Department of Chemical Engineering

School of Engineering and Architecture

Saint Louis University

LABORATORY REPORT EVALUATION SHEET

Laboratory Course: CH E 425 Schedule: 7:30 – 10:30 MW

Experiment Number:
Experiment Title: Stefan-Boltzmann Law
Group Number: 4 Date Performed:
Group Members: Hafalla, Carlo B. Date Submitted:
Jacildo, Benjamin Luke III V.
Imperial, Kenneioh Elisar N.
Goldberg, Kate H.
Jucar, Johara Majanil P.
Licudine, Graciela Jane H.

Total
Contents Remarks Score
Points
I. Abstract 10
II. Chapter 1: Introduction 15
III. Chapter 2: Design and Methodology 10
IV. Chapter 3: Results and Discussion 20
Chapter 4: Conclusions and
V. 10
Recommendations
VI. References 5
VII. Appendices
a. List and Uses of Apparatus
b. Definition of Terms 15
c. Computations
d. Graph
e. Documentation
Table of Contents/ List of Tables/ List of
VIII. 5
Figures
IX. Format and Neatness 10
TOTAL POINTS 100 TOTAL SCORE:

Evaluated by: Engr. John Kristoffer Robleza Date:

 Stefan-Boltzmann Law

A Research Study Presented to the

Faculty of the Department of Chemical Engineering

School of Engineering and Architecture

Saint Louis University

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree

Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering

by

Hafalla, Carlo B.

Jacildo, Benjamin Luke III V.

Imperial, Kenneioh Elisar N.

Goldberg, Kate H.

Jucar, Johara Majanil P.

Licudine, Graciela Jane H.

February 2019

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to thank each member of the group for their participation in the performance of

the experiment. We would also like to extend our gratitude to our instructor Engr. John

Kristoffer Robleza for his utmost guidance towards us and for ensuring our safety throughout

the experiment. We would also like to thank the School of Saint Louis University for providing

the materials and the venue for our experiment. Most of all, we would like to thank God for

inspiring, guiding and protecting us.

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

LIST OF TABLES iv

LIST OF FIGURES v

ABSTRACT vi

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 1

Chapter 2: DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 3

Chapter 3: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4

Chapter 4: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 6

REFERENCES 7

APPENDICES

Appendix A 8

Appendix B 9

Appendix C 10

Appendix D 13

Appendix E 14

iii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1: Data and results for experimental and theoretical

radiation intensity 4

iv
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Variation of radiation intensity with respect to power input 13

Figure 2. Experimental setup for the Stefan-Boltzmann Law 14

Figure 3. The fixed distance of the sensor to the plate is 100cm.

The plate is at 50cm from 0 and the sensor is at 215cm from 0. 14

Figure 4. Temperature measurement 15 minutes after heating

the plate with power set at required voltage 14

v
 ABSTRACT

The Stefan-Boltzmann law states that the thermal energy radiated by a blackbody

radiator per second per unit area is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature.

This experiment demonstrates the said law with varying amount of power input at a constant

distance. Further, it examines the difference between the theoretically and experimentally

calculated intensity of radiation. Theoretical values were obtained using the formula as stated

by the Stefan-Boltzmann law itself. On the other hand, experimental values were computed by

utilizing a simplified equation of the said law; integrating the fixed distance and factors that

were dependent on the apparatus. Although a precise trend for the relationship among variables

were shown by both calculation methods, inaccuracy of the experimental values were observed

and relatively large values for percent errors were computed. Regardless these inaccuracy, the

objective of this experiment was met. It was shown that both the theoretical and experimental

methods justified the direct relationship between the fourth power of the source temperature

and radiation intensity.

Keywords: Stefan-Boltzmann law, radiation intensity, source temperature, blackbody

vi
 Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

When an electromagnetic radiation is discharged by a heated surface it goes in all

directions and travels directly to the absorbing medium, this process is called thermal radiation.

To simplify, thermal radiation is the transfer of thermal energy by waves. All matter with a

temperature greater than absolute zero emits thermal radiation.

Thermal radiation ranges in wavelength from the longest infrared rays through the

visible-light spectrum to the shortest ultraviolet rays. The temperature of the emitting surface

regulates the intensity and distribution of radiant energy within this range. The total radiant

heat energy emitted by a surface is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.

Thermal radiation is one of three ways that thermal energy can be transferred. The other

two ways are conduction and convection, both of which need matter to transfer energy.

It is the energy emitted by a body as result of its finite temperature. In contrast to heat

transfer through convection and conduction, radiation heat transfer does not require a medium

and can occur in a vacuum. This is because thermal radiation energy is a type of

electromagnetic (E-M) radiation and like other types of E-M radiation it can travel through

vacuum at the speed of light.(Cengel & Hill, 1997)

In thermodynamic equilibrium, the radiation is called blackbody radiation. Planck's law

describes the spectrum of blackbody radiation, which depends solely on the object's

temperature. The frequency of the emitted radiation is determined by Wien’s Displacement

Law, and the Stefan–Boltzmann law gives the radiant intensity. Thermal radiation is also one

of the fundamental mechanisms of heat transfer.

Stefan-Boltzmann law says that total radiant heat energy released from a blackbody is

1
 2

proportional to the fourth power of its temperature. The total intensity radiated over all

wavelengths is proportional to the temperature.

This law relates the heat flow rate emitted or absorbed from an object to its temperature

(and surface area and darkness). It was empirically derived by the Austrian physicist Joseph

Stefan in 1879 and theoretically derived by the Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann in 1884.

It is now derived mathematically from Planck's law.

P = εσA(T4 − T04)

where…

P= net heat flow rate [W] emitted (+) or absorbed (−)

ε= (epsilon) emissivity, a dimensionless (unitless) measure of a material's effective ability

to emit or absorb thermal radiation from its surface; ranges from 0 (none) to 1 (maximal)

σ= (sigma) the Stefan constant, 5.670 × 10−8 W/m2K4

A= surface area [m2] of the object emitting or absorbing thermal radiation

T= absolute temperature [K] of the object emitting or absorbing thermal radiation

T0 = absolute temperature [K] of the environment

A blackbody is a theoretically ideal radiator that absorbs all electromagnetic and

incident heat radiation, reflecting nor transmitting one. Then it emits thermal radiation relative

to its temperature. Its emissivity is 1. One example of a blackbody is a black hole. It absorbs

all the light surrounding it, and then reflect nothing. Perfect black bodies are idealization as

they do not exist in nature. Graphite with emissivity of 0.95, however is a good approximation

to a black body.
 Chapter 2

DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

The power was set to a value of 10 in the power control on the instrument console.

Initial values of variables were set: distance from radiometer to black plate, X, was set to 200

mm; distance from the black plate to heat source, Y, was set to 50 mm. Temperature reading

and radiometer reading were recorded at ambient conditions then for selected increments of

increasing temperature up to maximum within a practical range. Both readings were noted

simultaneously at any given point. The researchers placed the reflective disc in the radiometer

aperture to prevent heating effects and zero drift as they waited for the black plate temperature

to stabilize between each increase of the heat power control. Three trials were made on the

