous assignments he
was actively involved with the DAS Testing project
for Cingular in the TDR Laboratory and also worked
with the Special Projects team for Cingular in the
REFERENCES
NY/NJ market, involved in overlay and capacity
[1] X. Gu and L. Taylor, “Ultra-wideband and its growth of cell sites.
Capabilities,” BT Technology Journal, Vol. 21,
No. 3, July 2003. Prior to joining Bechtel, Taz was a BSS team lead with
BPL Mobile Communications Ltd., Bombay, India,
[2] R.J. Fontana, “Recent Developments in Short
where he was responsible for the optimization and
Pulse Electromagnetics, or UWB the Old-
preventive/corrective maintenance of GSM cell sites
fashioned Way?,” invited presentation to the
IEEE Microwave Theory and Techniques Society and microwave equipment.
and the Northern Virginia Communications Taz holds an MS degree in Electrical Engineering from
Society, March 9, 2004.
The Pennsylvania State University and a bachelor’s
[3] J. Reed, R.M. Buehrer, and D.S. Ha, “Introduction degree in Electronics and Telecom Engineering from
to UWB: Impulse Radio for Radar and Wireless Bombay University, India.
Communications,” www.mprg.org, MPRG,
Virginia Polytechnic University.
[4] Y.M. Kim, “Ultra Wideband Technology and
Applications,” NEST Group, Ohio State
University, July 2003.

BECHTEL
TELECOMMUNICATIONS
echtel Telecommunications, a unit of Bechtel
B Corporation, provides turnkey deployment services
that include network planning, RF design, engineering,
Telecommunications Leadership
and project and construction management for the
deployment of wireless, wireline, and other
TIMOTHY D. STATTON
telecommunication facilities worldwide. We are
Executive Vice President,
headquartered near Washington, DC, and supported by Bechtel Corporation and
our global network of offices. President, Bechtel Telecommunications
With more than 92,000 new build, overlay, and
upgrade wireless sites deployed; 23,000 kilometers of ROBERT CASAMENTO
wireline fiber laid; and numerous communication Principal Vice President and
centers constructed around the globe, Bechtel is the General Manager
global company of choice for telecommunications
infrastructure deployment.
Bechtel has continually set the bar for telecom- MIKE HICKEY
munications network project deployment for clients Principal Vice President and
throughout the world. Due to our success with tight Manager of Functional Operations
schedules and cost effective delivery, we are currently
managing network expansions and upgrades for major
operators in the U.S., Europe, and the Asia-Pacific JAMES A. IVANY
region. Signature record-breaking projects include Principal Vice President and
Cingular, AT&T Wireless, Vodafone, Verizon, Chief Financial Officer
Metromedia Fiber Networks, XO, WINFirst, Viatel,
Pangea, and Equinix.
J. S. (JAKE) MACLEOD
Principal Vice President and
Chief Technology Officer
LEE LUSHBAUGH
General Manager, Americas
RICK ASTLEFORD
General Manager, Europe, Africa,
Middle East, Asia, and Asia-Pacific

Bechtel Corporation
echtel Corporation is a privately held

B company headquartered in San Francisco,
California, with approximately 40,000 employees,
more than 40 offices worldwide, and 2005
revenues of approximately $18.1 billion. Founded
in 1898, Bechtel has been under the leadership of
its founding family for four generations. Riley P.
TECHNOLOGY EVALUATION Bechtel, great-grandson of the founder, is the
current chairman and chief executive officer.
ey to Bechtel's deployment success is our
K technology expertise. To provide our
clients with complete turnkey deployment
Bechtel is one of the world's premier engineering,
construction, and project management companies.
services, we offer expert technology research
• The Financial Times recently listed Bechtel
and testing services. We have assembled a
as the “World’s Most Respected Company”
full-service Technology Group of leading
in the property and construction industries.
professionals that provides our customers
with neutral technology services and • Global Finance magazine named Bechtel
oversees our in-house telecommunications the “World’s Best Company” in the
laboratories: the Bechtel Wireless Test Bed construction sector for 5 years in a row.
(BWTB) and the Training, Demonstration
• Engineering News-Record ranked Bechtel as
and Research (TDR) Laboratory.
Number 1 on the list of the “Top 400
The BWTB, an over-the-air wireless test Contractors” for 7 consecutive years.
bed, enables us to analyze network
• Engineering News-Record also ranked
products and technologies for our clients
Bechtel Number 1 Telecommunications
in a real-world environment. It can be
Contractor from 2002 to 2005.
dynamically configured to meet specific
testing requirements without impacting the Because of our unparalleled industry recognition
client’s network. and financial stability, we are the partner of choice
The TDR Laboratory offers our clients for network deployment.
the ability to integrate equipment from
multiple vendors to identify interoperability
issues, monitor product performance, and
ensure compatibility with legacy systems,
thereby reducing the risk of imple-
menting new technologies and paving the
way for investment in network upgrades
or expansion.
108
Bechtel Offices Worldwide
Abu Dhabi Hong Kong Montreal Seoul

