SG NOTES 2.

Instructional Reinforcement
3. Feedback and Correction
Chapter 1
4. Cues and Explanation
Most important variable in learning: 5. Student Class Participation

1. Student Achievement Five next most effective:

2. Family Life
6. Improved Reading & Study Skills
3. IQ
7. Cooperative Learning
4. Peer Group
8. Graded Homework
5. Social Class
9. Classroom Morale
Effective Teaching: 10. Initial Cognitive Prerequisites

1. Classroom Management Quantity and Quality of Instruction – most important factors

2. Direct Instruction/ Explicit Teaching
9 General factors influence student achievement: (Herb Welberg’s)
3. Time on Task
4. Questioning 1. Ability
5. Comprehension Instruction 2. Motivation
6. Level of Cognitive Instruction 3. Stage of Development
7. Grouping 4. Instructional Quality
5. Instructional Quantity
Classroom – where the action is
6. Home Environment
Instructional Tasks – core of the classroom setting 7. Classroom Social Group
8. Peer Group
Alterable Environment – elements of the classroom that teachers and schools 9. Use of out-of-school time
can change.
Time in school divided into four categories relating to academic work:
Classroom Tasks that are initiated by the teacher fall into four categories:
(1) Mandated Time – School Calendar
(1) Incremental Task (focus on new skills/ideas) (2) Allocated Time – allocated to different subjects
(2) Restructuring Tasks (discovery of an idea or pattern & require some (3) Academic Instructional Time – teacher spends in class/academic learning
reorganization of data) time/ content covered
(3) Enrichment Tasks (application of familiar skills & ideas to new problems) (4) Academic engaged time – students spend in academic work
(4) Practice Tasks (aimed at making new skills & ideas)
Two cautionary observations should be noted:
Benjamin Bloom’s 19 TEACHING & INSTRUCTIONAL VARIABLES:
1. Do not include “more is always better”
Five most effective ones in rank order: 2. Teachers vary in how efficiently they use time
1. Tutorial Instruction (1:1)
  To increase academic learning time, teaches should have a system of 5 General recommendations how teacher engage students in the clarification of
rules & procedures to reduce disciplinary problems. values (Merrill Harmin):

Major Time Wasters: (1) Speaking up for morality – teachers should voice their concerns
(2) Stating personal positions – students should be encouraged to express
1. Working on homework during the school day
their position
2. Excessive viewing of films
(3) Explaining rules
3. Changing & beginning classes
(4) Speaking forthrightly
4. Registration & Testing
(5) Increasing moral experience – teachers must monitor their experience
5. Extracurricular Activities
Read: Piaget and Kohlberg’s Theory
MORAL KNOWLEDGE
Developmental Theories – address the change that occurs as a consequence of
 Laws and customs of society – most important sources of moral
learning appropriate tasks during critical stages of life.
knowledge
 Before age 5 – morality does not exist
Morally Mature Person:
 About 5-6 – conscience becomes less
1. Respect human dignity
Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development:
2. Cares about the welfare of others
3. Integrates individual interests & social responsibilities  Children ages 5-12 – their concepts of justice pass from a rigid & inflexible
4. Demonstrates integrity notion of right and wrong
5. Reflects of moral choices  3 great periods of development of the sense of justice in the child
6. Seeks peaceful resolution of conflict 1. Age 5 – lasting up to 7-8 – justice is subordinated to adult authority
MORAL VALUES 2. 8-11 – progressive equalitarianism
Values Clarification – “Values building” 3. 11-12 – purely equalitarian justice is tempered by consideration of
equity
- Part of the teaching-learning process
- Have high regard on creativity, freedom & self-realization Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning: (correspond to piaget’s cognitive
development)
Ways of Teaching Values Clarification:
1. Preconventional Level – sense of right and wrong not get developed
1. Inculcation – teaching accepted values with the support of common law  Children do as they are told because they feel punishment
2. Moral development – highlighting moral  Children realize that certain actions bring rewards
3. Analysis of issues – examination of situations 2. Conventional Level – children are concerned about what other people
4. Action Learning – trying and testing values think of them
5. Valuing – method of choosing, prizing, and acting  Children seek their parent’s approval by being nice
 Children begin thinking in terms of law and rules
 3. Post-conventional Level – morality based not only on other people’s Cognitive Framework (Weinstein & Mayer) & comprehension or thinking
values, but also on internalized percepts of ethical, principles & authority. strategies:
 Children view morality in terms of contractual obligations &
1. Basic rehearsal strategies
democratically accepted laws
2. Complex rehearsal strategies
 Children view morality in terms of individual principles of conscience
3. Basic collaboration strategies
Principles of Learning – derived from a cognitive psychology 4. Complex elaboration strategies
5. Basic organizational strategies
1. Learning by doing is good advice 6. Complex organizational strategies
2. One learns to do what one does 7. Comprehension monitoring – most important
3. The amount of reinforcement necessary for learning is relative to the 8. Affective strategies
student’s needs and abilities
4. The principle of readiness is related to the learner’s stage of development Learning to Learn Skills – basic thinking skills that are used in all content areas
& their previous learning
Fivefold teacher helps students learn different learning skills:
5. The student’s self-concepts and beliefs about their abilities are extremely
important 1. Teachers do not merely mention a particular learning skill they direct &
6. Teachers of learning to new situations can be horizontal (across subject explain what a particular skill is and how to use it
matter) or vertical (increased complexity of the same subject) 2. Teachers provide progressively more difficult items for students to
7. Learning should be goal-oriented & focused practice
8. Positive feedback, realistic praise & encouragement are motivating in the 3. Teachers determine of students can perform the task
teaching-learning process 4. Teachers identify the processes or thinking operations
9. Metacognition is an advanced cognitive process whereby study acquire 5. Teachers learn to use diagnostic & assessment tools
specific learning strategies & also sense when they are not learning or
6 components instructional framework for enhancing students’ learning
having trouble learning
strategies
7 Comprehension/Thinking skills that students can develop to enhance the way
1. Modeling
they process & integrate information: (Charles Letteri)
2. Guided Practice
1. Analysis 3. Consolidation
2. Focusing 4. Independent practice
3. Comparative Analysis 5. Application
4. Narrowing 6. Review
5. Complex Cognitive
Critical Thinking – is a form of intelligence that can be taught
6. Sharpening
7. Tolerance
Sternberg’s 3 categories of components of critical thinking: RELIABILITY – can be expressed numerically

1. Meta-components – high order mental processes used to plan, monitor & - .80 (high reliability) .40-.79 (fair reliability) less than .40 (low
evaluate reliability)
2. Performance components – the actual steps the individual takes - 3 basic methods for determining test reliability:
3. Knowledge-acquisition components – processes used to relate old (1) Test Retest – test is administered twice (10-30 days)
material to new material & to apply new material (2) Parallel Forms – to overcome the problems introduced by
repeated test items in the test-retest method
Robert Ennis 13 attributes of critical thinkers:
(3) Split-half Reliability – split into reasonably equivalent
1. Open minded halves; these two subtests are used as if they were two
2. Take position when evidences call for it separate tests to determine reliability coefficient
3. Take into account the entire situations
Test Reliability can be improved by these factors:
4. Seek information
5. Seek precision in information (1) Increased number of test items – reliability is higher when the number of
6. Deal in an orderly manner with parts of a complex whole items is increased
7. Look for options (2) Heterogeneity of the student group – reliability is higher when test scores
8. Search for reasons are spread over a range of abilities
9. Seek a clear statement of the issue (3) Moderate item difficulty – reliability is increased when test items are of
10. Keep the original problem in mind moderate difficulty
11. Use incredible sources (4) Objective scoring – reliability is greater when tests can be scored
12. Remain relevant to the point objectively
13. Be sensitive of the feelings & knowledge of others (5) Limited time – a test in which speed is a factor is more reliable than a test
that all students can complete in the time available.
CHAPTER 3
VALIDITY
Evaluation – putting a value or assign worth to something; judgement (essential
characteristic) Types of Validity:

Measurement – quantitative; promote test data (numbers, percentages, etc)
2 steps of process in evaluation: 1st Measurement, 2nd Judgement
Reliability & Validity – 2 major criteria for selecting tests
Reliability – the test yields similar results when it is repeated over a short period
of time or when different form is used; consistent, dependable & stable
Validity – the test does measure what it is represented as measuring;
appropriateness
(1) Content Validity – when constructing a test, we must ask whether the
test items adequately reflect the specific content of the subject; most
important
(2) Curricular Validity – standardized test that can cover a good example of a
subject, but not the subject or course as taught in a particular school,
would have content validity, but not curricular validity; (standardized –
norm reference; teacher made – criterion reference)
(3) Construct Validity – the extent to which the test measures the attributes
or “constructs” it is supposed to measure
 (4) Criterion Validity – the extent to which a particular test correlates with - Have not been tested on several sample populations and
some other acceptable & valid tests or measure of performance therefore are not accompanied by normative data
(5) Predictive Validity – concerned with the relation of test scores to - Provide more frequent evaluations
performance at some future time - More closely related to the school’s / teacher’s objectives &
content of the course
USABILITY – 3rd criterion for selecting a test; test should be easy for student, easy
to administer & score, within budget limitation if it has to be purchased, suitable Norm Reference Tests
to the test conditions & appropriate in degree of difficulty.
- Standardized tests are norm reference
9 factors that affect usability and in turn influence reliability & validity: - The performance of sample populations has been established
& serve as a “basis for interpreting a students’ relative test
(1) Unclear directions
performance”
(2) Reading vocabulary and sentence structure too difficult
- Allows us to compare one individual with other individual
(3) Inappropriate level of difficulty of the test items (in norm reference –
- Tends to have high estimates of reliability & validity because
items that are too easy/difficult will not provide reliable discriminations
it is based on large populations
among pupils & will therefore lower validity; in criterion reference –
failure to match the difficulty specified by the learning outcome will lower Advantages & disadvantages of Standardized & Non-standardized Tests with
validity) respect to reliability, validity & usability.
(4) Poorly constructed test items
Standardized Advantages Disadvantages
(5) Ambiguity
1. Reliability for best tests, fairly high High reliability is no
(6) Test items inappropriate for the outcomes being measured
often .85 or more for guarantee of validity.
(7) Test too short comparable form Also, reliability depends
(8) Improper arrangement of items upon range of ability in
(9) Identifiable patterns of answers group tested
Standardized Test 2. Validity
a. Curricular Careful selection by Inflexible. Too general
- An instrument that contains a set of items that are competent persons. in scope to meet local
administered & measured according to uniform scoring Fits typical situation. requirements fully,
standards especially in unusual
- Published & distributed by testing companies situations
- Have high reliability coefficients & good validity b. Statistical With best tests, high Criteria often
inappropriate or
- Normative data – useful in interpreting individual test scores
unreliable size of
& in ranking individual scores within a comparative
coefficients dependent
population upon range of ability in
Non-standardized Test group tested
3. Usability
- “teacher made tests” “classroom tests”
 a. Ease of Define procedure, time Manuals require careful b. Ease of Definite rules, keys, etc. Monotonous
administration limits, etc. economy of study and are scoring largely routine. Can be
time sometimes inadequate done by clerks or
b. Ease of Definite rules, keys, etc.Scoring by hand may machine
scoring largely routine take considerable time c. Ease of Local norms can be No norms available at
and be monotonous. interpretation derived beginning; preparation
Machine scoring requires skill and time
preferable Summary: extensive
c. Ease of Better tests have Norms often confused sampling, objective
interpretation adequate norms, useful with standards. Some scoring, flexibility
basis of comparison, norms defective. Norms
equivalent forms for various types of
school & levels of CRITERION REFERENCE TESTS NORM REFERENCE TESTS
ability are often lacking  Educator establishes a set of  Measures a students’ level of
Summary: convenience, Summary: inflexible. objectives with corresponding achievement at a given period
comparability, May only be slightly proficiency or achievement  Valuable for measuring higher
objectivity. Equivalent applicable to a levels and then determines & abstract levels of the
forms may be available particular situation whether the student can cognitive domain
achieve an acceptable  Valuable for heterogenous
Non-Standardized Advantages Disadvantages proficiency or achievement groups; range of abilities is
(objective) level wide; test is intended to
1. Reliability Sometimes approaches No guarantee of  Teacher assess the student measure a wide range of
that of standardized validity only on a basis of a performance
tests predetermined standard  Can be used to make
2. Validity  Measure individuals ability in judgement about students’
a. Curricular Extensive sampling of May encourage regard to a criterion that is a performance
subject matter: flexible piecemeal study; specific body of knowledge or  Covers a large or general
in use, discourage narrow sampling of skill domain of learning tasks
bluffing, compares tested functions  Tests are used to determine  Emphasizes discrimination
favorably with standard negative learning what students know or can do  Favors average difficulty
test possible in a specific domain of  Interpretation is based on a
b. Statistical Adequate criteria learning defined group
usually lacking  Usually locally developed &
3. Usability sometimes teacher made
a. Ease of Directions rather Time, effort, & skill  Allow the teacher to judge
administration uniform. Economy of required to prepare students’ proficiency in
time well specific content area
 Focus on the acquisition of
specific knowledge
 Scores do not indicate a
relative level of achievement;
no comparisons made
 Valuable for measuring lower
& concrete levels of learning
 Tests is more useful in
homogenous groups
 Range of abilities is narrow
 Test is intended to measure a
limited or predetermined
range of objectives &
outcomes
 Lack uniform standards and
the interpretation of the score
is only as good as the process
used to set the proficiency
levels
 Covers a limited or specific
domain
 Focuses on descriptor
 Matches item difficulty to the
difficulty of learning task;
does not omit easy or difficult
items
 Based on a defined learning
domain
 Performance is related to a
set of behavior objectives or
referents
 Test items represent samples
of actual performance or
behavior
 Performance can be
interpreted in terms of
predetermined cut off scores
or achievement levels
Constructing Criterion-Reference Tests:
(1) Prepare a content outline of the knowledge or skills that the test will
measure
(2) Restate the knowledge or skills on behavioral terms – that is identify the
required performances. Include an action word and performance criteria.
(3) To increase the content validity of the test, write test items to cover
particular domains or areas, with at least 2 items per objective
(4) Validate the fact that the knowledge & skills measured by the test are
prerequisite for moving to the next objectives
(5) Decide upon scores to indicate proficiency levels (below average,
average, above average)
Five criteria for constructing tests:
(1) Appropriateness
(2) Validity
(3) Reliability
(4) Interpretability
(5) Usability
Types of Standardized Tests
(1) Intelligence Tests – have come under attack in most schools; use them
for special testing or placement of students; Stanford-Binet & Wechster
Intelligence Scale for Children
(2) Achievement Tests – replacing intelligence testing as the prime source of
info for educators about students & how they perform in comparison to
each other & to students elsewhere
Types of Achievement Tests:
a. Stanford Achievement Tests (Grade2 to 9) and the Iowa Test of Basic
Skills – most common survey or general achievement tests
b. Diagnostic Tests – usually in the basic skills & in study skills; to reveal
strength & weaknesses for purposes of placement & formulating an
appropriate instructional program
c. Competency Tests – prove they are competent in reading, language &
math
 d. Subject Exit – students must pass test to graduate, to receive a
particular diploma or to enroll on certain programs
Aptitude Test – predicts achievement; may stress what is not taught in
schools

