Mathematical Foundations of the

Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity

Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2008-2011 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved

Abstract: Starting from the action function, we have derived a theoretical background that leads to
the quantization of gravity and the deduction of a correlation between the gravitational and the inertial
masses, which depends on the kinetic momentum of the particle. We show that the strong equivalence
principle is reaffirmed and, consequently, Einstein's equations are preserved. In fact, such equations
are deduced here directly from this new approach to Gravitation. Moreover, we have obtained a
generalized equation for the inertial forces, which incorporates the Mach's principle into Gravitation.
Also, we have deduced the equation of Entropy; the Hamiltonian for a particle in an electromagnetic
field and the reciprocal fine structure constant directly from this new approach. It was also possible to
deduce the expression of the Casimir force and to explain the Inflation Period and the Missing Matter,
without assuming existence of vacuum fluctuations. This new approach to Gravitation will allow us to
understand some crucial matters in Cosmology.

Key words: Quantum Gravity, Quantum Cosmology, Unified Field.

PACs: 04.60.-m; 98.80.Qc; 04.50. +h

Contents

1. Introduction 3

2. Theory 3

Generalization of Relativistic Time 4

Quantization of Space, Mass and Gravity 6

Quantization of Velocity 7

Quantization of Time 7

Correlation Between Gravitational and Inertial Masses 8

Generalization of Lorentz's Force 12

Gravity Control by means of the Angular Velocity 13

Gravitoelectromagnetic fields and gravitational shielding effect 14

Gravitational Effects produced by ELF radiation upon electric current 26

Magnetic Fields affect gravitational mass and the momentum 27

Gravitational Motor 28

Gravitational mass and Earthquakes 28

The Strong Equivalence Principle 30

 2

Incorporation of the Mach's Principle into Gravitation Theory 30

Deduction of the Equations of General Relativity 30

Gravitons: Gravitational Forces are also Gauge forces 31

Deduction of Entropy Equation starting from the Gravity Theory 31

Unification of the Electromagnetic and Gravitational Fields 32

Elementary Quantum of Matter and Continuous Universal Fluid 34

The Casimir Force is a gravitational effect related to the Uncertainty Principle 35

The Shape of the Universe and Maximum speed of Tachyons 36

The expanding Universe is accelerating and not slowing down 38

Gravitational and Inertial Masses of the Photon 39

What causes the fundamental particles to have masses? 40

Electron’s Imaginary Masses 41

Transitions to the Imaginary space-time 44

Explanation for red-shift anomalies 50

Superparticles (hypermassive Higgs bosons) and Big-Bang 51

Deduction of Reciprocal Fine Structure Constant and the Uncertainty Principle 53

Dark Matter, Dark Energy and Inflation Period 53

The Origin of the Universe 59

Solution for the Black Hole Information Paradox 61

A Creator’s need 63

The Origin of Gravity and Genesis of the Gravitational Energy 64

Explanation for the anomalous acceleration of Pioneer 10 66

New type of interaction 68

Appendix A 71

Allais effect explained 71

Appendix B 74

References 75

1. INTRODUCTION
Quantum Gravity was originally
studied, by Dirac and others, as the
problem of quantizing General
Relativity. This approach presents
many difficulties, detailed by Isham
[1]. In the 1970's, physicists tried an
even more conventional approach:
simplifying Einstein's equations by
assuming that they are almost linear,
and then applying the standard
methods of quantum field theory to
the thus oversimplified equations. But
this method, too, failed. In the 1980's
a very different approach, known as
string theory, became popular. Thus
far, there are many enthusiasts of
string theory. But the mathematical
difficulties in string theory are
formidable, and it is far from clear that
they will be resolved any time soon.
At the end of 1997, Isham [2] pointed
out several "Structural Problems
Facing Quantum Gravity Theory". At
the beginning of this new century,
the problem of quantizing the
gravitational field was still open.
In this work, we propose a new
approach to Quantum Gravity.
Starting from the generalization of the
action function we have derived a
theoretical background that leads to
the quantization of gravity. Einstein's
General Relativity equations are
deduced directly from this theory of
Quantum Gravity. Also, this theory
leads to a complete description of the
Electromagnetic Field, providing a
consistent unification of gravity with
electromagnetism.
2. THEORY
We start with the action for a
free-particle that, as we know, is
given by
3
b
S = −α ∫a ds
where α is a quantity which
characterizes the particle.
In Relativistic Mechanics, the
action can be written in the following
form [3]:
t2 t2
S = ∫ Ldt = − ∫ αc 1 − V 2 c 2 dt
t1 t1
where
L = −αc 1 − V 2 c 2
is the Lagrange's function.
In Classical Mechanics, the
Lagrange's function for a free-particle
is, as we know, given by: L = aV 2
where V is the speed of the particle
and a is a quantity hypothetically [4]
given by:
a=m 2
where m is the mass of the particle.
However, there is no distinction about
the kind of mass (if gravitational
mass, m g , or inertial mass mi ) neither
about its sign (±) .
The correlation between a and
α can be established based on the
fact that, on the limit c → ∞ , the
relativistic expression for L must be
reduced to the classic expression
L = aV 2 .The result [5] is: L = αV 2 2c .
Therefore, if α = 2 ac = mc , we obtain
L = aV 2 . Now, we must decide if
m = mg or m = mi . We will see in this
work that the definition of m g includes
mi . Thus, the right option is m g , i.e.,
a = mg 2 .
Consequently, α = m g c and the
generalized expression for the action
of a free-particle will have the
following form:
(1)
b
S = −m g c ∫ ds
a
or
 4

t2
S = − ∫ mg c 2 1 − V 2 c 2 dt (2) sign if m g < 0 . Consequently, we will
t1 r
express the momentum p in the
where the Lagrange's function is
following form
L = −mg c 2 1 − V 2 c 2 . (3) r
r
m gV r
t2 p = = M gV (4)
The integral S = ∫t m g c 2 1 − V 2 c 2 dt , 1−V 2 c2
1
r
preceded by the plus sign, cannot The derivative dp dt is the
have a minimum. Thus, the integrand inertial force Fi which acts on the
of Eq.(2) must be always positive.
Therefore, if m g > 0 , then necessarily particle. If the force is perpendicular
to the speed, we have r
t > 0 ; if m g < 0 , then t < 0 . The r mg
possibility of t < 0 is based on the Fi =
dV
(5)
1 − V 2 c 2 dt
well-known equation t = ± t0 1 − V 2 c 2
However, if the force and the speed
of Einstein's Theory. have the same direction, we rfind that
Thus if the gravitational mass r mg
of a particle is positive, then t is also Fi =
dV
(6)
(1 − V c )
3
2 2
2
dt
positive and, therefore, given by
t = +t0 1−V 2 c2 . This leads to the From Mechanics [6], we know that
r r
well-known relativistic prediction that p ⋅ V − L denotes the energy of the
the particle goes to the future, if particle. Thus, we can write
V → c . However, if the gravitational r r mg c 2
mass of the particle is negative, then Eg = p ⋅ V − L = = M g c2 (7)
t is negative and given by 1 −V 2 c2
t = − t0 1 −V 2 c2 . In this case, the Note that Eg is not null for V =0, but
prediction is that the particle goes to that it has the finite value
the past, if V → c . Consequently,
m g < 0 is the necessary condition for E g 0 = mg 0 c 2 (8)
the particle to go to the past. Further Equation (7) can be rewritten in
on, a correlation between the the following form:
gravitational and the inertial masses mg c 2
will be derived, which contains the E g = mg c −
2
− mg c 2 =
possibility of m g < 0 . 1−V c 2 2

The Lorentz's transforms follow ⎡ ⎤

⎢ ⎞⎥
the same rule for m g > 0 and m g < 0 , mg ⎢ 2 ⎛⎜ mi c 2 2 ⎟⎥
= mi c + − mi c =
i.e., the sign before 1 − V 2 c 2 will be mi ⎢ ⎜ 1−V 2 c2 ⎟⎥
⎢ ⎝144424443⎠⎥
(+ ) when m g > 0 and (− ) if m g < 0 . ⎢⎣ EKi ⎥⎦
The momentum, as we know, mg m
r r = (Ei 0 + EKi ) = g Ei (9)
is the vector p = ∂L ∂V .Thus, from mi mi
Eq.(3) we obtain r By analogy to Eq. (8), Ei 0 = mi 0 c 2 into
r mgV r the equation above, is the
p = = M gV
± 1−V 2 c2 inertial energy at rest. Thus,
Ei = Ei 0 + EKi is the total inertial
The (+ ) sign in the equation above
will be used when m g > 0 and the (− )
energy, where E Ki is the kinetic
 5

inertial energy. From Eqs. (7) and (9) ∂Φ Gm g

we thus obtain =
∂r r 2 1 − V 2 c 2
mi 0 c 2
Ei = = M ic2. (10) By definition, the gravitational
1−V c 2 2
potential energy per unit of
For small velocities (V <<c) , we gravitational mass of a particle inside
obtain a gravitational field is equal to the
Ei ≈ mi 0 c 2 + 12 miV 2 (11) gravitational potential Φ of the field.
Thus, we can write that
where we recognize the classical U (r )
expression for the inertial kinetic Φ=
m′g
energy of the particle.
The expression for the Then, it follows that
gravitational kinetic energy, E Kg , is
∂U (r ) ∂Φ m g m ′g
easily deduced by comparing Eq.(7) Fg = − = − m ′g = −G
with Eq.(9). The result is ∂r ∂r r 2 1 −V 2 c2
mg
EKg = EKi . (12)
mi If m g > 0 and m ′g < 0 , or m g < 0 and
In the presented picture, we
r m ′g > 0 the force will be repulsive; the
can say that the gravity, g , in a force will never be null due to the
gravitational field produced by a existence of a minimum value for m g
particle of gravitational mass M g ,
(see Eq. (24)). However, if m g < 0
depends on the particle's gravitational
and m ′g < 0 , or m g > 0 and m ′g > 0
energy, E g (given by Eq.(7)), because
the force will be attractive. Just
we can write
for m g = mi and m ′g = mi′ we obtain
Eg Mg c2
g = −G = −G 2 2 (13) the Newton's attraction law.
r 2c2 rc On the other hand, as we
Due to g = ∂Φ ∂r , the expression of know, the gravitational force is
the relativistic gravitational potential, conservative. Thus, gravitational
Φ , is given by energy, in agreement with the energy
GM g Gm g conservation law, can be expressed
Φ=− =− by the decrease of the inertial energy,
r r 1−V 2 c2 i.e.,
Then, it follows that ΔE g = −ΔEi (14)
This equation expresses the fact that
GM g Gmg φ
Φ=− =− = a decrease of gravitational energy
r r 1−V 2 c2 1−V 2 c2 corresponds to an increase of the
inertial energy.
where φ = − Gm g r . Therefore, a variation ΔEi in
Then we get E i yields a variation ΔEg = −ΔEi in E g .
∂Φ ∂φ Gm g Thus Ei = Ei0 + ΔEi ; Eg = Eg0 + ΔEg = Eg0 −ΔEi
= =
∂r ∂r 1 − V 2 c 2 r 2 1 − V 2 c 2 and
whence we conclude that
Eg + Ei = Eg 0 + Ei 0 (15)
Comparison between (7) and (10)
shows that Eg0 = Ei0 , i.e., m g 0 = mi 0 .
Consequently, we have
 6

The minimum energy of a particle

Eg + Ei = Eg 0 + Ei 0 = 2 Ei 0 (16) is obviously its inertial energy at rest
However Ei =Ei0 +EKi.Thus, (16) becomes m g c 2 = mi c 2 . Therefore we can write
E g = Ei 0 − EKi . (17 ) n2h2
= mg c 2
Note the symmetry in the equations of 8m g L2max
Ei and E g .Substitution of Ei0 = Ei − EKi Then from the equation above it follows
into (17) yields that
E i − E g = 2 E Ki (18) mg = ±
nh
(23)
Squaring the Eqs.(4) and (7) and cLmax 8
comparing the result, we find the whence we see that there is a minimum
following correlation between value for m g given by
gravitational energy and momentum :
E g2 mg (min) = ±
h
(24)
= p + mg c .
2 2 2
(19) cLmax 8
c2 The relativistic gravitational mass
The energy expressed as a function of
the momentum is, as we know, called (
M g = mg 1 − V 2 c )
2 − 2
1
, defined in the
Hamiltonian or Hamilton's function: Eqs.(4), shows that
H g = c p + mg c .
2 2 2
(20 ) M g (min) = mg (min) (25)
Let us now consider the problem The box normalization leads to the
of quantization of gravity. Clearly there is conclusion that the propagation number
r
something unsatisfactory about the k = k = 2π λ is restricted to the
whole notion of quantization. It is
important to bear in mind that the values k = 2π n L . This is deduced
quantization process is a series of rules- assuming an arbitrarily large but finite
of-thumb rather than a well-defined 3
cubical box of volume L [8]. Thus, we
algorithm, and contains many
ambiguities. In fact, for electromagnetism have
we find that there are (at least) two L = nλ
different approaches to quantization and From this equation, we conclude that
that while they appear to give the same Lmax
theory they may lead us to very different nmax =
quantum theories of gravity. Here we will λmin
follow a new theoretical strategy: It is and
known that starting from the Schrödinger Lmin = nmin λ min = λ min
equation we may obtain the well-known
Since nmin = 1. Therefore, we can write
expression for the energy of a particle in
periodic motion inside a cubical box of that
edge length L [ 7 ]. The result now is Lmax = nmax Lmin (26)
n2h2 From this equation, we thus conclude
En = n = 1,2,3,... (21) that
8m g L2
2 2
L = nLmin (27 )
Note that the term h 8m g L (energy) or
will be minimum for L = Lmax where Lmax Lmax
is the maximum edge length of a cubical
L= (28)
n
box whose maximum diameter
Multiplying (27) and (28) by 3 and
d max = Lmax 3 (22) reminding that d = L 3 , we obtain
is equal to the maximum length scale of
the Universe.
 7

d max From this equation one concludes

d = nd min or d= (29) that we can have V = Vmax or
n
Equations above show that the length V = Vmax 2 , but there is nothing in
(and therefore the space) is quantized.
between. This shows clearly that Vmax
By analogy to (23) we can also
conclude that cannot be equal to c (speed of light in
vacuum). Thus, it follows that
M g (max) =
nmax h
(30) n =1 V = Vmax
cLmin 8
n=2 V = Vmax 2
since the relativistic gravitational mass,
(
M g = mg 1 − V 2 c 2 )− 12
, is just a
n=3 V = Vmax 3 Tachyons
........ ..................
multiple of m g .
n = nx − 1 V = Vmax (nx − 1)
Equation (26) tells us that
Lmin = Lmax nmax . Thus, Eq.(30) can be −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
rewritten as follows n = nx V = Vmax nx = c ←
2 n = nx + 1 V = Vmax (nx + 1) Tardyons
M g (max ) =
n max h
(31)
cLmax 8 n = nx + 2 V = Vmax (nx + 2)
Comparison of (31) with (24) shows that ...............
...........................
M g (max ) = n 2
max m g (min ) (32 ) where nx is a big number.
which leads to following conclusion that Then c is the speed upper limit of
M g = n 2 m g (min ) (33) the Tardyons and also the speed lower
This equation shows that the limit of the Tachyons. Obviously, this limit
gravitational mass is quantized. is always the same in all inertial frames.
Substitution of (33) into (13) leads Therefore c can be used as a reference
to quantization of gravity, i.e., speed, to which we may compare any
speed V , as occurs for the relativistic
GM g ⎛ Gm g (min ) ⎞
g= = n 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟=
⎟ factor 1 −V 2 c2 . Thus, in this factor, c
r2 ⎝ (rmax n )
2
⎠
= n 4 g min (34 ) does not refer to maximum propagation
speed of the interactions such as some
From the Hubble's law, it follows that authors suggest; c is just a speed limit
Vmax = Hlmax = H (d max 2)
~ ~
which remains the same in any inertial
Vmin = Hl min = H (d min 2)
~ ~ frame.
The temporal coordinate x 0 of
whence
space-time is now x 0 = Vmax t ( x 0 = ct
Vmax d max
= is then obtained Vmax →c ).
when
Vmin d min
Equations (29) tell us that
~
Substitution of Vmax = nV = n Hl into this ( )
d max d min = nmax . Thus the equation ~ 0
equation yields t = x Vmax = 1 nH x l .
0
( )( )
above gives ~
On the other hand, since V = H l and
V max
V min = (35 ) V = Vmax n we can write that
( )
n max
l = Vmax H −1 n .Thus x 0 l = H (nt) = Ht max .
~ ~ ~
which leads to following conclusion
V max Therefore, we can finally write
V = (36 )
n
this equation shows that velocity is also (~
)( )
t = 1 nH x 0 l = t max n (37)
quantized.
which shows the quantization of time.
 8

From Eqs. (27) and (37) we can

easily conclude that the spacetime is not Δp =
(m g − Δm g ) V
1 − (V c )
2
continuous it is quantized.
Now, let us go back to Eq. (20) From the Eq.(16) we obtain:
Eg = 2Ei 0 − Ei = 2Ei 0 − (Ei 0 + ΔEi ) = Ei 0 − ΔEi
which will be called the gravitational
Hamiltonian to distinguish it from the
inertial Hamiltonian H i : However, Eq.(14) tells us that −ΔEi = ΔEg ;
what leads to Eg = Ei0 + ΔEg or mg = mi0 + Δmg .
H i = c p 2 + mi 0 c 2 .
2
(38)
Thus, in the expression of Δ p we
( )
Consequently, Eq. (18) can be rewritten
in the following form: can replace m g − Δm g for mi 0 , i.e,
H i − H g = 2ΔH i (39) mi0 V
Δp =
where Δ H i is the variation on the
1 − (V c )
2

inertial Hamiltonian or inertial kinetic We can therefore write

energy. A momentum variation Δp yields
Δp
a variation Δ H given by: =
V c
(42)
mi 0 c 1 − (V c )
i 2

ΔHi = ( p + Δp) c2 + mi0 c4 − p2c2 + mi0 c4 (40)

2 2 2
By substitution of the expression above
By considering that the particle is into Eq. (41), we thus obtain:
initially at rest ( p = 0) . Then, Eqs. (20),
(38) and (39) give respectively: Hg = mgc , 2
⎢⎣
(
mg = mi 0 − 2⎡ 1 − V 2 c 2 ) − 12
− 1⎤mi 0
⎥⎦
(43)
Hi = mi0c2 and
For V = 0 we obtain mg = mi0 .Then,
⎡ 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎛ Δp ⎞
ΔH i = 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ mi 0 c 2 mg (min) = mi0(min)
⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ Substitution of m g (min ) into the quantized
By substituting H g , H i and ΔH i into expression of M g (Eq. (33)) gives
Eq.(39), we get
M g = n 2 mi 0(min )
⎡ 2 ⎤
⎛ Δp ⎞
⎢
mg = mi0 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥mi0. (41) where mi 0 (min ) is the elementary
⎢ ⎝ i0 ⎠
m c ⎥
⎣ ⎦ quantum of inertial mass to be
determined.
This is the general expression of the For V = 0 , the relativistic
correlation between the gravitational and
inertial mass. Note that expression M g = mg 1 −V 2 c2 becomes
for Δ p > m i 0 c ( )
5 2 , the value of m g Mg = Mg0 = mg0 . However, Eq. (43) shows
becomes negative. that m g 0 = mi 0 . Thus, the quantized
Equation (41) shows that mg expression of M g reduces to
decreases of Δm g for an increase of
mi 0 = n 2 mi 0 (min )
Δp . Thus, starting from (4) we In order to define the inertial quantum
obtain number, we will change n in the

p + Δp =
(m g − Δm g ) V expression above for ni . Thus we have

1 − (V c )
2

m i 0 = n i2 m i 0 (min ) (44 )
By considering that the particle is initially
at rest ( p = 0) , the equation above gives
 9

which shows the quantization of accuracy of one part in 10 7 .

inertial mass; ni is the inertial Posteriorly, Eötvos experiment has
quantum number. been repeated with accuracy of one
We will change n in the quantized part in 10 9 . In 1963, the experiment
expression of M g for n g in order to was repeated with an even greater
define the gravitational quantum accuracy, one part in 1011 . The result
number. Thus, we have was the same previously obtained.
In all these experiments, the
M g = n g2 mi 0(min ) (44a ) ratio V 2 2c 2 is less than 10 −17 , which
is much smaller than the accuracy of
Finally, by substituting mg 10 −11 obtained in the previous more
given by Eq. (43) into the relativistic precise experiment.
expression of M g , we readily obtain Then, we arrive at the
conclusion that all these experiments
mg
Mg = = say nothing in regard to the relativistic
1−V 2 c2 behavior of masses in relative motion.