Tel: (971-2) 699-8400 Tel: (852) 2169-0960 Tel: (1-514) 871-1711 Tel: (82-2) 318-2270
Fax: (971-2) 676-0899 Fax: (852) 2840-1272 Fax: (1-514) 871-1392 Fax: (82-2) 318-2273
Al Khobar, Saudi Arabia* Houston Moscow Shanghai

Tel: (966-3) 882-5288 Tel: (1-713) 235-2000 Tel: (7-095) 961-3020 Tel: (86-21) 2205-4500
Fax: (966-3) 882-5306 Fax: (1-713) 235-3006 Fax: (7-095) 961-3015 Fax: (86-21) 2205-4800
TURNKEY Bangkok Istanbul New Delhi Singapore

DEPLOYMENT Tel: (66-2) 545-7100 Tel: (90-212) 278-2900 Tel: (94-124) 509-8000 Tel: (65) 6557-4570
SERVICES Fax: (66-2) 545-7777 Fax: (90-212) 278-2913 Fax: (94-124) 234-3110 Fax: (65) 6557-4571
Network Planning Beijing Jakarta New York Taipei

and RF Tel: (86-10) 8453-9998 Tel: (62-21) 5291-6000 Tel: (1-212) 689-0100 Tel: (886-2) 2376-8000
Fax: (86-10) 8453-8303 Fax: (62-21) 5296-2278 Fax: (1-212) 689-4829 Fax: (886-2) 2738-2000
Engineering
Brisbane Kuala Lumpur Oak Ridge, Tennessee Tokyo
Tel: (61-7) 3295-1400 Tel: (603) 2078-2050 Tel: (1-865) 220-2000 Tel: (81-3) 3214-4481
Site Acquisition and
Fax: (61-7) 3295-1450 Fax: (603) 2078-1950 Fax: (1-865) 220-2100 Fax: (81-3) 3214-2596
Right of Way
Buenos Aires Lima Paris Tysons Corner, Virginia

Procurement
Tel: (54-11) 4315-8000 Tel: (51-1) 445-8746 Tel: (33-1) 4720-5304 Tel: (1-703) 748-9300
and Contracting Fax: (54-11) 4315-0081 Fax: (51-1) 446-1255 Fax: (33-1) 4720-5506 Fax: (1-703) 748-9442
Construction and Cairo London (Hammersmith Rd.) Rio de Janeiro Warrington, England
Equipment Installation Tel: (20-2) 754-6763 Tel: (44-208) 846-5111 Tel: (55-21) 2579-2370 Tel: (44-208) 846-4000
Fax: (20-2) 754-6804 Fax: (44-208) 846-6940 Fax: (55-21) 2579-2413 Fax: (44-208) 846-5469
Integration and
Optimization Calgary (Bantrel) London (Pilgrim St.) Riyadh Washington, D.C.
Tel: (1-403) 290-5000 Tel: (44-207) 651-7777 Tel: (966-1) 277-1884 Tel: (1-202) 828-5200
Fax: (1-403) 290-5050 Fax: (44-207) 651-7972 Fax: (966-1) 278-0607 Fax: (1-202) 785-2645
Doha, Qatar Louisville, Kentucky San Diego *Joint-Venture Office
Tel: (97-4) 467-9777 Tel: (1-502) 244-2574 Tel: (1-619) 687-8700

Fax: (97-4) 467-9582 Fax: (1-502) 244-2211 Fax: (1-619) 687-8787
Frederick, Maryland Manila San Francisco

Tel: (1-301) 228-6000 Tel: (63-2) 751-1000 Tel: (1-415) 768-1234
Fax: (1-301) 228-2200 Fax: (63-2) 751-1005 Fax: (1-415) 768-9038
Glendale, Arizona Mexico City Santiago

Tel: (1-602) 368-1500 Tel: (52-55) 5201-3500 Tel: (56-2) 675-1000
Fax: (1-602) 368-3361 Fax: (52-55) 5202-1785 Fax: (56-2) 232-5208
Technical Journal
An Independent Analysis of Current
Telecommunications Operational Issues June 2006

Global Headquarters
Bechtel Telecommunications Authors Contents
5295 Westview Drive
Frederick, Maryland 21703-8306
Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