Checklist for Criterion-reference tests: (1) General Aptitude Test

(2) Special or Talent Aptitude Tests
I – Is my test appropriate?
Personality Tests – generally use for special placement of students of learning
1. Does it fit my objectives?
problems or adjustment problems
2. Does it reflect the action verbs?
3. Does it utilize the conditions? (1) Attitudinal Scales – estimates attitudes in diverse, economic, political,
4. Does it employ the criteria? social & religious areas
(2) Occupational Attitudinal Tests – for students with at least a sixth grade
II – Is my test valid?
reading level
1. Does it discriminate between performance levels? (3) Projective Tests – has some reliability & validity problems especially in
2. Does it fit any external standards? prediction from traits scores to behavioral situations but it is still widely
3. How do my colleagues view the coverage? used in many schools.
4. Does it measure something other than reading level or lifestyle?
Cognitive Processes:
III – Is my test reliable?
(1) Referencing (17%) – identifying explicit or implicit information
1. Are there paired items that agree? (2) Visual Matching (8%) – relating a picture or symbol to a linguistic term
2. Is item performance consistent with test performance? (3) Inferring – deducing unstated information
3. Are all items clear & understandable? (4) Ordering – ranking or sequencing data
4. Have scoring procedures proved to be systematic & unbiased? (5) Representing – devising a graph or pictorial representation of information
(6) Transposing – translating information from one source to another
IV – Is my test interpretable? (7) Summarizing – combining information
1. Do I know the scores relate to relevant performance? (8) Extrapolating
2. Do I know what defines acceptable performance? (9) Synthesizing Standardized
3. Does the test provide test provide diagnostic & evaluative info? (10)Verifying Tests
4. Does it provide useful relative information? (11)Predicting

V – Is my test usable? Questions to consider in selecting in selecting tests (W. James Popham)

1. Is it short enough to avoid being tedious? (1) Is the achievement test in harmony with course instructional objectives?
2. Is it practical for classroom use? (2) Do the test items measure a representative for measuring the desired
3. Are there standard procedures for administration? outcomes of learning tasks?
4. Can students comprehend it & relate to it?
 (3) Are the test items appropriate for measuring the desired outcomes of (13)How are the pupils to record their answer to objective items? On
learning? separate answer sheet? On the test booklet?
(4) Does the test fit the particular uses that will be made of the results? (14)How is the objective portion to be scored? Hand or machine?
(5) Is the achievement test reliable? (15)How is the essay portion to be graded?
(6) Does the test have retest potential? (16)For objective items, should guessing instructions be given? Should a
(7) Is the test valid? correction for guessing be applied?
(8) Is the test free of obvious bias? (17)How are the test scores to be tabulated?
(9) Is the test appropriate for students? (18)How are scores to be assigned?
(10)Does the test improve learning? (19)How are the test results to be reported?
(11)Is the test easy to administer?
2 Categories of classroom tests:
(12)Is the cost if the test acceptable?
(1) Short-answer Tests – require the student to supply a specific and brief
Classroom Test are used by teachers:
answer usually one or two words; emphasizes low level thinking
(1) to group or place student initially (memorization); consist of many questions, little time to answer; multiple
(2) to decide on what to teach and to teach it choice, matching, completion, true or false; sometimes called objective
(3) to monitor student progress tests
(4) to change student grouping & placement (2) Essay test – requires students to organize & express an answer in his or
(5) to guide changes in their teaching approach her own words and do not restrict the student to a list of responses; or
(6) to evaluate students on their performance discussion test, free response tests; usually consists of a few questions,
each require a lengthy answer; provide opportunity for high level thinking
Checklist to consider when preparing classroom tests:
(analysis, synthesis, evaluation)
(1) What is the purpose of the test? Why am I giving it?
(2) What skills, knowledge, attitudes and so on do I want to measure?
(3) Have I clearly defined my instructional objectives in term of student Short answer – takes long time to prepare, but are easier to create; explicit,
behavior? only one answer; susceptible to guessing and creating
(4) Have I prepared a table of specification?
Essay – permits the student to individualistic and subjective; answer is open
(5) Do the test items match the objectives?
to interpretation; there is more than one right answer; susceptible to bluffing
(6) What kind of test (item format) do I want to use? Why?
(writing “around” the answer)
(7) How long should the test be?
(8) How difficult should the test be?
(9) What should be the discrimination level of my test items?
(10)How will I arrange the various item format? 6 factors to consider in choosing between short answer & essay tests:
(11)How will I arrange the items within each item format? (1) Purpose of the test (essay – measure written expression or critical
(12)What do I need to do to prepare students for taking the test? thinking; short answer – if you have sufficient time in preparing)
 (2) Time (essay – if you’re in a rush but have sufficient time after; short
answer – if you have sufficient time in preparing)
(3) Number tested (essay – few students; short answer – large class)
(4) Facilities
(5) Age of the students – (essay – not until the 5th & 6th grade should
students be required to answer essay)
(6) Teacher’s skill
Advantages:
(Short Answer)
 Provides good item pool
 Adequately samples objectives and broad content
 Independent of writing ability (quality of handwriting, spelling) & verbal
fluency
 Discourages bluffing by writing or talking “around the topic”
 Easy and quick to score
 Reliable for scoring & grading
(Essay)
 Calls for higher levels of cognitive thinking
 Measures student’s ability to select & organize ideas
 Easy and quick to prepare
 Useful to test writing ability
 Eliminates guessing or answering by process of elimination
 Useful for measuring problem – thinking skills & originality
Stem or Lead – basic form of multiple choice; defines the problem, to be
completed by one of a number of alternatives or choices; one correct answer and
the other alternatives should be plausible but incorrect
Distractor – incorrect alternatives
3 examples of multiple-choice questions:
(2) The application of a formula
(3) The application of a concept
Guidelines for writing multiple choice questions:
(1) The central issue or problem should be stated in the stem
(2) In the stem, a direct question is preferable to an incomplete statement
(3) Include in the stem any words that might otherwise be repeated in the
alternative responses
(4) Negative statements in the stems and alternatives should be avoided;
they lead to confusion
(5) Use numbers to label stems and letters to label alternatives
(6) Avoid absolute terms (always, never, none) specially in the alternatives
(7) Avoid using items directly from the text or workbook, since this practice
encourages memorization
(8) Arrange alternatives in some logical order (alphabetically/chronologically)
(9) Alternatives should be parallel in content, form, length, & grammar
(10)Correct responses should be in random order
(11)Alternatives should be mutually exclusive
(12)Alternative responses should be plausible to less knowledgeable students
(13)The answer should be objectively correct
(14)The alternatives “All of the above” & “None of the above” should be used
sparingly
MATCHING QUESTIONS / TEST
 There are usually two columns of items
 One column: the student is required to select a correct item; names,
terms, places, phrases, quotations, statement, events..
Guidelines for writing matching questions:
(1) The directions should briefly & clearly indicate the basis for matching
items in column A with items in column B
(2) An entire matching question should appear on a single page
(3) Wording of items in column A should be shorter than those in column B
(4) Column A should contain no more than 10 items; 5 or 6 is probably ideal

(1) Tests simple knowledge

 (5) There should be more alternatives I column B than there are items in
column A to prevent answering the last one or two items by simple
elimination
(6) Column A items should be numbered; column B – lettered
(7) Column B items should be presented in a logical order (alphabetical or
chronological)
(8) Items in both columns should be similar in terms of content, form,
grammar & length
(9) Negative statements (in either column) should be avoided, they confuse
(10)Many multiple-choice questions can be converted to a matching-tests;
therefore, many of the suggestions are applicable to both
COMPLETION TEST/QUESTIONS
 Presented from which certain words have been omitted
 Fill in the blank to complete the meaning
 “fill-in” or “Fill-in-the-blank”
 Suitable for measuring a wide variety of content
 Demand thought & ability to understand relationships & make inferences
 Major problem: the answers are not always entirely objective; the scoring
is time consuming; the grading may vary subjectively with the grader
(Combining multiple choice & completion – effective method for reducing
ambiguity in test items & making scoring more objective)
Guidelines for writing completion questions:
(1) The direction “fill in the blanks” is usually sufficient but the student
should be informed about how detailed the answer should be
(2) Do not use questions or statements that are copied from the textbook or
workbook since this encourages memorization
(3) Fill in items should be clearly worded to avoid unexpected responses
(4) The completion part should be near the end of the item
(5) It is simpler and clearer to write the completion item as a question than a
statement
(6) There should be one possible correct answer
(7) If more than one answer is correct, equal credit should be given to each
one
(8) The fill-in should be plausible to the knowledgeable student; not based on
trivia or trick data
(9) Correct response should not be a part of a particular grammatical form,
common expression, or well-known saying
(10)Use one blank; no more than two
(11)The required completion should be a specific term
(12)When combining multiple choice & completion, alternative should be
homogenous
TRUE OR FALSE QUESTION
 Most controversial
 Advocates contend that the basis of logical reasoning is to test the truth
or falsity of propositions and that a students’ command of a particular
area of knowledge is indicated by his/her success in judging the truth or
falsity of propositions related to it
 Main advantage: ease of construction & ease of scoring
 Can cover a large content area & large number of items
 Disadvantage: may outweigh their advantages unless the items are well
written
 Biggest disadvantages: guessing
Guidelines for writing true or false questions:
(1) Each item should test an important concept or piece of info, not a specific
date or name
(2) True or false statements should be completely true or false, without
exception
(3) The intended correct answer should be clear only to a knowledgeable
person
(4) Avoid specific determiners & absolute statement (never, only, none,
always)
(5) Avoid qualifying statements & words that involve judgement &
interpretation (few, most, usually)
(6) Avoid negative statements & double negatives
(7) Avoid verbatim statements
(8) Use the same form and length for true or false statements
 (9) Present a similar number of true or false statements
(10)Use simple grammatical structure
(11)Be clear and concise
(12)Place the idea being tested at the end of the statement
Multiple Choice - most difficult & time-consuming items to construct; readily to
test higher levels of learning
(4) The teacher is more confident of his or her ability to express objective
test items clearly than of his or her ability to judge essay test answers
correctly
(5) There is more pressure for speedy reporting of scores than for speedy
test preparation
Use essay tests when:

Matching – difficult & time-consuming to write but they are interesting for
students & can be used for variety
Completion – open to subjective interpretation & scoring; can be used also to test
higher level of learning
True or False – tend to focus on trivia; easy to construct and score
ESSAY QUESTIONS
(1) The group is small
(2) The teacher wishes to do all possible to encourage & reward the
development of student skill in written expression
(3) The teacher is more interested in exploring the students’ attitude than in
measuring his or her achievement
(4) The teacher is more confident of his or her proficiency as a critical reader
than as an imaginative writer at good objective test items
(5) Time available for test preparation is shorter than the time available for
test grading

 Measure divergent thinking, subjective or imaginative thought Use either short answer or essay test to:
 Learn how a student thinks, attacks a problem, writes & utilizes cognitive (1) Measure almost any important educational achievement a written test
resources can measure
 Produce evaluation data of considerable value (2) Test understanding and ability to apply principles
Type 1 essay questions – uses why, how & what consequences (3) Test ability to think critically
Extended (4) Test ability to solve novel problems
Type 2 essay questions – “discuss, examine, explain” response (5) Test ability to select relevant facts and principles
(6) Encourage students to study for command of knowledge
Type 3 essay questions – “identify, compare, contrast” – focused response
Cognitive levels of thinking
Major disadvantage – the considerable time to read & evaluate answers & the
subjectivity of scoring 1. Comparing
2. Relating cause and effect
3. Justifying
Use short answers when: 4. Summarizing
5. Generalizing
(1) The group to be tested is large
6. Inferring
(2) Highly reliable test scores must be obtained as efficiently as possible
7. Classifying
(3) Impartiality of evaluation, absolute fairness and freedom from halo
8. Creating
effects are essential
 9. Applying 3 Types of inferences have creative potential:
10. Analyzing
(1) Elaboration of characteristics, categories or concepts (e.g. students are
11. Synthesizing
told some of the objects in a category are “right”, some “wrong”. The
12. Evaluating
problem is to infer from this information the definition of the category
CHAPTER 1 continuation: (2) Elaboration of causality (e.g. what are the causes of WWII? Why did the
compound turn into gas?)
Robert Steinberg 6 attributes associated with creativity from a list of 131
(3) Elaboration of background information (e.g. making inferences about
mentioned by lay people & professor in the arts, sciences & business:
possible effects of events or facts from past events or facts in order to
(1) Lack of conventionality make decisions & solve problems)
(2) Intellectuality
Intuitive Thinking – a cognitive process that has been discouraged on facts and
(3) Esthetic taste & imagination
rotes
(4) Decision making skills & flexibility
(5) Perspicacity (in questioning social norms)
(6) Drive for accomplishment & recognition
10 principles for developing creativity in class and for enhancing students’
Creativity creative process: (Torrance)

Intelligence Interrelated (1) Make students more sensitive to their environment

constructs
Wisdom
Wisdom – more clearly associated with intelligence than is creativity but differs in
emphasis upon mature judgements & use of experience with difficult situations
Creativity – overlaps more in intelligence that it does with wisdom but there is
more emphasis or imagination & unconventional method with creativity
Intelligence – which deals with logical & analytical absolutes
Summary (Chapter 1)
(2) Encourage manipulation of objects & ideas
(3) Develop tolerance toward new ideas
(4) Resist one acceptable answer or a set pattern
(5) Teach skills for avoiding peer sanctions
(6) Encourage individualized learning
(7) Make available different resources for working out ideas
(8) Encourage the habit of working out full implications of ideas
(9) Integrate knowledge in a variety of fields
(10)Develop adventure & spirit in the classroom

