Chapter-1

Introduction
A diesel engine (also referred to as a compression-ignition engine) is an internal combustion engine
that uses the warmth of compression to initiate ignition and burn the fuel that has been injected into the
combustion chamber. This contrasts with spark-ignition engines like a petroleum engine (gasoline
engine) or gas engine (using a vaporised fuel as critical gasoline), that use a spark plug to ignite an air-
fuel mixture.

The diesel engine has the thermal efficiency of any normal internal or external combustion engine
because of its very high compression magnitude relation. Low-speed diesel engines (as employed in
ships and alternative applications wherever overall engine weight is comparatively unimportant) will
have a thermal efficiency that exceeds five hundredth.

Diesel engines are factory-made in two-stroke and four-stroke versions. They were originally used as a
more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines. Since the 1910s they have been employed in
submarines and ships. Use in locomotives, trucks, heavy equipment and electric generating plants
followed later.

In the Nineteen Thirties, they slowly began to be used in a few automobiles. Since the Seventies, the
use of diesel engines in larger on-road and off-road vehicles in the USA increased. According to the
British Society of Motor Manufacturing and Traders, the EU average for diesel cars account for 50%
of the total sold, including 70% in France and 38% in the UK.

The world's largest diesel engine is presently a Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C Common Rail marine diesel
of about 84,420 kilowatt (113,210 hp) @ 102 revolutions per minute output.

1.1 History
In 1885, English discoverer Herbert Akroyd Stuart began working the possibility of using paraffin (very
just like modern diesel) for an engine, that not like fuel would be troublesome to be vaporised in a
carburettor as its volatility is not sufficient to allow this.

His engines, built from 1891 by Richard Hornsby and Sons, were the first internal combustion engine
to use a pressurised fuel injection system. The Hornsby-Akroyd engine used a relatively low
compression quantitative relation, in order that the temperature of the air compressed within the
combustion chamber at the tip of the compression stroke was not high enough to initiate combustion.
Combustion instead happened in an exceedingly separated combustion chamber, the "vaporizer" (also
referred to as the "hot bulb") mounted on the cylinder head, into which fuel was sprayed. Self-ignition
occurred from contact between the fuel-air mixture and therefore the hot walls of the vaporizer. As the
engine's load augmented, therefore did the temperature of the bulb, causing the ignition period to
advance; to counteract pre-ignition, water was dripped into the air intake.

The modern diesel engine incorporates the options of direct (airless) injection and compression-ignition.
Both ideas were patented by Akroyd Stuart and Charles Richard Binney in May 1890. Another patent
was taken out on 8 October 1890, detailing the working of a complete engine - essentially that of a
diesel engine - where air and fuel are introduced separately. The distinction between the Akroyd engine
and therefore the modern diesel engine was the necessity to produce additional heat to the cylinder to
begin the engine from cold. By 1892, Akroyd Stuart had created an updated version of the engine that
not needed the extra heat supply, a year before Diesel's engine.

In 1892, Akroyd Stuart proprietary a water-jacketed vaporizer to permit compression ratios to be

increased. In the same year, Thomas Henry Barton at Hornsby’s built a working high-compression
version for experimental purposes, whereby the vaporizer was replaced with a cylinder head, therefore
not relying on air being preheated, however by combustion through higher compression ratios. It ran
for 6 hours - the primary time automatic ignition was created by compression. This was 5 years before
Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel built his well-known high-compression model engine in 1897.
Rudolf Diesel was, however, subsequently credited with the innovation, and he was able to improve the
engine further, whereas Akroyd Stuart stopped development on his engine in 1893.

In 1892 he received patents in Germany, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States for
"Method of and Apparatus for Converting Heat into Work".[13] In 1893 he described a "slow-
combustion engine" that 1st compressed gas thereby raising its temperature higher than the igniting-
point of the fuel, then step by step introducing fuel whereas letting the mixture expand "against
resistance sufficiently to stop an essential increase of temperature and pressure", then setting apart fuel
and "expanding while not transfer of heat". In 1894 and 1895 he filed patents and addenda in numerous
countries for his Diesel engine; the primary patents were issued in European country (No. 16,654),
France (No. 243,531) and Belgium (No. 113,139) in December 1894, and in Germany (No. 86,633) in
1895 and the United States (No. 608,845) in 1898. He operated his first successful engine in 1897.

At Augsburg, on August 10, 1893, Rudolf Diesel's prime model, a single 10-foot (3.0 m) iron cylinder
with a flywheel at its base, ran on its own power for the first time. Diesel spent 2 additional years
creating enhancements and in 1896 demonstrated another model with a theoretical potency of seventy
fifth, in contrast to the 10% efficiency of the steam engine. By 1898, Diesel had become a millionaire.
His engines were used to power pipelines, electric and water plants, automobiles and trucks, and marine
craft. They were presently to be utilized in mines, oil fields, factories, and water shipping.

1.2 How diesel engines work

P-V Diagram for the Ideal Diesel cycle.

The cycle follows the numbers 1-4 in right-handed direction.

In the diesel cycle the combustion happens at nearly constant pressure and also the exhaust happens at
constant volume.

On this diagram the work that's generated for every cycle corresponds to the world among the loop.

The diesel combustion engine differs from the gasoline powered Otto cycle by using extremely
compressed hot air to ignite the fuel instead of employing a plug (compression ignition rather than spark
ignition) to the combustion chamber.

The air is then compressed with a compression magnitude relation generally between 15:1 and 22:1
leading to 40-bar (4.0 MPa; 580 psi) pressure compared to 8 to 14 bars (0.80 to 1.4 MPa; 120 to 200
psi) in the petrol engine. This high compression heats the air to 550 °C (1,022 °F).

At about the highest of the compression stroke, fuel is injected directly into the compressed air in the
combustion chamber.

This may be into a (typically toroidal) void in the top of the piston or a pre-chamber depending upon
the design of the engine. The fuel injector ensures that the fuel is counteracted into tiny droplets, and
that the fuel is distributed evenly. The heat of the compressed gas vaporizes fuel from the surface of the
droplets. The vapors is then ignited by the heat from the compressed air in the combustion chamber,
the droplets continue to vaporize from their surfaces and burn, getting smaller, until all the fuel in the
droplets has been burnt. The start of vaporization causes a delay amount throughout ignition and also
the characteristic diesel knock sound because the vapors reaches ignition temperature and causes an
abrupt increase in pressure above the piston.

The speedy growth of combustion gases then drives the piston downward, activity power to the rotating
shaft. As well because the high level of compression permitting combustion to require place while not
a separate ignition, a high compression magnitude relation greatly will increase the engine's efficiency.
Increasing the compression magnitude relation in an exceedingly spark-ignition engine wherever fuel
and air are mixed before entry to the cylinder is limited by the necessity to prevent damaging pre-
ignition. Since only air is compressed in an exceedingly diesel, and fuel isn't introduced into the cylinder
till shortly before high dead Centre (TDC), premature detonation is not an issue and compression ratios
are much higher.

1.3 Efficiency
Due to its high compression ratio, the Diesel engine has a high efficiency, and the lack of a throttle
valve means that the charge-exchange losses are fairly low, resulting in a low specific fuel consumption,
especially in medium and low load situations.

This makes the Diesel engine very economical. Even though Diesel engines have a theoretical
efficiency of 75%, in practice it is much lower.

In his 1893 essay Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Motor, Rudolf Diesel describes that the
effective efficiency of the Diesel engine would be in between 43.2 % and 50.4 %, or maybe even
greater.[134] Modern passenger car Diesel engines may have an effective efficiency of up to 43 %,
whilst engines in large Diesel trucks, and buses can achieve peak efficiencies around 45%.

However, average efficiency over a driving cycle is not up to peak efficiency.

For example, it might be 37% for an engine with a peak efficiency of 44%.

The highest diesel engine efficiency of up to fifty five which there's achieved by massive two-stroke
watercraft Diesel engines.

1.4 Mass

The average Diesel engine has a poorer power-to-mass ratio than the Otto engine. This is as a result of
the Diesel should operate at lower engine speeds. Due to the higher operating pressure inside the
combustion chamber, which increases the forces on the parts due to inertial forces, the Diesel engine
needs heavier, stronger parts capable of resisting these forces, which results in an overall greater engine
mass.

1.5 Emissions

As Diesel engines burn a mixture of fuel and air, the exhaust therefore contains substances that consist
of the same chemical elements, as fuel and air. The main elements of air are nitrogen (N2) and oxygen
(O2), fuel consists of hydrogen (H2) and carbon (C). Burning the fuel will result in the final stage of
oxidation. An ideal Diesel engine, (a hypothetical model that we use as an example), running on an
ideal air-fuel mixture, produces an exhaust that consists of carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O), nitrogen
(N2), and the remaining oxygen(O2). The combustion process in a real engine differs from an ideal
engine's combustion process, and due to incomplete combustion, the exhaust contains additional
substances, most notably, carbon monoxide (CO), Diesel particulate matter (PM), and due to
dissociation,
Diesel engine exhaust composition nitrogen oxide
(NOx).

Mass Volume
Species
percentage[141] percentage[178]

Nitrogen (N2) 75.2 % 72.1 %

Oxygen (O2) 15 % 0.7 %

Carbon dioxide (CO2) 7.1 % 12.3 %

Water (H2O) 2.6 % 13.8 %

Carbon monoxide (CO) 0.043 % 0.09 %

Nitrogen oxide (NOx) 0.034 % 0.13 %

Hydrocarbons (HC) 0.005 % 0.09 %

Aldehyde 0.001 % (n/A)

Particulate matter (Sulfate +

0.008 % 0.0008 %
solid substances)
When Diesel engines burn their fuel with high oxygen levels, this results in high combustion
temperatures and higher efficiency, and particulate matter tends to burn, but the amount of
NOx pollution tends to increase. NOx pollution can be reduced by recirculating a portion of an engine's
exhaust gas back to the engine cylinders, which reduces the oxygen quantity, causing a reduction of
combustion temperature, and resulting in fewer NOx. To further reduce NOx emissions, lean NOx traps
(LNTs) and SCR-catalysts can be used. Lean NOx traps adsorb the nitrogen oxide and "trap" it. Once
the LNT is full, it has to be "regenerated" using hydrocarbons. This is achieved by using a very rich air-
fuel mixture, resulting in incomplete combustion. An SCR-catalyst converts nitrogen oxide using urea,
which is injected into the exhaust stream, and catalytically converts the NOx into nitrogen (N2) and
water (H2O). Compared with an Otto engine, the Diesel engine produces approximately the same
amount of NOx, but some older Diesel engines may have an exhaust that contains up to 50 % less NOx.
However, Otto engines, unlike Diesel engines, can use a three-way-catalyst, that converts most of the
NOx.

Noise

Typical diesel engine noise of a Fifties direct injected two-cylinder diesel engine (MWM AKD 112 Z,
in idle)

The distinctive noise of a Diesel engine is variably called Diesel clatter, Diesel nailing, or Diesel knock.
Diesel clatter is caused largely by the way the fuel ignites; the sudden ignition of the Diesel fuel when
injected into the combustion chamber causes a pressure wave, resulting in an audible ″knock″. Engine
designers will scale back Diesel clatter through: indirect injection; pilot or pre-injection; injection
timing; injection rate; compression ratio; turbo boost; and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). Common
rail Diesel injection systems allow multiple injection events as an aid to noise reduction. Therefore,
newer Diesel engines do not knock anymore. Diesel fuels with a higher cetane rating are more likely to
ignite and hence reduce Diesel clatter.
 Chapter 3

Functional description of Diesel Engine Parts

The components of the compression ignition engine are mainly heavier in construction than the spark
ignition internal combustion engine. The components need to be made more robust to take the increased
stress levels from higher compression ratios and greater torque characteristics of the compression
ignition cycle.

3.1 CYLINDER HEADS

The cylinder head is bolted to the top of the engine block and forms a gas tight seal over the end of each
cylinder. The head may be cast as a separate head to cover each cylinder as is usual with the larger
engines or in the case of smaller engines a single casting covering all cylinders. A number of engine
parts that are essential to engine operation may be found in or attached to the cylinder head. The cylinder
head for a stroke cycle engine will house intake and exhaust valves, valve guides, and valve seats. The
cylinder head will also carry the valve rocker arm assembly, fuel injection valves, heater plugs, the
cover for the rocker gear as well as providing for the flow of: -cooling water to essential areas of the
head, air supply for combustion and discharged exhaust gases.

The design and material of a cylinder head must be such that it can withstand the rapid changes of
temperature and pressure that take place in the combustion space and the mechanical stress that results
from the head being bolted securely to the block. Cylinder heads are made of heat-resistant alloy cast
iron or aluminium alloy, As an example, look at the design of a small Vee type engine.

The cylinder head, over each bank of cylinders, is a one-piece casting which can be removed from the
engine as an assembly containing such moving parts as the valve rocker arms, exhaust and inlet valves,
and fuel injectors.

On larger engines with a separate head for each cylinder each head may be removed with its individual
valve gear and injectors.

A gas tight seal between the cylinder head and the block depends upon both surfaces being level and
smooth, good quality gaskets, and the correct tightness (torque settings) of the head studs.

3.1.1 Studs

Cylinder head studs are manufactured from round rod, generally of alloy steel. Threads are cut on both
ends. The threads that screw into the block are generally made with finer threads than those on the nut
end. This design allows for a tighter fit in the block, which keeps the stud from loosening when the stud
nut is removed.

The successful fitting of the head to the block requires care, attention and adherence to correct
procedures. This includes using torque wrenches for exacting the correct stress on each stud and
carrying this out in the correct sequence. Assembly procedures will be dealt with in detail in stage of
the course. The correct use of torque wrenches will also be demonstrated.

3.1.2 Gaskets

Gaskets are used to provide a seal between two surfaces. The type of duty may vary greatly from the
somewhat rough surfaces of water pipe flanges to the carefully ground faces of high pressure
superheated steam pipes; from the valve cover on a cylinder head to the highly polished surfaces of
hydraulic pump components. Each duty requires the correct type and thickness of material so it is
important to understand the properties of the various gasket materials and the exact nature of the duty.

The mating surfaces of a cylinder block and head may appear to be quite smooth; however, if these
surfaces are highly magnified irregularities can always be seen. Gaskets will compensate for a degree
of irregularity but they will not do the impossible. If the surface of the head is rough or worse still
distorted then it may be necessary to have the face ground. Fortunately, it is more common for the head
to be distorted rather than the block. It is easier to grind the head than to remove all the studs to grind
the block.
Even though the composition of gasket material varies, they have one common property -
compressibility. Materials used in the manufacture of gaskets vary as widely as does gasket design.
Gaskets can be made from copper and other relatively soft metals, such as laminated steel sheets, Fibre,
cork, rubber, and synthetic rubber, and a combination of materials, such as copper and fibre compounds-
NOT ASBESTOS.

Combinations of gaskets, seal rings, and grommets or similar devices may be used in head to block
assembly to prevent the leakage of oil, water, and combustion gases.

3.2 The Sump.

The engine sump is usually manufactured from pressed steel but in some cases, they may be cast iron
although these are extremely heavy and not seen often these days. The sump is the engine oil reservoir
and it may also have a strainer fitted through which the oil must pass before entering the oil pump. The
sump will be fitted with an oil drain attachment either for bottom discharge or out through the side for
greater accessibility. The fitting of the gaskets between the sump and the block must be done with great
care.

3.3 CYLINDER LINERS

The barrel or bore in which an engine piston moves back and forth may be machined from the cylinder
block, or it may be a separate pressed in sleeve or liner. The first type, whilst used in small diesel
engines is more common in gasoline engines. It has the disadvantage of not being replaceable. When
excessive wear occurs in a block of this type, the cylinder must be honed. Reconditioning of this type
cannot be repeated indefinitely and, in time, the entire block must be replaced. For this reason, most
diesel engines are constructed with replaceable cylinder liners.
The material of a liner must withstand the extreme heat and pressure developed within the combustion
space at the top of the cylinder and, at the same time, must permit the piston and its sealing rings to
move with a minimum of friction. Close-grained cast iron is the material most commonly used for liner
construction. (Steel, however, is sometimes used.) Some liners are plated on the wearing surface with
porous chromium, because chromium has greater wear-resistant qualities than other materials. Also, the
pores in the plating tend to hold the lubricating oil and aid in maintaining the lubrication oil film that is
necessary for reduction of friction and wear.

Cylinder liners may be divided into two general classifications or types—dry or wet. The dry liner does
not come in contact with the engine coolant. Instead, it fits closely against the wall of the cooling jacket
in the cylinder block. With the wet liner, the coolant comes in direct contact with the liner. Wet liners
have a cooling water space between the engine block and line.

3.3.1 Dry Liners

Dry liners have relatively thin walls compared with wet liners. Heat from the thin liner wall is
transferred to the block and then dissipated into the cooling water jacket

3.3.2 Wet Liners

In wet liners the cooling water is in direct contact with the liner. Seals are fitted at both ends of the liner
to prevent the leakage of coolant into the oil pan, or from around the liner lip. Generally, the seal at the
combustion end of a liner consists of either a gasket under the liner flange or a machined fit. Rubber or
neoprene rings generally form the seal at the bottom or crankshaft end of the liner. Liners of this type
are constructed to permit lengthwise expansion and contraction. The walls of a wet liner must be strong
enough to withstand the full working pressure of the combustion gases.

3.4 PISTONS

As one of the major moving parts in the power-transmitting assembly, the piston must be so designed
that it can withstand the extreme heat and pressure of combustion. Pistons must also be light enough to
keep inertial loads on related parts to a minimum. The piston aids in sealing the cylinder to prevent the
escape of combustion gases. It also transmits some of the heat through the piston rings to the cylinder
wall.

Pistons have been constructed of a variety of metals—cast iron, nickel -coated cast iron, steel alloy, and
aluminium alloy. Pistons of cast iron and aluminium are most commonly used at the present time. Cast
iron gives longer service with little wear; it can be fitted to closer clearances, because it expands less
with high temperatures, and it distorts less than aluminium. Lighter weight and higher conductivity are
the principal advantages of aluminium pistons.

Cast iron is generally associated with the pistons of slow-speed engines, but it is also used for the

pistons of some high-speed engines. In these pistons, the piston walls are of very thin construction,
requiring additional cooling.
3.4.1 PISTON RINGS

Piston rings perform three functions: seal the cylinder, distribute and control lubricating oil on the
cylinder wall, and transfer heat from the piston to the cylinder wall. All rings on a piston perform the
latter function, but two general types of rings—compression and oil—are required to perform the first
two functions.

The number of rings and their location will also vary considerably with the type and size of the piston.

3.4.1.1 Compression Rings

The principal function of compression rings is to seal the cylinder and combustion space so that the
gases within the space cannot escape until they have performed their function. Some oil is carried with
the compression rings as they travel up and down the cylinder for lubrication. Most compression rings
are made of grey cast iron. Some types of compression rings, however, have special facings, such as
bronze (inserted in a slot cut in the circumference of the ring) or a specially treated surface. Rings with
the bronze inserts are sometimes called GOLD SEAL rings, while those with special facings are referred
to as BIMETAL rings. The bimetal ring is composed of two layers of metal bonded together, the inner
layer being steel and the outer layer being cast iron.
Compression rings come with a variety of cross sections; however, the rectangular cross section is the
most common. Since piston rings contribute as much as any other one thing toward maintaining pressure
in a cylinder, they must possess sufficient elasticity to press uniformly against the cylinder walls. The
diameter of the ring, before installation, is slightly larger than the cylinder bore. Because of the joint,
the ring can be compressed to enter the cylinder. The tension that is created when the ring is compressed
and placed in a cylinder causes the ring to expand and produce a pressure against the cylinder wall.

The pressure exerted by rings closest to the combustion space is increased by the action of the confined
gases during compression and combustion. The gases enter behind the top ring, through the clearance
between the ring and groove, and force the ring out against the cylinder and down against the bottom
of the groove. The gas pressure on the second ring and each successive compression ring is
progressively lessened since the gas that reaches these rings is limited to that passing through the gap
of each preceding ring.

When a piston assembly is disassembled, you can look at the compression rings and tell whether they
have been functioning properly. If a ring has been working properly, the face (surface bearing against
the cylinder wall) and the bottom of the ring will be bright and shiny because of contact with the cylinder
wall and the groove. The top and back (inside surface) of the ring will be black, since they are exposed
to the hot combustion gases. Black areas on sealing surfaces indicate that hot gases have been escaping.

Under normal operating conditions, with engine parts functioning properly, there will be very little

leakage of gas because of the excellent sealing of the piston rings. The oil that prevents metal-to-metal
contact between the rings and cylinder wall also helps, to a degree, in making the seal. When a proper
seal is established, the only point at which gas can leak is through the piston ring gap. The gap of a
piston ring is so small, compared to the total circumference of the ring, that the amount of leakage is
negligible when rings are functioning properly.

3.4.1.2 Oil Rings

Although oil rings come in a large variety of designs, they must all do two things: distribute enough oil
to the cylinder wall to prevent metal-to- metal contact, and control the amount of oil distributed.

Without an adequate oil film between the rings and the cylinder, undue friction occurs, resulting in
excessive wear of the rings and the cylinder wall. On the other hand, too much oil is as undesirable as
not enough oil. If too much oil is distributed by the rings the oil may reach the combustion space and
burn, wasting oil and causing smoky exhaust and excessive carbon deposits in the cylinder. Such carbon
deposits may cause the rings to stick in their grooves. Sticking rings lead to a poor gas seal. Thus, oil
rings provide an important function in proper control and distribution of the lubricating oil. Different
manufacturers use a variety of terms in their technical manuals to identify the oil rings of an engine—
such terms as oil control, oil scraper, oil wiper, oil cutter, oil drain, and oil regulating. Regardless of the
identifying terms used, all such rings are used to limit the oil film on the cylinder walls and to provide
adequate lubrication to the compression rings.

Most oil control rings use some type of expander to force them against the cylinder wall. This aids in
wiping the excess oil from the cylinder wall.

3.4.2 PISTON PINS AND PISTON BEARINGS

In trunk -type piston assemblies, the only connection between the piston and the connecting rod is the
pin (usually referred to as the gudgeon pin) and its bearings. These parts must be of especially strong
construction because the power developed in the cylinder is transmitted from the piston through the pin
to the connecting rod. The pin is the pivot point where the straight-line, or reciprocating, motion of the
piston changes to the reciprocating and rotating motion of the connecting rod. Thus, the gudgeon pin is
subjected to two principal forces—the forces created by combustion and the side thrust created by the
change in direction of motion. Before discussing the pin further, let us consider the side thrust which
occurs. Side thrust is exerted at all points during a stroke of a piston, except at top dead centre (TDC)
and bottom dead centre (BDC). The side thrust is absorbed by the cylinder wall. Thrust occurs first on
one side of the cylinder and then on the other, depending on the position of the piston and the connecting
rod and the direction of rotation of the crankshaft. Since the crankshaft is rotating clock-wise, the force
of combustion and the resistance of the driven parts tend to push the piston to the left. The resulting
side thrust is exerted on the cylinder wall. If the crankshaft were rotating counter-clockwise, the
situation would be reversed.

When the piston is being pushed upward (compression) by the crankshaft and connecting rod it causes
the side thrust to be exerted on the opposite side of the cylinder. Thus, the side thrust alternates from
side to side as the piston moves up and down. Side thrust in an engine cylinder makes proper lubrication
and correct clearance essential. Without an oil film between the piston and the cylinder wall, metal-to-
metal contact occurs and results in excessive wear. If the clearance between the piston and cylinder wall
is excessive, a pounding noise, called PISTON SLAP, will occur as the thrust alternates from side to
side.
3..4.2.1 Types of Piston Pin Bearings

The bearings used in connection with most piston pins are of the sleeve bearing or bushing type. These
bearings may be further identified according to location—the piston boss piston pin bearings and the
connecting rod piston bearings.

The bearings or bushings are made of bronze or similar material. Since the bushing material is a
relatively hard-bearing metal, surface-hardened piston pins are required. The bore of the bushing is
accurately ground in line for the close fit of the piston pin. Most bushings have a number of small
grooves cut in their bore for lubrication purposes Some sleeve bushings have a press fit, while others
are “cold shrunk” into the bosses.

If the piston pin is secured in the bosses of the piston (stationary) or if it floats (full-floating) in both
the connecting rod and piston, the piston end of the rod must be fitted with a sleeve bushing. Pistons
fitted with semi-floating pins require no bearing at the rod end.

Sleeve bushings used in the piston end of connecting rods are similar in design to those used in piston
bosses. Generally, bronze makes up the bearing surface. Some bearing surfaces are backed with a
casehardened steel sleeve, and the bushing has a shrink fit in the rod bore. In another variation of the
sleeve-type bushing, a cast bronze lining is pressed into a steel bushing in the connecting rod.

3.5 CONNECTING RODS

The connecting rod is the connecting link between the piston and the crankshaft. It is a highly stressed
part of an engine as it must transfer the forces of combustion from the piston to the crankshaft. In
addition to this conrods may perform another duty by conveying lubricating oil through an internally
drilled oil way to lubricate the gudgeon pin and in some cases to cool the piston.

The end of the conrod that is connected to the crankshaft is called the bottom end and houses the bearing
in which the crankshaft bottom end journal turns.

In general, the type of connecting rod used in an engine depends on the cylinder arrangement and the
type of engine. Connecting rods come in a variety of profiles but we shall only study the rods and
bearings found in our engines.
3.6 CRANKSHAFT

The crankshaft changes the movement of the piston and the connecting rod into the
rotary motion required to drive such items as reduction gears, propeller shafts,
generators, or pumps.

As the name implies, the crankshaft consists of a series of cranks (throws) formed as
offsets in a shaft. The crankshaft is subjected to all the forces developed in an engine.
Because of this, the shaft must be of especially strong construction. It is usually
machined from forged alloy or high-carbon steel. The shafts of some engines are made
of cast-iron alloy. Forged crankshafts are nitride (heat-treated) to increase the strength
of the shafts and to minimize wear.

The crankshafts found in our engines are all drop forged from one solid block usually
referred to as one-piece construction

3.6.1 Crankshaft Terminology

Some parts of a crankshaft may be called different names however to save any
confusion we will use the following terms as our standard reference for the main parts.

The Main Bearings support the crankshaft. They are located in the main bearing
housings that are machined into the main engine block. The section of the shaft that
turns in the main bearing is called the crankshaft main bearing journal. The section
of the crankshaft which turns inside the connecting rod bottom end bearing is known
as the bottom end journal. The main journals and the bottom end journals are surface-
hardened and ground so that a longer wearing, more durable bearing metal can be used
in the main and bottom end bearings without causing excessive wear of the shaft.

Crankshafts have a main bearing journal at each end of the shaft with an intermediate
main journal between the cranks. Each crank of a shaft consists of three parts, two
webs and a pin , (journal) The journal, provides the surface on which the connecting
rod bottom end bearing turns.

One important duty that most crankshafts do is to provide a means of lubricating the
bottom ends, the gudgeon pins and also provide cooling oil to the underside of the
pistons. This is done by drilling a hole from the main bearing journal up through the
web coming out at the centre point of the bottom end journal. From here the oil can
lubricate the bottom end bearing. By a hole drilled up the centre of the conrod to the
top end oil can reach both the gudgeon pin and the underside of the piston.

The forces that turn the crankshaft of a diesel engine are produced and transmitted to
the crankshaft in a pulsating manner. These pulsa-tions create torsional vibrations,
which are capable of severely damaging an engine if they are not reduced, or dampened,
by opposing forces. Many engines require an extra dampening effect to ensure
satisfactory operation. It is provided by a torsional vibration damper mounted on the
free end of the crankshaft. There are several types of torsional dampers in use.

On some crankshafts, part of the web of the crankshaft extends beyond the main journal
to form or support counterweights. These counter-weights may be integral parts of the
web or on larger engines they can be separate units attached to the web by studs and
nuts, or cap bolts. Counterweights balance the off-centre weight of the individual crank
throws and thereby compensate for centrifugal force generated by each rotating crank
throw. Without such balance, the crank action will create severe vibrations, particularly
at the higher speeds. If such vibrations are not controlled, the shaft would eventually
break through metal fatigue. Excessive vibration could well bring about the complete
failure of the engine. Counterweights use inertia to reduce the effects of power impulses
in the same manner as the flywheel. Flywheels are described later in this lesson.

3.7 BEARINGS

Bearings serve to support rotating shafts and other moving parts and to transmit loads
from one part of the engine to another

3.7.1 ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS

Anti-friction bearings can be grouped into six general classifications: ball bearings,
cylindrical roller bearings, needle bearings, tapered roller bearings, self-aligning roller
bearings, and thrust bearings. The use of anti-friction bearings is mostly limited to the
exterior areas of an engine. You will find them in use in cooling pumps, fuel-injection
pumps, governors, starters, flywheel pilot bearings, turbochargers, and blowers.

All anti-friction bearings employ a rolling element (rollers, balls, or needles) between
the inner and outer cases. Either the inner case or the outer case will remain stationary.
Because of the small contact area between the rolling elements and the inner and outer
rings and the necessity for the bearing to withstand the high compression stress, the
material used for the construction of roller bearings is usually carbonized steel alloy
and that used for ball bearings is usually heat-treated chromium-alloy steel.

As an engine man, you will come into contact with various items of equipment that may
require bearing replacement. Bearings that are similar in appearance may not be suitable
as replacement bearings. Ball and roller bearings are identified by a numerical code,
which indicates the bore in millimetres or sixteenths of an inch. The internal fit, or
tolerance and any special characteristics are also coded by number. Letter codes
indicate the type of bearing, the outside diameter (OD), the width of the cage, the seal
or shield, the modification.

3.8 FLYWHEELS

The speed of rotation of the crankshaft increases each time the shaft receives a power
impulse from one of the pistons. The speed then gradually decreases until another
power impulse is received. If permitted to continue unchecked, these fluctuations in
speed (their number depending upon the number of cylinders firing on one crankshaft
revolution) would result in an undesirable situation with respect to the driven
mechanism as well as to the engine. Therefore, some means must be provided so that
shaft rotation can be stabilized. In most engines, this is accomplished by mounting a
flywheel on the crankshaft. In other engines, the motion of such engine parts as the
connecting rod journals, webs and lower ends of the connecting rods, and such driven
units as the clutch and generator serves the purpose. The need for a flywheel decreases
as the number of cylinders firing in one revolution of the crankshaft and the mass of
moving parts attached to the crankshaft increase.

A flywheel stores up energy during the power event and releases it during the remaining
events of the operating cycle. In other words, when the speed of the shaft tends to
increase, the flywheel absorbs energy. When the speed tends to decrease, the flywheel
gives up energy to the shaft in an effort to keep shaft rotation uniform. In doing this, a
flywheel keeps variations in speed within desired limits at all loads; limits the increase
or decrease in speed during sudden changes of load; aids in forcing the piston through
the compression event when an engine is running at low or idling speed; and provides
leverage or mechanical advantage for a starting motor.