Tel: +1 301-228-7500 (Main) or v Foreword
Tel: +1 800-946-3632 (Toll Free)
vii Editorial
Fax: +1 301-694-6971
Fred Wettling 1 IPv6 – Implication of External Change Vectors
London
Sam Kettani 9 Mobile WiMAX: A Complementary or Competitive Technology?
245 Hammersmith Road Glenn A. Torshizi and 25 Mobile TV on the Move with Digital Video
Hammersmith Estefanos Woldemariam Broadcast-Handheld Standard
London W6 8DP
United Kingdom Christopher L. Arnold 31 Cybersecurity of PCS/SCADA Networks:
Tel: +44 208-846-5093 Half-Baked Homeland Security
Fax: +44 208-846-4938
S. Rasoul Safavian, PhD 37 FMC: Fixed-Mobile Convergence
Ron Menendez, PhD, and David Waring 55 Technology Options for Optical Access Networks
www.bechteltelecoms.com
(Telcordia Technologies) Offering Increased Bandwidth (Invited Paper)
Brian Coombe 69 Nanotechnology and Communications:

Extending Capability Through Nanoscale Innovation
Thrasivoulos (Sakis) Griparis and 77 HSDPA Network Dimensioning Challenges and

Esmael Dinan, PhD Key Performance Parameters
Esmael Dinan, PhD, and 83 High-Speed Packet Access Technologies for UMTS Networks
Igor A. Chuganov, Aleksey A. Kurochkin, 91 Experimental Study of 3G Signal Interaction

and Alex M. Smirnov in Nonlinear Downlink RAN Transmitters
Murtaza Penwala 99 Ultra-Wideband Technology

Volume 4, No. 2
2006
T ELECOMMUNICATIONS Volume 4 No. 2

T ELECOMMUNICATIONS
7466

Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bechtel Telecommunications

Telecommunications Operational Issues June 2006

Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

Brian Coombe 69 Nanotechnology and Communications:

Thrasivoulos (Sakis) Griparis and 77 HSDPA Network Dimensioning Challenges and

Igor A. Chugunov, Aleksey A. Kurochkin, 91 Experimental Study of 3G Signal Interaction in

Murtaza Penwala 99 Ultra-Wideband Technology

T ELECOMMUNICATIONS Volume 4 No. 2

Abu Dhabi Hong Kong Montreal Seoul

Al Khobar, Saudi Arabia* Houston Moscow Shanghai

TURNKEY Bangkok Istanbul New Delhi Singapore

Network Planning Beijing Jakarta New York Taipei

Buenos Aires Lima Paris Tysons Corner, Virginia

Doha, Qatar Louisville, Kentucky San Diego *Joint-Venture Office

Tel: (97-4) 467-9777 Tel: (1-502) 244-2574 Tel: (1-619) 687-8700

Frederick, Maryland Manila San Francisco

Glendale, Arizona Mexico City Santiago

EDITORIAL BOARD Mobile TV on the Move with Digital Video 23

June 2006 • Volume 4, Number 2 iii

June 2006 • Volume 4, Number 2 v

Dr. S. Rasoul Safavian

June 2006 • Volume 4, Number 2 vii

Issue Date: June 2006

© 2006 Bechtel Corporation. All rights reserved. 1

2 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

June 2006 • Volume 4, Number 2 3

• All Internet standards are evolving,

4 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

In a policy speech delivered in 2000, Japanese ____________________________

June 2006 • Volume 4, Number 2 5

6 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

June 2006 • Volume 4, Number 2 7

Fred has been responsible for the architecture,

Fred is active within and outside of Bechtel in

8 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

Issue Date: June 2006

INTRODUCTION Because fixed WiMAX is, by definition, a

802.16d-2004 for fixed and IEEE 802.16e-2005 for

© 2006 Bechtel Corporation. All rights reserved. 9

BSC-DO base station control–data MIP-FA mobile IP-foreign agent

DES data encryption standard PMP point-to-point

DL downlink PS packet switched

DSL digital subscriber line PSK phase-shift keying

EAP extensible authentication PSTN public switched telephone

EDGE enhanced data GSM QAM quadrature amplitude

10 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

Figure 1. OFDM System Block Diagram

June 2006 • Volume 4, Number 2 11

12 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

Figure 3. OFDMA Subchannels

June 2006 • Volume 4, Number 2 13

Figure 4. Evolution Trend of 3G and Mobile WiMAX Technologies

14 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

Figure 5. Typical EV-DO Network Architecture (Rev. 0)

June 2006 • Volume 4, Number 2 15

Figure 7. Mobile WiMAX Network Architecture

16 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

Figure 8. UL and DL Spectrums for cdma2000 and EV-DO

Figure 9. UL and DL Spectrums for UMTS and HSDPA

June 2006 • Volume 4, Number 2 17

Figure 10. Spectrums of Two Carriers for Mobile WiMAX

18 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal