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Thesis submitted by
Richard Charles Idris Davies B.Sc. (Hons)
in December, 2002,
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
in the School of Earth Sciences,
James Cook University,
Australia
STATEMENT OF ACCESS
I, the undersigned Richard Davies, author of this thesis, understand that the following
restriction placed by me on this thesis will not extend beyond the date specified:
“I wish to place restriction of access on this thesis for a period of one year.”
After this period has elapsed, James Cook University will make this thesis available for
use within the University Library and, by microfilm or other means, allow access to
users in other approved libraries. All users consulting this thesis will have to sign the
following statement:
“In consulting this thesis, I agree not to copy or closely paraphrase it in whole or in
part without written consent of the author, and make proper written acknowledgements
for any assistance which I have obtained from it.”
i
STATEMENT OF SOURCES
I, the undersigned, declare that this thesis is my own work and has not been submitted
in any form from another degree, diploma or study at any university or other institution
of tertiary education. Information derived from the published or unpublished work of
others has been acknowledged in the text and a list of references is given.
ii
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Early Miocene onset of high plate convergence rates triggered the generation of
oxidised hydrous melts from the breakdown of a sub-Andean amphibole-rich upper
mantle to lower crust. These melts rose into large magma ponds deep within the crust.
Sr, Nd and Pb isotope compositions indicate synmineralisation magmas and metals
were derived from a common deep source and that magmas underwent minimal upper
crustal contamination. During brief changes in the tectonic stress, primitive hydrous-
rich magmas were released from these chambers and ascended rapidly along deeply
tapping faults. Dioritic intrusions with HREE-depleted profiles were emplaced during
periods of extension in a highly fractured upper crust. New 40Ar/39Ar dates indicate this
occurred from 23.2 to 16.5 Ma. Mineralised stocks are commonly located in the
hanging wall of a regional thrust fault and situated at structural intersections, such as
oblique secondary structures superimposed on pre-existing regional-scale faults.
Mineralisation-controlling structures, e.g. fault, vein and fracture arrays, at the porphyry
deposits have subparallel NNW and NE-NNE trends that suggest they were directly
controlled by a regionally extensive stress regime. The physiochemical conditions that
prevailed during early stage hypogene mineralisation strongly influenced the Au
enrichment at the various porphyry deposits. Au-rich deposits are typically hosted in
carbonates, tend to have well-developed potassic alteration zones, high temperature and
oxygen fugacity hypogene sulphide mineral assemblages (bornite + chalcopyrite) and
abundant hydrothermal magnetite. In contrast, mineralised stocks in contact with
fractured quartzites ± carbonates are Cu-Au-Mo deposits with lower temperature
iii
Abstract
hypogene sulphide assemblages of chalcopyrite and pyrite, and potassic alteration zones
overprinted by low-grade pyritic phyllic alteration.
iv
Acknowledgements
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Firstly, I would like to thank the people from North Ltd and Rio Tinto for
creating, supporting and encouraging this project. Without the financial and ground
support of these companies this study would have never been possible. Special thanks to
Tim Moody from Rio Tinto for his continued support and patience. I would also like to
express gratitude to all the people in Cajamarca and Peru that assisted and supported me
during my time in Cajamarca. Their hospitality and generosity will always be
remembered. Cesar Vidal, Dick Sillitoe, Carl Schnell and Javier Veliz are especially
thanked for their time and knowledge.
I cannot thank enough my supervisors, Pat Williams and Tim Baker, for
allowing me the freedom to design and mould this project. Thank you Pat and Tim for
inspiring and helping me to develop my own thoughts and ideas. I am greatly indebted
to you both. Extreme gratitude goes to Pat for reading so many of my drafts. I’m sure no
supervisor should have to endure such pain as that. I must also express thanks to all the
people at JCU for their ideas, encouragement and support throughout the duration of the
study. Roger Buick and Graham Bradley are also thanked for their inspiration and
encouragement. To the guys from the AAC, thank you for assistance and making lab
work both enjoyable and educational. Roland Maas is also thanked for his knowledge
and patience in helping me to develop a plan for the Sr-Nd isotope part of the study. To
Dick Tosdal and the people at UBC, a huge thanks for kindly running the Pb isotope
analyses. You guys are truly legends.