Flywheels are generally made of cast iron, cast steel, or rolled steel. Strength of the
material from which the flywheel is made is of prime importance because of the stresses
created in the metal of the flywheel when the engine is operating at maximum designed
speed.

A flywheel is the point of attachment for items such as a starting ring gear or a turning
ring gear. The rim of a flywheel may be marked in degrees. With a stationary pointer
attached to the engine, the degree markings can be used for a determination of the
position of the crankshaft when the engine is being timed.

3.9 Air Intake Manifold

The air intake manifold ensures the optimal filling of the engine cylinders with a
suitable mass of comburent consisting of fresh air and recirculated exhaust gases. The
intake manifold also carries out the function of integrating other engine supply control
functions: fuel supply, fuel anti-evaporation system control, and engine operation point
control. Hence, the air intake manifold can also carry out the function of engine supply
mechatronic module, with the following advantages: compact size, cost, and assembly
on the engine.

The intake manifold basically consists of a volume of thermoplastic material with high
thermal and mechanical resistance, hooked up to the engine by means of duly sized
conduits and made in injection moulding technology and welding of vibrating parts.
The technical solutions satisfy needs in terms of weight reduction and recyclable
materials.

Thanks to its knowledge of engines and experience when it comes to systems, Magneti
Marelli Powertrain offers its customers, with delivery times compatible with the time-
to-market, “turnkey” systems capable of meeting the following requirements:
performance, fuel consumption and overall dimensions of engine vehicle applications
from 2 to 12 cylinders.

Through sophisticated virtual design techniques and advanced production technologies,

Magneti Marelli can develop and manufacture complex intake manifolds equipped with
electronic control systems of air and gas fluid dynamics aimed at maximizing
performances, reducing fuel consumption and CO2 and reducing the noise emitted by
the engine.

The level of quality and reliability achieved by the Magneti Marelli intake manifolds is
in line with the best-in-class of the sector. The overall production system allows the
supply of the components to be localized near the customers’ production facilities,
in Europe, Asia, North America and South America, with homogeneous qualitative and
organizational standards suited to the needs of all carmakers.
3.10 Exhaust Manifold

In automotive engineering, an exhaust manifold collects the exhaust gases from

multiple cylinders into one pipe. The word manifold comes from the Old English
word manigfeald (from the Anglo-Saxon manig [many] and feald [fold]) and refers to
the folding together of multiple inputs and outputs (in contrast, an inlet or intake
manifold supplies air to the cylinders).

Exhaust manifolds are generally simple cast iron or stainless steel units which collect
engine exhaust gas from multiple cylinders and deliver it to the exhaust pipe. For many
engines, there are aftermarket tubular exhaust manifolds known as headers in American
English, as extractor manifolds in British and Australian English,[1] and simply as
"tubular manifolds" in British English. These consist of individual exhaust head pipes
for each cylinder, which then usually converge into one tube called a collector. Headers
that do not have collectors are called zoomie headers.

The most common types of aftermarket headers are made of mild steel or stainless-steel
tubing for the primary tubes along with flat flanges and possibly a larger diameter
collector made of a similar material as the primaries. They may be coated with a
ceramic-type finish (sometimes both inside and outside), or painted with a heat-resistant
finish, or bare. Chrome plated headers are available but these tend to blue after use.
Polished stainless steel will also colour (usually a yellow tint), but less than chrome in
most cases.

Another form of modification used is to insulate a standard or aftermarket manifold.

This decreases the amount of heat given off into the engine bay, therefore reducing the
intake manifold temperature. There are a few types of thermal insulation but three are
particularly common:

 Ceramic paint is sprayed or brushed onto the manifold and then cured in an oven.
These are usually thin, so have little insulator properties; however, they reduce
engine bay heating by lessening the heat output via radiation.
 A ceramic mixture is bonded to the manifold via thermal spraying to give a tough
ceramic coating with very good thermal insulation. This is often used on
performance production cars and track-only racers.
 Exhaust wrap is wrapped completely around the manifold. Although this is cheap
and fairly simple, it can lead to premature degradation of the manifold.

The goal of performance exhaust headers is mainly to decrease flow resistance (back
pressure), and to increase the volumetric efficiency of an engine, resulting in a gain in
power output.
 Chapter 3

Refurbishment

3.1 Dismantling

Then dismantling process is done on the HMT tractor engine, each and every part is
separated and then cleaned by sand paper & diesel to clean the old grease and rust. After
that we observed the different components and identified the problems, after identifying
the problems each damaged part is replaced or corrected.
Problems Identified:-

 It was not in working from many years.

 The cylinder head was badly damaged having improper valve seats & worn out
valves.
 There was accumulation of rust inside its combustion chamber.

 The piston’s reciprocating motion was restricted due to broken piston rings and
presence of rust thus the crankshaft & flywheel were jammed.
 The chain used to distribute power from crankshaft to other components like
fuel injection system, cam shaft, etc was badly jammed.
 There was accumulation of large amount of water inside its crankcase due to
which the strainer & other components of engine were jammed.
 The rocker arrangement was not in suitable setting & thus was resulting into
poor valve timing.

 The parts of fuel injection pump were misaligned.

