Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the cyclone.

4. Results and analyses

The results of the CFD predictions on the natural vortex length are summarized in Table 2 for all geometries studied.
The corresponding analysis of variance is tabulated in Table 3. The extremely small probability value (far smaller than
0.050) indicates that the calculation data are fitted well by the quadratic model, which is much higher than the 95%
confidence level.Via the multiple regression, a polynomial quadratic model or called a second-order response surface model was obtained
as following:

Y = −3.59538 + 2.70570X1 + 0.249231X2

+3.51131X3 + 0.540555X4 + 1.00495X5 −6.45064X21 − 0.928410X22 − 30.8026X23 −0.0330256X24 − 0.0318385X25 − 0.290625X1X2
Table 2 Central composite design of l/D (Y =l/D)

1 0.3 0.30 0.15 0.5 10.20 5.000 2 0.7 0.30 0.15 0.5 10.20 4.010 3 0.3 0.80 0.15 0.5 10.20 4.300 4 0.7 0.80 0.15 0.5 10.20 2.950 5 0.3 0.30 0.35 0.5
10.20 4.200 6 0.7 0.30 0.35 0.5 10.20 3.850 7 0.3 0.80 0.35 0.5 10.20 3.500 8 0.7 0.80 0.35 0.5 10.20 3.000 9 0.3 0.30 0.15 2.5 10.20 4.750 10 0.7
0.30 0.15 2.5 10.20 4.500 11 0.3 0.80 0.15 2.5 10.20 4.550 12 0.7 0.80 0.15 2.5 10.20 4.300 13 0.3 0.30 0.35 2.5 10.20 3.950 14 0.7 0.30 0.35 2.5
10.20 3.750 15 0.3 0.80 0.35 2.5 10.20 4.000 16 0.7 0.80 0.35 2.5 10.20 3.800 17 0.3 0.30 0.15 0.5 12.90 5.675 18 0.7 0.30 0.15 0.5 12.90 4.950
19 0.3 0.80 0.15 0.5 12.90 4.950 20 0.7 0.80 0.15 0.5 12.90 4.650 21 0.3 0.30 0.35 0.5 12.90 5.500 22 0.7 0.30 0.35 0.5 12.90 5.300 23 0.3 0.80
0.35 0.5 12.90 4.750 24 0.7 0.80 0.35 0.5 12.90 4.400 25 0.3 0.30 0.15 2.5 12.90 5.600 26 0.7 0.30 0.15 2.5 12.90 5.300 27 0.3 0.80 0.15 2.5
12.90 5.250 28 0.7 0.80 0.15 2.5 12.90 4.500 29 0.3 0.30 0.35 2.5 12.90 5.300 30 0.7 0.30 0.35 2.5 12.90 4.925 31 0.3 0.80 0.35 2.5 12.90 4.850
32 0.7 0.80 0.35 2.5 12.90 4.695 33 0.5 0.55 0.25 1.5 11.55 5.240 34 0.3 0.55 0.25 1.5 11.55 5.150 35 0.7 0.55 0.25 1.5 11.55 4.850 36 0.5 0.30
0.25 1.5 11.55 5.300 37 0.5 0.80 0.25 1.5 11.55 5.100 38 0.5 0.55 0.15 1.5 11.55 5.200 39 0.5 0.55 0.35 1.5 11.55 4.700 40 0.5 0.55 0.25 0.5
11.55 5.250 41 0.5 0.55 0.25 2.5 11.55 5.200 42 0.5 0.55 0.25 1.5 10.20 4.750 43 0.5 0.55 0.25 1.5 12.90 5.650

Table 3 Analysis of variance for l/D

Source d.f. Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F-ratio P-value

Regression 20 20.8458 20.84576 1.04229 43.22 0.000 Linear 5 13.6016 13.6016 2.72032 112.80 0.000 Square 5 5.7557 5.75570 1.15114 47.73
0.000 Interaction 10 1.4884 1.48844 0.148844 6.17 0.000

Residual error 22 0.7958 0.79582 0.0362

Total 42 21.6416

+ 4.03906X1X3 + 0.357031X1X4 + 0.108218X1X5

+ 0.693750X2X3 + 0.481875X2X4 − 0.0828704X2X5 − 0.0467188X3X4 + 0.730324X3X5 − 0.0589120X4X5(6)

No. X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 Y
F. Qian, M. Zhang / Computers and Chemical Engineering 29 (2005) 2155–2162 2159

Table 4 Estimated regression coefficients for l/D

Term Coefficient Standard error coefficient T-ratio P-value

Constant 5.24721 0.03628 144.628 0.000 De/D −0.22191 0.02663 −8.332 0.000 a/D −0.24456 0.02663 −9.183 0.000 b/D −0.17544 0.02663 −6.588
0.000 (h−S)/D 0.08779 0.02663 3.297 0.002 lnRe 0.50250 0.02663 18.868 0.000 De/D× De/D −0.25803 0.09866 −2.615 0.013 a/D × a/D −0.05803
0.09866 −0.588 0.560 b/D × b/D −0.30803 0.09866 −3.12 0.004 (h−S)/D ×(h− S)/D −0.03303 0.09866 −0.335 0.740 lnRe ×ln Re −0.05803 0.09866
−0.588 0.560 De/D× a/D −0.01453 0.02745 −0.529 0.600 De/D× b/D 0.08078 0.02745 2.943 0.006 De/D× (h−S)/D 0.07141 0.02745 2.601 0.014
De/D× lnRe 0.02922 0.02745 1.064 0.295 a/D × b/D 0.01734 0.02745 0.632 0.532 a/D × (h−S)/D 0.12047 0.02745 4.388 0.000 a/D × lnRe
−0.02797 0.02745 −1.019 0.316 b/D × (h−S)/D −0.04672 0.02745 −1.702 0.098 b/D × lnRe 0.09859 0.02745 3.591 0.001 (h−S)/D ×lnRe −0.07953
0.02745 −2.897 0.007 S= 0.1553 R −Sq = 96.3% R −Sq (adj) = 94.1%

The effect examinations of coded and uncoded factors are tabulated in Tables 4 and 5.The probability value (P-value)
decreases with an increasing absolute T-ratio, or the coefficient to standard error ratio. A small probability value
suggests that the influence of the factor is significant. When the probability value for a factor is greater than 0.5, it
means that the influen- tial degree of the factor is lower than the 95% confidence level. For some factors, the standard
error is probably even bigger than the coefficient, resulting in a probability value approaching

Table 5 Estimated regression coefficients for l/D using data in uncoded units

Term Coefficient

Constant −3.59538 De/D 2.70570 a/D 0.249231 b/D 3.51131 (h−S)/D 0.540555 lnRe 1.00495 De/D× De/D −6.45064 a/D × a/D −0.928410 b/D
× b/D −30.8026 (h−S)/D ×(h− S)/D −0.0330256 lnRe ×ln Re −0.0318385 De/D× a/D −0.290625 De/D× b/D 4.03906 De/D× (h−S)/D 0.357031
De/D× lnRe 0.108218 a/D × b/D 0.693750 a/D × (h−S)/D 0.481875 a/D × lnRe −0.0828704 b/D × (h−S)/D −0.467188 b/D× lnRe 0.730324
(h−S)/D ×lnRe −0.0589120
unity, which means the factor is very uninfluential. It shows that the probability values for those terms such as constant,
five lin- ear effects, two quadratic effects and five interaction effects are lower than 0.05. This suggests that these
factors have significant influences on the objective function.