Reactive Thinking – react to questions, exercises or test items and give a
preferred answer
Proactive Thinking – generating novel questions & answers
Generative Thinkers – plan, make decisions, deals with social & technological
problems
(1) The kind of teacher you choose to be is part on your reasons for teaching,
professional knowledge & pedagogical skills
(2) Teachers do make a difference in student achievement. However, the
differences vary with classroom & school conditions and are not easy to
discern
(3) Effective teachers are good classroom managers, provide direct
instruction, keep students on task, ask appropriate questions, emphasize
 comprehension monitoring & learning-to-learn skills, and provide small - “authoritarian” “repressive” “militaristic” “prejudicial”
group & individualized instruction toward minority students
(4) Variables that affect student achievement are instructional feedback,
Applying assertive discipline:
reinforcement & correction, cues & explanation, reading & study skills,
and graded homework & cooperative learning. (1) Clearly identify expectations
(5) Quality and quantity of academic instructional & engaged time affect (2) Take positions
student performance (3) Use a firm tone of voice
(6) Moral knowledge can be acquired through academic content, but moral (4) Use eye contact, gestures, & touches to supplement verbal message
character takes many years to develop and reflects the whole person (5) Say no without guilt feelings
(7) Students can be taught learning-to-learn skills, critical thinking skills & (6) Give & receive compliments genuinely
creative thinking skills. (7) Place demands on students and enforce them
(8) Set limits on students & enforce them
CHAPTER 2
(9) Indicate consequences of behavior & why specific action in necessary
Reasons why there are problems of discipline: (10)Be calm & consistent; avoid emotions or threats
(11)Follow through regularly
(1) Many students lack inner control & are unwilling to defer to teacher
(12)Persist; enforce minimum rules; don’t give up
authority
(13)Establish positive expectations for students’ behavior; eliminate negative
(2) Many teachers lack systematic methods for dealing with discipline
expectations about students
problems
(14)Gain confidence & skills in working with chronic behavior problems in the
(3) Many school administrators do not provide adequate support for
classroom
teachers
 Business Academic Approach (Evertson & Emmer)
Approaches to Classroom management: - Emphasizes the organization and management of students as
they engage in academic work
 Assertive Approach
- Expects teachers to specify rules of behavior & consequences 3 major categories of organizing & managing students work:
for disobeying them and to communicate these rules &
(1) Establishment & communication of work assignments standards &
consequences clearly
procedures
- Students are not allowed to forget who is in charge of the
(2) Monitoring of students’ work
classroom
(3) Feedback to students
- Teacher expects them to behave in a certain way in class
- Teachers hold students accountable for their actions I – Clear communication of assignments & work requirements
- Mild misbehavior is matched by mind sanctions
1. Instruction for assignment
- The approach assumes that misbehavior is contagious & will
2. Standards for form, neatness & due dates
snowball unless checked early based on Lee & Marlene
3. Procedures for absent students
Canter’s model of disciple
II – Monitoring student work
 1. Monitoring grouped work (8) Stopping inappropriate behavior
2. Monitoring individual work (9) Organizing instruction student accountability
3. Monitoring completion of work (10)Instructional clarity
4. Maintaining records of student work
Basic principles of the behavioral modification approach:
III – Feedback to students
(1) Behavior is shaped by its consequences
1. Attention to problems (2) Behavior is strengthened by immediate reinforcers
2. Attention to good work (3) Behavior is strengthened by systematic reinforcement
(4) Students respond better to positive reinforcers than they do to
Read/Search:
punishment
 Rosenshine’s Direct Instruction (5) When a student is not rewarded for appropriate or adaptive behavior,
 Bloom’s Mastery Learning inappropriate or maladaptive behavior may become increasingly
 Ryan’s Pattern Y Teacher dominant & will be utilized to obtain reinforcement
 Good & Brophy’s methods of effective teaching (6) Constant reinforcement
(7) Once the behavior has been learned, it is best maintained through
Business-Academic Approach – involves high degree of “time-on-tasks” & intermittent reinforcement – the reinforcement of a behavior only
“academic engaged” time for students; no play no frills approach occasionally
(8) Intermittent reinforcement schedules include
(a) Variable ratio – supplying reinforcement at unpredictable intervals
 Behavioral Modification Approach (James Watson & B.F. Skinner) (b) Fixed ratio – supplying reinforcement after a preselected number of
- Involves variety of techniques & methods ranging from responses
simple rewards to elaborate reinforcement training (9) Types of reinforcers:
- Increase the occurrence of appropriate behavior through a 1. Social Reinforcers – verbal comments “right” “correct” “that’s
system of rewards & reduce the likelihood of inappropriate good!”; facial expression & gestures
behavior through punishment 2. Graphic Reinforcers – written words of encouragement, gold stars
& checks
3. Tangible reinforcers – such as cookies and badges, certificates,
Methods of Effective Classroom Managers: notes to parents
4. Activity reinforcers – such as being monitored or sitting near the
(1) Redying the classroom
teacher, working with friend or on a special project
(2) Planning rules & procedures
(10)Rules are established & enforced
(3) Teaching rules and procedures
(4) Consequences
(5) Beginning of school activities
MODELING – well known system utilized in various social learning situation
(6) Strategies for potential prblems
(7) Monitoring
 - Effective in modifying behavior to the degree that they
capture attention, hold attention and are imitated
Personal characteristics that are hard to change: sex, age, ethnicity, physical
attractiveness, personality attractiveness
Institutional & role characteristics that are easier to manipulate to increase their
effectiveness as models: competence, power & ability to reward imitators
Building good discipline through modelling includes the ff:
(1) Demonstration
(2) Attention
(3) Practice
(4) Corrective feedback
(5) Application
 Group-Managerial Approach (Jacob Kounin’s Research)
- Responding immediately to group student behavior that
might be inappropriate or undesirable in order to prevent
problems rather than having to deal with them after they
emerge
Major categories of pupil behavior: Work involvement & deviancy
Major categories of teacher behavior: techniques, movement management &
group focus
Work Involvement – amount of time students spend engaged in assigned
academic work; time on task or academic engaged time
Deviancy – ranges from no misbehavior to serious misbehavior
Desist techniques – teacher actions taken to stop misbehavior
With-it-ness – has eyes in the back to ones head
Overlapping behavior – teachers ability to handle more than one matter at a time
Movement Management – organization of behavior in transitions from task to
task within & between lessons
Smoothness – an even & calm flow of activities
Jerkiness – disorderly flow of activities
To prevent Jerkiness, 5 categories of behavior should be avoided:
1. Stimulus-bounded – immersed in a small group of students or activity
that she ignores an event
2. Thrust – burst into activities without assessing student readiness
3. Dangle – ends an activity or drops a topic before it is completed
4. Truncation – ends an activity abruptly
5. Flip-flop – terminates one activity, goes to another & the returns; teacher
lacks direction & sequence of the activities
 Momentum – keeping activities at an appropriate “pace”; slowed or
impeded if the teacher engages in over dwelling or fragmentation
 Over dwelling – may take the form of giving explanations beyond what is
necessary for most students’ understanding, or lecturing, preaching,
nagging overemphasizing or giving too many directions
 Fragmentation – takes the form of giving too much detail, breaking things
down into many steps or duplicating or repeating activities
 Group focus – keeping the students focused on the group activity or task;
it can be achieved by what Kounin called alerting and accountability
Students satiation (boredom) can be avoided through:
1. Providing a feeling of progress
2. Providing challenges
3. Adding variety to the lessons
Kounin’s Behavior & Categories for observing classroom management
Categories of pupil behavior:
I – Work involvement  Group Guidance Approach
- Based on manipulating the surface behavior of the students
1. Definitely in
on a group basis
2. Probably in
3. Definitely out 3 causes of disciplinary problems:
II – Deviancy 1. Individual Case History – related to the psychological
disturbance of one child, disruptive behavior in class is part of
1. No misbehavior
the child’s larger emotional problem; surface problems are
2. Mild misbehavior
repetitive
3. Serious misbehavior
2. Group conditions – the problem reflects unfavorable
Categories of pupil behavior: conditions in the group
3. Mixture of Individual & group cases – the problems centers
I – Desist techniques
around an individual, but is triggered by something in the
1. With-it-ness group
a. Target
Disciplinary Situations / Group Guidance Approaches
b. Timing
2. Overlapping (1) Dissatisfaction with classroom work – work is too easy/too difficult/badly
a. None scheduled on confusing; work is too light/ too heavy
b. Some (2) Poor interpersonal relations – tensions among individual cliques or
subgroups
II – Movement Management
(3) Disturbances in group climate – climate is punitive, tinged with partiality;
1. Smoothness-Jerkiness too competitive, too exclusive
a. Stimulus bounded (4) Poor group organization – too much autocratic pressure; too little
b. Thrust supervision; standards are too loud or too high; too highly structured or
c. Dangle organized
d. Truncation (5) Sudden changes & group emotions – high level of anxiety unusual
e. Flip-flop depression, fear or excitement
2. Momentum
Boredom – major cause of disciplinary problems
a. Overdwelling
b. Fragmentation