⎢⎣
(
= M i − 2⎡ 1 − V 2 c 2 )
− 12
− 1⎤ M i
⎥⎦
(45 ) Let us now consider a planet in
the Sun’s gravitational field to which,
in the absence of external forces, we
By expanding in power series apply Lagrange’s equations. We
and neglecting infinitesimals, we arrive at the well-known equation:
2 2
2 ⎛ dϕ ⎞
arrive at: ⎛ dr ⎞ 2GM i
⎜ ⎟ +r ⎜ ⎟ − =E
⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ r
⎛ V2 ⎞
M g = ⎜1 − 2
⎜
⎟M i
⎟
(46) r2
dϕ
=h
⎝ c ⎠ dt
where M i is the inertial mass of the
Thus, the well-known expression for Sun. The term E = − GM i a , as we
the simple pendulum know, is called the energy constant;
period, T =2π (Mi Mg )(l g) , can be rewritten a is the semiaxis major of the Kepler-
in the following form: ellipse described by the planet
l ⎛⎜ V2 ⎞ around the Sun.
T = 2π 1+ 2 ⎟ for V << c By replacing M i into the
g ⎜⎝ 2c ⎟
⎠
differential equation above for the
Now, it is possible to learn why expression given by Eq. (46), and
Newton’s experiments using simple expanding in power series, neglecting
penduli do not find any difference infinitesimals, we arrive, at:
between M g and M i . The reason is
due to the fact that, in the case of ⎛ dr ⎞
2
2 ⎛ dϕ ⎞
2
2GM g 2GM g ⎛ V 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ +r ⎜ ⎟ − =E + ⎜ ⎟
penduli, the ratio V 2 2c 2 is less than ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ r r ⎜⎝ c 2 ⎟⎠
10 −17 , which is much smaller than the
accuracy of the mentioned Since V = ωr = r (dϕ dt ) , we get
experiments.
Newton’s experiments have 2 2 2
⎛ dr ⎞ 2 ⎛ dϕ ⎞ 2GM g 2GM g r ⎛ dϕ ⎞
been improved upon (one part in ⎜ ⎟ +r ⎜ ⎟ − =E + ⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ r c 2 ⎝ dt ⎠
60,000) by Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel
which is the Einsteinian equation of the
(1784–1846). In 1890, Eötvos planetary motion.
confirmed Newton’s results with
 10

Multiplying this equation by Gmg

(dt dϕ )2 and remembering that g =−
r 2 1 − V 2 c2
(dt dϕ ) = r
2 4 2
h , we obtain
⎛ dr ⎞
2
⎛ r 4 ⎞ 2GMg r3 2GMg r
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + r 2 = E⎜ 2 ⎟ + + where V is the velocity of the mass
⎝ dϕ ⎠ ⎜h ⎟ h2 c2
⎝ ⎠ mg , in respect to the observer. V is
Making r = 1 u and multiplying both
also the velocity with which the
members of the equation by u 4 , we
get observer moves away from mg . If
2 3
⎛ du ⎞ E 2GMgu 2GMgu the observer is inside the gravitational
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + u2 = 2 + +
⎝ dϕ ⎠ h h2 c2 mg , then, V
field produced by is the
This leads to the following expression
GMg ⎛ 3 u2h 2 ⎞
velocity with which the observer
d 2u ⎜1 + ⎟
+ u =
dϕ 2 h 2 ⎜⎝ c2 ⎟⎠ escapes from mg (or the escape
In the absence of term 3h 2 u 2 c 2 , the velocity from the gravitational field of
integration of the equation should be mg ). Since the gravitational field is
immediate, leading to 2π period. In
created by a particle with non-null
order to obtain the value of the
gravitational mass, then obviously,
perturbation we can use any of the
V < c . If V << c the escape velocity is
well-known methods, which lead to
given by
an angle ϕ , for two successive
perihelions, given by mg M g′
6G 2 M g2 1
M g′ V 2 = G
2π +
2
r
c 2h 2
Calculating per century, in the case of whence we obtain
Mercury, we arrive at an angle of 43”
for the perihelion advance. 2Gmg
This result is the best V2 =
theoretical proof of the accuracy of r
Eq. (45).
Now consider a relativistic By substituting this expression into
particle inside a gravitational field. the equation of g , above obtained,
The condition for it to escape from the the result is
gravitational field is that its inertial
kinetic energy becomes equal to the ∂Φ Gmg
absolute value of the gravitational g= =
∂r r 2 1− 2 Gm rc2
energy of the field, which is given g

GM g M ′g
U (r ) = − = whence we recognize the
r
Schwzarzschilds’ equation. Note in
Gmg M g′ this equation the presence of m g ,
=−
r 1−V 2 c2 whose value, according to Eq. (41)
can be reduced or made negative. In
Since Φ = U (r ) M g′ and g = ∂Φ ∂r
then, we get
 11

this case * , the singularity g → ∞ , frequency of a wave, measured in units

produced by Schwzarzschilds’ radius of universal time, remains constant
r = 2Gmg c2 , (m g = m i ), obviously
during its propagation, and that it can be
expressed by
does not occur. Consequently, Black ∂ψ
ω0 =
Hole does not exist. ∂t
For V << c we get 1−V c ≅1+V 2c .
2 2 2 2 where dψ dt is the derivative of the
eikonal ψ with respect to the time.
Since V =2Gmg r , then we can write that
2
On the other hand, the frequency
Gmg φ of the wave measured in units of own
1−V 2 c2 ≅ 1+ 2
= 1+ time is given by
rc c2 ∂ψ
ω=
Substitution of 1−V 2 c2 =1+ φ c2 into the ∂T
well-known expression below Thus, we conclude that
ω ∂t
T = t 1− V 2 c2 =
ω 0 ∂T
which expresses the relativistic
whence we obtain
correlation between own time (T) and
ω t 1
universal time (t), gives = =
⎛ φ ⎞ ω0 T ⎛ φ ⎞
T = t ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ ⎜1 + 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
It is known from the Optics that the By expanding in power series, neglecting
infinitesimals, we arrive at:
⎛ φ ⎞
*
This can occur, for example, in a stage of ω = ω 0 ⎜1 − 2 ⎟
gravitational contraction of a neutron star (mass > ⎝ c ⎠
2.4M~), when the gravitational masses of the In this way, if a light ray with a frequency
neutrons, in the core of star, are progressively ω 0 is emitted from a point where the
turned negative, as a consequence of the increase gravitational potential is φ1 , it will have a
of the density of magnetic energy inside the
neutrons, Wn = 12 μ0 Hn2 , reciprocally produced by frequency ω1 . Upon reaching a point
the spin magnetic fields of the own neutrons, where the gravitational potential is φ 2 its
( ) ( )
r r r frequency will be ω 2 . Then, according to
Hn = 12 μ0 Mn 2π rn3 = γ n eSn 4πmnrn3 due to the
equation above, it follows that
decrease of the neutrons radii, rn , along the very
⎛ φ ⎞ ⎛ φ ⎞
strong compression at which they are subjected. ω1 = ω 0 ⎜1 − 12 ⎟ and ω 2 = ω 0 ⎜1 − 22 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
−6
Since Wn ∝ rn , and ρ n ∝ rn−3 , then Wn
Thus, from point 1 to point 2 the
increases much more rapidly – with the decrease frequency will be shifted in the
of rn – than ρ n . Consequently, the ratio interval Δω = ω1 − ω 2 , given by
Wn ρ n increases progressively with the ⎛φ −φ ⎞
Δω = ω 0 ⎜ 2 2 1 ⎟
compression of the neutrons star. According to ⎝ c ⎠
If Δω < 0 , (φ1 > φ 2 ) , the shift occurs in the
Eq. (41), the gravitational masses of the neutrons
can be turned negative at given stage of the
compression. Thus, due to the difference of direction of the decreasing frequencies
pressure, the value of Wn ρ n in the crust is (red-shift). If Δω > 0 , (φ1 < φ 2 ) the blue-
smaller than the value in the core. This means shift occurs.
that, the gravitational mass of the core becomes Let us now consider another
negative before of the gravitational mass of the consequence of the existence of
crust. This makes the gravitational contraction correlation between M g and M i .
culminates with an explosion, due to the repulsive
gravitational forces between the core and the Lorentz's force is usually written in
crust. Therefore, the contraction has a limit and, the following form:
consequently, the singularity does not occur.
 12
r r r r
d p dt = qE + qV × B surface dA )is equal to the energy dU
r r absorbed per unit volume (dU dV ) .i.e.,
where p = mi 0V 1 − V 2 c 2 . However,
r
Eq.(4) tells us that p = mgV 1 − V c .
dP =
dU
=
dU
=
dU
(47)
dV dxdydz dAdz
2 2

Therefore, the expressions above must Substitution of dz = vdt ( v is the speed

be corrected by multiplying its members of radiation) into the equation above
by m g mi 0 ,i.e., gives
r r dU (dU dAdt ) dD
r mg
p =
mg mi 0V
=
mgV r
= p
dP = = = (48)
dV v v
mi 0 mi 0 1 − V 2 c2 1 − V 2 c2 Since dPdA = dF we can write:
and
r
dp d ⎛ r m g ⎞
dFdt =
dU
(49)
= ⎜⎜ p
r r r m
⎟ = qE + qV × B g
dt dt ⎝ mi 0 ⎟⎠ mi 0
( ) v
However we know that dF= dp dt , then
That is now the general expression for
Lorentz's force. Note that it depends on dp =
dU
(50)
v
mg . From Eq. (48), it follows that
When the force is perpendicular to dVdD
the speed, Eq. (5) gives dU = dPd V = (51)
v
( )
r r
dp dt = mg dV dt 1−V2 c2 .By comparing Substitution into (50) yields
dVdD
with Eq.(46), we thus obtain dp = (52 )
(mi0 1−V 2
c 2
)(r r
)
r r
dV dt = qE + qV × B
or
v2
Note that this equation is the expression Δp 1 D V
of an inertial force. ∫0 dp = ∫0 ∫0 dVdD
Starting from this equation, well- v2
known experiments have been carried whence
VD
out in order to verify the relativistic Δp = (53)
expression: m i 1−V
c . In general, 2 2 v2
This expression is general for all types of
the momentum variation Δp is waves including non-electromagnetic
expressed by Δp = FΔt where F is the waves such as sound waves. In this
applied force during a time interval Δt . case, v in Eq.(53), will be the speed of
Note that there is no restriction sound in the medium and D the intensity
concerning the nature of the force F , of the sound radiation.
i.e., it can be mechanical, In the case of electromagnetic
electromagnetic, etc. waves, the Electrodynamics tells us that
For example, we can look on the v will be given by
momentum variation Δp as due to dz ω c
v= = =
absorption or emission of dt κ r ε r μr ⎛ ⎞
⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎟
2
electromagnetic energy by the particle 2 ⎝ ⎠
(by means of radiation and/or by means
of Lorentz's force upon the charge of the where kr is the real part of the
r r
particle). propagation vector k ; k = k = k r + iki ;
In the case of radiation (any
type), Δp can be obtained as follows. It ε , μ and σ, are the electromagnetic
is known that the radiation pressure , characteristics of the medium in which
dP , upon an area dA = dxdy of a the incident (or emitted) radiation is
propagating ( ε = ε r ε 0 where ε r is the
volume d V = dxdydz of a particle( the
relative dielectric permittivity and
incident radiation normal to the
ε0 = 8.854×10−12 F / m ; μ = μ r μ 0 where
 13

μ r is the relative magnetic permeability ⎧

⎪ ⎡ R4ω 4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
mg (disk ) ≅ ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.12 ×10−13 − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0(disk )
and μ 0 = 4π × 10 −7 H / m ; σ is the ⎪⎩ ⎢ f ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
electrical conductivity). For an atom Note that the effect of the
inside a body, the incident (or emitted) electromagnetic radiation applied upon
radiation on this atom will be propagating the disk is highly relevant, because in the
inside the body, and consequently, absence of this radiation the index of
σ=σbody, ε=εbody, μ=μbody. refraction, present in equations above,
It is then evident that the index of becomes equal to 1. Under these
refraction nr = c v will be given by circumstances, the possibility of strongly
reducing the gravitational mass of the
εμ
= r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (54)
c
nr =
2
disk practically disappears. In addition,
v 2 ⎝ ⎠ the equation above shows that, in
On the other hand, from Eq. (50) follows practice, the frequency f of the
that radiation cannot be high, and that
U ⎛c⎞ U extremely-low frequencies (ELF) are
Δp = ⎜ ⎟ = nr most appropriated. Thus, if the frequency
v ⎝c⎠ c
of the electromagnetic radiation applied
Substitution into Eq. (41) yields
upon the disk is f = 0.1Hz (See Fig. I (a))
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ U ⎞ ⎪ and the radius of the disk is R = 0.15m ,
⎢
mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ n ⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi0
2 r⎟
(55)
⎢ ⎥⎪ and its angular speed
⎪
⎩ ⎣
⎝ mi0c ⎠
⎦⎭ (
ω = 1.05×10 rad / s ~ 100,000 rpm ,
4
) the
If the body is also rotating, with an result is
angular speed ω around its central axis, m g (disk ) ≅ −2.6mi 0(disk )
then it acquires an additional energy
This shows that the gravitational mass of
equal to its rotational energy
(E )
= 1 2 Iω 2 . Since this is an increase
k
a body can also be controlled by means
of its angular velocity.
in the internal energy of the body, and In order to satisfy the condition
this energy is basically electromagnetic, U << ΔU , we must have dU dt <<dΔU dt ,
we can assume that E k , such as U , where Pr = dU dt is the radiation power.
corresponds to an amount of By integrating this expression, we
electromagnetic energy absorbed by the get U = Pr 2 f . Thus we can conclude
body. Thus, we can consider E k as an
that, for U << ΔU , we must have
increase ΔU = E k in the electromagnetic
Pr 2 f << 12 Iω 2 , i.e.,
energy U absorbed by the body.
Consequently, in this case, we must Pr << Iω 2 f
replace U in Eq. (55) for (U + ΔU ) . If By dividing both members of the
U << ΔU , the Eq. (55) reduces to expression above by the area S = 4πr 2 ,
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ we obtain
⎪ ⎛ Iω 2 n r ⎞
⎢
m g ≅ ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬mi 0 Iω 2 f
⎜ 2m c 2 ⎟ ⎥ Dr <<
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i0 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ 4πr 2
⎩ ⎣
For σ << ωε , Eq. (54) shows that Therefore, this is the necessary condition
in order to obtain U << ΔU . In the case
n r = c v = ε r μ r and n r = μσc 2 4πf in of the Mumetal disk, we must have
the case of σ >> ωε . In this case, if the D r << 10 5 r 2 watts / m 2( )
body is a Mumetal disk
( )
From Electrodynamics, we know
μ r = 105,000 at 100gauss; σ = 2.1 × 10 S.m −1
7
that a radiation with frequency f
( )
with radius R , I = 1 2 mi 0 R 2 , the equation
propagating within a material with
electromagnetic characteristics ε, μ and
above shows that the gravitational mass σ has the amplitudes of its waves
of the disk is
 14

attenuated by e−1=0.37 (37%) when it ∇.DG = − ρ

penetrates a distance z, given by †
∂BG
z=
1 ∇ × EG = −
∂t
ω 1 2 εμ ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε )2 − 1⎞⎟ ∇.BG = 0
⎝ ⎠
For σ >>ωε , equation above reduces to ∂DG
∇ × H G = − jG +
z=
1 ∂t
πμfσ where DG = 4ε rG ε 0G E G is the
In the case of the Mumetal subjected to gravitodisplacement field ( ε rG is the
an ELF radiation with frequency
gravitoelectric relative permittivity of the
f = 0.1Hz , the value is z = 1.07 mm .
medium; ε 0G is the gravitoelectric
Obviously, the thickness of the Mumetal
disk must be less than this value. permittivity for free space and E G = g
Equation (55) is general for all is the gravitoelectric field intensity); ρ is
types of electromagnetic fields including the density of local rest mass in the local
gravitoelectromagnetic fields (See Fig. I rest frame of the matter;
(b)).
BG = μ rG μ 0G H G is the gravitomagnetic
Transmitter field ( μ rG is the gravitomagnetic relative
ELF electromagnetic radiation

permeability, μ 0G is the gravitomagnetic

permeability for free space and H G is
Mumetal disk the gravitomagnetic field intensity;
Motor
jG = −σ G E G is the local rest-mass
current density in this frame ( σ G is the
gravitoelectric conductivity of the
Balance medium).
Then, for free space we can write
(a)
that
⎛ GM ⎞
DG = 4ε 0G EG = 4ε 0G g = 4ε 0G ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ r ⎠
Gravitoelectric
Field But from the electrodynamics we know
that
q
D = εE =
Acceleration
4πr 2
By analogy we can write that
Mg
DG =
Gravitomagnetic 4πr 2
Field
By comparing this expression with the
(b) previous expression of DG , we get
Fig. I – (a) Experimental set-up in order to measure the 1
gravitational mass decreasing in the rotating Mumetal ε 0G = = 2.98 × 10 8 kg 2 .N −1 .m − 2
disk. A sample connected to a dynamometer can measure 16πG
the decreasing of gravity above the disk. (b) which is the expression of the
Gravitoelectromagnetic Field.
gravitoelectric permittivity for free
space.
The Maxwell-like equations for The gravitomagnetic permeability
weak gravitational fields are [9] for free space [10,11] is
16πG
† μ 0G = 2
= 3.73 × 10 −26 m kg
Quevedo, C. P. (1978) Eletromagnetismo c
McGraw-Hill, p.269-270.
We then convert Maxwell-like equations
 15

for weak gravity into a wave equation for ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫

⎪ ⎢ ⎛ W ⎞ ⎥⎪
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ G 2 ⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi0
free space in the standard way. We
conclude that the speed of Gravitational ⎜ρ c ⎟
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎪
Waves in free space is ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
1
v= =c ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
ε 0G μ 0G ⎪ ⎛ BG2 ⎞
⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥⎪⎬mi 0 (55a)
⎢ 2 ⎟ ⎥⎪
This means that both electromagnetic ⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ μ0G ρ c ⎠ ⎥⎦⎭
and gravitational plane waves propagate ⎩
at the free space with the same speed. where ρ = mi 0 V .
Thus, the impedance for free space is This equation shows how the
EG 16πG gravitational mass of a particle is altered
ZG = = μ0G ε 0G = μ0G c = by a gravitomagnetic field.
HG c
A gravitomagnetic field, according
and the Poynting-like vector is
r r r to Einstein's theory of general relativity,
S = EG × H G arises from moving matter (matter
For a plane wave propagating in the current) just as an ordinary magnetic
vacuum, we have E G = Z G H G . Then, it field arises from moving charges. The
Earth rotation is the source of a very
follows that
weak gravitomagnetic field given by
r 1 r 2 ω 2 r 2 c 2ω 2
S = EG = h = h0i
2
μ 0G ⎛ Mω ⎞
2Z G 2Z G 32πG BG ,Earth = − ⎜ ⎟ ≈ 10 −14 rad .s −1
16π ⎝ r ⎠ Earth
which is the power per unit area of a
harmonic plane wave of angular Perhaps ultra-fast rotating stars can
frequency ω . generate very strong gravitomagnetic
In classical electrodynamics the fields, which can make the gravitational
density of energy in an electromagnetic mass of particles inside and near the star
negative. According to (55a) this will
field, We , has the following expression
occur if BG > 1.06c μ 0G ρ . Usually,
We = 12 ε r ε 0 E 2 + 12 μ r μ 0 H 2
however, gravitomagnetic fields
In analogy with this expression we produced by normal matter are very
define the energy density in a weak.
gravitoelectromagnetic field, WG , as Recently Tajmar, M. et al., [12]
follows have proposed that in addition to
WG = 12 ε rG ε 0G EG2 + 12 μ rG μ 0G H G2 the London moment, B L ,
For free space we obtain ( )
( BL = − 2m* e* ω ≅ 1.1×10−11ω ; m and
*

μ rG = ε rG = 1 e* are the Cooper-pair mass and charge

ε 0G = 1 μ 0G c 2 respectively), a rotating superconductor
E G H G = μ 0G c should exhibit also a large
gravitomagnetic field, BG , to explain an
and
BG = μ 0 G H G apparent mass increase of Niobium
Cooper-pairs discovered by Tate et
Thus, we can rewrite the equation of WG al[13,14]. According to Tajmar and Matos
as follows [15], in the case of coherent matter, BG
2
⎛ 1⎞ 2 2 1 ⎛B ⎞ B2 is given by: BG = −2ωρc μ0G λ2gr where ρ c
WG = 1⎜ ⎟c BG + μ0G ⎜ G ⎟ = G
2⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎜ μ0G ⎟
⎝ μ0G c ⎠
2
⎝ ⎠ μ0G is the mass density of coherent matter
and λ gr is the graviphoton wavelength.
Since U G = WGV , (V is the volume of the By choosing λ gr proportional to the local
particle) and nr = 1 for free space we density of coherent matter, ρ c . i.e.,
can write (55) in the following form
 16

1 ⎛ m gr c ⎞ By means of (55c) it is possible to

= ⎜⎜ ⎟ = μ 0G ρ c
⎟ check the changes in the gravitational
λ2gr ⎝ h ⎠ mass of the coherent part of a given
we obtain material (e.g. the Cooper-pair fluid). Thus
⎛ 1 ⎞ for the electrons of the Cooper-pairs we
BG = −2ωρc μ0G λ2gr = −2ωρc μ0G ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = have
⎝ μ0G ρ c ⎠
= −2ω ⎡ 2⎤
⎛ 2 ⎞
= mie + 2⎢1 − 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎥m =
BG
and the graviphoton mass, m gr , is m ge 2 ⎟ ⎥ ie
⎢ μ ρ
⎢⎣ ⎝ 0G e ⎠ ⎥
c
m gr = μ 0 G ρ c h c ⎦
Note that if we take the case of no ⎡ 2⎤
⎛ 4ω 2 ⎞ ⎥
local sources of coherent matter (ρ c = 0 ) , ⎢
= mie + 2 1 − 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟ m =
⎢ 2 ⎟ ⎥ ie
the graviphoton mass will be zero. μ ρ
⎝ 0G e ⎠ ⎥
c
⎣⎢ ⎦
However, graviphoton will have non-zero
mass inside coherent matter (ρ c ≠ 0 ) . = mie + χ e mie
This can be interpreted as a
consequence of the graviphoton gaining where ρ e is the mass density of the
mass inside the superconductor via the electrons.
Higgs mechanism due to the breaking of In order to check the changes in
gauge symmetry. the gravitational mass of neutrons and
It is important to note that the protons (non-coherent part) inside the
minus sign in the expression for BG superconductor, we must use Eq. (55a)
can be understood as due to the and BG = −2ωρμ 0G λ2gr [Tajmar and
change from the normal to the
coherent state of matter, i.e., a switch Matos, op.cit.]. Due to μ 0G ρ c λ2gr = 1 ,
between real and imaginary values that expression of BG can be rewritten in
for the particles inside the material the following form
BG = −2ωρμ 0G λ2gr = −2ω (ρ ρ c )
when going from the normal to the
coherent state of matter. Consequently,
in this case the variable U in (55) Thus we have
must be replaced by iU G and not by U G ⎡ 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎛ BG2 ⎞
only. Thus we obtain mgn = min − 2 1+ ⎜ ⎟ −1⎥min =
⎢ ⎜ μ ρ c2 ⎟ ⎥
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 0G n ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ UG ⎞ ⎪
mg = ⎨1− 2 1− ⎜⎜ n ⎟ −1⎥⎬mi0 (55b)
2 r⎟
⎢ ⎥ ⎡ ⎤
⎛ 4ω2 (ρn ρc )2 ⎞
2
⎪ ⎣ ⎝ mi0c ⎠ ⎦⎪⎭ ⎢
⎩ = min − 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ ⎟ −1⎥min =
⎜ μ ρ c2 ⎟ ⎥
Since U G = WGV , we can write (55b) ⎢⎣ ⎝ 0G n ⎠ ⎥⎦
for nr = 1 , in the following form
= min − χnmin
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ WG ⎞ ⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎟ − 1⎥⎪⎬mi 0
2
mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎢ ⎛ B2 ⎞
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ρc c ⎠
2 ⎟ ⎥⎪ mgp = mip − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ G ⎟ −1⎥m =
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ ⎜ μ0G ρ p c ⎟
2 ⎥ ip
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ B 2
⎞ ⎥⎪⎬m (55c)
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟ − ⎡ ⎤
( )2 ⎞⎟
G
2 ⎟
1 2
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ μ 0G ρ c c ⎠ ⎥⎪ i 0 ⎢ ⎛ 4ω 2 ρ p ρc ⎥
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ = mip − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ − 1⎥mip =
⎜ μ ρ c2 ⎟
where ρ c = mi 0 V is the local density ⎢ ⎝ 0G p ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
of coherent matter. = mip − χ p mip
Note the different sign (inside
the square root) with respect to (55a).
 17

where ρ n and ρ p are the mass density Δm g = m g − m i 0 = − χ p m i 0

of neutrons and protons respectively.
In Tajmar’s experiment, induced By comparing this expression with
accelerations fields outside the Δm g ≈ 1 × 10 −4 mi which has been
superconductor in the order of 100 μg , at
obtained from Tajmar’s experiment, we
−1
angular velocities of about 500rad .s conclude that at angular velocities
were observed. ω ≈ 500rad .s −1 we have
Starting from g = Gm g (initial ) r we
χ p ≈ 1 × 10 −4
(
can write that g + Δg = G mg(initial) + Δmg r . ) From the expression of m gp we get
Then we get Δg = GΔmg r . For
⎡ 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎛ B G2 ⎞ ⎥
Δg =ηg =ηGmg(initial) r it follows that χ p = 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ =
⎜ μ 0G ρ p c ⎟
2
Δ m g = η m g (initial ) = η m i . Therefore a ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
variation of Δg = ηg corresponds to a ⎡ ⎤
( )
2
⎢ ⎛ 4ω 2 ρ p ρ c 2 ⎞ ⎥
gravitational mass variation Δmg = ηmi0 . = 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥
⎜ μ ρ c2 ⎟
Thus Δg ≈ 100μg = 1×10−4 g corresponds ⎢
⎣
⎝ 0G p ⎠ ⎥
⎦
to where ρ p = m p V p is the mass density
Δm g ≈ 1 × 10 −4 mi 0 of the protons.
On the other hand, the total In order to calculate V p we need
gravitational mass of a particle can be
expressed by to know the type of space (metric) inside
the proton. It is known that there are just
mg = Nnmgn + N pmgp + Nemge + N p ΔE c2 = 3 types of space: the space of positive
Nn (min − χnmin ) + N p (mip − χ pmip ) + curvature, the space of negative
curvature and the space of null
+ Ne (mie − χemie ) + N pΔE c2 = curvature. The negative type is
= (Nnmin + N pmip + Nemie ) + N pΔE c2 − obviously excluded since the volume of

− (Nn χnmin + N p χ pmip + Ne χemie ) + N p ΔE c2 =

the proton is finite. On the other hand,
the space of null curvature is also
= mi − (Nn χnmin + N p χ pmip + Ne χemie ) + N pΔE c2 excluded since the space inside the
proton is strongly curved by its enormous
where ΔE is the interaction mass density. Thus we can conclude that
energy; N n , N p , N e are the number of inside the proton the space has positive
neutrons, protons and electrons curvature. Consequently, the volume of
respectively. Since min ≅ mip and the proton, V p , will be expressed by the
ρ n ≅ ρ p it follows that χn ≅ χ p and 3-dimensional space that corresponds to
a hypersphere in a 4-dimentional space,
consequently the expression of mg i.e., V p will be the space of positive
reduces to curvature the volume of which is [16]
2ππ π
mg ≅ mi0 − (2Npχpmip + Neχemie ) + NpΔE c2 (55d ) Vp = ∫ ∫ ∫ rp sin
3 2
χ sin θdχdθdφ = 2π 2 r p3
000

Assuming that Ne χemie <<2Np χ pmip and
Np ΔE c2 <<2Npχpmip Eq. (55d) reduces to
mg ≅ mi0 − 2Npχpmip = mi − χpmi
In the case of Earth, for example,
ρ Earth << ρ p . Consequently the
curvature of the space inside the Earth is
approximately null (space approximately
(55e) flat). Then V Earth ≅ 3 π r Earth .
4 3

or
For rp = 1.4 ×10−15 m we then get
 18

mp ⎡ 2⎤
ρp = ≅ 3 × 1016 kg / m 3 ⎛ ω 2 ⎞
Vp χ = 2⎢1 − 1 − ⎜⎜
* 4 ⎟ ⎥ = 0.84 × 10−4
⎢ * 2 ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ μ 0G ρ c ⎠ ⎥
Starting from the London moment ⎦
it is easy to see that by precisely From this equation we then obtain
measuring the magnetic field and the
angular velocity of the
superconductor, one can calculate the
ρ * ≅ 3 × 1016 kg / m 3
mass of the Cooper-pairs. This has Note that ρ p ≅ ρ * .
been done for both classical and high-Tc Now we can calculate the
superconductors [17-20]. In the
graviphoton mass, m gr , inside the
experiment with the highest precision to
date, Tate et al, op.cit., reported a Cooper-pairs fluid (coherent part of the
disagreement between the theoretically superconductor) as
predicted Cooper-pair mass in Niobium
of m* 2me = 0.999992 and its m gr = μ 0G ρ * h c ≅ 4 × 10 −52 kg
experimental value of 1.000084(21) ,
Outside the coherent matter (ρ c = 0 ) the
where me is the electron mass. This
graviphoton mass will be zero
anomaly was actively discussed in the
literature without any apparent solution (m gr = μ 0 G ρ c h c = 0 . )
−1
[21-24]. Substitution of ρp, ρc =ρ and ω ≈ 500rad.s
*
If we consider that the apparent
mass increase from Tate’s into the expression of χ p gives
measurements results from an increase
in the gravitational mass m*g of the χ p ≈ 1 × 10 −4
Cooper-pairs due to BG , then we can
write Compare this value with that one
obtained from the Tajmar experiment.
m *g m *g
= * = 1.000084 Therefore, the decrease in the
2m e mi gravitational mass of the superconductor,
expressed by (55e), is
Δm *g = m *g − m *g (initial ) = m *g − m i* =
m g ,SC ≅ mi ,SC − χ p mi ,SC
= 1.000084 m i* − mi* =
≅ mi ,SC − 10 − 4 mi ,SC
−4
= +0.84 × 10 mi* =χ *
m i* This corresponds to a decrease of the
−4
where χ = 0.84 × 10 .
* −2
order of 10 % in respect to the initial
From (55c) we can write that gravitational mass of the superconductor.
However, we must also consider the
⎡ 2⎤ gravitational shielding effect, produced
⎢ ⎛ 4ω 2 ⎞ ⎥ * −2
m*g = mi* + 2 1− 1− ⎜ ⎟ mi = by this decrease of ≈ 10 % in the
⎢ ⎜ μ ρ*c2 ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 0G ⎠ ⎥ gravitational mass of the particles inside
⎦ the superconductor (see Fig. II).
= mi* + χ * mi* Therefore, the total weight decrease in
the superconductor will be much greater
−2
than 10 % . According to Podkletnov
where ρ * is the Cooper-pair mass
experiment [25] it can reach up to 1% of
density. the total weight of the superconductor
(5000rpm) . In this
Consequently we can write −1
at 523.6rad .s
experiment a slight decrease (up to
≈ 1% ) in the weight of samples hung
above the disk (rotating at 5000rpm) was
 19

observed. A smaller effect on the order acceleration, g ′ , upon the particle m ′g ,

of 0.1% has been observed when the
r GM g
disk is not rotating. The percentage of is g ′ = − g = + μ̂ . This means that
weight decrease is the same for samples R2
of different masses and chemical in this case, the gravitational flux, φ g′ ,
compounds. The effect does not seem to
diminish with increases in elevation through the particle m ′g will be given by
above the disk. There appears to be a φ g′ = g ′S = − gS = −φ g , i.e., it will be
“shielding cylinder” over the disk that symmetric in respect to the flux when
extends upwards for at least 3 meters.
No weight reduction has been observed
m′g = mi′0 (third case). In the second case
under the disk. (m′g ≅ 0) , the intensity of the
It is easy to see that the decrease
gravitational force between m ′g and M g
in the weight of samples hung above the
disk (inside the “shielding cylinder” over will be very close to zero. This is
the disk) in the Podkletnov experiment, equivalent to say that the gravity
is also a consequence of the acceleration upon the particle with mass
Gravitational Shielding Effect showed in m ′g will be g ′ ≅ 0 . Consequently we can
Fig. II.
write that φ g′ = g ′S ≅ 0 . It is easy to see
In order to explain the
Gravitational Shielding Effect, we start that there is a correlation between
with the gravitational field, m ′g m i′0 and φ g′ φ g , i.e.,
r GM g
g=− μ̂ , produced by a particle
R2 _ If m ′g mi′0 = −1 ⇒ φ g′ φ g = −1
with gravitational mass, M g . The
gravitational flux, φ g , through a spherical _ If m ′g m i′0 = 1 ⇒ φ g′ φ g = 1
surface, with area S and radius R ,
concentric with the mass M g , is given _ If m ′g m i′0 ≅ 0 ⇒ φ g′ φ g ≅ 0
by
r r Just a simple algebraic form contains the
φ g = ∫ gdS = g ∫ dS = g S = requisites mentioned above, the
S S
correlation
=
GM g
2
(4πR ) = 4πGM
2
g
φ g′
=
m ′g
R
φ g mi′0
Note that the flux φ g does not depend on
By making m ′g mi′0 = χ we get
the radius R of the surface S , i.e., it is
the same through any surface concentric
with the mass M g . φ g′ = χ φ g
Now consider a particle with
gravitational mass, m ′g , placed into the This is the expression of the gravitational
flux through m ′g . It explains the
gravitational field produced by Mg.
Gravitational Shielding Effect presented
According to Eq. (41), we can in Fig. II.
have m′g mi′0 = −1, m′g mi′0 ≅ 0 ‡ , m′g mi′0 = 1, As φg = gS and φ g′ = g ′S , we obtain
etc. In the first case, the gravity

‡ g′ = χ g
The quantization of the gravitational mass
(Eq.(33)) shows that for n = 1 the gravitational This is the gravity acceleration inside m ′g .
mass is not zero but equal to mg(min).Although the Figure II (b) shows the gravitational
gravitational mass of a particle is never null,
shielding effect produced by two particles
Eq.(41) shows that it can be turned very close to
zero.
at the same direction. In this case, the
 20

gravity acceleration inside and above the flux on the surface α returns from O′ to
second particle will be χ 2 g if m g 2 = m i1 . O and is detected by the
These particles are representative galvanometer G . That is, there is no
of any material particles or material deflection for the cathodic rays. Then it
r r
substance (solid, liquid, gas, plasma, follows that eVB = eEy since FB = FE .
electrons flux, etc.), whose gravitational
mass have been reduced by the Then, we get
factor χ . Thus, above the substance, the Ey
V =
gravity acceleration g ′ is reduced at the B
same proportion χ = m g mi 0 , and, This gives a measure of the velocity of
the electrons.
consequently, g ′ = χ g , where g is the Thus, by means of the
gravity acceleration below the substance. experimental set-up, shown in Fig. III, we
Figure III shows an experimental can easily obtain the velocity V of the
set-up in order to check the factor χ electrons below the body β , in order to
above a high-speed electrons flux. As we calculate the theoretical value of χ . The
have shown (Eq. 43), the gravitational experimental value of χ can be obtained
mass of a particle decreases with the
by dividing the weight, Pβ′ = m gβ g ′ of
increase of the velocity V of the particle.
~
Since the theory says that the the body β for a voltage drop V across
factor χ is given by the correlation the anode and cathode, by its
m g mi 0 then, in the case of an electrons weight, Pβ = m gβ g , when the voltage
flux, we will have that χ = mge mie where ~
V is zero, i.e.,
m ge as function of the velocity V is Pβ′ g′
χ = =
given by Eq. (43). Thus, we can write Pβ g
that
According to Eq. (4), the gravitational
mass, M g , is defined by
m ge ⎧⎪ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎫⎪
χ= = ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ − 1⎥ ⎬ mg
mie ⎪⎩ ⎢
⎣ 1−V c
2 2
⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ Mg =
1 − V 2 c2
Therefore, if we know the velocity V of
the electrons we can calculate χ . ( mie is While Eq. (43) defines m g by means of
the electron mass at rest). the following expression
When an electron penetrates the ⎧⎪ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎫⎪
electric field E y (see Fig. III) an electric m g = ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0
r r ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 1 − V 2 c 2 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
force, FE = −eE y , will act upon the
r In order to check the gravitational mass
electron. The direction of FE will be of the electrons it is necessary to know
r the pressure P produced by the
contrary to the direction of E y . The
r electrons flux. Thus, we have put a
magnetic force FB which acts upon the piezoelectric sensor in the bottom of the
r glass tube as shown in Fig. III. The
electron, due to the magnetic field B , is electrons flux radiated from the cathode
r r
FB = eVBμ̂ and will be opposite to FE is accelerated by the anode1 and strikes
because the electron charge is negative. on the piezoelectric sensor yielding a
By adjusting conveniently B we pressure P which is measured by
r r means of the sensor.
can make FB = FE . Under these
circumstances in which the total force is
zero, the spot produced by the electrons
 21

g g′ < g g′ < 0

mg = mi mg < mi mg < 0

g g g

(a)

Particle 2 P2 = mg 2 g′ = mg 2 ( x g )
mg 2
g′ < g due to the gravitational
g′ shielding effect produced by mg 1

mg 1 = x mi 1 ; x < 1
Particle 1
mg 1 P1 = mg 1 g = x mi 1 g
g

(b)

Fig. I I – The Gravitational Shielding effect.