different values of power settings: 4.5, 5.0, and 5.5

3
 Chapter 3

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1. Data and results for experimental and theoretical radiation intensity
Temperature Radiometer Qb
Power Ts Tambient
Reading, Ts Reading
Setting (K) (K) Experimental Theoretical
(ºC) (R)
1.5 25 14 298.15 292.65 155.0935 32.1591
2.0 35.7 18 308.85 292.65 199.4059 100.0273
2.5 42 22 315.15 292.65 243.7183 143.4303
3.0 42.2 27 315.35 293.15 299.1088 142.0019
3.5 44.4 32 317.55 293.15 354.4994 157.8156
4.0 46.1 34 319.25 293.15 376.6556 170.2621
4.5 58 34 331.15 292.15 376.6556 268.8033
5.0 61.4 47 334.55 292.15 520.6709 297.2418
5.5 65.8 49 338.95 292.15 542.8272 335.3542
6.0 65.3 53 338.45 292.15 587.1396 330.9493
6.5 66.6 56 339.75 292.15 620.3739 342.4468
7.0 72.5 62 345.65 292.15 686.8425 396.3110
7.5 63.2 73 336.35 293.85 808.7017 302.9553
8 79.4 76 352.55 291.15 841.9360 468.5287
8.5 113.2 95 386.35 291.15 1052.4200 855.9336
9.0 126.2 99 399.35 292.15 1096.7324 1029.1220
9.5 138.4 118 411.45 292.15 1307.2164 1213.5987
10.0 145.4 128 418.55 292.15 1417.9970 1327.1328

The relationship between the intensity of radiation and the fourth power of the source

temperature was shown using theoretical calculations based on the simplified Stefan

Boltzmann law for a black body and experimental data obtained from the radiation apparatus.

Table 1 summarizes the power setting used at a fixed distance of 250 mm under an

ambient temperature ranging from 291.15 K to 293.85 K and its corresponding temperature

reading and radiometer reading, as well as the calculated theoretical and experimental radiation

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 5

intensity. It is apparent that as the power setting is increased by an interval of 0.5 from 1.0 to

10.0 for 10 trials, the corresponding temperature readings increased from 298.15, 308.85,

315.15, 315.35, 317.55, 319.25, 331.15, 334.55, 338.95, 338.45, 339.75, 345.65, 336.35,

352.55, 386.35, 399.35, 411.45 to 418.55 K, respectively, and the radiometer reading also

increased from 14, 18, 22, 27, 32, 34, 34, 47, 49, 53, 56, 62, 73, 76, 95, 99, 118 to 128 W/m2,

respectively. From the radiometer reading R, experimental radiation intensity was calculated

𝑟2
using 𝑄𝑏 = 𝑅(sin−1 𝜃)2 where (sin−1 𝜃)2 = 𝑟 2 +𝑙2 at r =0.063 m and l = 0.2 m which gave

increasing values of 155.0935, 199.4059, 243.7183, 299.1088, 354.4994, 376.6556, 376.6556,

520.6709, 542.8272, 587.1396, 620.3739, 686.8425, 808.7017, 841.9360, 1052.4200,

1096.7324, 1307.2164 to 1417.9970 W/m2, respectively. To compare, the theoretical radiation

intensity was also calculated using the simplified Stefan Boltzmann equation for a black body,

𝑄𝑏 = 𝜀𝜎(𝑇𝑠 4 − 𝑇𝑎 4 ) but 𝜀 = 1 for a black body, thus, 𝑄𝑏 = 𝜎(𝑇𝑠 4 − 𝑇𝑎 4 ) which also gave

increasing values of 32.1591, 100.0273, 143.4303, 142.0019, 157.8156, 170.2621, 268.8033,

297.2418, 335.3542, 330.9493, 342.4468, 396.3110, 302.9553, 468.5287, 855.9336,

1029.1220, 1213.5987 to 1327.1328 W/m2, respectively.

Although individually precise, as experimental and theoretical, the values of radiation

intensity obtained an absolute error of almost 100 % to 150 %, which lead to inaccuracy of

results. Nevertheless, the direct relationship of the intensity of radiation to the fourth power of

the source temperature is proven experimentally as well as theoretically. In addition, the plot

of Power Setting vs. Experimental Q on page 13 reveals a positively sloping curve, thus, the

direct relationship between the variables is shown.

 Chapter 4

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The Stefan-Boltzmann Law simply states that the total radiant heat energy, E, emitted

from a surface is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. This is

formulated by both Austrian Physicist, Josef Stefan, as a result of his experimental studies and

Ludwig Boltzmann from his thermodynamic approach.