III – Group Focus  Acceptance Approach

- Discipline is rooted in humanistic psychology and maintains
1. Alerting
that every person has a prime need for acceptance
2. Accountability
Mistaken Goals result to antisocial behavior (Dreikurs)
 (1) Attention getting – they want teachers and other student to pay attention (3) Conduct disorder – inability to accept correction, tendency to tease
to them others, high level of defiance
(2) Power seeking – express their desire by defying adults to perceive power (4) Impulsivity – constant demand for attention, present orientation,
(3) Revenge seeking – student fail to gain recognition through power may unpredictability
seek revenge
Student problem types based on teacher descriptions:
(4) Withdrawal – students fell helpless & rejected
1. Failure Syndrome – “I can’t do it”; avoid starting up or give up easily;
 If students stop the behavior & then repeat it – goal: getting attention expect to fail; easily frustrated, gives up easily
 If students refuse to stop or increase their misbehavior – goal: power 2. Perfectionist – anxious about making mistake; standards are
seeking unrealistically high; fearful or frustrated about quality of work; holds back
 If students become hostile or violent – goal: getting revenge from class participation
 If students refuse to cooperate /participate – goal: withdrawal 3. Underachiever – do the minimum to “get-by”; poorly motivated
4. Low achiever – children have difficulty; low potential or lack of readiness
rather than poor motivation
Success Approach 5. Hostile aggressive – intense behavior; expresses hostility through direct
intense behavior; not easily controlled; intimidates and threatens, hostile
- Rooted in humanistic approach 7 the democratic model of 6. Passive aggressive – express opposition & resistance to the teacher but
teaching indirectly; subtly oppositional and stubborn
- Deal with general psychological & social conditions 7. Defiant – resist authority & carry on a power struggle with the teacher;
- Helps students make a goal choices want to have their way and not to be told what to do: “you can’t make
Suggestions: me”
8. Hyperactive – show excessive & almost constant movement; squirms,
(1) Stress students’ responsibility for their own behavior continually wiggles, jiggles, scratches
(2) Establish rules 9. Distractible – short attentions span; unable to sustain attention and
(3) Accept no excuses concentration; easily distracted by sights, sounds, or speech
(4) Utilize value judgements 10. Immature – poorly developed emotional stability, self-control, self-care
(5) Suggest suitable alternatives abilities; may cry easily, loses belongings; appears helpless, incompetent
(6) Enforce reasonable consequences 11. Rejected by peers – seek per interaction but are rejected, ignored or
(7) Be persistent excluded; forced to work or play alone, often picked on or teased
(8) Continually review 12. Withdrawn – avoid personal interaction, unobtrusive, do not respond
Behavioral Problems: well to others; quiet and sober, does not call attention to self