 22

Let us now deduce the correlation piezoelectric sensor is the resultant of

between P and M ge . all the forces Fφ produced by each
When the electrons flux strikes electrons flux that passes through
the sensor, the electrons transfer to it each hole of area S φ in the grid of the
a momentum Q = neqe = ne MgeV . anode 1, and is given by
Since Q = FΔt = 2Fd V , we conclude that ⎛ αnSφ ⎞ ~ 32
F = nFφ = n(PSφ ) = ⎜⎜ ⎟
2 ⎟
M VV
⎛F⎞
2d ⎝ 2ed ⎠
ge

M ge = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
V2
⎝ ne ⎠ where n is the number of holes in the
The amount of electrons, ne , is given grid. By means of the piezoelectric
sensor we can measure F and
by ne = ρSd where ρ is the amount of
consequently obtain M ge .
electrons per unit of volume
We can use the equation
(electrons/m3); S is the cross-section
above to evaluate the magnitude of
of the electrons flux and d the
the force F to be measured by the
distance between cathode and
piezoelectric sensor. First, we will find
anode.
the expression of V as a function of
In order to calculate ne we will ~
V since the electrons speed V
start from the Langmuir-Child law and ~
the Ohm vectorial law, respectively depends on the voltage V .
given by We will start from Eq. (46)
~ 3 which is the general expression for
and J = ρ cV , (ρ c = ρ e )
V2
J =α Lorentz’s force, i.e.,
r
( )
d dp r r r mg
where J is the thermoionic current = qE + qV × B
− 32
dt mi 0
density; α = 2.33 × 10 − 6 A.m −1 .V is
~ When the force and the speed
the called Child’s constant; V is the have the same direction Eq.
r r (6) gives
voltage drop across the anode and dp mg dV
=
cathode electrodes, and V is the dt (1 − V 2 c 2 )2 dt
3

velocity of the electrons.

By comparing the Langmuir- By comparing these expressions we
Child law with the Ohm vectorial law obtain r
we obtain mi 0 dV r r r
~ = q E + q V ×B
( )
3

αV
3

1 − V 2 c 2 2 dt
2

ρ= 2
ed V In the case of electrons accelerated
Thus, we can write that by a sole electric field (B = 0) , the
~ 3

αV S 2
equation above gives
ne = r r ~
( )
edV r dV eE 2eV
and a= = 1−V c
2 2

dt mie mie
⎛ 2ed 2 ⎞
M ge = ⎜⎜ ~ 3 ⎟⎟ P Therefore, the velocity V of the
⎝ α VV 2 ⎠ electrons in the experimental set-up
Where P = F S , is the pressure to be is
~
measured by the piezoelectric
( 2eV
)
3

V = 2ad = 1 − V 2 c 2 4
sensor. mie
In the experimental set-up the
From Eq. (43) we conclude that
total force F acting on the
 23

Dynamometer (D)

d
~
Collimators g’= χ g ↓g + Vy
Grid d Collimators B
O’ +
α γ
F
e V
y Ey O⋅ e

Anode 1 Filaments Cathode Anode 2

Piezoelectric − G ↓iG
sensor
- +

~
V

+ −

Fig. III – Experimental set-up in order to check the factor χ above a high-speed electrons flux.
The set-up may also check the velocities and the gravitational masses of the electrons.
 24

mge ≅ 0 when V ≅ 0.745c . Substitution If we have nSφ ≅ 0.16m 2 and

of this value of V into equation above d = 0.08m in the experimental set-up
~
gives V ≅ 479.1KV . This is the then it follows that
~
F = 1.82 × 1014 M geVV
3
voltage drop necessary to be applied 2

across the anode and cathode ~

electrodes in order to obtain mge ≅ 0 . By varying V from 10KV up to 500KV
we note that the maximum value for
Since the equation above can ~
be used to evaluate the velocity V of F occurs when V ≅ 344.7 KV . Under
~ these circumstances, V ≅ 0.7c and
the electrons flux for a given V , then
M ge ≅ 0.28mie . Thus the maximum
we can use the obtained value of V to
r value for F is
evaluate the intensity of B in order to
produce eVB = eE y in the Fmax ≅ 1.9 N ≅ 190 gf
~
experimental set-up. Then by Consequently, for Vmax = 500 KV , the
adjusting B we can check when the piezoelectric sensor must satisfy the
electrons flux is detected by the following characteristics:
galvanometer G . In this case, as we
have already seen, eVB = eE y , and − Capacity 200gf
the velocity of the electrons flux is − Readability 0.001gf
calculated by means of the
expression V = E y B . Substitution of Let us now return to the
explanation for the findings of
V into the expressions of m ge and
Podkletnov’s experiment. Next, we
M ge , respectively given by will explain the decrease of 0.1% in
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤ ⎫⎪ the weight of the superconductor
1
mge = ⎨1 − 2⎢ − 1⎥ ⎬mie when the disk is only levitating but not
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 1 − V 2 c 2 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ rotating.
Equation (55) shows how the
and gravitational mass is altered by
m ge electromagnetic fields.
M ge = The expression of nr for
1−V 2 c2 σ >> ωε can be obtained from (54),
yields the corresponding values of in the form
m ge and M ge which can be compared μσ c 2
nr =
c
= (56 )
with the values obtained in the v 4πf
experimental set-up:
Substitution of (56) into (55) leads to
(
m ge = χmie = Pβ′ Pβ mie ) ⎧
⎪
⎡
μσ ⎛ U ⎞
2 ⎤⎫
⎪
⎢
mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi 0
F ⎛ 2ed 2 ⎞ ⎪ ⎢ 4πf ⎝ mi c ⎠ ⎥⎪
M ge = ⎜ ⎟ ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
~3 ⎜ αnS φ ⎟
VV 2 ⎝ ⎠ This equation shows that atoms of
ferromagnetic materials with very-
where Pβ′ and Pβ are measured by high μ can have gravitational
the dynamometer D and F is masses strongly reduced by means
measured by the piezoelectric of Extremely Low Frequency (ELF)
sensor. electromagnetic radiation. It also
shows that atoms of superconducting
 25

materials (due to very-high σ ) can other hand the transition temperature,

also have its gravitational masses for high critical temperature (HTC)
strongly reduced by means of ELF superconducting materials, is in the
electromagnetic radiation. order of 10 2 K . Thus (58a) gives
Alternatively, we may put ⎧ ⎡ ⎫
⎪ ~ 10−9 ⎤⎪
Eq.(55) as a function of the power mg,CPfluid = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 −1⎥⎬mi,CPfluid (58b)
density ( or intensity ), D , of the ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ρCPfluid ⎥⎦⎪
⎭
radiation. The integration of (51)
Assuming that the number of Copper-
gives U =VD v . Thus, we can write
pairs per unit volume is N ≈ 10 26 m −3
(55) in the following form:
[27] we can write that
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
ρ CPfluid = Nm* ≈ 10 −4 kg / m 3
2
⎪ ⎛ nr2 D ⎞ ⎪
mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi 0
⎢ (57)
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ρc ⎠ ⎥⎪ Substitution of this value into (58b)
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ yields
where ρ = mi 0 V .
For σ >> ωε , nr will be given by mg,CPfluid = m − 0.1 mi,CPfluid
i,CPfluid
(56) and consequently (57) becomes
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ This means that the gravitational
⎪ ⎛ μσ ⎞ ⎪
⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0 (58)
D
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ masses of the electrons are
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ 4πfρc ⎠ ⎥⎪ decreased of ~10%. This
⎣ ⎦⎭
corresponds to a decrease in the
In the case of Thermal gravitational mass of the
radiation, it is common to relate superconductor given by
m g ,SC N (m ge + m gp + m gn + ΔE c 2 )
the energy of photons to
temperature, T, through the = =
relation, mi , SC N (mie + mip + min + ΔE c 2 )
hf ≈ κT ⎛ m ge + m gp + m gn + ΔE c 2 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟=
where κ = 1.38 × 10 −23 J / °K is the ⎜ m + m + m + ΔE c 2 ⎟
⎝ ie ip in ⎠
Boltzmann’s constant. On the other
hand it is known that ⎛ 0.9mie + mip + min + ΔE c 2 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟=
D = σ BT 4 ⎜ m + m + m + ΔE c 2 ⎟
⎝ ie ip in ⎠
where σ B = 5.67 × 10 −8 watts / m 2 ° K 4 = 0.999976
is the Stefan-Boltzmann’s constant. Where ΔE is the interaction energy.
Thus we can rewrite (58) in the Therefore, a decrease of
following form (1 − 0.999976) ≈ 10 , i.e., approximately
−5

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ μσσ 3
⎞ ⎪ 10 −3% in respect to the initial
⎢ − 1⎥⎬mi0 (58a)
⎜ hT ⎟
mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + B
⎢ ⎜ 4πκρ c ⎟ ⎥ gravitational mass of the
⎪
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ superconductor, due to the local
Starting from this equation, we can thermal radiation only. However, here
evaluate the effect of the thermal we must also consider the
radiation upon the gravitational mass gravitational shielding effect
of the Copper-pair fluid, m g ,CPfluid . produced, in this case, by the
Below the transition temperature, Tc , decrease of ≈ 10 − 3% in the
gravitational mass of the particles
(T Tc < 0.5) the conductivity of the inside the superconductor (see Fig.
superconducting materials is usually II). Therefore the total weight
larger than 10 22 S / m [26]. On the decrease in the superconductor will

be much greater than ≈ 10 − 3% . This
can explain the smaller effect on the
order of 0.1% observed in the
Podkletnov measurements when the
disk is not rotating.
Let us now consider an electric
current I through a conductor
subjected to electromagnetic
radiation with power density D and
frequency f .
Under these circumstances the
gravitational mass mge of the
electrons of the conductor, according
to Eq. (58), is given by
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ μσD ⎞ ⎪
m ge = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬m e
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ 4πfρc ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
−31
where me = 9.11 × 10 kg .
Note that if the radiation upon
the conductor has extremely-low
frequency (ELF radiation) then mge
can be strongly reduced. For
example, if f ≈ 10−6 Hz , D ≈ 10 5 W / m 2
and the conductor is made of copper
( μ ≅ μ0 ; σ = 5.8×107 S / mand
ρ = 8900kg / m3 ) then
⎛ μσD ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ≈ 1
⎝ 4πfρc ⎠
and consequently mge ≈ 0.1me .
According to Eq. (6) the force
upon each free electron is given by
r and evidently corresponds to the
r m ge dV
Fe =
(1 − V c2 ) 2
2
3
dt
where E is the applied electric field.
Therefore, the decrease of mge
produces an increase in the velocity
V of the free electrons and
consequently the drift velocity Vd is
also increased. It is known that the
density of electric current J through
a conductor [28] is given by
26
r r
J = Δ eVd
where Δe is the density of the
free electric charges ( For cooper
conductors Δe = 1.3 × 1010 C / m 3 ).
Therefore increasing Vd produces an
increase in the electric current I .
Thus if mge is reduced 10 times
(m ge ≈ 0.1me ) the drift velocity Vd is
increased 10 times as well as the
electric current. Thus we conclude
that strong fluxes of ELF radiation
upon electric/electronic circuits can
suddenly increase the electric
currents and consequently damage
these circuits.
Since the orbital electrons
moment of inertia is given
by I i = Σ (mi ) j rj , where mi refers to
2
inertial mass and not to gravitational
mass, then the momentum L = I iω of
the conductor orbital electrons are not
affected by the ELF radiation.
Consequently, this radiation just
affects the conductor’s free electrons
velocities. Similarly, in the case of
superconducting materials, the
momentum, L = I iω , of the orbital
electrons are not affected by the
gravitomagnetic fields.
r r
The vector D = (U V )v , which we
may define from (48), has the same
r
direction of the propagation vector k
r r
= eE
Poynting vector. Then D can be
r r
replaced by E× H .Thus we can write
D = 12 EH = 12 E(B μ) = 12 E[(E v) μ] = 12 (1 vμ)E2 .
For σ >> ωε Eq. (54) tells us that
v = 4πf μσ . Consequently, we obtain
σ
D = 12 E 2
4πfμ
This expression refers to the
instantaneous values of D and E .
The average value for E 2 is equal to
1 E 2 because E varies sinusoidaly
2 m
 27

( E m is the maximum value for E ). penetrates the magnetic field, its

Substitution of the expression of D negative inertial mass increases, but
into (58) gives its total inertial mass decreases, i.e.,
⎧ although there is an increase of
⎡ 3 ⎤⎫
μ ⎛σ ⎞ E
2
⎪ ⎪
⎟⎟ 2 − 1⎥⎬mi0 (59a)
inertial mass, the total inertial mass
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 2 ⎜⎜
⎪⎩ ⎢ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ ρ ⎥⎪ (which is equivalent to gravitational
⎣ ⎦⎭ mass) will be reduced.
Since E rms = E m 2 and E = 12 E m2 we 2
On the other hand, Eq.(4)
can write the equation above in the shows that the velocity of the body
following form must increase as consequence of
⎧ ⎡ the gravitational mass decreasing
3 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ μ ⎛ σ ⎞ Erms 2
⎪
−1⎥⎬mi0 (59a)
since the momentum is conserved.
mg = ⎨1− 2 1+ 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ ρ 2
⎥⎪ Consider for example a spacecraft
⎦⎭ with velocity Vs and gravitational
Note that for extremely-low
mass M g . If M g is reduced to m g
frequencies the value of f − 3 in this
then the velocity becomes
V s′ = (M g m g )V s
equation becomes highly expressive.
Since E = vB equation (59a)
can also be put as a function of B , In addition, Eqs. 5 and 6 tell us that
i.e., the inertial forces depend on m g .
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎛ σ ⎞ B4 ⎤⎫⎪ Only in the particular case of
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟
2 ⎟ 2
− 1⎥⎬mi 0 (59b) m g = m i 0 the expressions (5) and
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 4πfμc ⎠ ρ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
(6) reduce to the well-known
For conducting materials with Newtonian expression F = mi 0 a .
σ ≈ 10 S / m ; μ r = 1 ; ρ ≈ 10 kg / m3
7 3
Consequently, one can conclude that
the expression (59b) gives the inertial effects on the spacecraft
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎛ ≈ 10 −12 ⎞ 4 ⎤ ⎫⎪ will also be reduced due to the
mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜
⎢ ⎟⎟ B − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0 decreasing of its gravitational mass.
⎪⎩ ⎢
⎣ ⎝ f ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
Obviously this leads to a new
This equation shows that the concept of aerospace flight.
decreasing in the gravitational mass Now consider an electric
of these conductors can become current i = i0 sin2πft through a
experimentally detectable for
conductor. Since the current density,
example, starting from 100Teslas at r r r r
10mHz. J , is expressed by J = di dS = σE ,
One can then conclude that an then we can write that
interesting situation arises when a E = i σS = (i0 σS ) sin 2πft . Substitution
body penetrates a magnetic field in of this equation into (59a) gives
the direction of its center. The ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪
i4μ
gravitational mass of the body mg = ⎨1−2⎢ 1+ 3 20 2 4 3 sin4 2πft −1⎥⎬mi0 (59c)
decreases progressively. This is due ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 64π c ρ S f σ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
to the intensity increase of the If the conductor is a supermalloy rod
magnetic field upon the body while it
penetrates the field. In order to
(1 × 1 × 400mm) then μr = 100,000
understand this phenomenon we (initial); ρ = 8770kg / m 3 ; σ = 1.6 ×106 S / m
might, based on (43), think of the and S = 1 × 10 −6 m 2 . Substitution of
inertial mass as being formed by two these values into the equation above
parts: one positive and another yields the following expression for the
negative. Thus, when the body
 28

gravitational mass of the supermalloy Δp P2

rod =
m i 0 c 2 ρ 2 cv 3

⎩ ⎢⎣
( )
mg(sm) =⎧⎨1−2⎡ 1+ 5.71×10−12i04 f 3 sin42πft −1⎤⎫⎬mi(sm)
⎥⎦⎭
Substitution of this expression into
(41) gives
Some oscillators like the HP3325A ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ P2 ⎞ ⎪
(Op.002 High Voltage Output) can mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ 2 3 ⎟ −1⎥⎥⎬mi 0 (60)
generate sinusoidal voltages with ⎜ 2ρ cv ⎟
⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
extremely-low frequencies down to ⎩
f = 1 × 10 −6 Hz and amplitude up to This expression shows that in the
case of sound waves the decreasing
20V (into 50Ω load). The maximum
of gravitational mass is relevant for
output current is 0.08 App . very strong pressures only.
Thus, for i0 = 0.04 A (0.08 A pp ) It is known that in the nucleus
and f < 2.25 × 10 −6 Hz the equation of the Earth the pressure can reach
values greater than 1013 N / m 2 . The
above shows that the gravitational
mass of the rod becomes negative at equation above tells us that sound
waves produced by pressure
2πft = π 2 ; for f ≅ 1.7 × 10−6 Hz at
variations of this magnitude can
t = 1 4 f = 1.47 × 10 5 s ≅ 40.8h it shows cause strong decreasing of the
that m g ( sm ) ≅ − mi ( sm ) . gravitational mass at the
This leads to the idea of the surroundings of the point where the
Gravitational Motor. See in Fig. IV a sound waves were generated. This
type of gravitational motor (Rotational obviously must cause an abrupt
Gravitational Motor) based on the decreasing of the pressure at this
possibility of gravity control on a place since pressure = weight /area =
ferromagnetic wire. mgg/area). Consequently a local
It is important to realize that instability will be produced due to the
this is not the unique way of opposite internal pressure. The
decreasing the gravitational mass of conclusion is that this effect may
a body. It was noted earlier that the cause Earthquakes.
expression (53) is general for all Consider a sphere of radius r
types of waves including non- around the point where the sound
electromagnetic waves like sound waves were generated (at ≈ 1,000km
waves for example. In this case, the depth; the Earth's radius is 6 ,378km ).
velocity v in (53) will be the speed of If the maximum pressure, at the
sound in the body and D the intensity explosion place ( sphere of radius r0 ),
of the sound radiation. Thus from (53) is Pmax ≈ 1013 N / m 2 and the pressure
we can write that
at the distance r = 10km is
Δp V D D
= = Pmin = (r0 r ) Pmax ≈ 10 N / m then we can
2 9 2
mi c mi c ρcv 2
consider that in the sphere
It can easily be shown that
D = 2π 2 ρf 2 A 2 v where A = λP 2πρv 2 ; P = PmaxPmin ≈ 10 N / m .Thus assuming
11 2

A and P are respectively the v ≈ 103 m / s and ρ ≈103 kg/ m3 we can

amplitude and maximum pressure calculate the variation of gravitational
variation of the sound wave. mass in the sphere by means of the
Therefore we readily obtain equation of m g , i.e.,
 29

⎧ ⎡ i4μ ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎪
α = ⎨1 − 2 1 + − 1⎥ ⎬
⎪⎩ ⎢ 64π c ρ S f σ
3 2 2 4 3
⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
Axis
of the
Rotor
Ferromagnetic wire F = mg g = α mi g

P = mi g

~ One plate of ferromagnetic wire

of the Rotor
ELF current
source

Several plates of
ferromagnetic wire

Rotor of the Motor

Fig. IV - Rotational Gravitational Motor

 30

r
force, Fi , is given by Eq.(6), and from
Δmg = mg (initial) − mg = Eq.(13) we can obtain the
r r r
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ gravitational force, Fg . Thus, Fi ≡ Fg
⎪ ⎛ P2 ⎞ ⎪
= mi 0 − ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ 2 3 ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi 0 = leads to
⎢
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ 2ρ cv ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭ mg r m′g mg
a ≡G ≡
⎡
⎛ P2 ⎞
2 ⎤ 1−V c (
2 2 2
3
) ⎛
⎜ r′ 1−V c ⎟
2 2 ⎞
2
1 −V 2 2
c
= 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ 2 3 ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ρV ≈ 1011 kg ⎝ ⎠
⎢ ⎝ 2 ρ cv ⎠ ⎥ ⎛ m′g ⎞ mg mg
⎣ ⎦ r
≡ ⎜⎜G 2 ⎟⎟ ≡g (61)
The transitory loss of this great ( )
⎝ r′ ⎠ 1−V 2 c2 2
3
( 3
)
1−V 2 c2 2
amount of gravitational mass may whence results
r r
evidently produce a strong pressure a≡g (62 )
variation and consequently a strong
Consequently, the equivalence is
Earthquake.
evident, and therefore Einstein's
Finally, we can evaluate the
equations from the General Relativity
energy necessary to generate those
continue obviously valid.
sound waves. From (48) we can write
The new expression for Fi
D max = Pmax v ≈ 10 16 W / m 2 . Thus, the
released power is P0 = Dmax(4πr02 ) ≈ 1021W
(Eqs. (5) and (6)) shows that the
inertial forces are proportional to the
and the energy ΔE released at the gravitational mass, m g . This means
time interval Δt must be ΔE = P0 Δt . that these forces result from the
Assuming Δt ≈ 10 s we readily obtain
−3
gravitational interaction between the
ΔE = P0 Δt ≈ 1018 joules ≈ 10 4 Megatons particle and the other gravitational
This is the amount of energy released masses of the Universe, just as
by an earthquake of magnitude 9 Mach’s principle predicts. Therefore
(Ms =9) , i.e., E = 1.74×10(5+1.44Ms ) ≅ 1018 joules. the new expression for the inertial
forces incorporates the Mach’s
The maximum magnitude in the principle into Gravitation Theory, and
Richter scale is 12. Note that the sole furthermore reveals that the inertial
releasing of this energy at 1000km effects upon a particle can be
depth (without the effect of reduced because, as we have seen,
gravitational mass decreasing) the gravitational mass may be
cannot produce an Earthquake, since reduced. When m g = mi 0 the
the sound waves reach 1km depth
with pressures less than 10N/cm2. nonrelativistic equation for inertial
r r
Let us now return to the Theory. forces, Fi = mg a , reduces to
The equivalence between r r
Fi = mi 0 a . This is the well-known
frames of non-inertial reference and
gravitational fields assumed m g ≡ mi Newton's second law for motion.
In Einstein's Special Relativity
because the inertial forces were given Theory the motion of a free-particle is
r r
by Fi = mi a , while the equivalent described by means of δS = 0 [29].
r r Now based on Eq. (1), δS = 0 will be
gravitational forces, by Fg = mg g .
given by the following expression
Thus, to satisfy the equivalence
r r r δS = − m g cδ ∫ ds = 0. (63 )
( a ≡ g and Fi ≡ Fg ) it was necessary
which also describes the motion of
that m g ≡ mi . Now, the inertial the particle inside the gravitational

field. Thus, Einstein's equations from
the General Relativity can be derived
starting from δ (S m + S g ) = 0 , where
S g and S m refer to the action of the
gravitational field and the action of
the matter, respectively [30].
The variations δS g and δS m can
be written as follows [31]:
∫( )
c3
δSg = Rik − 12 gik R δg ik − g dΩ
16πG
1
2c ∫
δS m =− Tik δg ik − g dΩ
where Rik is the Ricci's tensor; g ik the
metric tensor and Tik the matter's
energy-momentum tensor:
Tik = (P + ε g )μ i μ k + Pg ik (66 )
where P is the pressure and εg = ρgc2
is now, the density of gravitational
energy, E g , of the particle; ρ g is then
the density of gravitational mass of
the particle, i.e., M g at the volume
unit.
Substitution of (64) and (65) into
δS m + δS g = 0 yields
c3
16πG
( 8πG
)
∫ Rik − 2 gik R − c 4 Tik δg − g dΩ = 0
1 ik
whence,
⎛⎜ R − 1 g R − 8πG T ⎞⎟ = 0
⎝ ik 2 ik c4
ik
⎠
because the δg ik are arbitrary.
Equations (67) in the following form
Rik − 12 g ik R = 8π4G Tik
c
or
Rik − 12 gδ ik R = 8π4G Tik .
c
are the Einstein's equations from the
General Relativity.
It is known that these equations
are only valid if the spacetime is
continuous. We have shown at the
beginning of this work that the
spacetime is not continuous it is
quantized. However, the spacetime
can be considered approximately
“continuous” when the quantum
31
number n is very large (Classical
limit). Therefore, just under these
circumstances the Einstein's
equations from the General Relativity
can be used in order to “classicalize”
the quantum theory by means of
approximated description of the
spacetime.
Later on we will show that the
length d min of Eq. (29) is given by
(64)
( )
1
≈ 10 −34 m (70)
~ ~
d min = k l planck = k Gh c 3 2
(65 )
(See Eq. (100)). On the other hand,
we will find in the Eq. (129) the length
scale of the initial Universe, i.e.,
dinitial ≈10−14m. Thus, from the Eq. (29)
we get: n = dinitial dmin = 10−14 10−34 ≈ 1020
this is the quantum number of the
spacetime at initial instant. That
quantum number is sufficiently large
for the spacetime to be considered
approximately “continuous” starting
from the beginning of the Universe.
Therefore Einstein's equations can be
used even at the Initial Universe.
Now, it is easy to conclude why
the attempt to quantize gravity
starting from the General Relativity
was a bad theoretical strategy.
Since the gravitational
interaction can be repulsive, besides
(67)
attractive, such as the
electromagnetic interaction, then the
graviton must have spin 1 (called
graviphoton) and not 2.
(68) Consequently, the gravitational forces
are also gauge forces because they
are yielded by the exchange of the
(69) so-called "virtual" quanta of spin 1,
such as the electromagnetic forces
and the weak and strong nuclear
forces.
Let us now deduce the Entropy
Differential Equation starting from Eq.
(55). Comparison of Eqs. (55) and
(41) shows that Unr = Δpc . For small
velocities, i.e., (V << c ) , we have
Unr << mi 0 c 2 . Under these
 32

circumstances, the development of T (∂Ei ∂T ) = 2EKi (77)

( )
Eq. (55) in power of Unr mi 0 c 2 gives However, Eq.(18) shows that
⎛ Unr ⎞
2 2EKi =Ei −Eg .Therefore Eq.(77) becomes
mg = mi 0 − ⎜⎜ ⎟ mi 0
2 ⎟
(71) Eg = Ei − T (∂Ei ∂T ) (78)
⎝ i0 ⎠
m c
In the particular case of thermal Here, we can identify the energy E i
radiation, it is usual to relate the with the free-energy of the system-F
energy of the photons to the and E g with the internal energy of
temperature, through the relationship the system-U. Thus we can write the
hν ≈ kT where k = 1.38×10−23 J K is Eq.(78) in the following form:
the Boltzmann's constant. Thus, in U = F − T (∂F ∂T ) (79)
that case, the energy absorbed by the This is the well-known equation of
particle will be U = η hν ≈ ηkT , Thermodynamics. On the other hand,
where η is a particle-dependent remembering that ∂Q = ∂τ +∂U (1st
absorption/emission coefficient. principle of Thermodynamics) and
Therefore, Eq.(71) may be rewritten F = U − TS (80)
in the following form: (Helmholtz's function), we can easily
⎡⎛ nrηk ⎞2 T 2 ⎤ obtain from (79), the following
mg = mi0 − ⎢⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥mi0 (72) equation
⎢⎣⎝ c ⎠ mi0 ⎥⎦ (81)
2
∂Q = ∂τ + T∂S .
For electrons at T=300K, we have For isolated systems, ∂τ = 0 , we have
⎛ nrηk ⎞ T 2
2
∂Q = T∂S (82)
⎜ 2 ⎟ ≈ 10 −17
⎝ c ⎠ me which is the well-known Entropy
2

Comparing (72) with (18), we obtain Differential Equation.

Let us now consider the
1 ⎛ nrηk ⎞ T 2
2

EKi = ⎜ ⎟ . (73) Eq.(55) in the ultra-relativistic case

2 ⎝ c ⎠ mi 0 where the inertial energy of the
The derivative of E Ki with respect to particle E i = M i c 2 is much larger than
temperature T is its inertial energy at rest mi 0 c 2 .
∂E Ki
= (nrηk c ) (T mi 0 ) (74) Comparison of (4) and (10) leads to
2

∂T Δp = EiV c 2 which, in the ultra-

Thus, relativistic case, gives
∂E
T Ki = r 2
(n ηkT)2 (75) Δp = EiV c ≅ Ei c ≅ Mi c . On the other
2

∂T mi0 c hand, comparison of (55) and (41)

Substitution of EKi = Ei − Ei0 into (75) shows that Unr = Δpc . Thus
gives Unr = Δpc ≅ Mi c2 >> mi0c2 . Consequently,
⎛ ∂Ei ∂Ei 0 ⎞ (nrηkT )
2

T⎜ + ⎟= (76) Eq.(55) reduces to

⎝ ∂T ∂T ⎠ mi 0 c 2
By comparing the Eqs.(76) and (73) m g = mi 0 − 2 Un r c 2 (83 )
and considering that ∂Ei0 ∂T = 0
because E i 0 does not depend on T , Therefore, the action for such
particle, in agreement with the Eq.(2),
the Eq.(76) reduces to is
 33

t2
S = −∫t mgc2 1 − V 2 c2 dt = complete description of the
1 electromagnetic field. This means
t2
( )
= ∫t − mi + 2Unr c2 c2 1 −V 2 c2 dt = that from the present theory for

[ ]
1
gravity we can also derive the
= ∫t − mic2 1 − V 2 c2 + 2Unr 1 − V 2 c2 dt. (84)
t2
equations of the electromagnetic
1
field.
The integrant function is the Due to Un r = Δpc ≅ M i c 2 the
Lagrangean, i.e.,
second term on the right hand side of
L = −mi0c2 1−V 2 c2 + 2Unr 1−V 2 c2 (85) Eq.(86) can be written as follows
Starting from the Lagrangean we can
find the Hamiltonian of the particle, by Δpc⎢
(
⎡ 4V 2 c 2 − 2 ⎤
⎥=
)
means of the well-known general ⎢⎣ 1 − V 2 c 2 ⎥⎦
formula:
H = V (∂L ∂V ) − L.
=⎢
( )
⎡ 4V 2 c 2 − 2 ⎤
⎥M i c 2 =
The result is ⎢⎣ 1 − V c ⎥⎦
2 2

H=
mi0c2
+ Unr ⎢
(
⎡ 4V 2 c2 − 2 ⎤
⎥.
)
(86) = Qϕ =
QQ′
=
QQ′
1−V c2 2
⎢
⎣ 1−V c ⎦
2 2
⎥ 4πε0 R 4πε0 r 1 − V 2 c 2
The second term on the right hand whence
QQ ′
side of Eq.(86) results from the
particle's interaction with the (4V 2
)
c 2 − 2 M ic 2 =
4πε 0 r
electromagnetic field. Note the
similarity between the obtained (
The factor 4V 2 c 2 − 2 becomes )
Hamiltonian and the well-known equal to 2 in the ultra-relativistic case,
Hamiltonian for the particle in an then it follows that
QQ ′
electromagnetic field [32]: 2M i c 2 = (88 )
4πε 0 r
H = mi0c2 1 − V 2 c2 + Qϕ. (87) From (44), we know that there is a
minimum value for M i given by
in which Q is the electric charge and M i (min) = mi (min) . Eq.(43) shows that
ϕ , the field's scalar potential. The mg (min) = mi0(min) and Eq.(23) gives
quantity Q ϕ expresses, as we mg (min) = ± h cLmax 8 = ± h 3 8 cdmax .
know, the particle's interaction with
Thus we can write
the electromagnetic field in the same
way as the second term on the right Mi(min) = mi0(min) = ± h 3 8 cdmax (89)
hand side of the Eq. (86). According to (88) the value 2M i (min )c 2
It is therefore evident that it is
the same quantity, expressed by is correlated to (QQ′ 4πε0r)min =Qmin2
4πε0 rmax,
different variables. i.e.,
2
Thus, we can conclude that, in Q min
= 2 M i (min )c 2 (90 )
ultra-high energy conditions 4πε 0 rmax
( 2 2
)
Unr ≅ M i c > mi 0 c , the gravitational where Qmin is the minimum electric
and electromagnetic fields can charge in the Universe ( therefore
be described by the same equal to minimum electric charge of
Hamiltonian, i.e., in these
the quarks, i.e., 13 e ); rmax is the
circumstances they are unified !
It is known that starting from maximum distance between Q and
that Hamiltonian we may obtain a Q ′ , which should be equal to the so-
 34

called "diameter", dc , of the visible matter in the

Universe is
nU VU ≅ 10 particles/ m
46
we can 3
conclude
Universe ( d c = 2lc where l c is obtained
that these particles fill all space in the
from the Hubble's law for V = c , i.e., Universe, by forming a Continuous 4
~
l c = cH −1 ). Thus, from (90) we readily Universal Medium or Continuous
obtain Universal Fluid (CUF), the density of
which is
Qmin = πε 0 hc 24 (dc d max ) = nU m i 0(min )
ρ CUF = ≅ 10 − 27 kg / m 3
( ~
= πε 0 hc 2 96H −1 d max = ) VU
Note that this density is much smaller
= 13 e (91) than the density of the Intergalactic
whence we find (
Medium ρ IGM ≅ 10 −26 kg / m 3 . )
d max = 3 .4 × 10 30 m The extremely-low density of the
This will be the maximum "diameter" that Continuous Universal Fluid shows that its
the Universe will reach. Consequently, local gravitational mass can be strongly
Eq.(89) tells us that the elementary affected by electromagnetic fields
quantum of matter is (including gravitoelectromagnetic fields),
pressure, etc. (See Eqs. 57, 58, 59a,
mi 0(min) = ± h 3 8 cdmax = ±3.9 × 10−73 kg 59b, 55a, 55c and 60). The density of
this fluid is clearly not uniform along the
Universe, since it can be strongly
This is, therefore, the smallest indivisible compressed in several regions (galaxies,
particle of matter. stars, blackholes, planets, etc). At the
Considering that, the inertial mass normal state (free space), the mentioned
of the Observable Universe is fluid is invisible. However, at super
MU = c 2H0G ≅10 kg and that its volume
3 53 compressed state it can become visible
by giving origin to the known matter
is V U = 4
3
π R U3 = 4
3
π (c H 0 )3 ≅ 10 79 m 3 , since matter, as we have seen, is
where H 0 = 1.75 × 10 −18 s −1 is the Hubble quantized and consequently, formed by
an integer number of elementary
constant, we can conclude that the
number of these particles in the quantum of matter with mass mi 0(min ) .
Observable Universe is Inside the proton, for example, there are
nU =
MU
≅ 10125 particles n p = m p mi0(min) ≅ 1045 elementary quanta
mi 0(min ) of matter at supercompressed state, with
By dividing this number by VU , we get volume V proton n p and “radius”
nU
≅ 10 46 particles / m 3 Rp 3 n p ≅ 10 −30 m .
VU
Therefore, the solidification of the
Obviously, the dimensions of the
matter is just a transitory state of this
smallest indivisible particle of matter
Universal Fluid, which can back to the
depend on its state of compression. In
primitive state when the cohesion
free space, for example, its volume is
conditions disappear.
VU nU . Consequently, its “radius” is
Let us now study another aspect
RU 3 nU ≅ 10 −15 m . of the present theory. By combination of
If N particles with diameter φ fill gravity and the uncertainty principle we
will derive the expression for the Casimir
all space of 1m 3 then Nφ 3 = 1 . Thus, if force.
φ ≅ 10 −15 m then the number of particles, An uncertainty Δmi in mi
with this diameter, necessary to fill produces an uncertainty Δp in p and
all 1m 3 is N ≅ 10 45 particles . Since the
number of smallest indivisible particles of 4
At very small scale.
 35

therefore an uncertainty Δmg in m g , ⎛ 2 ⎞ hc

ΔF = −⎜ ⎟ l2 =
⎝ π ⎠ (Δr )
4 planck
which according to Eq.(41) , is given
by
⎛ π ⎞ hc ⎡⎛ 960 ⎞ 2 ⎤
⎡ ⎤ = −⎜ ⎟ ⎢⎜ π 2 ⎟l planck ⎥ =
⎝ 480 ⎠ (Δr )
2
⎛ Δp ⎞ 4
⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦
⎢
Δmg = Δmi − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ Δmi (92)
⎢ Δ
⎝ i ⎠
m c ⎥ ⎛ πA ⎞ hc
⎣ ⎦ = −⎜ 0 ⎟ (97 )
⎝ 480 ⎠ (Δr )
4
From the uncertainty principle for
position and momentum, we know or
that the product of the uncertainties of ⎛ πA ⎞ hc
the simultaneously measurable F0 = −⎜ 0 ⎟ 4 (98)
⎝ 480 ⎠ r
values of the corresponding position which is the expression of the Casimir
and momentum components is at
least of the magnitude order of h , (
force for A = A0 = 960 π 2 l planck
2
. )
i.e., This suggests that A0 is an
Δ p Δr ~ h elementary area related to the
Substitution of Δp ~ h Δr into (92) yields existence of a minimum length
~
⎡ ⎤ d min = k l planck what is in accordance
h Δmi c ⎞
2
⎛
Δmg = Δmi − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥Δmi (93) with the quantization of space (29)
⎢
⎣ ⎝ Δr ⎠ ⎥
⎦ and which points out to the existence
Therefore if of d min .
h
Δr << (94 ) It can be easily shown that the
Δmi c minimum area related to d min is the
then the expression (93) reduces to: area of an equilateral triangle of side
2h
Δm g ≅ − (95) length d min ,i.e.,
Δrc
Note that Δmg does not depend on
( )
Amin = 43 d min
2 ~ 2
( )
= 43 k 2 l planck
On the other hand, the maximum
mg . area related to d min is the area of a
Consequently, the uncertainty sphere of radius d min ,i.e.,
ΔF in the gravitational ~ 2
Amax = πd min
2
= πk 2 l planck
force F = − Gmg m′g r , will be given by
2

Thus, the elementary area

Δmg Δm′g A0 = δ A d min
2 ~ 2
= δ A k 2l planck (99)
ΔF = −G =
(Δr )2 must have a value between Amin and
Amax , i.e.,
⎡ 2 ⎤ hc ⎛ Gh ⎞
= −⎢ 2⎥ 2 ⎜ 3 ⎟
(96) <δA <π
3

⎣π (Δr ) ⎦ (Δr ) ⎝ c ⎠
4
The previous assumption that
(
A 0 = 960 π l planck
2 2
) shows that
( ) 1
The amount Gh c 3 2 = 1.61 × 10 −35 m ~2
δ A k = 960 π 2 what means that
is called the Planck length, l planck ,( the ~
5 .6 < k < 14 .9
length scale on which quantum
fluctuations of the metric of the space Therefore we conclude that
time are expected to be of order
~
d min = k l planck ≈ 10 −34 m. (100 )
unity). Thus, we can write the The n − esimal area after A0 is
expression of ΔF as follows
 36

A = δ A (ndmin ) = n 2 A0 (101) we conclude that Lmax ≅ 1030 m . From

2

It can also be easily shown that the Hubble's law and (22) we have
the minimum volume related to d min that

( )
is the volume of a regular tetrahedron
Vmax = Hlmax = H (d max 2 ) =
~ ~ ~
of edge length d min , i.e., 3 2 HLmax
( )
Ω min = 122 d min3
( ) ~
= 122 k 3 l 3planck ~
where H = 1.7 × 10−18 s −1 . Therefore we
The maximum volume is the volume
obtain
of a sphere of radius d min , i.e.,
Vmax ≅ 1012 m / s .
Ω max = ( 43π )d min = ( 43π )k 3l 3planck
3 ~

Thus, the elementary volume This is the speed upper limit imposed
~3 3
Ω 0 = δ V d min = δ V k l planck must have a
3
by the quantization of velocity (Eq.
36). It is known that the speed upper
value between Ω min and Ω max , i.e.,
( )< δ
limit for real particles is equal to c .
2
12< 43π V However, also it is known that
On the other hand, the n − esimal imaginary particles can have
volume after Ω 0 is velocities greater than c
(Tachyons). Thus, we conclude that
Ω = δ V (ndmin )3 = n3Ω0 n = 1,2,3,...,nmax . Vmax is the speed upper limit for
The existence of nmax given by imaginary particles in our ordinary
(26), i.e., space-time. Later on, we will see that
nmax = Lmax Lmin = d max d min = also exists a speed upper limit to the
= (3.4 × 1030 ) k l planck ≈ 1064
~ imaginary particles in the imaginary
space-time.
shows that the Universe must have a Now, multiplying Eq. (98) (the
finite volume whose value at the expression of F 0 ) by n 2 we obtain
present stage is
Ω 0 = (d p d min )3 δ V d min
⎛ πn2 A0 ⎞ hc ⎛ πA ⎞ hc
Ω Up = nUp = δ V d 3p F = n2 F0 = −⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4 = −⎜ ⎟ 4 (102)
3 3

⎝ 480 ⎠ r ⎝ 480 ⎠ r
where d p is the present length scale
This is the general expression of the
of the Universe. In addition as
( )
Casimir force.
12 < δ V < 3
2 4π
we conclude that the Thus, we conclude that the
Universe must have a polyhedral Casimir effect is just a gravitational
space topology with volume between effect related to the uncertainty
the volume of a regular tetrahedron principle.
of edge length d p and the volume of Note that Eq. (102) arises only
the sphere of diameter d p . when Δmi and Δmi′ satisfy Eq.(94). If
A recent analysis of only Δ m i satisfies Eq.(94), i.e.,
astronomical data suggests not only Δmi <<h Δrc but Δmi′ >> h Δrc then
that the Universe is finite, but also Δm g and Δm′g will be respectively
that it has a dodecahedral space
given by
topology [33,34], what is in strong
accordance with the previous
Δ m g ≅ − 2 h Δ rc and Δ m ′g ≅ Δ mi
theoretical predictions.
From (22) and (26) we have
that Lmax = dmax 3 = nmaxdmin 3 . Since Consequently, the expression (96)
becomes
(100) gives dmin ≅ 10−34 m and nmax ≅ 10 64
 37

hc ⎛ GΔmi′ ⎞ hc ⎛ GΔmi′c 2 ⎞ Δmi >> h Δrc

ΔF = ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟=
(Δr )3 ⎝ πc 2 ⎠ (Δr )3 ⎜⎝ πc 4 ⎟⎠ Δmi′ >> h Δrc
hc ⎛ GΔE ′ ⎞ In this case, Δmg ≅ Δmi and
= ⎜ ⎟ (103)
(Δr )3 ⎝ πc 4 ⎠ Δm ′g ≅ Δmi′ . Thus,
However, from the uncertainty
ΔF = −G
Δmi Δmi′
= − G
(ΔE c 2 )(ΔE ′ c 2 ) =
principle for energy and time we know (Δr )2 (Δr )2
that
⎛ G ⎞ (h Δt ) ⎛ Gh ⎞ hc ⎛ 1 ⎞
2
ΔE ~ h Δt (104) = −⎜ 4 ⎟ = −⎜ 3 ⎟ 2 ⎜ 2 2 ⎟
=
⎝ c ⎠ (Δr ) ⎝ c ⎠ (Δr ) ⎝ c Δt ⎠
2
Therefore, we can write the
expression (103) in the following ⎛ 1 ⎞ hc 2
= −⎜ ⎟ l =
⎝ 2π ⎠ (Δr )
4 planck
form:
hc ⎛ Gh ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞ hc ⎛ 960 2 ⎞ ⎛ πA ⎞ hc
ΔF = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟= = −⎜ ⎟ 4 ⎜ 2 planck ⎟
l = −⎜ 0 ⎟
(Δr )3 ⎝ c 3 ⎠⎝ πΔt ′c ⎠ ⎝ 1920 ⎠ (Δr ) ⎝ π ⎠ ⎝ 1920 ⎠ (Δr )
4

⎛ 1 ⎞ whence
=
hc
3 planck ⎜
l2 ⎟ (105) ⎛ πA ⎞ hc
(Δr ) ⎝ πΔt ′c ⎠
F = −⎜⎜ ⎟ 4 (107)
From the General Relativity Theory ⎟r
⎝ 1920⎠
we know that dr = cdt − g 00 . If the The force will be attractive and its
field is weak then g 00 = −1 − 2φ c and 2 intensity will be the fourth part of the
dr = cdt (1 + φ c 2 ) = cdt (1 − Gm r 2c 2 ) .
intensity given by the first expression
(102) for the Casimir force.
For Gm r 2 c 2 <<1 we obtain dr ≅ cdt . We can also use this theory to
Thus, if dr = dr′ then dt = dt ′ . This explain some relevant cosmological
means that we can change (Δt ′c ) by phenomena. For example, the recent
(Δr ) into (105). The result is discovery that the cosmic expansion
of the Universe may be accelerating,
hc ⎛ 1 2 ⎞ and not decelerating as many
ΔF = 4 ⎜
l planck ⎟ =
(Δ r ) ⎝ π ⎠ cosmologists had anticipated [35].
We start from Eq. (6) which
⎛ π ⎞ hc ⎛ 480 2 ⎞ r
= ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 2 l planck ⎟ =
⎝ 480 ⎠ (Δ r )
shows that the inertial forces, Fi ,
⎝1π4 2 4 3⎠
4

1
A0
whose action on a particle, in the
2
case of force and speed with same
⎛ π A 0 ⎞ hc direction, is given by
= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 960 ⎠ (Δ r ) r
4
mg r
Fi = a
or (1 − V 2 c 2 )3
2

⎛ π A 0 ⎞ hc
F0 = ⎜ ⎟ 4 Substitution of m g given by (43) into
⎝ 960 ⎠ r
the expression above gives
whence
r ⎛ ⎞
⎛ πA ⎞ hc Fi = ⎜
3
−
2 ⎟ m ar
F = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4 (106) ⎝ (
⎜ 1−V 2 c2 )3
2
(1 − V 2
c )
2 2 ⎟ i0
⎠
⎝ 960⎠ r
Now, the Casimir force is repulsive, whence we conclude that a particle
and its intensity is half of the intensity with rest inertial mass, mi 0 , subjected
r
previously obtained (102). to a force, Fi , acquires an
Consider the case when both Δmi r
acceleration a given by
and Δmi′ do not satisfy Eq.(94), and
 38
r
r Fi
a =
⎛ 3 2 ⎞
⎜ − ⎟m
⎝ (
⎜ 1−V 2 c2 )
3
2
(1 − V 2
c2 )
2 ⎟ i0
⎠
δ
By substituting the well-known
β
expression of Hubble’s law for
~ ~ S C β
velocity, V = Hl , ( H = 1.7 × 10 −18 s −1 is
the Hubble constant) into the Photons
r
expression of a , we get the
acceleration for any particle in the
expanding Universe, i.e., Fig. V – Gravitational deflection of light about
r
r Fi the Sun.
a= Since δ and β are very small we can
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 3
−
2 ⎟ write that
~ 2 2 2 2 ⎟mi 0
⎝(
⎜ 1− H l c ) (
~ 2 2 2 32
1− H l c ⎠ ) δ = 2β and β =
Vy
Obviously, the distance l increases c
with the expansion of the Universe. Then
Under these circumstances, it is easy 2V y
to see that the term δ=
c
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 3
−
2 ⎟ Consider the motion of the
⎝ (
⎜ 1− H~2 2 2 2
l c
3

) ( ~2 2 2 2 ⎟
1− H l c ⎠ ) photons at some time t after it has
passed the point of closest approach.
decreases, increasing the acceleration of We impose Cartesian Co-ordinates
the expanding Universe. with the origin at the point of closest
Let us now consider the approach, the x axis pointing along its
phenomenon of gravitational path and the y axis towards the Sun.
deflection of light. The gravitational pull of the Sun is
A distant star’s light ray, M gS M gp
under the Sun’s gravitational force P = −G
field describes the usual central force r2
hyperbolic orbit. The deflection of the where M gp is the relativistic
light ray is illustrated in Fig. V, with gravitational mass of the photon and
the bending greatly exaggerated for a M gS the relativistic gravitational mass
better view of the angle of deflection.
The distance CS is the of the Sun. Thus, the component in a
distance d of closest approach. The perpendicular direction is
angle of deflection of the light ray, δ , F y = −G
M gS M gp
sin β =
is shown in the Figure V and is r2
δ = π − 2β . M gS M gp d
where β is the angle of the = −G
d +c t
2 2 2
d + c 2t 2
2
asymptote to the hyperbole. Then, it
follows that According to Eq. (6) the expression of
tan δ = tan(π − 2 β ) = − tan 2 β the force Fy is
From the Figure V we obtain ⎛ ⎞ dV
⎜ m gp ⎟ y
Vy Fy = ⎜ ⎟⎟ dt
tan β = ⎜ (1 − V 2 c 2 )2
3
.
c ⎝ y ⎠
By substituting Eq. (43) into this
expression, we get
 39

⎛ ⎞ m gp = +
4 ⎛ hf ⎞
⎜ 3 2 ⎟ dV y ⎜ ⎟i
Fy = ⎜ −
⎜ (1 − V y c ) (1 − V 2 c 2 )2 ⎟
2 2 3
⎟ M ip 3 ⎝ c2 ⎠
dt
⎝ y ⎠ This means that the gravitational and
For V y << c , we can write this inertial masses of the photon are
imaginaries, and invariants with
expression in the following form
F y = M ip (dV y dt ). This force acts on
respect to speed of photon, i.e.
M ip = mip and M gp = m gp .On the other
the photons for a time t causing an
hand, we can write that
increase in the transverse velocity
2 ⎛ hf ⎞
Fy mip = mip (real ) + mip (imaginary ) = ⎜ ⎟i
dV y = dt 3 ⎝ c2 ⎠
M ip
and
Thus the component of transverse 4 ⎛ hf ⎞
velocity acquired after passing the mgp = mgp(real ) + mgp(imaginary) = ⎜ ⎟i
3 ⎝ c2 ⎠
point of closest approach is
M gp (
d − GM gS ) This means that we must have
Vy = ∫ dt = mip (real ) = m gp (real ) = 0
(d )
3
M ip 2
+ c 2t 2 2 The phenomenon of gravitational
− GM gS ⎛ M gp ⎞ − GM gS ⎛ m gp ⎞ deflection of light about the Sun
= ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ shows that the gravitational
dc ⎜⎝ M ip ⎟ dc ⎜ mip ⎟
⎠ ⎝ ⎠ interaction between the Sun and the
Since the angle of deflection δ photons is attractive. Thus, due to the
is given by gravitational force between the Sun
2V y and a photon can be expressed by
δ = 2β =
c F = −G M g (Sun ) m gp (imaginary ) r 2 , where
we readily obtain m gp (imaginary ) is a quantity positive and
2V y − 2GM gS ⎛ m gp ⎞
δ= = ⎜ ⎟ imaginary, we conclude that the
c 2 ⎜ m ⎟
c d ⎝ ip ⎠ force F will only be attractive if the
If m gp mip = 2 , the expression above matter ( M g (Sun ) ) has negative
gives imaginary gravitational mass.
4GM gS The Eq. (41) shows that if the
δ =− inertial mass of a particle is null then its
c2d gravitational mass is given by
As we know, this is the correct m g = ± 2Δp c
formula indicated by the experimental where Δp is the momentum variation due
results.
to the energy absorbed by the particle. If
Equation (4) says that
the energy of the particle is invariant,
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ then Δp = 0 and, consequently, its
⎛ Δp ⎞
m gp
⎪ ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬mip
⎜ mip c ⎟ ⎥ gravitational mass will also be null. This
⎪
⎩ ⎢
⎣
⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ is the case of the photons, i.e., they have
Since m gp mip = 2 then, by making an invariant energy hf and a momentum

Δp = h λ into the equation above we h λ . As they cannot absorb additional

energy, the variation in the momentum
get
will be null (Δp = 0) and, therefore, their
2 ⎛ hf ⎞
mip = + ⎜ ⎟i gravitational masses will also be null.
3 ⎝ c2 ⎠ However, if the energy of the
Due to m gp mip = 2 we get particle is not invariant (it is able to
absorb energy) then the absorbed
energy will transfer the amount of motion

(momentum) to the particle, and
consequently its gravitational mass will
be increased. This means that the
motion generates gravitational mass.
On the other hand, if the
gravitational mass of a particle is null
then its inertial mass, according to Eq.
(41), will be given by
2 Δp
mi = ±
5 c
From Eqs. (4) and (7) we get
⎛ Eg ⎞ ⎛p ⎞
Δp = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ΔV = ⎜ 0 ⎟ΔV
⎝c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
Thus we have
⎛ 2p ⎞ 2 ⎛p ⎞
mg = ±⎜ 20 ⎟ΔV and mi = ± ⎜⎜ 20 ⎟⎟ΔV
⎝ c ⎠ 5⎝c ⎠
Note that, like the gravitational mass, the
inertial mass is also directly related to the
motion, i.e., it is also generated by the
motion.
Thus, we can conclude that is the
motion, or rather, the velocity is what
makes the two types of mass.
In this picture, the fundamental
particles can be considered as
immaterial vortex of velocity; it is the
velocity of these vortexes that causes the
fundamental particles to have masses.
That is, there exists not matter in the
usual sense; but just motion. Thus, the
difference between matter and energy
just consists of the diversity of the motion
direction; rotating, closed in itself, in the
matter; ondulatory, with open cycle, in
the energy (See Fig. VI).
Under this context, the Higgs
mechanism † appears as a process, by
which the velocity of an immaterial vortex
can be increased or decreased by
†
The Standard Model is the name given to
the current theory of fundamental particles and
how they interact. This theory includes: Strong
interaction and a combined theory of weak and
electromagnetic interaction, known as
electroweak theory. One part of the Standard
Model is not yet well established. What causes
the fundamental particles to have masses? The
simplest idea is called the Higgs mechanism. This
mechanism involves one additional particle,
called the Higgs boson, and one additional force
type, mediated by exchanges of this boson.
40
making the vortex (particle) gain or lose
mass. If real motion is what makes real
mass then, by analogy, we can say that
imaginary mass is made by imaginary
motion. This is not only a simple
generalization of the process based on
the theory of the imaginary functions, but
also a fundamental conclusion related to
the concept of imaginary mass that, as it
will be shown, provides a coherent
explanation for the materialization of the
fundamental particles, in the beginning of
the Universe.
It is known that the simultaneous
disappearance of a pair
(electron/positron) liberates an amount of
energy, 2mi 0e(real )c 2 , under the form of
two photons with frequency f , in such a
way that
2mi 0e(real )c 2 = 2hf
Since the photon has imaginary masses
associated to it, the phenomenon of
transformation of the energy 2mi 0e(real )c 2
into 2hf suggests that the imaginary
energy of the photon, mip (imaginary )c 2 ,
comes from the transformation of
imaginary energy of the electron,
mi 0e(imaginary )c 2 , just as the real energy of
the photon, hf , results from the
transformation of real energy of the
electron, i.e.,
2m i 0 e (imaginary )c 2 + 2m i 0 e (real )c 2 =
= 2m i 0 p (imaginary )c 2 + 2 hf
Then, it follows that
mi 0e(imaginary ) = − mip (imaginary )
The sign (-) in the equation above, is due
to the imaginary mass of the photon to
be positive, on the contrary of the
imaginary gravitational mass of the
matter, which is negative, as we have
already seen.
 41

Real Particles Imaginary Particles

(Tardyons) (Tachyons)

Real Inertial Mass Imaginary Inertial Mass

Non-null Null Non-null Null

V<c c < V ≤ Vmax*

v=∞
**
v=c
V 0≤v<c V 0≤v<c V 0≤v<Vmax V 0≤v<Vmax

Vortex Anti-vortex Vortex Anti-vortex

(Particle) (Anti-Particle) Real Photons (Particle) (Anti-particle) Imaginary Photons
( “virtual” photons )

(Real Bodies) (Real Radiation) (Imaginary Bodies) (Imaginary Radiation)

* Vmax is the speed upper limit for Tachyons with non-null imaginary inertial mass. It has been previously
~
(
obtained starting from the Hubble's law and Eq.(22). The result is: Vmax = 3 2 HLmax ≅ 10 12 m. s −1 . )
**
In order to communicate instantaneously the interactions at infinite distance the velocity of the quanta
(“virtual” photons) must be infinity and consequently their imaginary masses must be null .

Fig. VI - Real and Imaginary Particles.