So, we needed to overhaul the entire engine & to inspect every single part of
the engine.
 Action taken (in brief):

 Firstly, the cylinder head was dissembled and rust was cleaned out of
combustion chamber.
It was not an easy task as firstly the disassembling of the engine was quite tricky
as we didn’t wanted to destroy any part while opening it as it was covered all
over from rust.
The cylinder head was inspected and it was observed that the valve seats needs
to be fabricated and guides to be grinded. The valve seats in cylinder head were
grinded for the optimum functioning of valves.
The springs for retraction of valves were also very stiff due to accumulation of
rust so we had to keep them in anti rust liquid,

 Removing flywheel from the engine was also very difficult due to its heavy
weight and weak bolts. We had to unscrew it very carefully as if the bolts were
broken in the process than it will be very difficult to put the flywheel back
together.
 The combustion chamber was dissembled it was found in the process that the
cylinder lining was very rough due to accumulation of carbon particles and rust
 making it very hard. So we had to remove it with fine sand paper such as to
maintain its inner lining finish for proper linear motion of pistons.
 For proper visibility of movement of different parts we had to cut the engine to
show its cut section views. It was chosen very carefully that from where we
should cut the engine such as we can see all the internal moving parts, cuts
should be made such that the do not effect the assembly of other different parts,
mounted on the engine, also it must be cut in such a way that it cannot effect the
structural integrity of the engine.

The cutting of the block was again very tricky part , we had to use different
cutting tools such as hand cutters of different horsepower’s according to the
depth of cut and space available. We mainly used 4’’ and 7’’ cutter blades , for
some areas where space was less hack saw was used, also for final finishing and
for removal of burrs flat file was used.
 Each piston was then cleaned properly with fine sandpaper and was lubricated
for its smooth working. Broken piston rings were also replaced and the old ones
which were used again was cleaned thoroughly.
 The engine had a lot of journal bearings each of them was in very bad condition
as they were worn out. So we had to give them a smooth finish by using different
grades of sand paper and oil in a uniform motion such as to make a smooth
surface out of it.
These bearings generally were present at the crank shaft as the crankshaft rotates
on it and also on the connecting rod of piston where it is attached with the crank
shaft.

 The cam shaft was aligned properly with very difficulty as we had to maintain
the timings of 4 cylinders at a simple time.
 The fuel pump parts’ were thoroughly cleaned & properly aligned according to
type of engine.
 Also to prevent it from corrosion in future, we first coated the engine with red
oxide than after that iron paint is used.
  Also inlet & exhaust valves were replaced so that the fuel should burn properly
without gas pressure leakage.
 The rocker arm arrangement was set and valve timing was maintained so that
the proper compression ratio would be attained which took a lot of time &
virtual calculations.
 Setting of rocker arm played a crucial role in generating enough gas pressure
for initiating ignition and it was most difficult & important step.
 After taking these steps, we assembled the engine back with due care.

The main idea behind this refurbishment of the dead engine was to use as much as original
parts. So we gave all our efforts in saving each and every part that was originally a part of the
engine.

Process

Stand making

Final Assembly

4.1.2 Welding of Base stand (Frame)

The dimensions used for the base stand(frame) were given as:

Length of frame- 2 feet

Width of frame- 1.3 feet

Height of frame- 1 feet

4.1.3 Welding

After that the frame was welded to support the whole engine on it. We used electric arc
welding using consumable electrode. Temperature range goes from 3000 to 6000
degree Celsius.

Fig 4.9 Welding

 Fig. 4.10 Base stand

4.2 Final assembly

After doing refurbishment, repairing, cleaning etc. we completed our final assembly
which is fully functional system.

Fig 4.12 Final assembly (front view) (a)

Fig 4.13 Final assembly (front view) (b)

Fig 4.14 Final assembly (side view) (a)

Fig 4.15 Final assembly (side view) (b)

Fig 4.16 Final assembly (side view) (c)

Fig 4.17 Final assembly (top view) (a)

Fig 4.18 Final assembly (top view) (b)

 Chapter 5

CONCLUSION

The modification and refurbishment of the tractor engine unit is done by following the
given procedure:

1. Cleaning of all parts of differential.

2. Maintaining of teeth on pinion gear.

3. Construction of metal ring.

4. Construction of stand for holding the differential unit.

5. Using a handle to rotate the pinion gear of differential to check its proper working.

The different mechanical properties of cast iron (used for making ring and stand) are
given as under:

1. Tensile strength - 414MPa 2. Yield strength - 276MPa 3. Brinell hardness -

160 to 220

Hence, the differential unit is in proper working condition after the refurbishment and
the damaged parts are properly repaired and moving smoothly.
 Chapter 6

FUTURE SCOPE

1. The modified tractor engine unit can be used as a model for representing the practical
functioning of a 4 cylinder diesel engine to students in automobile engineering
laboratory.

2. When the rotation is provided to the crankshaft through a handle than the motion of
each and every part of the engine can be easily viewed.

3. The cut section of the engine shows the cam shaft movement, movement of
crankshaft and also the linear motion of the pistons.

4. This model can also be overhauled to show the inner parts of engine such as piston
crown, connecting rod, gudgeon pin, bearings, etc.

5. With the help of this model the other types engines can also be easily explained by
pointing out the differences.

6. For the proper view of working of all the gears and parts of engine, a cut section can
be made by cutting the casing.
7. By measuring the force required to rotate the crankshaft we can easily calculate the
power losses and different forces action on it.