To my best friends Gregg, Jay and Dom, thank you for allowing me to lose the
plot and escape from reality during difficult times. To Chris and Tre, mi casa es su casa
siempre. You guys rock. To Nick Timms, never before has a person opened my mind
and inspired me to be has creative and have a lust for life that you have. Special thanks
are extended to all my friends in Townsville that made life up here so rich and
enjoyable. Particular thanks goes to the TECC crew, plus Marc and Cathy. Finally, to
the endless love and support provided by the two loveliest and most caring girls in my
life – thank you toni and polli.
This thesis is dedicated to my mum and dad, and my three sisters.
v
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Statement of Access i
Statement of Sources ii
Abstract iii
Acknowledgements v
Table of contents T1-T4
List of figures and tables L1-L7
Thesis Introduction P1-P3
SECTION A A1-A30
A.1 Abstract A1
A.2 Introduction A2-A8
A.3 Magmatic Centres – Intrusive Rocks A8-A11
A.3.1 Aurora Patricia A8
A.3.2 Cerro Montana A8-A9
A.3.3 La Carpa A9
A.3.4 Michiquillay North A9
A.3.5 Michiquillay Deposit A9-A10
A.3.6 El Galeno Deposit A10
A.3.7 Minas Conga Deposit A10-A11
A.3.8 Cerro Perol East A11
A.4 Mafic Dykes A11-A12
A.5 Volcanic Rocks A12-A14
A.5.1 Llama Formation A12-A13
A.5.2 Regalado Volcanic Rocks A13
A.5.3 Huambos Formation A13-A14
A.6 Radiometric Dating A14
A.6.1 Analytical Procedures A14
A.7 40Ar/39Ar Results A16-A20
A.8 Interpretation of 40Ar/39Ar Dates A20-A25
A.9 Discussion A25-A29
A.10 Conclusion A29-A30
SECTION B B1-B31
T-1
Table of Contents
SECTION C C1-C46
T-2
Table of Contents
SECTION D D1-D47
SECTION E E1-E15
E.1 Abstract E1
E.2 Introduction E1-E2
E.3 Tectonic Setting of Northern Peru E2-E4
E.4 Re-evaluation of the Magmatic History of the Cajamarca Region E4-E5
E.5 Petrogenesis of Tertiary Igneous Rocks E5-E8
E.6 Structural Controls at Mineralised Centres E8-E10
E.7 Mineralised Miocene Deposits E10-E13
E.8 Tectonomagmatic Model for Formation of Miocene Deposits E13-E15
E.9 Conclusion E15
REFERENCES R1-R19
T-3
Table of Contents
APPENDICES
Appendix A1. Rock sample locations and descriptions.
Appendix C3. Partial melting modelling calculations and partition coefficients values.
T-4
List of Figures and Tables
SECTION A
Figure 1. Map of Peru displaying the main tectonic units. Also shown are the significant
mineralised centres in Cajamarca and nearby regions.
Figure 2. Simplified geological map of the Cajamarca area showing the location of the
major igneous units and samples used for 40Ar/39Ar dates.
40
Figure 4. Ar/39Ar apparent age spectra of intrusive rocks from the east Cerro Perol
region and the Cerro Montana region analysed by incremental step heating.
40
Figure 5. Ar/39Ar apparent age spectra for a volcanic rock from the La Carpa region
and mafic dyke near El Galeno region analysed by incremental step heating.
40
Figure 6. Ar/39Ar apparent age spectra of intrusive samples from the Aurora Patricia
and La Carpa regions analysed by incremental step heating.
Figure 7. 40Ar/39Ar apparent age spectra for samples from intrusions in the Michiquillay
region analysed by incremental step heating.
40
Figure 8. Ar/39Ar incremental heating age spectra of hydrothermal biotite from
intrusion at El Galeno.
L-1
List of Figures and Tables
Table 1. Previous age dates from the Cajamarca and Hualgayoc regions.
40
Table 2. Summary of reason why the various samples were selected for Ar/39Ar
analyses.
SECTION B
Figure 2. Tectonic framework of the northern Peruvian Andes and the Cajamarca
district.
Figure 3. Structural map and cross section of the northeastern Cajamarca district
displaying the major structural features in the deformed Cretaceous sedimentary rocks.
Figure 4. Outcrop sketch of deformed limestone and quartzite rocks located in the
Puntre Thrust Fault to the NE of El Galeno.
Figure 6. Fracture patterns in the southwestern part of the El Galeno intrusive complex.
Figure 8. Structural map of the Minas Conga prospect and outcrop photo of vein
stockwork.
Figure 9. Geological map of the late Miocene Yanacocha district showing the major
lithological units, ore deposits and faults identified at the mine.
L-2
List of Figures and Tables
Figure 10. Simplified geological map of the Cajamarca district displaying the major
mineralised centres and the dominant structural trends observed at the centres.
Figure 11. Diagram showing plate motion direction of the Nazca Plate and inferred
principal stress directions.
Table 1. Compilation of structural data from this study and previous work.
SECTION C
Figure 1. Simplified geology of Peruvian Andes showing the major Mesozoic and
Cainozoic magmatic rocks. Plus a map of South America illustrating zones of flat
subduction.
Figure 2. Simplified geological map of the Cajamarca area showing the locations of the
igneous rocks sampled and analysed.
Figure 4. Mineral chemistry and classification diagrams for pyroxene, hornblende and
plagioclase phenocrysts.
Figure 6. K2O vs. SiO2 variation diagram for subalkaline rocks. Tholeiite vs. calc-
alkaline plot.
Figure 7. Major element vs. SiO2 variation diagrams for igneous rocks in the Cajamarca
region.
L-3
List of Figures and Tables
Figure 8. Trace element vs. SiO2 variation diagrams for igneous rocks in the Cajamarca
region.
Figure 9. N-MORB normalised incompatible trace element plots for the different rock
suites.
Figure 10. Chondrite normalised REE profiles and LaN/YbN vs. SiO2 plot for igneous
suites in the Cajamarca region.
Figure 11. Radiogenic isotope plots for selected igneous rocks from the Cajamarca
region.
Figure 12. Partial melting models for the different igneous suites in the Cajamarca
region.
Figure 13. Log Th vs. log Sm diagram showing theoretical Rayleigh vectors modelled
for fractional crystallisation trends of an andesitic melt.
Figure 14. εNd and Sri plots showing isotopic values for magmatic rocks from the
Cajamarca and Hualgayoc district.
Figure 15. Schematic magmatic and tectonic reconstruction of a section through the
northern Peruvian Andes and Cajamarca region from Eocene to Late Miocene times.
Table 1. Whole rock geochemistry of Tertiary igneous rocks in the Cajamarca region.
Major components have been normalised on a volatile-free basis.
Table 2. LaN/YbN ratios of igneous suites in the Cajamarca region. Chondritic values of
Taylor and McLennan (1985).
L-4
List of Figures and Tables
Table 4. Table showing whole rock geochemistry against modelled partial melt
compositions.
SECTION D
Figure 1. Map of Peru showing the major mineralised centres near the township of
Cajamarca.
Figure 2. Simplified geological map of the Cajamarca region showing the distribution of
the major mineralise centres.
Figure 4. Geological map of El Galeno with the major lithological units and prospect-
scale structures.
Figure 5. Near E-W section through the El Galeno porphyry complex showing the
distribution of the major lithological units and outer limits of alteration assemblages.