With increasing power setting, the temperature of the blackbody, the radiation it emits,

and the heat it gives off also increases. The Stefan-Boltzmann Equation, E = σT4, says that the

energy in the form of heat given off is dependent to the temperature of the surface, which, the

researcher found, that as the temperature increases, the heat also increases. The law, which

gives the proportionality of heat and temperature, has been proven to be correct.

The results infer that the experimental and theoretical values of heat have very high

difference. Since the laboratory conditions are not perfect, then this may be one of the reasons

why the values have relatively high percentage of error. Moreover, the use of the digital

thermometer, placing only the tip of the rod to the surface being measured is observed to be

recording lower temperature compared to when the whole rod touches the surface. Therefore,

it is recommended that the latter way should be performed for more accurate temperature

reading.

6
 REFERENCES

Elsevier. (n.d.). Blackbody Radiation. Sciencedirect. Retrieved on February 3, 2019 from

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/blackbody-radiation

Radiation. The Physics Hypertextbook. Retrieved on February 3, 2019 from

https://physics.info/radiation/

Thermal Radiation. Ck-12. Retrieved on February 3, 2019 from https://www.ck12.org/

physics/thermal-radiation/lesson/Thermal-Radiation-MS-PS/

Thermal radiation. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved on February 3, 2019 from

https://www.britannica.com/science/thermal-radiation

7
 APPENDIX A

List of Apparatus

 Radiation Apparatus – Measures radiant flux of electromagnetic radiation.

 Radiometer – it is an instrument for detecting or measuring intensity of force of radiation.

8
 APPENDIX B

Definition of Terms

 Radiation – it is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles

through or through a material medium.

 Radiometer – an infrared radiation detector or ultraviolet detector

 Stefan – Boltzmann law – relates the heat flow rate emitted or absorbed from an object to

its temperature and surface area and darkness.

