CONTENTS

Chapter 1
Computer Graphics 1 - 140

1.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 2

1.2 Geometric Transformations ................................................ 2
1.3 Formulation ........................................................................ 3
1.4 Translation ......................................................................... 4
1.5 Rotation ............................................................................. 6
1.6 Scaling ............................................................................... 9
1.7 Reflection (Mirror) ............................................................ 10
1.8 Shear ............................................................................... 11
1.9 Homogeneous Coordinates .............................................. 12
1.10 Inverse Transformations ................................................... 14
1.11 Concatenation or Composite Transformations ................... 15
1.12 Solved Examples ............................................................. 20
1.13 Mapping of Geometric Models
(Coordinate Transformations) ........................................... 68
 1.14 Solved Examples ............................................................. 71
1.15 Three Dimensional Transformations ................................. 81
1.16 Projections of Geometric Models ...................................... 83
1.17 Transformations for Orthographic Projections ................... 85
1.18 Isometric Projections ........................................................ 89
1.19 Perspective Projections .................................................... 90
1.20 Solved Examples ............................................................. 92
1.21 Introduction to OpenGL ................................................... 111
1.22 OpenGL Rendering Pipeline ............................................ 113
1.23 OpenGL Commands Notation.......................................... 114
1.24 OpenGL Coordinate System ............................................ 119
1.25 OpenGL Programs ......................................................... 120
Exercises ....................................................................... 137
Problems ....................................................................... 138

Chapter 2
Geometric Modeling 141 - 260

2.1 Introduction .................................................................... 142

2.2 Model Structure Organisation ......................................... 142
2.3 Wire Frame Modeling ..................................................... 142
2.4 Real Objects and Wire Frame Models ............................ 146
2.5 Representing Curves in CAD / CAM ............................... 148
2.6 Basics of Vector Algebra ................................................ 151
2.7 Lines .............................................................................. 157
2.8 Solved Examples ........................................................... 159
2.9 Circles ........................................................................... 176
2.10 Solved Examples ........................................................... 179
2.11 Ellipses .......................................................................... 186
2.12 Solved Examples ........................................................... 188
2.13 Parabolas ...................................................................... 192
2.14 Hyperbolas .................................................................... 195
2.15 Conics ........................................................................... 196
2.16 Synthetic Curves ............................................................ 199
 2.17 Hermite Cubic Splines .................................................... 203
2.18 Solved Examples ........................................................... 206
2.19 Bézier Curves ................................................................ 210
2.20 Solved Examples ........................................................... 213
2.21 B-spline Curve ............................................................... 218
2.22 Surface Modeling ........................................................... 219
2.23 Kinds of Surfaces ........................................................... 220
2.24 Introduction to Surface Representation ........................... 225
2.25 Solid Modeling ............................................................... 227
2.26 Considerations in Storing Solid Model Data .................... 227
2.27 Representation Schemes for Solid Models ...................... 228
2.28 Euler's Equation ............................................................. 237
2.29 Feature Based Modeling ................................................ 239
2.30 Applications of Solid Modeling ........................................ 242
2.31 Parametric and Constraint Based Modeling .................... 243
2.32 Solved Examples ........................................................... 245
2.33 Mass, Area and Volume Calculations .............................. 251
Exercises ....................................................................... 252
Problems ....................................................................... 255

Chapter 3
Finite Element Analysis 261 - 526

3.1 Introduction .................................................................... 262

3.2 Steps in Finite Element Analysis ..................................... 263
3.3 Types Of Elements ......................................................... 266
3.4 One Dimensional Linear Modeling .................................. 269
3.5 Natural or Intrinsic Coordinate System ............................ 271
3.6 Shape Function in Natural Coordinate System ................ 272
3.7 Solved Examples ........................................................... 275
3.8 Displacement, Strain and Stress Relationships ............... 280
3.9 Element Stiffness Matrix - Potential Energy Approach ..... 281
3.10 Element Stiffness Matrix - Galerkin Approach ................. 284
3.11 Elimination Approach ..................................................... 289
3.12 Solved Examples ........................................................... 291
 3.13 Penalty Approach ........................................................... 355
3.14 Solved Examples ........................................................... 356
3.15 Thermal Effects in 1D Elements ..................................... 362
3.16 Solved Examples ........................................................... 365
3.17 Quadratic Shape Function .............................................. 378
3.18 Displacement, Strain and Stress for Quadratic Element .. 381
3.19 Element Stiffness Matrix for Quadratic Element .............. 383
3.20 Analysis of Trusses ........................................................ 386
3.21 Thermal Effect in Truss Member ..................................... 389
3.22 Solved Examples ........................................................... 390
3.23 Banded and Skyline Methods ......................................... 427
3.24 Boundary Conditions ...................................................... 428
3.25 Plane Stresses and Plane Strains ................................... 433
3.26 Principles for Two Dimensional Problems ....................... 435
3.27 Constant Strain Triangular Element ................................. 440
3.28 Constant Strain Triangular Element - Shape Function ..... 441
3.29 Constant Strain Triangular Element Stiffness Matrix ........ 447
3.30 Solved Examples ........................................................... 452
3.31 Four node Quadrilateral Element .................................... 496
3.32 Element Strain for a Quadrilateral Element ..................... 498
3.33 Numerical Integration Methods ....................................... 504
3.34 Solved Examples ........................................................... 505
3.35 Functions and Phases in FEA Software .......................... 515
Exercises ....................................................................... 517
Problems ....................................................................... 520