Figure 6. Photographs of the different intrusive phases within the El Galeno complex.
L-5
List of Figures and Tables
Figure 12. Plots of average Au vs. Cu and Mo vs. Cu with standard deviation bars from
assay data of drill core.
Figure 15. Section A-A1 looking NW, showing the major lithological units, alteration
and Cu distribution at Michiquillay.
Figure 17. Pb isotope map of the central Andes showing the provinces
Figure 18. Plots of Pb isotope ratios for sulphides from mineralised intrusions in the
Cajamarca region. Plus, Pb isotope compositions of ores and igneous rocks from the
Hualgayoc district and fields for the various Andean Pb isotope provinces.
Figure 19. Temperature-oxygen fugacity diagram for the Fe-Cu-S-O system with
inferred positions of Au-rich and Cu-Au-Mo type porphyry deposits.
Table 1. Average metal grades and standard deviation for identified lithological units in
section A-A1 at Galeno.
Table 3. Summary of the El Galeno, Michiquillay and Minas Conga porphyry centres.
L-6
List of Figures and Tables
SECTION E
Figure 1. Location of Miocene deposits in the Cajamarca region of northern Peru and
some of the significant Tertiary porphyry and high-sulphidation deposits in the central
Andes.
Figure 2. Sr, Nd and Pb isotope plots of Tertiary igneous rocks in the Cajamarca-
Hualgayoc region and Miocene mineralised districts in Chile.
Figure 3. Schematic cross section through the northern Peruvian Andes illustrating the
proposed tectonomagmatic model for Miocene deposits in the Cajamarca Au district.
L-7
Thesis Introduction
THESIS INTRODUCTION
This thesis investigates tectonic, magmatic and deposit geology controls on the
formation of Tertiary mineralised centres in the Cajamarca district. The thesis consists
of five sections written in journal format that are intended for future publication. The
sections are arranged a logical progression that follow on from the previous section. The
first four sections present new geochronological, structural and geochemical data, and a
geological description of two porphyry-related deposits. The final section incorporates
these results with findings from previous studies in the region and other mining districts
in the Andes to develop a comprehensive tectonomagmatic model for the formation of
Miocene hydrothermal deposits in the Cajamarca district.
Section A
The first section of the thesis presents a geological introduction to the Cajamarca
region. This includes a brief summary and petrological description of the major
40
magmatic units that crop out throughout the region. Ten new Ar/39Ar dates are also
presented for selected magmatic and hydrothermal centres. The section concludes with
discussion of the relationship between magmatic-hydrothermal events and tectonic
episodes.
P-1
Thesis Introduction
Section B
The second section addresses the structural evolution of the Cajamarca region.
Data presented are derived from field and aerial photo studies of deformed Cretaceous
sedimentary rocks and various mineralised centres. Fault, fracture and vein arrays at the
porphyry-related deposits are used to assess the influence of the regional stress field on
the formation of these deposits. The section documents a temporal change in the
principal fault-fractures trend with time and links these changes to plate convergence
direction.
Section C
The third section focuses on petrographical and geochemical data (major, trace,
rare earth element and radiogenic isotope compositions) of the magmatic rocks in the
region. Different igneous suites are identified and compared. A comparison between
mineralised and unmineralised porphyry intrusions is also addressed. Selected samples
are modelled using REE and trace element models to estimate possible changes in the
residual mineralogy of a developing magmatic arc. The section concludes with a
geochemical comparison with mineralised porphyry deposits in Chile and magmatic
model for Tertiary igneous rocks in the Cajamarca region.
Section D
P-2
Thesis Introduction
Section E
The final section of this thesis unifies new geochronological and geochemical
data with structural observations and deposit geology to develop a top-to-bottom
tectonomagmatic model for the formation of Miocene porphyry-related and high-
sulphidation deposits in the Cajamarca region.
P-3