 Black body – an opaque and non-reflective body

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 APPENDIX C

Computations

𝑅(0.0632 + 0.22 )
Experimental: 𝑞𝑒 = 0.0632

Theoritical: 𝑞𝑒 = 𝜎(𝑇𝑠 4 − 𝑇𝑎4 ) σ = 5.67040 x 10-7 𝑊⁄𝑚2 . 𝐾

Power Setting: @ 1.5; R = 14

(14)(0.0632 + 0.22 )
𝑞𝑒 = = 155.0935 𝑊⁄𝑚2
0.0632

𝑞𝑒 = 𝜎(298.154 − 292.654 ) = 32.1591 𝑊⁄𝑚2

Power Setting: @ 2; R = 18
(18)(0.0632 + 0.22 )
𝑞𝑒 = = 199.4059 𝑊⁄𝑚2
0.0632

𝑞𝑒 = 𝜎(308.154 − 292.654 ) = 100.0273 𝑊⁄𝑚2

Power Setting: @ 2.5; R = 22

(22)(0.0632 + 0.22 )
𝑞𝑒 = = 243.7183 𝑊⁄𝑚2
0.0632

𝑞𝑒 = 𝜎(315.154 − 292.654 ) = 143.4303 𝑊⁄𝑚2

Power Setting: @ 3; R = 27
(27)(0.0632 + 0.22 )
𝑞𝑒 = = 299.1088 𝑊⁄𝑚2
0.0632

𝑞𝑒 = 𝜎(315.354 − 293.154 ) = 142.0019 𝑊⁄𝑚2

Power Setting: @ 3.5; R = 32

(32)(0.0632 + 0.22 )
𝑞𝑒 = = 354.4994 𝑊⁄𝑚2
0.0632

𝑞𝑒 = 𝜎(317.554 − 293.154 ) = 157.8156 𝑊⁄𝑚2

10
 11

Power Setting: @ 4; R = 34
(34)(0.0632 + 0.22 )
𝑞𝑒 = = 376.6556 𝑊⁄𝑚2
0.0632

𝑞𝑒 = 𝜎(319.254 − 293.154 ) = 170.2621 𝑊⁄𝑚2

Power Setting: @ 4.5; R = 34

(34)(0.0632 + 0.22 )
𝑞𝑒 = = 376.6556 𝑊⁄𝑚2
0.0632

𝑞𝑒 = 𝜎(331.154 − 292.154 ) = 268.8033 𝑊⁄𝑚2

Power Setting: @ 5; R = 47
(47)(0.0632 + 0.22 )
𝑞𝑒 = = 520.6709 𝑊⁄𝑚2
0.0632

𝑞𝑒 = 𝜎(334.554 − 292.154 ) = 297.2418 𝑊⁄𝑚2

Power Setting: @ 5.5; R = 49

(49)(0.0632 + 0.22 )
𝑞𝑒 = = 542.8272 𝑊⁄𝑚2
0.0632

𝑞𝑒 = 𝜎(338.954 − 292.154 ) = 335.3542 𝑊⁄𝑚2

Power Setting: @ 6; R = 53
(53)(0.0632 + 0.22 )
𝑞𝑒 = = 587.1396 𝑊⁄𝑚2
0.0632

𝑞𝑒 = 𝜎(338.454 − 292.154 ) = 330.9493 𝑊⁄𝑚2

Power Setting: @ 6.5; R = 56

(56)(0.0632 + 0.22 )
𝑞𝑒 = = 620.3739 𝑊⁄𝑚2
0.0632

𝑞𝑒 = 𝜎(339.754 − 292.154 ) = 342.4468 𝑊⁄𝑚2

Power Setting: @ 7; R = 62
(62)(0.0632 + 0.22 )
𝑞𝑒 = = 686.8425 𝑊⁄𝑚2
0.0632
 12

𝑞𝑒 = 𝜎(345.654 − 292.154 ) = 396.3110 𝑊⁄𝑚2

Power Setting: @ 7.5; R = 73

(73)(0.0632 + 0.22 )
𝑞𝑒 = = 808.7017 𝑊⁄𝑚2
0.0632

𝑞𝑒 = 𝜎(336.354 − 293.854 ) = 302.9553 𝑊⁄𝑚2

Power Setting: @ 8; R = 76
(76)(0.0632 + 0.22 )
𝑞𝑒 = = 841.9360 𝑊⁄𝑚2
0.0632

𝑞𝑒 = 𝜎(352.554 − 291.024 ) = 468.5287 𝑊⁄𝑚2

Power Setting: @ 8.5; R = 95

(95)(0.0632 + 0.22 )
𝑞𝑒 = = 1052.4200 𝑊⁄𝑚2
0.0632

𝑞𝑒 = 𝜎(386.354 − 291.15) = 855.9336 𝑊⁄𝑚2

Power Setting: @ 9; R = 99
(99)(0.0632 + 0.22 )
𝑞𝑒 = = 1096.7324 𝑊⁄𝑚2
0.0632

𝑞𝑒 = 𝜎(352.554 − 292.154 ) = 1029.1220 𝑊⁄𝑚2

Power Setting: @ 9.5; R = 118

(118)(0.0632 + 0.22 )
𝑞𝑒 = = 1307.2164 𝑊⁄𝑚2
0.0632

𝑞𝑒 = 𝜎(411.454 − 292.154 ) = 1213.5987 𝑊⁄𝑚2

Power Setting: @ 10; R = 128

(128)(0.0632 + 0.22 )
𝑞𝑒 = = 1417.9970 𝑊⁄𝑚2
0.0632

𝑞𝑒 = 𝜎(418.554 − 292.154 ) = 1327.1328 𝑊⁄𝑚2

 APPENDIX D
Graphs

Power Setting VS. Radiaton intensity

1600

1400

1200
Radiaton intensity

1000

800

600

400

Experimental
200
Theoretical

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Power Setting

Figure 1. Variation of radiation intensity with respect to power input

13
 APPENDIX E
Documentation

Figure 2. Experimental setup for the Stefan-Boltzmann Law

Figure 3. The fixed distance of the Figure 4. Temperature measurement

sensor to the plate is 100cm. The 15 minutes after heating the plate
plate is at 50cm from 0 and the sensor with power set at required voltage
is at 215cm from 0.

14