Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 1301–1313

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

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Nanoparticles based drilling muds a solution to drill elevated temperature MARK

wells: A review
⁎
A. Aftaba,c, , A.R. Ismaila,b,⁎⁎, Z.H. Ibupotod,e, H. Akeiberf, M.G.K. Malghanig
a
Faculty of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia
b
Institute for Oil and Gas, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia
c
Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineering Department, Mehran UETSZAB, Sindh, Pakistan
d
Luleå University of Technology, Sweden
e
Dr. M.A Kazi Institute of Chemistry University of Sindh, Pakistan
f
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia
g
Department of Environmental Management and Policy, BUITEMS Quetta, Pakistan

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Demand of the oil and gas energy is increasing very drastically. Conventional hydrocarbon reservoirs contain
Drilling additives below the sealing cap rock (shale) and easily move towards wellbore are at the depletion stage. Therefore,
Nanoparticles drilling engineers in collaboration with mud engineers, geologists and geophysicists are looking for innovative
Nanocomposite materials to drill unconventional hydrocarbons reservoir which are distributed at the basin scale and cannot
Drilling muds
approach easily. Geo-thermal energy wells and most of unconventional reservoirs are occurred at high pressure
Rheological properties
Shale
high temperature (HPHT) conditions. Conventional micro-macro organic drilling mud additives with heat
insulator in nature can minimize efficiency while drilling HPHT wells. Oil-based muds (OBM) are strictly
restricted due to high toxic level and poor emulsion stability at HT. However, this review suggests that addition
of macro size organic particles and inorganic nanoparticles can enhance rheological performance, reduce filtrate
loss volume and improve shale inhibition characteristics of environmental friendly water-based mud (WBM).
Despite an impressive amount of experimental work has been done over drilling additives and their effect over
rheological and shale inhibition, taking into account their literature review are rare. In addition, there is no
review work of the knowledge gained to date. This work will hope fully trigger further development and new
research topics in the area of drilling muds system.

1. Introduction Exponential decline in conventional oil and gas reservoirs is boosting

The primarily resources of energy in the world for survival of
human life are non-renewable in particular oil, methane gas, and coal.
Oil contributes about 31%, methane gas 21%, coal 29%, nuclear 4.8%
and sum of all renewable energies contribute 10.6% to total primary
energy supply [1]. Global hydrocarbon energy demand increased by 8%
from 2004 to 2012. Expertise projected that the two-quarters of world's
energy demand will continue to be fulfilled primarily by fossil fuels
through 2040 [2]. Most possible way to overcome the fossil fuels energy
crisis is to explore and drill more oil and gas wells by 2020 [3].
the interest among investors and wildcatters to drill unconventional
reservoirs which are located under HPHT downhole conditions.
Additionally, for renewable sustainable energy development various
geo-thermal energy wells are drilled using high temperature drilling
fluids system. Drilling muds play a very significant role in drilling
process [4]. The first historic cable tool well drilled in 1859, and first
rotary well drilled in 1863 by using WBM [5]. However, some studies
reported first oil well is drilled by China in around 2000 BCE [6]. Oil
and gas well drilling process depends on behaviour of drilling muds.
Drilling muds are typically composed of liquids, solids, and chemical

Abbreviations: AAM, anodic alumina membrane; CMC, carboxy methyl cellulose; CoF, coefficient of fiction; HPA, hidroxypropylamide; HPHT, high temperature high pressure; KCl,
potassium chloride; MBCA, 4,4′-methylenebis-cyclohexanamine; Mont, montmorillonite; NA, not available; NaCl, sodium chloride; NADF, non-aqueous drilling fluids; NG, natural gas;
OBM, oil-based mud; PAC, polyanionic cellulose; PAM, polyacrylamide; PEG, polyethylene glycol; PEI70,000, polyethyleneimine; PG, polyglycerol; PHPA, polyhydrolytic polyacrylamide;
PPG, polypropylene glycol; ROP, rate of penetration; SBM, synthetic-based mud; TPEC, total primary energy consumption; TKKP, tetra-potassium pyrophosphate; TPES, total primary
energy supply; WBM, water-based mud
⁎
Corresponding author at: Faculty of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Malaysia.
⁎⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: adnan.aftab11@gmail.com (A. Aftab), razak@utm.my (A.R. Ismail).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.03.050
Received 23 January 2016; Received in revised form 29 January 2017; Accepted 8 March 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Aftab et al.
Nomenclature
lb/bbl pound per barrel
°C centigrade
°F Fahrenheit
µm micron
Ca+ calcium
CaCl2 calcium chloride
cp centipoise
Cr3+ chromium
CuO copper oxide
ft foot
K potassium
KCOOH potassium formate
M molarities
Mg+ magnesium
ml mililitre
components. Primary functions of drilling muds are to cleaning the
wellbore, transporting the drill cuttings, cooling and lubricating the
drill bit, maintaining wellbore stability, controlling the formation
pressure, preventing reservoir fluids inflows, forming thin and im-
permeable filter cake [5,7,8]. Furthermore, in petroleum production,
permeability of rock is preserved during earlier to late life of well such
as drilling to final assisted recovery operations. Therefore, drilling
muds are designed to avoid damage to permeability near-well region
[9,10]. Inappropriate size of bridging material used for prevention of
filtrate loss and pore throat plugging of shale in drilling muds can plug
the producing channels and reduce the productivity of hydrocarbon
due to formation damage. Thus, formulation of drilling mud plays a
very important role in productivity of oil and gas. Formation damage
due to filtrate invasion can adversely block the producing channels,
thereby contributes to decline productivity of oil and gas. Anyanwu and
Mustapha [11]. examined the effect of birding materials in particularly
mica and alumina nanoparticles over filtrate loss and formation
damage. Mica and alumina nanoparticles can reduce filtrate loss
volume thereby formation damage was minimized. Mahmoud et al.
[12] demonstrated that ferric oxide nanoparticles and nanosilica
improved the drilling muds properties with less formation damage.
Drilling muds have two different types WBM, and non aqueous drilling
fluids (NADF) such as OBM and synthetic-based mud (SBM) [13].
OBM showed better shale inhibition, and rheological performance but
it has high toxicity level, lower emulsion stability at HPHT and affect
well logging performance.
Among various drilling muds, WBM is considered most inexpen-
sively, widely and environmentally friendly mud [14–17]. WBM can be
a better option to drill water sensitive shale with inhibitors which may
provide better shale inhibition and require lower disposal cost.
Addition of potassium chloride (KCl) in WBW is frequently well
accepted and commonly adopted by oil and gas industry to control
rheological properties and better hydrate-resistant particularly in shale
[18]. Santoyo [19] modeled numerical equations for the behaviour of
11 WBM at high temperature used in drilling of geo thermal wells
located in Mexico. Serpen et al. [20] demonstrated various high
temperature WBM for drilling geo-thermal wells through laboratory
work. Besides the fact that WBM has great potential for drilling fossil
fuels wells, it is also used for drilling geo-thermal wells. Clark et al. and
other researchers [21,22] all highlighted in their studies that high
concentration of KCl in conjunction with polymer can improve
performance of drilling fluid. However, high concentration of KCl in
WBM can separate the mud into two phases such as liquid and
sediments [23]. Therefore, application of polymers were broadened
to improve rheological [24] and shale inhibition [25,26] characteristics
of drilling muds.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 1301–1313
mPa.s mili pascal's
Mtoe metric tonnes of oil equivalent
MWCNT multi-walled carbon nanotube
nm nanometer
Pa Pascal's
pH power of hydrogen
ppg pound per gallon
TiO2 titanium dioxide
ZnO zinc oxide
Units conversion
1 cp 1 mPa s
1 lb/100 ft2 0.4788 Pa
1 metric ton 1000 kg
1 ppb 1 g/350 ml
Polymers contribute to drilling oil and gas wells at HPHT downhole
conditions [27–29]. Synthetic polymers are formulated for viscosity
[30], lubricity [31], shale stability [32,33], filtrate loss reducer [34–36]
and improve yield value [37] as per their particular characteristics.
Polymers were shown to have a broad utility. However, thermal
gradient increases with the well depth. Behaviour of these polymers
considered to be very important functional characteristic at high
temperature [38]. Moreover, field results showed that behaviour of
the polymers are not stable at high temperature to perform certain
operational task that are essential in challenging drilling environment
[39]. Because, polymers have not appropriate thermal, mechanical,
chemical and physical properties [14,38,39]. Polymers like carboxy-
methyl cellulose (CMC), and xanthan gum are commonly added in
WBM for improvement of viscosity and reduce filtration loss. These
polymers are expensive and cannot be used at HPHT conditions
[14,40]. Moreover, their difference with anionic additives limits the
polymers applications at field scale [41]. Therefore, oil and gas industry
is searching the new ways for physically small, multi-functional,
environmental friendly, thermally and chemically stable polymers or
natural products for formulation of efficient colloidal drilling mud
system to employ virtually in all areas of drilling operation [42–44].
Applications of nanotechnology in petroleum industry are very
diverse and can open the new doors for exploration phase particularly
for oil and gas well drilling. Rheological, thermal, and mechanical
properties of drilling muds can improve with incorporation of nano-
technology [45]. Various applications of nanoparticles in drilling muds
have been reported, such as stabilizing viscosity and preventing loss
circulation at high temperature, minimizing water invasion into well-
bore, reducing clay swelling, preventing differential pipe sticking,
controlling filtrate loss, and wellbore strengthening in shale [46–53].
Variety of nanoparticles have been studied for enhancing the perfor-
mance of rheological properties and shale inhibition of drilling muds
namely nanosilica [44,50,54–59], nanographite [59], graphene oxide
[60], carbon nano tubes [44,58], zinc oxide [46], copper oxide [46].
Nanoparticles in drilling muds as a nanoscale additive can sustain
HPHT, and provide shale inhibition.
Shale mainly consists of three clay minerals such as montmorillo-
nite, kaolinite and illite. Montmorillonite average size is lying between
10 to 1000 nm, illite is 20–2000 nm, and kaolinite is 500–5000 nm
[61]. Monohar [62]. investigated that average pore throat of shale was
3–100 nm. Moreover, shale gas reservoirs are divided into three pore
systems, in particular microspores (pore diameter less than 2 nm),
mesopores (pore diameter between 2 nm and 50 nm), and macrospores
(pore diameter more than 50 nm) [63]. Thus, bentonite, barite, shale
stabilizers and polymers have greater particle diameter in the range of
0.1–10 µm [48]. However, drilling muds additives are in macro sizes
A. Aftab et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 1301–1313

and cannot plug the nano pore-throat of shale [64]. Further, polymers 200000
have lack physical, mechanical and thermal characteristics than metal 180000

(Thounsand barrels per day)

oxides nanoparticles [65]. 160000
Metal oxide nanoparticles additive can be a promising option to 140000
resolve these challenges. Akhtarmanesh et al. and other researchers 120000 World oil
[53,66] all agreed that nanoparticles based drilling muds can prevent 100000 consumption
shale swelling problems. For that reason, nanocomposites have been 80000
recently introduced as a drilling mud additive to achieve multi World oil production
60000
purposes such as to improve rheological, shale inhibition and chemical
40000
stability of drilling muds without using surfactant. More recently,
Sadeghalvaad and other researchers [14,38,67,68] have investigated 20000
that behaviour of nanocomposite is better than single sphere nano- 0

2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
particles in drilling muds. Jain et al. [67] synthesized polyacrylamide-
grafted-polyethylene glycol-silica and reported that addition of synthe-
Fig. 1. World crude oil production and consumption.
sized nanocomposite in drilling muds showed excellent rheological,
Source [1]
and shale inhibition characteristics. Mao et al. [38] synthesized
hydrophobic associated polymer based nano-silica composite with
and gas industry was heavily dependent on conventional oil and gas
core–shell structure and found that synthesized nanocomposite im-
reservoirs resources. Depletion of conventional reservoirs shifted
proved rheological, and shale inhibition behaviour of drilling muds. In
interest towards unconventional reservoirs which are located at
another study, Jain et al. [68]. found that polyacrylamide-clay nano-
extreme downhole conditions, not easy to drill with existing practices.
composite is a potential drilling mud additive for improving the shale
Progress of world onshore crude oil and natural gas wells drilled is
inhibition and rheological properties. Sadeghalvaad and Sabbaghi [14].
illustrated in Fig. 3. In the present scenario, on one side conventional
analyzed that viscosity, filtrate loss, and mud cake thickness have been
reservoirs are at depleting stage, on the other unconventional reser-
enhanced after addition of TiO2-polyacrylamide nanocomposite in
voirs showed a ray of hope to alleviate fossil fuels energy crisis.
drilling muds. Paiaman and Duraya [69]. investigated black nanopar-
Researchers presented that higher shale production in particular shale
ticles over mud cake thickness to mitigate probability of differential
gas crowded out conventional production and global unconventional
pipe at field condition. Mud cake thickness was reduced after addition
tight oil production increased to 20 Mb/day by 2035 [71].
of carbon black nanoparticles. More recently, Borisov et al. [70]
Unconventional reservoirs in particular, shale gas, and tight gas are
presented a field study of iron based nanoparticles and calcium based
found at HPHT conditions. Deep hydrocarbons HPHT wells required
nanoparticles drilling muds over fluid loss. Field results indicated that
special drilling technique and drilling muds formulation which can
fluid loss was reduced by 27% compared to conventional muds.
prevent shale swelling problems and sustain high downhole flowing
This review aims to present importance of nanoparticles based
pressure and temperature. Currently the biggest challenge faced by the
drilling muds to drill elevated temperature wells. It was learned from
oil and gas industry is to formulate improved drilling muds which can
the literature review that rheological properties and shale inhibition
tolerate high downhole temperature and pressure more than 350°F and
performance of nanoparticles based drilling muds is not less than
10,000 psi with enhanced rheological and shale inhibition characteristics.
conventional WBM. Moreover, this study provides an important review
Moreover, geo heat is clean form of renewable energy. Geo-thermal
on applications of various drilling muds additives, such as salts,
wells are drilled for sustainable energy development. Drilling mechan-
polymers, nanoparticles and nanocomposite in WBM.
ism of geo-thermal wells is somehow alike rotary drilling for petroleum
and natural gas wells. The highest temperature of geo-thermal well was
2. World oil and gas energy production and demand
reported 500 °C at 3729 m depth [72]. Drilling of deep geo-thermal
wells is possible with high temperature drilling fluids systems.
World primary energy need is continuously fulfilled by hydrocarbon
resources. Global energy supply was 12,717 Metric tonnes of oil
equivalent (Mtoe) by end-2010. Energy supply showed an increase of 4. Drilling muds
107% from 1973 to 2010 [1]. Global total primary energy consumption
(TPEC) was estimated at 8677 Mtoe in end-2010 and rose to 86% from Drilling muds are the homogenous mixture of liquid phase, drill
1973 to 2010. Crude oil and natural gas (NG) contributed 55% to the solids and drilling additives. These constituents are used to achieve
world energy need by 2035 [71]. Petroleum shared 32% and the share different purposes like transporting of cutting from downhole towards
of NG was recorded 24% to global energy demand by end-2014 [71]. surface, cooling and cleaning of drilling bit, providing lubrication
The progress of global oil and gas production and consumption
displayed in (Figs. 1 and 2), it showed that demand of fossil fuels is 9000
increasing continuously. Share of NG, coal and oil increased to 129%, 8000
107% and 41%, respectively, from end-1981 to end-2012. About 80% 7000
of global oil and gas are produced from conventional reservoirs. Global
(Million tonnes)

6000
conventional oil and gas reservoirs are at depletion stage. Therefore, oil
and gas investors enthusiastic to drill and produce unconventional 5000
reservoirs such as shale gas, tight gas and HPHT wells to fulfil global World gas consumption
4000
energy demand heavily reliant on fossil fuels. World gas production
3000

3. Onshore, offshore and geo-thermal energy well drilling 2000

challenges 1000
0
The only solution is to fulfil oil and gas energy supply is to drill
maximum number of the wells. Conventional oil and gas reservoirs are
located at shallow depth having low bottom hole flowing pressure and Fig. 2. Global natural gas production and consumption.
temperature compared to unconventional reservoirs. Previously, oil Source [1]

1303
A. Aftab et al.
Fig. 3. Global onshore and offshore wells drilled.
Source [73]
between drill string and downhole formation, maintaining wellbore
stability, preventing formation kicks, forming the mud cake to prevent
fluid loss, providing information regarding geology of the wellbore
through drill cuttings and well logs [5,7,8].
4.1. Classification of drilling muds
Selection of drilling muds mainly depends on geology, petrophysi-
cal data, previous field drilling data and availability for disposing of the
drilling muds after no longer in use. Classification of drilling muds
based on their fluid phase alkalinity, dispersion, and the type of
additives used in their formulation. Drilling muds are divided into
different classes (Fig. 4).
4.1.1. Gas or air drilling mud system
Compressed air or nitrogen gas is used to remove the drill cutting
from downhole towards surface with high speed. In addition to that,
gas drilling minimized loss of circulation, and increased the life of bit
since air cooled the bit and lifted cutting rapidly. Moore and Laafve
[74]. reported a field study regarding the use of compressed air as
drilling medium in Juan Basin of Northwestern New Mexico wildcat
Fig. 4. Classification of drilling muds.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 1301–1313
wells. It was found that problems of crooked hole condition and water
entry were partially addressed. Additionally, Marcellus and Utica shale
reservoirs were drilled by using air and results indicated that air
drilling mud improved the drilling speed and minimized well impair-
ment [75]. Nonetheless, gas drilling muds cannot control the pressure
of formation fluids in to the drilled hole. It destabilised wellbore walls,
thereby, air was combined with liquid to establish foam mud which
may stabilize bore hole by means of holding back pressure on annulus
pressure to minimize water influx.
4.1.2. Foam drilling mud system
Foam is a form of gas bubbles surrounded by liquid containing form
stabilising surfactant. Foams are typically used to drill loss circulation
zones. Moreover, foam drilling is carried out to drill sticky clay,
minimized erosion problems in unconsolidated formations. Saintpere
et al. [76] presented a comprehensive analysis between foam drilling
muds and conventional drilling muds. Foam drilling muds were
concluded with better performance in terms of time required to lift
the cutting from wellbore towards surface. However, simulation studies
identified that, flow and stability behaviour of the foam drilling mud
are more complicated compared to conventional liquid drilling mud
systems [77]. Therefore, oil and gas drilling industry paved more
attention towards liquid drilling system particularly WBM.
4.1.3. Water-based mud
WBM is an inexpensive, environmentally friendly and most exten-
sively used drilling mud [14]. WBM comprises of spud muds, bentonite
muds, phosphate muds, organic thinned muds such as red muds,
lignosulfonate muds, lignite muds, and organic colloid muds [78].
World's 80% oil and gas wells are drilled by using WBM [14]. Recently,
Maliardi et al. [79] planned high performance WBM which may
diminish ecological effects and improve operational execution.
Additionally, it was demonstrated that rheological properties in
particular viscosity, density and coefficient of friction (CoF) were
improved with less environmental issues. Elkatatny et al. [80] sug-
gested that WBM has consistent rheological properties. In contrast,
Ahmed et al. [81] showed that the WBM has poor filtration properties,
and shale inhibition features compared to OBM. Nonetheless, WBM is
a cost effective drilling mud, and if formulated well it provides good
rheological properties [82]. In order to develop performance of WBM
equivalent to OBM some compounds are added in WBM (Table 1).
A. Aftab et al.
Table 1
Components of water-based mud.
Compound Functions References
Glycol based Shale inhibitor [86]
Flowzan Viscosity enhancer [58]
Caustic soda pH control
Carboxymethyl cellulose Filtrate reducer [87]
Acrylamide copolymer, polypropylene Shale inhibitor [88]
glycol (PPG) WBM
Polyacrylamide [89]
Alkali silicates [90]
WBM is normally modified with inhibitors to drill reactive clay.
Inhibitors minimize drilling muds ionic activity with shale water.
There are three ways to examine shale with WBM, first by minimizing
mud penetration pressure, interacting shale with the drilling mud [83],
second by reducing drilling mud ionic activity [84,85] and third by
physically blocking the wall of shale [48]. Typical composition of WBM
is shown in Fig. 5. Survey of various studies used WBM is summarized
in Table 2.
4.1.4. Inhibitive WBM
Inhibitive WBM described as a mud that prevents hydration of
clays. Inhibitive WBM is sea water muds, lime muds, gypsum muds,
and saturated salt water muds. WBM without inhibitors increases the
problems of shale contamination and swelling which can have undesir-
able effect over drilling operation and increases well drilling cost [41].
The main purpose of inhibitive WBM is to protect shale stability often
identified by wellbore collapse [7]. Normally, chlorides and sulphates
salts are added in WBM to prepare inhibitive WBM. These salts can
reduce the water ionic activity of drilling muds than shale water to
lower down diffusion of ions and water molecules in the shale [92].
Potassium muds are the most extensively accepted inhibitive WBM
system for drilling water responsive shale. Potassium ions attach to
clay surfaces and provide stability to the shale when exposed to drilling
muds. Potassium ions hold the cuttings together, preventing cutting
dispersion into finer particles. KCl is most extensively used inhibitor in
oil and gas drilling operations. KCl improved the rheological and shale
inhibition characteristics [96]. Potassium carbonate, potassium acet-
ate, potassium hydroxide, potassium lignite, and PHPA have potential
for improvement of shale inhibition and rheological characteristics
[97]. In contrast, recently Sehly et al. [7] investigated that high
concentration of KCl in drilling muds could destabilize rheological
properties and formed two phase separation in the mud. Additionally,
drilling cuttings contaminated with KCl become highly toxic and
cannot be disposed at environmentally sensitive areas [7]. Therefore,
small quantity of KCl in conjunction with polymer is used to minimize
Fig. 5. Typical composition of water-based mud.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 1301–1313
environmental and operational hurdles.
For rheological control different types of polymers are used such as
xanthan gum [25], PHPA [41], CMC [91], and PAC [92]. However,
PHPA is commonly used for shale encapsulation [41]. Survey of various
studies used Inhibitive WBM is summarized in Table 3.
4.2. Oil-based mud
For many years, NADFs were used for drilling purpose. One of
drilling mud study with OBM was patented in 1938 [101], it was found
that first use of OBM was difficult and expensive [102]. OBM provided
high level of inhibition, thermal and rheological stability when drilling
in water sensitive shale sections [103]. However, the long-term affects
have been caused by NADFs, such as high toxic diesel oil on flora and
fauna within quite large area from the rig platform [104,105]. In
consequences, heavy restrictions have been imposed on the use of the
OBM [106]. Further, OBM in the capillary void spaces affect the
logging response [107,108]. Disposal of the oily wastes and the practice
of removing oil mud from drill cuttings were also carried out vigorously
when drilling with OBM [98,109]. In contrast to OBM, WBM is more
environmentally friendly and provides better operational performance
if chemically treated well.
5. Additives for drilling muds
5.1. Additives for viscosity control
Commercial clays are used to control the viscosity of drilling muds.
One ton of commercial clay can provide 15 cp of viscosity [110]. Native
clays usually result high solid content compared to bentonite to provide
the same density. The viscosity of clay is affected by the salts either by
formation water or salt added for a particular purpose. Due to
hydration, the dispersion of clay is influenced by the magnesium
(Mg+) ions and calcium (Ca+) ions. Viscosity cannot be increased so
high. It can minimize the flow efficiency of drilling mud such as poor
transportation drill cuttings, required high pump power, and more
chances of differential pipe sticking. Survey of various studies used
different types of viscosity additives is given in Table 4.
5.2. Additives for density control
Barium sulphate commonly termed as a barite used in drilling
muds as a weighting agent. Beside that other weighting agents are
hematite, and high density marbles. Drilling muds can attain 9–19 ppg
density by mixing barite with the water [112]. Density can also be
controlled by calcium carbonate. However, the technical challenge
faced by the drilling engineers is to vary density of drilling muds
function of pressure. Ravi et al. [113] suggested elastic particles can be
used to formulate variable density drilling muds. Density of drilling
muds varied as a function of pressure in subterranean formation. The
elastic particles are usually polymer of styrene, vinylidene chloride, a
copolymer of styrene, divinylbenzene, acrylonitrile, and a copolymer of
styrene and acrylonitrile [113]. Typical range of density and concen-
tration of weighting agent for drilling muds are given in Table 5.
5.3. Filtration control additives
Mud filtrate volume reducers are very important component of the
drilling muds especially when drilling permeable formation where
hydrostatic pressure is greater than formation pressure [115]. One of
the characteristics of filtrate reducers is to form a thin impermeable
cake to prevent fluid loss [116]. Review of fluid loss additive is given in
Table 6.
A. Aftab et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 1301–1313

5.4. Shale inhibitors
Shale swelling due to adsorption of water by shale is the major
cause of shale instability. Xingqi [125]. suggested that shale swelling
can be reduced by adding shale stabilizer in drilling muds. It was found
that copolymer of anodic alumina membrane (AAM) and acrylonitrile
have minimized shale swelling. 2-hydroxybutyl ether and polyalkyl
ether modified polygalactomannans were also used for prevention of
shale swelling [126]. Besides that PHPA can also improve shale
inhibition characteristics [127]. Review of shale stabilizers is provided
in Table 7.
6. Nanomaterial in drilling muds
Nanomaterial has enhanced the performance of drilling muds
because of their distinctive type such as highly enhanced physio
chemical, electrical, thermal, and hydrodynamic properties [39].
Multifunctional nanoparticles applications attract a variety of indus-
tries such as bio medical technology, electronic, coating industry and
material composite [134]. Similarly, successive efforts are also taken by
the petroleum institutions to develop advanced material for nano
sensing or nanorobots to collect the underground reservoir valuable
data for the investigation of reservoir performance and deliverability
[135]. Material added in drilling muds at the dimension between 1 and
100 nm are called nanomaterial [42,43,135]. Nanomaterials compared
to their bulk phase materials offer potential for many applications of oil
and gas industry [39]. Various applications of nanomaterials in drilling
muds have been reported in the literature in particular controlling the
mud filtrate volume [52,54,55], minimizing differential pipe sticking
[50], drilling and production at HPHT conditions [47,136], enhancing
shale stability [66,135,137].
Nanofluids can be described as mixtures of solid nanomaterials
suspended in base fluids. Generically, nanomaterials are metal oxides
which support heat transfer by increasing thermal conductivity [138].
An example that describes the difference between millimetre, micro-
meter, and nanometer materials as illustrated in Fig. 6.
Shape orientation and structure of nanoparticles greatly influenced
the properties of nanofluids. Nanomaterial provided ease to formulate
better drilling muds due to their better dispersion, minimum particle
clogging and adjusting physical properties such as heat transfer,
wettability and surface tension [139,140].
Nanofluids are offering promising thermal conductivities features
compared to conventional fluid such as fresh water [141]. 5% vol of
copper oxide nano material could improve 22.4% heat transfer
efficiency of the solution. Improved thermal conductivities of nanoma-
terial fluids attracted investigators to use nanomaterial in HPHT
drilling muds [38,47,136]. Srivatsa and Ziaja [55]. examined the effect
of nanomaterial on physical properties of nanofluids. Viscosity, gel
strength, pH and filtrate loss volume were measured with and without
nanomaterial. It was found that nanomaterial fluids improved rheolo-
gical properties of the drilling muds. Sadeghalvad and Sabbaghi [14].
presented an experimental study on synthesis of TiO2-polyacrylamide
nanocomposite and used in drilling mud. It was observed that the
additive improved the viscosity, filtration loss volume at ambient
pressure and temperature, and deposited a thin impermeable mud
cake. WBM contains bentonite and other conventional additives can

Table 2
Review of water-based Mud.

Materials Problem Finding Reference

Water, bentonite, barite, and carboxymethyl cellulose
(CMC).
Water, glycols, KCl and gypsum silicate.
Water, polyglycol, NaCl, KCl, potassium hydroxide, soda
ash, sodium bicarbonate, critic acid, polyanionic
cellulose (PAC), partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide
(PHPA), and barite.
Fresh water, starch, derivative, xanthan gum, shale
encapsulator, NaCl, shale inhibitor, ROP enhancer,
membrane former, pore blocker, and water activity
agent.
Water, clay, high-temperature deflocculant, surfactant,
thinner, shale stabilizer, fluid loss control polymer,
caustic soda, buffer agent, and barite.
Lignosulfonatelignite and shale drill muds were prepared.
Materials were freshwater, bentonite, lignite,
lignosulfonate, baroid sulfonated asphalt, caustic soda,
potassium silicate, potassium (K) sulfonated asphalt, K
lignite, PAC, derivatized starch, xanthan gum, barite,
sized calcium carbonate, and glycol.
Fresh water, bentonite, NaCl, and sodium silicate.
WBM and SBM were investigated.
Water, alkalinity source, viscosifier, fluid loss additive,
shale stabilizer, caustic soda, shale control agent, ROP
enhancer, torque drag reducer, HPHT lubricants, loss
of circulation material, and KCl.
Effect of CMC polymer on rheological
properties of WBM.
Potassium treated silicate WBM was formulated
to minimize clay swelling.
WBM for HPHT was formulated and optimized
for rheological properties.
Effects of NaCl-WBM, polymer-WBM and KCl-
WBM were investigated over shale swelling.
Customized WBM was formulated to inhibit
shale swelling HPHT conditions.
Potassium treated silicate mud was formulated
to minimize clay swelling.
Immersion test was conducted to observe the
fracture development in shale. Moreover,
fracture development cannot be predicted by
hardness test.
To report the rheological and solid control
challenges in WBM and SBM.
The challenge was to prepare customized high-
performance WBM for unconventional
reservoir drilled through deviated, horizontal,
and extended reach wells.
Shear stress increased by adding CMC. Rheological [91].
and filtration volume of the WBM were significantly
improved with the addition of CMC
Shale strength was fairly good at very low [83].
concentrations of glycol and potassium salts (2–3%
w/w) in silicate mud. However, rheological
properties were not reported
Polyglycol in WBM enhanced the thermal stability [92].
of the mud. Low filtrate volume was observed by
using polyglycols WBM. Plastic viscosity, yield
point were also enhanced with the addition of
polyglycols and showed better HPHT stabilization
WBM-polymer caused minimum shale swelling [85].
strain % at 500 psi. It was found that NaCl-WBM,
polymer-WBM, and KCl-WBM caused 0.8%, 0.6%
and 0.58% shale swelling. However, shale stabilizer
was used in all three muds
Customized drilling mud showed minimum shale [26].
swelling, it was 0.9% in Fayetteville shale
At a very high load of potassium treated silicate in [25].
WBM, shale swelling was found 0.1% for 60 h.
However, high concentration may raise the
problems of two phase separation such as water and
sediments
Potassium format-amine brine showed minimum [93].
fracture development in shale formation. However,
when immersed in fresh water shale displayed
gradual rise in fracture development
Mud density, plastic viscosity, yield point were [94]
varying with depth when SBM was used. These
properties showed little variations in rheological
behaviour by using reported WBM.
KCl mud showed a higher fluid loss than the [95].
designed WBM. Lubricity and rheological
properties were improved. KCl mud showed 25.5%
swelling and the designed WBM showed 19% in the
same well

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Table 3
Review of various studies used inhibitive WBM.

Materials Problem Finding Reference

Addition of high molecular weight PHPA, and KCl
(shale inhibitor) in inhibitive WBM were
reported.
Inhibitive WBM and OBM mud were reported.
Shale inhibitors such as KCl, potassium formate
(KCOOH), calcium chloride (CaCl2), glycerol,
methyl glycoside and NaCl fluids were
investigated.
Fresh water, NaCl, fluid loss agent, xanthan gum,
shale inhibitor, dispersion suppressant, and
accretion suppressant.
Soda ash, bentonite, xanthan gum, par R (fluid loss
and viscosifier), par L (fluid loss and viscosifier),
barite and KCl (shale inhibitor) were used for
preparation of inhibitive WBM.
KCl (shale inhibitor) and CMC were used to prepare
inhibitive mud. Nonethless complete
compositions of drilling muds were not
reported.
Effects of the polymer and KCl-WBM were studied
over prevention of shale swelling and improvement
of rheological properties.
Accretion problems have been observed by using
high load KCl mud. Thus accretion slowed down
drilling such as blocked drill lines and accumulated
solids inside transportation system.
Effects of fluids activity on shale swelling pressure.
Use of enhanced inhibitive WBM in place of SBM in
ultra-deep wells. Test fluid must met both
operational and environmental criteria.
Effects of KCl on physical properties of the mud.
To examine effect of KCl concentration on viscosity,
chemical stability, and aging behaviour of inhibitive
WBM.
Results revealed that high molecular weight PHPA [41]
could control shale swelling and rheological
problems at HPHT conditions without use of KCl. In
addition, lubricity was also increased with use of
PHPA polymer. Potassium ion was highly flocculated
that could adversely affect the rheological properties
in particular filtrate volume. Therefore, KCl load play
very critical role in preparation of drilling muds
Inhibitive WBM improved by using of tetra [98]
potassium pyro phosphate (TKKP) in the place of
KCl and KCl-polymer to reduce accretion. TKKP mud
reduced shale swelling down to 2.0%. Nonetheless,
accretion was still reported by using test TKKP
Swelling pressure of CaCl2 and KCOOH were [99]
reported minimum at 0.40 water activity
Inhibitive WBM improved the rheological properties [100]
in ultra-deep water well and fulfilled both
operational and environmental criteria
Adverse effect on physical properties in particular [96]
viscosity was found due to contamination of shale
with basic WBM. Later, rheology was improved with
the addition of KCl inhibitor.
Findings indicated that yield point increased with [7]
the aging time at 0.1 M of KCl. In addition, KCl at
higher concentration such as 0.2 M formed
suspension between two phases. Therefore, mud
became unstable. The suspension formed a
supernatant and sedimentation phase. Beside that
high KCl concentration drilling mud can be toxic to
disposal area and drilling environment

Table 4
Review of viscosity additives in drilling muds.

Mud type Additive Concentration Rheological property Reference

HPHT-WBM Bentonite NA Viscosity [93]

WBM 22 lb [91]
HPHT-WBM Xanthan gum 7 lb [94]
Clay 10 lb [26]
Xanthan gum, and PAC 1 lb, 2 lb [85]
PAC 0.8 lb [92]
Inhibitive WBM NA [96]
Xanthan gum 14 lb and 1.5 lb [100,111]
Nanoparticle Based Drilling muds Bentonite NA [54]
Nano Based Drilling muds PAC [60]

improve rheological properties of drilling muds. These additives have
radical effect over viscosity of drilling muds due to presence of
polymers such as acrylamide, acrylic acid and sodium 4-styrenesulfo-
nate [142], polyvinyl alcohal [143], guar gum [144], and xanthan gum
[145]. These polymers do not sustain HPHT downhole environment
and may raise difficulties during drilling under extreme HPHT down-
hole environment [56]. When metal oxides nanoparticles are compared
with polymers; the nanoparticles have better heat transfer character-
istics. Review of studies reported the use of nanoparticles in drilling
muds is shown in Table 8.
WBM is typically consisted of barite, bentonite, NaOH, KCl and
other drilling mud additives to control the viscosity, filtration proper-
ties and shale stability. Variety polymers used in drilling muds such as
guar gum [144], xanthan gum [145], PAC [146], and CMC [147] for
enhancement of viscosity and filtration control. However, these ad-
ditives are not suitable for HPHT and saline environment. Thus, to

Table 5
Typical range of density and concentration of weighting agent for different drilling muds [114].

Type of mud Weighting agent Concentration of weighting agent Rheological property Density range, ppg

Low solids, non-dispersed fluid KCl/ PHPA Barite 71 lb/bbl Density 10.5
Inhibitive WBM 68 lb/bbl 10.5–13
High Performance WBM 91 lb/bbl 10
Potassium silicate WBM 155 lb/bbl 12–15
High-performance WBM 42 lb/bbl 10
HPHT WBM 492 lb/bbl 17.5 at 176 °C

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Table 6 7. Comparison of rheological properties of water based mud

Review of filtrate control agents. with and without nanomaterial
Material Rheological References
property Drilling muds are the combination of chemicals, liquids and drill
solids. Therefore, control over rheological properties is a big challenge.
Encapsulated lime Filtrate reducer [117] Rheology of drilling muds varies according to the formation of the
Encapsulated oil absorbent polymers [118]
wellbore. Currently, the biggest challenge faced by the oil and gas
Divinylsulfone, cross linked [119] industry to stabilize the rheological properties at HPHT condition.
Poly(galactomannan) gum Deep water HPHT wells are also facing the challenges of unstable
density, plastic viscosity and shale swelling problems. Fritz and other
PHPA 30% hydrolyzed, [120] investigators [25,111] have reported that K silicate mud, and cationic
cross linked with Cr3+
system for the improvement of rheological properties. But these studies
CMC [58]
Oat hulls [121] are still lacking to resolve technical challenges such as to select
Rice products [122] optimum concentration of different additives particular KCl and their
Waste olive pulp [123] stability at HPHT conditions [7]. Nonetheless, nanobased drilling
Nut cork [124]
muds showed enhanced rheological properties compared to conven-
tional drilling muds at HPHT conditions [14,38]. Survey of rheological
studies at LPLT and HPHT are summarized in Table 10. Nanoparticles
Table 7
Review of shale stabilizers for drilling muds. based drilling muds showed better rheological and shale swelling
performance compared to conventional water based drilling as shown
Shale stabilizer Reference in Table 11. However, it can be observed from Table 12 that most of
nanoparticles drilling muds studies lacked to provide rheological
Modified poly amino acid [128]
Polyacrylamide [129] properties of drilling muds used to drill shale. Additionally, effects of
Amphoteric acetates and glycinates [130] nanocomposite are reported in very basic drilling muds in particularly
Cellulosic material [131] basic mud does not contain weighting agent additive. Stability of
Starches drilling muds is greatly influence by number of colloidal used. In
Betaine
addition, most of studies over prevention of shale swelling using
Partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide
Polyvinylpyrrolidone nanomaterials overlooked the rules for selection of bridging material
Cellulosic material [132] size that states size of bridging material should be equal to or slightly
Polyamide greater than 1/3rd median pore size of the rock formation [153].
Polyamino acid
Polyfunctional polyamine [133]
8. Conclusions

Primary resources of the energy are fossil fuels. World's energy

resolve such problems, water-based synthetic fluids have been intro-
demand is increased by 8% from 2004 to 2012. Researcher believed
duced such as methyl cellulose and poly(vinyl alcohol) to improve yield
that world's energy demand will continue to fulfil by fossil fuels. The
point and stabilize the shear force [143]. Sulfonated amino-formalde-
only way to overcome the energy crisis is to drill 106,000 hydrocarbons
hyde polycondensates drilling mud dispersants optimized thermal
wells by 2020. This study focused that nanoparticles based drilling
stability of the drilling muds [148]. Copolymer of different hydrophilic
muds could be an appropriate choice to drill high temperature and
monomers namely acrylamide, acrylic acid, and sodium 4-styrenesul-
water sensitive clay wells. Following conclusions can be drawn from the
fonate can improve the rheological, thermal and salt resistance
review:
behaviour of mud.
Polymers such as polyacrylamide have been widely employed with
various metal oxides to form hybrid (inorganic-organic) nanocompo- • Conventional hydrocarbon reservoirs are at depletion stage.
Nonetheless, unconventional hydrocarbon reservoirs are occurred
site material [38,67]. Inorganic component improved thermal stability,
at HPHT conditions. Beside the fossil fuels energy resources, deep
whereas organic component provide better polymeric functionalities
geo-thermal energy resources are located at high temperature
such as chemical stability [149]. Literature review on applicability of
conditions. Conventional micro and macro drilling additives can
nanocomposite composites in drilling muds showed that investigators
degrade at HPHT conditions.
focused on rheological and shale inhibition characteristics of drilling
muds. Review of nanocomposites is given in Table 9. • Various conventional drilling muds additives have been used to
improve the rheological performance of drilling muds such as KCl,

Fig. 6. Scale for different sizes of materials [139].

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A. Aftab et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 1301–1313

Table 8
Review of nanoparticles and drilling muds.

Drilling mud Nanoparticles Optimization Reference

WBM CuO and ZnO Controlled viscosity at HPHT [46].

Nanosilica Prevented water invasion into shale [54]
Montmorillonite and palygorskite nanoparticles Levelled out viscosity, gel strength, fluid loss, spurt loss and density at [45].
HPHT
Surfactant/polymeric Fluids Nanosilica Prevented filtrate loss. [56]

WBM Graphene oxide [60]

Nanosilica Minimized clay swelling, filtrate loss at HPHT and improved the viscosity [55]
Nanosilica, Multi Walled Carbon Nanotube (MWCNT) Stabilized drilling mud rheology [58].
Nanographite and nanosilica wire Stabilized viscosity and prevented filtrate loss [59].
Nanosilica Reduced loss of circulation and differential pipe sticking [50].
Nanosilica, MWCNT Prevented filtrate loss and maintained shale stabilization [44]

Table 9
Review of nanocomposites in drilling muds.

Mud type Nanomaterial material Findings Reference

Inhibitive WBM Polyacrylamide grafted polyglycol-clay Nanocomposite provided better shale encapsulation than PHPA. [67]
nanocomposite

WBM Acrylamide polymer based nano-silica hybrid Composite stabilized rheological properties and shale inhibition [38].
TiO2-polyacrylamide hybrid Nnanocomposite prevented filtration loss and improved the mud viscosity [14].
Organic-inorganic gel hybrid Composite prevented loss of circulation [150].
MWNT-polymer hybrid Composite improved the sealing system for formation evaluation under HPHT downhole [151].
conditions
ZnO-clay nanocomposite Composite stabilized the drilling mud rheology at HPHT conditions [152].

Table 10
Survey of rheological properties of drilling muds at HPHT and LPLT.

Drilling muds Parameters Rheological Properties References

Density, ppg Filtrate Volume, ml Plastic Viscosity, Yield Point, Gel Strength, pH
mPa.s Pa Pa
10 s/10 min/30 min

WBMa HPHT 8.9 – 15 7.1 1.9/2.8/4.7 11.7 [25]

WBM LPLT 9.5 7.8b NA NA NA NA [91]

SBM WBM HPHT SBM 14 12 40 8.6 NA NA [94]

WBM 11 20 35 7.1 – –
WBM HPHT @ 100°F – 6.2 17 7.1 1.4/2.3 – [26]
WBM HPHT – 19 8 10.5 – – [92]
Inhibitive WBM LPLT 8.5 – 7 3.3 – – [96]
Inhibitive WBM HPHT – – 21 3.8 – – [41]
Inhibitive WBM LPLT – 2.5 16 6.7 0.9/1.4 11 [98]
Inhibitive WBM LPLT – 15 20 14.3 0.9/1.4 11 [99]

Inhibitive HPHT – 2.3 22 13.4 4.7/5.7/5.7 9.9 [100]

WBM
WBM HPHT Constant Constant Constant Constant Constant Constant [111]

a
Field properties of customized Fayeteville drilling muds when drilling at 1762 ft.
b
After addition of 0.8 g of CMC.

PAC, PHPA and CMC etc. High concentration of KCl can destabilize
rheological properties. Therefore, polymers were used in conjunc-
tion with salts to stabilize rheological behaviour of drilling muds.
• Conventional polymers are macro in size and cannot plug nanopore
throats of underground shale. Shale has nanopore throats. Though,
polymers and salts provide more water activity than shale water but
the shale still raised the problems of swelling leading to wellbore
instability. Therefore, scientists aimed to use nanosize particles to
plug nanopore throats of the shale and other problematic geological
formation faced during drilling.
• Nanoparticles based drilling could be a possible solution to drill
under extreme reservoir conditions such as HPHT and water
sensitive clay. Nanoparticles based drilling muds could resolve the
problems of differential pipe sticking, wellbore instability, shale
swelling, high filtrate volume, and high CoF.
• Metal oxide nanoparticles are good conductor of heat. Thus, it can
be a better option to be used in drilling HPHT, and ultra high
pressure and temperature wells. However, recent use of nanocom-
posite in drilling revealed better effects of rheological properties and
shale inhibition.
9. Future suggestions and recommendations
Researchers so far have given more attention to single sphere
nanoparticles based drilling muds rather than composite material.
Single sphere nanoparticles such as MWCNT, graphene nanoplatelets

1309
 A. Aftab et al.

Table 11
Comparison of conventional, nanoparticles, nanocomposite water-based drilling muds.

Rheological Conventional WBM* Nanoparticles and nanocomposite WBM**

properties Reid Guo et al. Deville de- Moslemizadeh Ferreira Guancheng Zhong Sensoy Moslemiz- Jain et al. Mao et al. Abdo et al. Sadeghal- Vryzas . Aftab
et al. [24] et al. [26] Carvalho and et al. et al. [157] et al. et al. [48] adeh and [67] [38] [152] vaad and et al. et al.
[98] et al. Shadizadeh [156] [158] Shadizad- Sabbaghi [160] [161]
[154] [155]. eh [159]. [14].

Vol. of mud, 350 350 350 ml 350 100 350 – 350 350 – 100 100 100 350 100 100 350
ml
PV, mPa.s 16 21 17 5 – 24 – – 10 – 26 21 14 99 94 24
YP, Pa 6.7 11.5 13 – 16.8 – – 2.3 – 15 11 9 – 35 11.5
10-s/10-min 0.9/1.4 3/6 1.4/2.3 – – – – – – – 3.5/6.5 – – – 3.0/ 15/31 4.2/4.7
GS, Pa 4.8a
API FL, ml 2.3 4.8 6.7 16.1 – – – – – – 7.2 5.4 – 19 10 6.0 4.7
HPHT FL, ml – 13 – – – – – – – – 21 – – 11a – 13
Lubricity, CoF – – – – – – – – 0.02b – – – – 0.21
Bent or Shale Mnt, Illite, Mnt, Bentonite Mnt, Illite, Mnt, Mnt Chlorite, Mnt, Mnt, Mnt, – – – – – Mnt,
mineralogy Illite Kaolinite, Illite, Kaolinite Illite, Illite, Illite, Kaolinnit- Kaolinite Seipiolite
Chlorite Kaolinited Kaolinite Kaolinite Kaolinite, e, Illite
Quartz

1310
Shale recovery 98 – – – 93 86 65 84 – – 95b 94 – – – – –
rate, %
Shale swelling, −0.1 – 0.5% 40 9 1.5 10 – – – 2.3 – – – 2.8 10
%
Water – ROP – – – – – 98c 72 – – – – – –
invasion improved
reduced, % in shale.
Concentration 15, – 2.0, 10, 10 7.0, 20 30, 55 3.5, 5.0, 4 8, 40 10 10 1.0 0.5 2.3 14.0 0.5, 10, 0.8 0.8
of primary 1.0,12, 10.5 7.0
material, g 20
Type of TKPP, KCl, Bridging PAM, Henna Extract, KCl, HPA, PEI70000 MBCA- Nanosilica Nanosilica Nanosilica- Nanosilic- ZnO TiO2 Fe3O4 Nanos- ZnO
primary PAM, Sodium agent, KCl KCl HPG12 Bent polymer a-polymer nanoparti- nanopar- nano, ilica, nanopar-
material PG, KCl silicate PAC, composite composite cals-clay ticals-clay Bento- KPAM ticles-
Glycol composite compo- nite Acrylami-
site de
polymer
compo-
site

*
Basic composition of all conventional drilling muds and nanoparticles drilling muds may differ from one another.
a
Drilling mud properties after ageing at 350° F.
b
Drilling mud was prepared without weighting agent.
c
Water penetration reduced compared to sea water and rheological properties of mud b +NP B. HPG12=hydrophobized hyperbranched polyglycerol,, PAM=polyacrylamide, HPA=hidroxypropylamide, PEI70000=polyethyleneimine, MBCA=4,
4′-methylenebis-cyclohexanamine, PG=polyglycerol, TKKP=tetra-potassium pyrophosphate, Mont or smectite=montmorillonite, Bent=Bentonite.
d
Fayetteville and morrow shales.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 1301–1313
A. Aftab et al.
developed the problems of flocculation and sedimentation. Thus it
reduces the efficiency of drilling muds. Though, various researchers
have reported the use of surfactants to disperse the nanoparticles in
water. Surfactants are expensive and can alter the rheological proper-
ties of drilling muds. However, various investigators found that metal
oxide-polymer composite or hybrid composites have reduced the
problems of sedimentation and flocculation in drilling muds. Most of
the work published on use of nanoparticles in drilling muds is at
laboratory scale and subjective. Further research can be attempted
focusing to use of nanoparticles based drilling muds at field scale to
examine behaviour under field environment. If flocculation and
sedimentation of nanoparticles cannot minimize in drilling muds; it
could plug drilling lines, mud pumps, circulation system, and raise the
problems of poor rheological performance and shale inhibition.
Additionally, the findings over prevention of shale swelling using
nanoparticles and nanocomposite drilling muds continue to be more
convincing if researchers had meet criteria, in particular the rheological
behaviour for drilling shales within typical range and selection of
nanoparticles or nanocomposite size according to rules reported by
[153]. Tailored made nano-micron composite material in particular
metal oxide-polymer and metal oxide-clay can be synthesized to
accomplish the objectives of high temperature and sensitive clay
drilling. Metal oxide nanoparticles can provide better heat transfer
and plugging characteristic to drilling mud system. Polymer and clay
component can help to improve shale's coating and thixotropic proper-
ties of drilling muds.
Acknowledgment
The authors wish to thank the Ministry of Higher Education,
Malaysia and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia for funding this project
under Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (vote
R.J130000.7842.4F437). We are also grateful to Higher Education
Commission (HEC), Islamabad, Pakistan and Mehran UET SZAB,
Khairpur Mir's campus, Sindh Pakistan for providing opportunity to
explore new area of research in the field of petroleum engineering. We
thank to Muhammad Aslam Uqaili, Ghulam Sarwar Kandhir, Nusrat
Kamal Siddiqui and Wan Rosli Wan Sulaiman for their guidance.
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