Thus, we then conclude that Thus, the electron, the neutron

and the proton have respectively,
mi0e(imaginary) = −mip(imaginary) = the following masses:
Electron
=− 2
3
(hf c ) i =
e
2
mi 0e(real) = 9.11×10−31 kg

=− 2 (h λec) i = − 23 mi0e(real)i
3 mi 0e(im) = − 2 mi 0e(real)i
3

where λe = h mi0e(real) c is the Broglies’

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
wavelength for the electron. ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ U e(real) ⎞ ⎥⎪
mge(real) = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ −
By analogy, we can write for
⎜m 2⎟
1⎥⎬mi 0e(real) =
the neutron and the proton the ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i 0e(real) ⎠
c ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
following masses:
= χ e mi 0e(real)
mi 0neutron(imaginary ) = − 2 mi 0 neutron(real ) i
3

mi 0 proton(imaginary ) = + 2 mi 0 proton(real ) i
3 ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ U e(im) ⎞ ⎥⎪
The sign (+) in the expression of mge(im) = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ −
mi 0 proton (imaginary ) is due to the fact ⎜m 2⎟
1⎥⎬mi 0e(im) =
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i 0e(im) ⎠
c ⎥⎪
that mi 0 neutron(imaginary ) and ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
= χ e mi 0e(im)
mi 0 proton (imaginary ) must have contrary
signs, as will be shown later on.
 42

where η n , η pr and η e are the

Neutron absorption factors respectively, for the
mi0n(real) = 1.6747×10−27 kg neutrons, protons and electrons;
k = 1.38 × 10 −23 J /º K is the Boltzmann
constant; Tn , T pr and Te are the
mi0n(im) = − 2 m
3 i0n(real)
i
temperatures of the Universe,
respectively when neutrons, protons
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ and electrons were created.
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ Un(real) ⎞
mgn(real) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ ⎟ −1⎥⎪m In the case of the electrons, it
⎜m 2⎟ ⎥⎬ i0n(real) = was previously shown that η e ≅ 0.1 .
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i 0n( )
real c ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ Thus, by considering that
= χn mi0n(real) Te ≅ 6.2 ×10 K , we get
31

U e(im ) = η e kTe i = 8.5 × 10 7 i

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ It is known that the protons were
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ Un(im) ⎞ ⎥⎪
mgn(im) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ ⎟ − created at the same epoch. Thus, we
⎜m 2⎟
1⎥⎬mi0n(im) = will assume that
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i0n(im) ⎠
c ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ U pr (im ) = η pr kT pr i = 8.5 × 10 7 i
= χn mi0n(im) Then, it follows that
Proton χ e = −1.8 × 10 21
mi0pr(real) =1.6723×10−27kg
χ pr = −9.7 × 1017
mi0pr(im) = + 2
3 i0 pr(real)
m i Now, consider the gravitational forces,
due to the imaginary masses of two
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛⎜ U pr(real) ⎞⎟ ⎥⎪ electrons, Fee , two protons, F prpr , and
mgpr(real) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬mi0pr(real) =
⎜ 2⎟ one electron and one proton, Fepr , all at
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi0pr(real)c ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ rest.
= χ prmi0pr(real) 2
m ge (im )
(− 2 mi 0e(real )i )
2

−Gχ e2
3
Fee = −G = =
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ r2 r2
⎪ ⎢ ⎛⎜ U pr(im) ⎞⎟ ⎥⎪
mgpr(im) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬mi0pr(im) = mi20e(real ) + 2.3 ×10 −28
⎜ 2⎟ 4
= + Gχ e2 =
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi0pr(im)c ⎠ ⎥⎪ ( repulsion)
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ 3 r2 r2
= χ prmi0pr(im) 2
2 ⎛⎜ + 2
mi0 pr(real)i ⎞⎟
mgpr(im) 2 ⎝ ⎠
= −Gχ pr
3
where U (real ) and U (im ) are Fprpr = −G 2 2
=
r r
respectively, the real and imaginary 4 mi0 pr(real) + 2.3 ×10−28
2

energies absorbed by the particles. = + Gχ 2pr = (repulsion)

3 r2 r2
When neutrons, protons and
electrons were created after the Big-
mge(im)mgpr(im)
bang, they absorbed quantities of Fepr = −G =
electromagnetic energy, respectively r2
given by ⎛⎜ − 2
i ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ + 2
i ⎞⎟
3 i0e(real) ⎠ 3 i 0 pr(real) ⎠
m m
U n(real ) = η n kTn U n(imaginary) = η n kTn i = −Gχe χ pr ⎝ ⎝ =
r2
U pr (real ) = η pr kT pr U pr (imaginary) = η pr kT pr i
4 mi0e(real)mi0 pr(real) − 2.3×10−28
= − Gχe χ pr =
U e(real ) = η e kTe U e(imaginary) = η e kTe i 3 r2 r2
(atraction)
 43

Note that charge of the neutron is null. Thus, it is

−28
e 2
2.3 × 10 necessary to assume that
Felectric = =
4πε 0 r r2 2
qn = qn+ + qn− = 4πε0 G mgn
+
(imaginary) i +
Therefore, we can conclude that
e2 −
Fee = F prpr ≡ Felectric = + (repulsion) + 4πε0 G mgn(imaginary) i =
4πε 0 r 2
and = 4πε 0 G ⎛⎜ χ n mi+0n(imaginary) i ⎞⎟ +
⎝ ⎠
Fep ≡ Felectric = −
e2
4πε0r 2
(atraction) (
+ 4πε0 G χ n mi−0n(imaginary) i = )
These correlations permit to define the = 4πε G [χ (+
0 n
2
mi0n i )+ χ (−
2
n
2 )]
mi0n i 2 = 0
3 3
electric charge by means of the
following relation:
We then conclude that in the neutron,
half of the total amount of elementary
q= 4πε 0 G m g (imaginary ) i quanta of electric charge, q min , is negative,
while the other half is positive.
For example, in the case of the In order to obtain the value of
electron, we have the elementary quantum of electric
charge, q min , we start with the
qe = 4πε 0 G m ge(imaginary) i = expression obtained here for the
electric charge, where we
(
= 4πε 0 G χ e mi 0e(imaginary)i = ) change mg (imaginary) by its quantized
(
= 4πε 0 G − χ e 2
mi 0e(real)i 2 = ) expression mg (imaginary) = n 2 mi0(imaginary)(min) ,

4πε G (χ )
3

= 0 e
2 mi 0e(real) = −1.6 ×10−19 C derived from Eq. (44a). Thus, we get
3
In the case of the proton, we get q = 4 πε 0 G m g (imaginary ) i =

q pr = 4πε 0 G mgpr(imaginary) i = = 4 πε 0 G n 2 m i 0 (imaginary )(min )i =

(
= 4πε 0 G χ pr mi 0 pr(imaginary)i = ) = 4 πε 0 G [n (±2 2 m i 0 (min )i )] i =
( )
3

= 4πε 0 G + χ pr 2 mi 0 pr(real)i 2 = = m 2 4 πε 0 G n 2 m i 0 (min )

4πε G (− χ )
3 3
= 0 pr
2 mi 0 pr(real) = +1.6 ×10−19 C
3
This is the quantized expression of the
electric charge.
For the neutron, it follows that For n = 1 we obtain the value of
q n = 4πε 0 G m gn (imaginary ) i = the elementary quantum of electric
(
= 4πε 0 G χ n m i 0 n (imaginary )i = ) charge, q min , i.e.,

(
= 4πε 0 G − χ n 2 m i 0 n (real )i 2 = ) q min = m 2 4πε 0 G mi 0(min ) = m3.8 × 10 −83 C
4πε G (χ )
3 3
= 0 n
2 m i 0 n (real )
3
where mi0(min) is the elementary
However, based on the quantization of
the mass (Eq. 44), we can write that quantum of matter, whose value
previously calculated, is
χ n 2 mi0n(real) = n 2 mi0(min) n≠0 −73
3 mi0(min) = ±3.9 ×10 kg .
Since n can have only discrete values
The existence of imaginary mass
different of zero (See Appendix B), we
associated to a real particle suggests
conclude that χ n cannot be null. the possible existence of imaginary
However, it is known that the electric
 44

particles with imaginary masses in the whole space must be finite −

Nature. inasmuch as the particle is somewhere.
In this case, the concept of wave On the other hand, if
associated to a particle (De Broglie’s +∞
waves) would also be applied to the ∫−∞ Ψ
2
dV = 0
imaginary particles. Then, by analogy, the interpretation is that the particle will
the imaginary wave associated to an not exist. However, if
imaginary particle with imaginary +∞
masses miψ and m gψ would be ∫−∞ Ψ
2
dV = ∞ (108)
described by the following expressions The particle will be everywhere
r r simultaneously.
pψ = hkψ In Quantum Mechanics, the wave
Eψ = hωψ function Ψ corresponds, as we know,
to the displacement y of the
Henceforth, for the sake of simplicity,
we will use the Greek letterψ to stand undulatory motion of a rope.
r However, Ψ , as opposed to y , is not a
for the word imaginary; pψ is the
measurable quantity and can, hence,
momentum carried by the ψ wave and be a complex quantity. For this reason,
r
Eψ its energy; kψ = 2π λψ is the it is assumed that Ψ is described in the
x − direction by
propagation number and λψ the −(2π i h )( Et − px )
Ψ = Ψ0 e
wavelength of the ψ wave; ωψ = 2πfψ This is the expression of the wave
is the cyclical frequency. function for a free particle, with total
r
According to Eq. (4), the energy E and momentum p , moving in
r
momentum pψ is the direction + x .
r r As to the imaginary particle, the
pψ = M gψ V
imaginary particle wave function will be
where V is the velocity of the ψ denoted by Ψψ and, by analogy the
particle. expression of Ψ , will be expressed by:
By comparing the expressions of
r
pψ we get − (2π i h )(Eψ t − pψ x )
Ψψ = Ψ0ψ e
h
λψ =
M gψ V Therefore, the general expression of
It is known that the variable the wave function for a free particle can
quantity which characterizes the De be written in the following form
Broglie’s waves is called wave function,
−(2π i h )(E( real )t − p( real ) x )
usually indicated by symbol Ψ . The Ψ = Ψ0(real )e +
wave function associated with a
− (2π i h )(Eψ t − pψ x )
material particle describes the dynamic + Ψ0ψ e
state of the particle: its value at a
particular point x, y, z, t is related to the It is known that the uncertainty
probability of finding the particle in that principle can also be written as a
place and instant. Although Ψ does function of ΔE (uncertainty in the
not have a physical interpretation, its
energy) and Δt (uncertainty in the
square Ψ 2 (or Ψ Ψ * ) calculated for a time), i.e.,
particular point x, y, z, t is proportional
to the probability of finding the particle ΔE.Δt ≥ h
in that place and instant.
Since Ψ 2 is proportional to the This expression shows that a
probability P of finding the particle
variation of energy ΔE , during a
described by Ψ , the integral of Ψ 2 on
 45

time interval Δt , can only be

χ = ⎧⎨1 − 2⎡ 1 + (Δp mi 0 c ) − 1⎤ ⎫⎬
2
detected if Δt ≥ h ΔE . Consequently, ⎩ ⎢ ⎣ ⎥ ⎦⎭
a variation of energy ΔE , during a
time interval Δt < h ΔE , cannot be Since the condition to make
experimentally detected. This is a the particle imaginary is
limitation imposed by Nature and not
by our equipments. λg
λi <
Thus, a quantum of energy 2π
ΔE = hf that varies during a time and
interval Δt = 1 f = λ c < h ΔE (wave
period) cannot be experimentally λg h h λ
= = = i
detected. This is an imaginary 2π M g c χM i c 2πχ
photon or a “virtual” photon.
Now, consider a particle with Then we get
energy M g c 2 . The DeBroglie’s
gravitational and inertial wavelengths 1
χ< = 0.159
are respectively λ g = h M g c and 2π
λi = h M i c . In Quantum Mechanics,
However, χ can be positive or
particles of matter and quanta of
negative ( χ < +0.159 or χ > −0.159).This
radiation are described by means of
wave packet (DeBroglie’s waves) means that when
with average wavelength λi .
− 0.159 < χ < +0.159
Therefore, we can say that during a
time interval Δt = λi c , a quantum of
the particle becomes imaginary.
energy ΔE = Mgc2 varies. According Under these circumstances, we can
to the uncertainty principle, the say that the particle made a
particle will be detected if Δt ≥ h ΔE , transition to the imaginary space-
time.
i.e., if λi c ≥ h M g c 2 or λi ≥ λ g 2π .
Note that, when a particle
This condition is usually satisfied becomes imaginary, its gravitational
when M g = M i . In this case, λ g = λi and inertial masses also become
and obviously, λi > λi 2π . However, imaginary. However, the factor
χ = M g (imaginary ) M i (imaginary ) remains
when M g decreases λ g increases
real because
and λ g 2π can become bigger than
λi , making the particle non- M g (imaginary ) M gi Mg
χ = = = = real
detectable or imaginary. M i (imaginary ) M ii Mi
According to Eqs. (7) and (41)
we can write M g in the following
form:

mg χ mi
Mg = = = χM i
1−V 2
c 2
1−V 2
c 2

where
 46

Body
χ Ordinary Space-time
0≤V < c
+0.159
0≤V ≤ ∞

Imaginary Body

0 Imaginary Space-time

“Virtual” Photons ( V = ∞ )
−0.159
Ordinary Space-time

Real Photons ( V = c )

Fig. VII – Travel in the imaginary space-time. Similarly to the “virtual” photons,
imaginary bodies can have infinite speed in the imaginary space-time.
 47

Real particle Real particle

Δt1 ΔE

Δt2 c (speed upper limit)

Δt3

(a)

Imaginary Space-time Ordinary Space-time

Δt3

Δt2 Vmax
(speed upper limit)

ΔE
Δt1
Imaginary particle Imaginary particle
(b)
Fig. VIII – “Virtual” Transitions – (a) “Virtual” Transitions of a real particle to the imaginary
space-time. The speed upper limit for real particle in the imaginary space-time is c.
(b) - “Virtual” Transitions of an imaginary particle to the ordinary space-time. The
speed upper limit for imaginary particle in the ordinary space-time is Vmax ≈ 1012m.s−1
Note that to occur a “virtual” transition it is necessary thatΔt=Δt1+ Δt2+ Δt3 <ℏ/ΔE
Thus, even at principle, it will be impossible to determine any variation of energy in
the particle (uncertainty principle).

Thus, if the gravitational mass of
particle is reduced by means of
absorption of an amount
electromagnetic energy U ,
example, we have
χ=
Mg ⎧
= ⎨1 − 2⎡⎢ 1 + U mi0 c 2
Mi ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
This shows that the energy U of the
electromagnetic field remains acting
on the imaginary particle. In
practice, this means that
electromagnetic fields act on
imaginary particles.
The gravity acceleration on a
imaginary particle (due to the rest of
the imaginary Universe) are given
by
g ′j = χ g j j = 1,2,3,..., n.
where χ = M g (imaginary ) M i (imaginary
and g j = − Gm gj (imaginary ) r .
the gravitational forces acting on the
particle are given by
Fgj = M g (imaginary) g ′j =
(
= M g (imaginary) − χGmgj (imaginary) r j2 =
( )
= M g i − χGmgj i r j2 = + χGM g mgj r j2 .
Note that these forces are real.
Remind that, the Mach’s principle
says that the inertial effects upon a
particle are consequence of the
gravitational interaction of the
particle with the rest of the Universe.
Then we can conclude that the
inertial forces upon an imaginary
particle are also real.
Equation (7) shows that , in
the case of imaginary particles, the
relativistic mass is
48
the mg (imaginary)
the M g (imaginary) = =
of 1−V 2 c2
mg i mg i
for = =
i V 2 c2 −1 V 2 c2 −1
This expression shows that
( )2 ⎫
− 1⎤⎥⎬ imaginary particles can have
velocities V greater than c in our
ordinary space-time (Tachyons).
The quantization of velocity (Eq. 36)
shows that there is a speed upper
limit Vmax > c . As we have already
calculated previously, Vmax ≈ 1012m.s−1 ,
(Eq.102).
Note that this is the speed
upper limit for imaginary particles in
our ordinary space-time not in the
imaginary space-time (Fig.7)
because the infinite speed of the
“virtual” quanta of the interactions
shows that imaginary particles can
have infinite speed in the imaginary
) space-time.
While the speed upper limit
2
j Thus, for imaginary particles in the
ordinary space-time is
Vmax ≈ 10 m.s , the speed upper limit
12 −1
for real particles in the imaginary
space-time is c , because the
) relativistic expression of the mass
shows that the velocity of real
particles cannot be larger than c in
any space-time. The uncertainty
principle permits that particles make
“virtual” transitions, during a time
interval Δt , if Δt < h ΔE . The
“virtual” transition of mesons emitted
from nucleons that do not change of
mass, during a time interval
Δt < h mπ c 2 , is a well-known
example of “virtual” transition of
particles. During a “virtual”
transition of a real particle, the
speed upper limit in the imaginary
space-time is c , while the speed
upper limit for an imaginary particle
 49

in the our ordinary space-time is of the bodies ;

Vmax ≈ 1012m.s−1 . (See Fig. 8). M i 2 = mi 2 1 − V2 c and mi 2 is the
2 2

There is a crucial total inertial mass of the bodies of

cosmological problem to be solved: region 2.
the problem of the hidden mass. Now consider that from
Most theories predict that the Eq.(7), we can write
amount of known matter, detectable Eg M gc2
and available in the universe, is only ξ = = = ρgc2
about 1/100 to 1/10 of the amount V V
needed to close the universe. That where ξ is the energy density of
is, to achieve the density sufficient matter.
to close-up the universe by Note that the expression of ξ
maintaining the gravitational only reduces to the well-known
curvature (escape velocity equal to expression ρc 2 , where ρ is the
the speed of light) at the outer sum of the inertial masses per
boundary. volume unit, when m g = mi .
Eq. (43) may solve this
problem. We will start by substituting Therefore, in the derivation of the
the expression of Hubble's law for well-known difference
~ 8πGρU ~ 2
velocity, V = Hl , into Eq.(43). The −H
expression obtained shows that 3
particles which are at distances which gives the sign of the curvature
( )( ) ~
l = l0 = 5 3 c H =1.3×1026 m have
of the Universe [36], we must use
ξ = ρ gU c 2 instead of ξ = ρ U c 2 .The
quasi null gravitational mass
m g = m g (min ) ; beyond this distance, result obviously is
8πGρ gU
the particles have negative ~
− H2 (109)
gravitational mass. Therefore, there 3
are two well-defined regions in the where
M gU M g1 + M g 2
Universe; the region of the bodies
ρ gU = = (110)
with positive gravitational masses VU VU
and the region of the bodies with
M gU and VU are respectively the
negative gravitational mass. The
total gravitational mass of the first total gravitational mass and the
region, in accordance with Eq.(45), volume of the Universe.
will be given by Substitution of M g 1 and M g 2
mi1 into expression (110) gives
M g1 ≅ M i1 = ≅ mi1
1 − V1 2 c 2 ⎡ ⎤
3 2
miU + ⎢ − m − m ⎥
⎢ ⎥
i2 i2
where mi1 is the total inertial mass 1−V22 c2 1−V22 c2
ρgU = ⎣ ⎦
of the bodies of the mentioned VU
region; V1 << c is the average
velocity of the bodies at region 1. where miU = mi1 + mi 2 is the total
The total gravitational mass of the
inertial mass of the Universe.
second region is
The volume V1 of the region 1
⎛ ⎞
M g 2 = 1 − 2⎜
1
− 1⎟ M i 2 and the volume V 2 of the region 2,
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 − V2 c
2 2
⎠ are respectively given by
where V2 is the average velocity
 50

V 1 = 2π 2 l 03 and V 2 = 2π 2 l c3 −V 1 the anomalies in the spectral red-

shift of certain galaxies and stars.
~ Several observers have
where l c = c H = 1.8 × 10 26 m is the noticed red-shift values that cannot
so-called "radius" of the visible be explained by the Doppler-
Universe. Moreover, ρ i1 = mi1 V1 and Fizeau effect or by the Einstein
ρi 2 = mi 2 V 2 . Due to the hypothesis effect (the gravitational spectrum
shift, supplied by Einstein's theory).
of the uniform distribution of matter
This is the case of the so-
in the space, it follows that
called Stefan's quintet (a set of five
ρi1 = ρi2 .Thus, we can write
galaxies which were discovered in
m i1 V 1 ⎛ l 0 ⎞
3
1877), whose galaxies are located
= = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.38
mi 2 V 2 ⎜⎝ l c ⎟⎠ at approximately the same distance
from the Earth, according to very
Similarly, reliable and precise measuring
miU mi 2 mi1 methods. But, when the velocities of
= =
VU V 2 V1 the galaxies are measured by its
Therefore, red-shifts, the velocity of one of
⎡ ⎛ l ⎞3 ⎤ them is much larger than the
V2
mi 2 = m iU = ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ ⎥ m iU = 0.62 m iU velocity of the others.
VU ⎢⎣ ⎝ l c ⎠ ⎥⎦ Similar observations have
and mi1 = 0.38miU . been made on the Virgo
constellation and spiral galaxies.
Substitution of mi 2 into the Also the Sun presents a red-shift
expression of ρ gU yields greater than the predicted value by
the Einstein effect.
It seems that some of these
1.86 1.24 anomalies can be explained if we
miU + − − 0.62 miU
1 −V22 c2 1 −V22 c2 consider the Eq.(45) in the
ρgU = calculation of the gravitational mass
VU of the point of emission.
The expression of the
Due to V 2 ≅ c , we conclude that the gravitational spectrum shift was
term between bracket is much larger previously obtained in this work. It is
than 10miU . The amount miU is the the same supplied by Einstein's
mass of matter in the universe (1/10 theory [37], and is given by
φ −φ
to 1/100 of the amount needed to Δω = ω1 − ω2 = 2 2 1 ω0 =
close the Universe). c
Consequently, the total − Gmg2 r2 + Gmg1 r1
mass = ω0 (111)
c2
1.86 1.24 where ω1 is the frequency of the
miU + − − 0.62 miU
1 − V22 c 2 1 − V22 c 2 light at the point of emission ; ω 2 is
the frequency at the point of
must be sufficient to close observation; φ1 and φ 2 are
the Universe. respectively, the Newtonian
There is another cosmological gravitational potentials at the point
problem to be solved: the problem of of emission and at the point of
observation.