Chapter 4
Computer Aided Manufacturing 527 - 570

4.1 Introduction .................................................................... 528

4.2 Applications and Phases in CAM .................................... 528
4.3 Integrating CAD, NC and CAM ....................................... 531
4.4 Advantages of CAD / CAM ............................................. 532
4.5 Numerical Control of Machine Tools ............................... 532
 4.6 Elements of NC Manufacturing System........................... 533
4.7 Preparing CAD Data for NC ............................................ 538
4.8 Types of NC Systems ..................................................... 540
4.9 Axes of Machine Tools ................................................... 542
4.10 Coordinate System and Machine Motions ....................... 544
4.11 Position and Motion Control in an NC System ................. 548
4.12 Steps in NC Manufacturing ............................................. 550
4.13 Applications of NC Machine Tool .................................... 552
4.14 Advantages and Disadvantages of NC Technology ......... 553
4.15 Limitations of Conventional NC ....................................... 554
4.16 Computer Numerical Control (CNC) Technology ............. 555
4.17 CNC controllers ............................................................. 556
4.18 Features and Advantages of CNC .................................. 558
4.19 Adaptive Control ............................................................ 559
4.20 Advantages of Adaptive Control ...................................... 562
4.21 Direct Numerical Control (DNC) ..................................... 563
4.22 Types of DNC ................................................................ 565
4.23 Advantages and Disadvantages of DNC ......................... 567
4.24 New Trends in CNC, DNC .............................................. 567
Exercises ....................................................................... 568

Chapter 5
Part Programming 571 - 726

5.1 Manual Part Programming .............................................. 572

5.2 Principles of an NC Program .......................................... 572
5.3 Word Address Format (WAF) ......................................... 573
5.4 Machining Formulas ....................................................... 580
5.5 Solved Examples (2 Axes - Drilling and Milling) ............... 582
5.6 Tool Length and Cutter Diameter Compensation ............. 589
5.7 Canned Cycles for Milling and Drilling ............................. 592
5.8 Solved Examples (2½ Axes - Drilling and Milling) ............ 595
5.9 Subprogram or Subroutines............................................ 620
5.10 DO Loop ........................................................................ 620
 5.11 Macros........................................................................... 621
5.12 Solved Examples ........................................................... 622
5.13 CNC Lathes ................................................................... 628
5.14 Diameter versus Radius Programming ........................... 629
5.15 Solved Examples ........................................................... 630
5.16 Canned Cycles on Lathes .............................................. 640
5.17 Solved Examples ........................................................... 647
5.18 Computer Assisted Part Programming ............................ 672
5.19 Languages in Computer Assisted Programming .............. 673
5.20 Structure of APT ............................................................. 673
5.21 Repetitive Programming using APT ................................ 687
5.22 Solved Examples ........................................................... 688
5.23 CAD/CAM Systems for Part Programming ...................... 718
Exercises ....................................................................... 718
Problems ....................................................................... 719

Chapter 6
Automation 727 - 766

6.1 Concepts in Manufacturing Systems ............................... 728

6.2 Definition of Automation.................................................. 730
6.3 Types of Automation ....................................................... 731
6.4 Advantages and Limitations of Automation ...................... 734
6.5 Strategies in Automation ................................................. 736
6.6 Group Technology .......................................................... 738
6.7 Merits and Demerits of Group Technology ...................... 742
6.8 Concept of a Machine Cell.............................................. 743
6.9 Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS) ............................ 744
6.10 Elements of FMS............................................................ 744
6.11 Workpiece Handling ....................................................... 749
6.12 Workpiece Transport using Automated Guided
Vehicle System (AGVS) ................................................. 751
6.13 Automated Storage / Retrieval Systems ( AS/RS) ........... 752
6.14 Types of AS/RS .............................................................. 754
 6.15 Applications of FMS ....................................................... 755
6.16 Planning and Implementation of FMS ............................. 756
6.17 Merits and Demerits in FMS ........................................... 757
6.18 Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) ...................... 757
6.19 Machining Centres ......................................................... 760
Exercises ....................................................................... 765

Chapter 7
Robot Technology 767 - 802

7.1 Industrial Robot .............................................................. 768

7.2 Robot Joints and Degrees of Freedom ........................... 769
7.3 Robot Drives .................................................................. 772
7.4 Robot Controller Unit (RCU) ........................................... 773
7.5 Manipulator .................................................................... 774
7.6 Tooling or End Effectors ................................................. 775
7.7 Robot Applications ......................................................... 781
7.8 Robot Cell Layout .......................................................... 785
7.9 Types of Robots ............................................................. 787
7.10 Robot Axes and Configurations ...................................... 789
7.11 Robot Sensors ............................................................... 791
7.12 Parameters in Robot Selection ....................................... 794
7.13 Robot Programming ....................................................... 799
Exercises ....................................................................... 801

Alphabetical Index i - ix