(1) Hyperactivity – high level of activity, nonaggressive conduct

(2) Inattentiveness – inability to complete work & activities; high level of  Preventive Discipline – refers to establishing control systems in the
distractibility classroom & avoiding the breakdown of controls
12 influences techniques – disciplinary approaches
(1) Planned ignoring – ignoring behavior and not feed the student’s
secondary need for attention
(2) Signal Interference – uses variety of signals to communicate disapproval;
eye contact, hand gestures, snapping fingers, clearing ones throat, facial
expressions, and body gestures
(3) Proximity Control – teacher proximity; a teacher stand close to the
student
(4) Interest Boosting – show genuine interest in the student’s work or
incorporate his or her personal interests
(5) Humor – defuse a tense situation and that it can make students relax
(6) Hurdle Lessons – try to provide academic assistance before students get
to the stage of not paying attention
(7) Restructuring the Program – classroom schedule may have to be
modified; parts of the lesson may have to be retaught or parts may be
skipped
(8) Routine – daily schedule of activities
(9) Direct Appeal – overreacting or intervening severely in order to
demonstrate authority
(10)Removing Seductive Objects – certain objects to be eliminated; examples
are water gun, flashlight or ball
(11)Antiseptic bouncing – remove a student from the room for a few minutes
of for full time period; protect and help the student and the group get
over their immediate feelings
(12)Physical Restraint – a student who loses control or threatens other must
be retrained; teacher substitutes control system
(7) Monitoring
(8) Maintaining group lessons
(9) Seatwork
(10)Transitions
(11)Engaged time
(12)Cueing
(13)Maintaining academic work
(14)Cooperative learning teams
(15)Subject matter as procedures
(16)Teacher expectations
Preventive measures: Feedback, Trust, & Communication
Assertive Approach - based on firm rules and forceful intervention & control by
the teacher
Business Academic Approach – based on classroom work requirement and
assignments & organized instructional activities to enhance discipline
Behavioral Modification Approach – based on the systematic reinforcement of
good behavior & punishment of appropriate behavior
Group managerial approach - based on the teachers maintaining group focus
and group participation and holding a member of the group accountable
Group guidance approach – based on manipulating (changing) the surface
behavior of students as individuals & group
Acceptance Approach – based on the assumption that when students are given
such acceptance by the teachers & peers, behavior & achievement improve

Success Approach – based on the teacher’s helping students make proper choices
Managerial Functions: by experiencing success
(1) Establishing classroom activities
(2) Rules & procedures
(3) Academic work & activities Common punishments – are short reprimands coupled with praise, social
(4) Routines isolation, point loss in academics and being reported to someone outside the
(5) Enacting processes classroom
(6) Hidden curriculum
Direct Appeal

1. Appeal to values that students have internalized regarding their image Hidden Curriculum – unstated meanings conveyed by teacher attitudes &
(*gentlemen don’t engage in that kind of behavior. You know better”) behavior, class routines, school policies and the curriculum in general
2. Teacher-students relationship
(“Have I been unfair to you?”)
3. Authority Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development:
(“You know I can’t allow this behavior to do unnoticed”)
5 to 7 – 8 years old – justice is subordinated to adult authority

8 to 11 years old – progressive equalitarianism

Which of the following is the best option to deal with chronic behavior problems 11 to 12 years old – purely equalitarian justice; equity
in the classroom?

A. Indicated consequences of behavior

B. With gained confidence and skill 3 major schools of learning theories:
C. Be calm and consistent  Behavioral Theories – see learning in terms of changing what we do
D. Establish positive expectations for teachers
 Field & Gestalt theories – consider how the individual perceives the
Answer: B learning environment or situation
 Cognitive Theories – consider how the learner thinks the reasons &
JAMES CONANT - stressed that our educational programs needed more emphasis transfer information to new learning situations
on science, mathematics, & foreign languages (allocated time)
ORDINARY THINKING CRITICAL THINKING
Young Readers: Aesop’s Fables, Jack and the beanstalk

Older Children: Sadako, Up from the Slavery, Diary of Anne Frank GUESSING ESTIMATING
PREFERRING EVALUATING
Teenagers: Of mice and men, A man for all seasons, death of a salesman GROUPING CLASSIFYING
BELIEVING ASSUMING
PHILIP PHENIX – most important sources of moral knowledge are the laws and INFERRING INFERRING LOGICALLY
customs of society

According to Phenix, the content of moral knowledge covers 5 main areas: TYPES OF CREATIVITY:
(1) Human Rights - Artistic
(2) Ethics concerning family relation & sex - Dramatic
(3) Social relationships - Scientific
(4) Economic life - Athletic
(5) Political life - Manual
 Strategies for improving the quality: teacher training programs, pass rigorous
exams & complete an internship
Creative students

 Puzzling to teachers
 Difficult to characterize  Prospective teachers must be able to demonstrate a specified level of
 Novel answers are threatening competence by the end of the preservice stage in order to be allowed
 Willingness to be puzzled entry into a profession
 Thoughts are interrupted
 Questions rejected
 Daydreams ridiculed (1) Classroom Management – developed managerial techniques
 Ideas are unexpressed (2) Direct Instruction/Explicit Teaching – have clear, systematic method of
 Their judgements are unsought teaching called direct instruction or explicit teaching; proceed in small
 Lazy steps, provide ample review and explanation before proceeding to the
next week, ask questions & check for understanding and provide
Reasons on becoming a teacher: systematic feedback & correction
1. Women – parents (3) Time on task – spend on adequate amount of time
2. Men – teachers (4) Questioning – ask appropriate questions
(5) Comprehension Instruction – emphasize independent learning and apply
concepts, solve problem
(6) Level of cognitive instruction – try to move toward high order thinking
 The kind of teacher you become is how you view teaching & teaching
skills & Independent learning by motivating students to learn
profession
(7) Grouping – able to group students form individualized & small group
instruction

 Teachers & school continue a little to student achievement

 Under single -task conditions with high teacher control, students usually
 If teacher & school did not make a difference then there would be:
work alone
 In order to facilitate learning, the teacher must learn to match
1. Minimal need for teacher preparation
appropriate tasks with
2. Minimal need for concern about teacher competence
 The more error, the greater the mismatch
3. Little justification for holding teachers accountable for student
 Underestimated tasks: students get bored
performance
 Overestimated tasks: students become discouraged
 Demands for improving teacher quality and for holding teachers
accountable for student achievement have increased over recent years
Classroom Management – an integral part of teaching & techniques of managing
students both can & must be acquired by the teacher

 Your personality, philosophy & teaching style – will directly affect your
managerial & disciplinary approach

Categories of reasons for deciding to teach:

1. Crusader – to change system or society

2. Content Specialist – want to teach specific content area
3. Convert – one who starts another career but then discovers that teaching
is really better
4. Free Floater – teaching until a “real” career choice emerges
5. Early Decider – one who knows from an early age that teaching is the
right direction