5. Comparison and discussion

From the prediction model about the natural vortex length which was obtained based on response surface
methodology, we can see that, this model not only takes into account the inlet geometry and the diameter of cyclone
vortex finder, but also considers the influences of the inlet velocity, cyclone length and vortex finder insertion
deepness. The response surface for the natural vortex length can be visualized as a function of two dif- ferent factors,
which is presented in Fig. 3. The relationship between l/D and the inlet velocity can be shown from Fig. 3d and e and
Fig. 4 (in Fig. 4, the line stands for the dust outlet. Above the dust outlet, the value is positive, and below the dust
outlet, the value is negative). It is shown that with increasing the inlet velocity, l/D increases gradually. However,
when the inlet velocity reaches a certain value, l/D increases slightly. The dependence on the inlet velocity is not
recognized in none of the three predictive equations, but is qualitatively consistent with Hoffmann et al. (1995)
experimental results. The relationship between l/D and De/D can be shown from Figs. 3a, b and 5. It is clear from
these figures that, as the diameter of the vor- tex finder is increased, the vortex extends deeply into the tube section
initially, when the diameter of the vortex finder reaches a maximum value point, the natural vortex length has the ten-
dency to be shorter. From this viewpoint, Eqs. (1)–(3) did not predict this trend correctly, while Hoffmann
experimental results
2160 F. Qian, M. Zhang / Computers and Chemical Engineering 29 (2005) 2155–2162
Fig. 4. The relationship between the inlet velocity and l/D.
Fig. 5. The relationship between the diameter of vortex finder and l/D.

Fig. 3. Response surfaces as a function of two different factors for l/D.

Fig. 6. The relationship between the cyclone length and l/D.

approaches to this trend. The following two reasons may pro- duce a big difference between the results of the
simulation and that of Hoffmann experimental results shown in Fig. 5:

(1) The geometries of Hoffmann’s experiment were not the

same as those of this simulation. (2) The smoke was used in Hoffmann’s experiment, and this smoke consists of the
condensed vapors of paraffin. How- ever, in this paper, only the gas flow field has been simulated. Therefore, the
natural vortex length in Hoffmann’s experi- ment should be shorter than that in present paper.

Figs. 3b, c and e, 6 and 7 show the relationships between l/D and (h−S)/D (including the length of cyclone cylinder
and deepness of vortex finder insertion). These Figures indicate that the natural vortex length does not change
obviously with increas- ing the length of cyclone cylinder, which is consistent with Eqs. (1)–(3). Although the straight
height has an important effect on the vortex filed distribution, from the experimental results of Alexander (1949),
Bryant et al. (1983) and Ji et al. (1991), this height does not influence the natural vortex length nearly.

Fig. 7. The relationship between the vortex finder insertion deepness and l/D.
This model has the same tendency as the experimental results. On the other hand, as the deepness of vortex finder
insertion is decreased, at first, the vortex has the tendency to be longer. How- ever, as it reaches a certain value, the
vortex has the tendency to be shorter slightly. All equations do not predict this tendency correctly. An decrease in the
inlet geometry increases the natural vortex length, which can be seen from Fig. 3a, c and d. This ten- dency is consistent
with Eq. (1), and inconsistent with Eqs. (2) and (3). In fact, inlet geometry is an important factor which influ- ences
separation performance of a cyclone. High inlet geometry can satisfy high-throughput cyclone, and low inlet geometry
is propitious to increasing the separation efficiency. According to this, the present prediction model and Eq. (1) have
a correct tendency to reflect the practical operation condition. It is worth- while noticing that this model only considers
the gas flow field of a cyclone, and does not take into account the influence of particle characteristic on flow field.
Therefore, this model still has some discrepancies which plead for further improvement.

6. Conclusion

A new prediction model of the natural vortex length was obtained based on response surface methodology by means
of simulating gas flow fields of cyclones with different geometries and operating conditions. Compared with some
experimental conclusions, the results indicate that present prediction model can estimate the effects of different
geometries and operation conditions on the cyclone’s performance more acutely than other models. It is noted that
this model takes no account of an impor- tant factor, wall roughness. Actually, wall roughness has a very important
effect of destabilizing the vortex. However, consider- ing this parameter in the prediction model is quite difficult for
numerical simulations. If the effect of this factor on the natural vortex length is studied by the detailed experiments
(for exam- ple, variance of the construction and solid material), the cost and workload should be enormous. On the
other hand, although this effect need further investigation, it can be concluded that the natural vortex length is
decreased when the wall roughness increases.

surface. New York: Wiley.

F. Qian, M. Zhang / Computers and Chemical Engineering 29 (2005) 2155–2162 2161

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Prof. Alex C. Hoffmann (Department of Physics and Technology University of
Bergen, Norway) and Dr. Zhongli Ji (University of Petroleum, Beijing, China) for their guidance and support.

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