In Einstein theory, this
expression has been deduced from
T = t − g 00 [38] which correlates
own time (real time), t , with the
temporal coordinate x0 of the space-
time ( t = x 0 c ).
When the gravitational field is
weak, the temporal component g 00
of the metric tensor is given by
goo =−1−2φ/ c2 [39].Thus, we readily
obtain
T = t 1 − 2Gm g rc 2 (112 )
This is the same equation that we
have obtained previously in this
work.
Curiously, this equation tell us
that we can have T < t when m g > 0
; and T > t for m g < 0 . In addition, if
m g = c 2 r 2G , i.e., if r = 2Gm g c 2
(Schwarzschild radius) we obtain T =0.
Let us now consider the well-
known process of stars' gravitational
contraction. It is known that the
destination of the star is directly
correlated to its mass. If the star's
mass is less than 1.4M~
(Schemberg-Chandrasekhar's limit),
it becomes a white dwarf. If its mass
exceeds that limit, the pressure
produced by the degenerate state of
the matter no longer
counterbalances the gravitational
pressure, and the star's contraction
continues. Afterwards there occurs
the reactions between protons and
electrons (capture of electrons),
where neutrons and anti-neutrinos
are produced.
The contraction continues
until the system regains stability
(when the pressure produced by the
neutrons is sufficient to stop the
gravitational collapse). Such systems
are called neutron stars.
There is also a critical mass
for the stable configuration of
neutron stars. This limit has not
51
been fully defined as yet, but it is
known that it is located between
1.8M~ and 2.4M~. Thus, if the mass
of the star exceeds 2.4M~ , the
contraction will continue.
According to Hawking [40]
collapsed objects cannot have mass
less than hc 4G = 1.1 × 10 −8 kg . This
means that, with the progressing of
the compression, the neutrons
cluster must become a cluster of
superparticles where the minimal
inertial mass of the superparticle is
mi(sp) =1.1×10−8 kg. (113)
Symmetry is a fundamental
attribute of the Universe that
enables an investigator to study
particular aspects of physical
systems by themselves. For
example, the assumption that space
is homogeneous and isotropic is
based on Symmetry Principle. Also
here, by symmetry, we can assume
that there are only superparticles
with mass mi ( sp) = 1.1 × 10−8 kg in the
cluster of superparticles.
Based on the mass-energy of
the superparticles ( ~1018 GeV ) we
can say that they belong to a
putative class of particles with mass-
energy beyond the supermassive
Higgs bosons ( the so-called X
bosons). It is known that the GUT's
theories predict an entirely new
force mediated by a new type of
boson, called simply X (or X boson
). The X bosons carry both
electromagnetic and color charge, in
order to ensure proper conservation
of those charges in any interactions.
The X bosons must be extremely
massive, with mass-energy in the
unification range of about 1016 GeV.
If we assume the
superparticles are not hypermassive
Higgs bosons then the possibility of
the neutrons cluster become a
 52

Higgs bosons cluster before the superparticles' relativistic inertial

becoming a superparticles cluster mass M i ( sp ) is
must be considered. On the other
Unr ηnr kT
hand, the fact that superparticles
must be so massive also means that
= 2 ≈ 10−8 kg
M i( sp) ≅ (115)
c2 c
it is not possible to create them in Comparing with the superparticles'
any conceivable particle accelerator inertial mass at rest (113), we
that could be built. They can exist as conclude that
free particles only at a very early
stage of the Big Bang from which
the universe emerged. Mi( sp) ≈ mi(sp) =1.1×10−8 kg (116)
Let us now imagine the
Universe coming back to the past.
There will be an instant in which it From Eqs.(83) and (115), we obtain
will be similar to a neutrons cluster, the superparticle's gravitational
such as the stars at the final state of mass at rest:
gravitational contraction. Thus, with m g ( sp ) = mi ( sp ) − 2 M i ( sp ) ≅
the progressing of the compression,
ηn r kT
the neutrons cluster becomes a (117 )
≅ − M i ( sp ) ≅ −
superparticles cluster. Obviously, c2
this only can occur before 10-23s Consequently, the superparticle's
(after the Big-Bang). relativistic gravitational mass, is
The temperature T of the
mg ( sp)
Universe at the 10-43s< t < 10-23s M g (sp) = =
period can be calculated by means 1−V 2 c 2
of the well-known expression[41]: ηnr kT
= (118)
T ≈ 10 (t 10 ) − 23 − 2
(114) c 2 1−V 2 c 2
1
22

− 43
Thus at t ≅ 10 s (at the first Thus, the gravitational forces
spontaneous breaking of symmetry) between two superparticles ,
according to (13), is given by:
the temperature was T ≈ 10 32 K
(∼1019GeV).Therefore, we can r r M g(sp) M 'g(sp)
assume that the absorbed F12 = −F21 = −G μˆ 21 =
r2
electromagnetic energy by each
⎡⎛ M ⎞ 2 G ⎤
superparticle, before t ≅ 10 −43 s , was ⎟ ⎛⎜ ⎞ 2 hc
= ⎢⎜
i ( sp)
⎟( ηn κT ) ⎥ μˆ 21 (119)
⎢⎜⎝ mi(sp) ⎟⎠ ⎝ c5 h ⎠ ⎥ r2
r
U =ηkT >1×109 J (see Eqs.(71) and ⎣ ⎦
(72)). By comparing with
mi(sp)c ≅ 9×10 J , we conclude that
2 8
Due to the unification of the
U > m i ( sp )c . Therefore, the gravitational and electromagnetic
(
unification condition Unr ≅ Mi c > mi c
2 2
) interactions at that period, we have
is satisfied. This means that, before
t ≅ 10 −43 s ,the gravitational and
electromagnetic interactions were
unified.
From the unification condition
( )
Unr ≅ Mi c2 , we may conclude that
 53

r r M g ( sp) M 'g ( sp) component of its position at that

F12 = −F21 = G μˆ 21 = time ,i.e., a particle cannot be
r2
precisely located in a particular
⎡⎛ M ⎞ 2 G ⎤
⎟ ⎛⎜ ⎞ 2 hc direction without loss of all
= ⎢⎜
i ( sp)
⎟(ηκ T ) ⎥ μˆ 21 =
⎢⎜⎝ mi( sp) ⎟⎠ ⎝ c5 h ⎠ ⎥ r2 knowledge of its momentum
⎣ ⎦ component in that direction . This
2
means that in intermediate cases
=
e
(120)
4πε0 r 2 the product of the uncertainties of
From the equation above we can the simultaneously measurable
write values of corresponding position
and momentum components is at
⎡⎛ M ⎞2 G ⎤ least of the magnitude order of h ,
⎢⎜ i(sp) ⎟ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟(ηκT )2 hc⎥ = e
2
(121)
⎢⎜⎝ mi(sp) ⎟⎠ ⎝ c5h ⎠ ⎥ 4πε0 Δp.Δr ≥ h (127)
⎣ ⎦
Now assuming that
2 This relation, directly obtained here
⎛ M i ( sp ) ⎞ ⎛ G ⎞
⎜
⎜m
⎟ ⎜
⎟ ⎝ c 5 h ⎟⎠
(ηκT )2 = ψ (122) from the Unified Theory, is the well-
⎝ i ( sp ) ⎠ known relation of the Uncertainty
the Eq. (121) can be rewritten in the Principle for position and
following form: momentum.
According to Eq.(83), the
e2
ψ= =
1
(123) gravitational mass of the
4πε0 hc 137 superparticles at the center of the
which is the well-known reciprocal cluster becomes negative when
fine structure constant. 2η n r kT c > m i ( sp ) , i.e., when
2

For T = 10 32 K the Eq.(122)

gives mi(sp)c2
T > Tcritical= ≈1032K.
2
2ηnr k
⎛ M i ( sp ) ⎞ ⎛ G ⎞
ψ = ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜
⎟ 5 ⎟
(η n r κ T )2 ≈ 1 (124 )
⎝ m i ( sp ) ⎠ ⎝ c h ⎠ 100
According to Eq. (114) this
temperature corresponds to tc ≈10−43s .
This value has the same order of
magnitude as the exact value(1/137) With the progressing of the
of the reciprocal fine structure compression, more superparticles
constant. into the center will have negative
From equation (120) we can gravitational mass. Consequently,
write: there will be a critical point in which
the repulsive gravitational forces
⎛ M g ( sp ) M 'g ( sp ) ⎞ r
⎜G
⎜ r ⎟r = h
⎟
(125 ) between the superparticles with
⎝ ψ c r ⎠ negative gravitational masses and
The term between parentheses has the superparticles with positive
the same dimensions as the linear gravitational masses will be so
r strong that an explosion will occur.
momentum p . Thus, (125) tells us
that This is the event that we call the Big
r r
p ⋅ r = h. (126) Bang.
A component of the momentum of a Now, starting from the Big
particle cannot be precisely Bang to the present time.
specified without loss of all Immediately after the Big Bang, the
knowledge of the corresponding superparticles' decompression
 54

begins. The gravitational mass of during a period of time tc ≈10−43s

the most central superparticle will .Thus,
only be positive when the
temperature becomes smaller than dcr − dinitial = 12 g(tc ) = χ
2
( )
GMi(U )
dcr dinitial
(tc )2 (130)
the critical temperature, Tcritical ≈ 1032 K .
At the maximum state of The Eq.(83), gives
compression (exactly at the Big
Bang) the volumes of the mg (sp) 2Unr 2ηnr kT
χ= = 1− = 1−
superparticles were equal to mi(sp) mi(sp) c 2 mi(sp) c 2
the elementary volume Ω 0 = δ V d min 3

and the volume of the Universe was Calculations by Carr, B.J

Ω = δ V (ndmin )3 = δ V d initial
3
where d initial [41], indicate that it would seem
reasonable to suppose that the
was the initial length scale of the fraction of initial primordial black
Universe. At this very moment the hole mass ultimately converted into
average density of the Universe was photons is about 0.11 . This means
equal to the average density of the that we can take
superparticles, thus we can write η = 0.11
Thus, the amount η M iU c 2 ,
3
⎛ dinitial⎞ Mi(U)
⎜
⎜d ⎟ =m
⎟ (128) where M iU is the total inertial mass
⎝ min ⎠ i( sp)
of the Universe, expresses the total
where M i (U ) ≈ 10 53 kg is the inertial
amount of inertial energy converted
mass of the Universe. It has already into photons at the initial instant of
been shown that the Universe(Primordial Photons).
~ −34
d min = k l planck ≈ 10 m. Then, from It was previously shown that
Eq.(128), we obtain: photons and also the matter have
imaginary gravitational masses
dinitial ≈ 10−14 m (129) associated to them. The matter has
After the Big Bang the negative imaginary gravitational
Universe expands itself from d initial mass, while the photons have
positive imaginary gravitational
up to d cr (when the temperature
mass, given by
decrease reaches the critical
temperature Tcritical ≈ 10 32 K , and the 4 ⎛ hf ⎞
M gp (imaginary ) = 2M ip (imaginary ) = + ⎜ ⎟i
gravity becomes attractive). Thus, it 3 ⎝ c2 ⎠
expands by d cr − d initial , under
effect of the repulsive gravity where M ip (imaginary) is the imaginary
inertial mass of the photons.
g = gmaxgmin = Then, from the above we can

[ (12 dinitial)2 ] [G ( 12 dcr )2 ]

conclude that, at the initial instant of
= G(12 Mg(U ) ) 1
2
Mi(U ) = the Universe, an amount of
imaginary gravitational mass,
=
2G Mg(U )Mi(U )
=
2G ∑m ( g sp) Mi(U )
=
total
M gm (imaginary ) , which was associated
dcrdinitial dcrdinitial to the fraction of the matter
2G χ∑mi(sp)Mi(U ) 2GMi(U ) χ transformed into photons, has been
= = converted into imaginary
dcrdinitial dcrdinitial
gravitational mass of the primordial
 55

total
photons, M gp (imaginary ) , while an where m gp (imaginary ) (the imaginary
amount of real inertial mass of the gravitational mass of the photon) is
a quantity positive and imaginary,
(real) =η MiU c , has been
total 2
matter, Mim
and M gSun (imaginary ) (the imaginary
converted into real energy of the
N gravitational mass associated to the
primordial photons, E p = ∑ hf j , i.e., matter of the Sun) is a quantity
j =1 negative and imaginary.
The fact of the gravitational
interaction between the imaginary
gravitational masses of the
(imaginary) + M im( real) =
total total
M gm
primordial photons and the
= M gp (imaginary) + M ip( real)
total total
imaginary gravitational mass of the
1424 3
Ep matter be attractive is highly
c2 relevant, because it shows that it is
necessary to consider the effect of
this gravitational interaction, which is
(imaginary ) = M gp (imaginary ) and
total total
where M gm
equivalent to the gravitational effect
produced by the amount of real
(real) = M im(real) = ηM iU ≅ 0.11M iU
E p c 2 ≡ M iptotal total
(real) ≅ 0.22M iU ,
total
gravitational mass, M gp
sprayed by all the Universe.
It was previously shown that, for the This means that this amount,
photons equation: M gp = 2 M ip , is which corresponds to 22% of the
valid. This means that total inertial mass of the Universe,
must be added to the overall
M gp(imagimary) + M gp(real) = computation of the total mass of the
14444244443 matter (stars, galaxies, etc., gas and
M gp
dust of interstellar and intergalactic
(
= 2 M ip(imagimary) + M ip(real)
14444244443
) media). Therefore, this additional
portion corresponds to what has
M ip
been called Dark Matter (See Fig.
By substituting M gp(imaginary) = 2Mip(imaginary) IX).
into the equation above, we get On the other hand, the total
amount of gravitational mass at the
M gp (real ) = 2M ip (real ) initial instant, M gtotal , according to
Eq.(41), can be expressed by
Therefore we can write that M gtotal = χ M iU
(real ) = 2 M ip (real ) = 0.22 M iU
total total
M gp This mass includes the total
The phenomenon of negative gravitational mass of the
total
gravitational deflection of light about matter, M gm (− ) , plus the total
the Sun shows that the gravitational gravitational mass, total
M gp ( real ) ,
interaction between the Sun and the
photons is attractive. This is due to converted into primordial photons.
the gravitational force between the This tells us that we can put
Sun and a photon, which is given by
M gtotal = M gm ( − ) + M gp ( real ) = χ M iU
total total

F = −G M gSun (imaginary ) m gp (imaginary ) r 2 ,

whence
 56

At the Initial Instant

M iU

Imaginary spacetime

Real spacetime
(imaginary) + Mip( real) ) + Mim(real)
total total total total
Mgp Mgm (imaginary

Primordial Photons
total
M gp (imaginary) + M iptotal
( real )
1
42 43
Ep
c2

∼ 10-14 m

Fig. IX – Conversion of part of the Real Gravitational Mass of the Primordial Universe into
Primordial Photons. The gravitational effect caused by the gravitational interaction of imaginary
gravitational masses of the primordial photons with the imaginary gravitational mass associated to
the matter is equivalent to the effect produced by the amount of real gravitational mass,
(real ) ≅ 0.22 M iU , sprayed by all Universe. This additional portion of mass corresponds to what
total
M gp
has been called Dark Matter.
 57

( −) = χ M iU − 0.22M iU (
M g ( sp ) = ⎛⎜1 − 2⎡ 1 − V 2 c 2 ) ⎤ ⎞M
total − 12
M gm
⎝ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎟⎠ i ( sp )
In order to calculate the value
of χ we can start from the By comparing this expression with
expression previously obtained for the equation above, we obtain
χ , i.e.,
1
m g ( sp ) 2η n r kT T ≅ 1 .5
χ= =1− =1− 1− V 2 c2
mi ( sp ) mi ( sp ) c 2 Tcritical
where Substitution of this value into the
expressions of χ and M gmtotal
(− ) results
mi ( sp ) c 2
Tcritical = = 3.3 × 10 32 K in
2ηn r k
χ = −0.5
and
and
⎛ m ⎞
⎜ i(sp) ⎟ 2
2 ⎜ ⎟c
Mi(sp)c ⎜⎝ 1 −V c ⎟⎠
2 2
T
T= = = critical ( − ) ≅ −0.72 M iU
total
M gm
2ηnr k 2ηnr k 1 − V 2 c2
This means that 72% of the total
We thus obtain energy of the Universe ( M iU c 2 ) is
due to negative gravitational mass
1
χ =1− of the matter created at the initial
1 − V 2 c2 instant.
Since the gravitational mass
By substitution of this expression is correlated to the inertial mass (Eq.
total
into the equation of M gm (41)), the energy related to the
(− ) , we get
negative gravitational mass is where
there is inertial energy (inertial
⎛ ⎞ mass). In this way, this negative
⎜ 1 ⎟
total
M gm = ⎜⎜ 0 . 78 − M iU
2 ⎟
(−) gravitational energy permeates all
1 − V 2
c ⎟
⎝ ⎠ space and tends to increase the rate
of expansion of the Universe due to
On the other hand, the Unification produce a strong gravitational
condition ( Unr ≅ Δpc= MiUc2 ) previously repulsion between the material
shown and Eq. (41) show that at the particles. Thus, this energy
initial instant of the Universe, corresponds to what has been
M g (sp ) has the following value: called Dark Energy (See Fig. X).
The value of χ = −0.5 at the
initial instant of the Universe shows
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ Un ⎞ ⎤⎫⎪ that the gravitational interaction was
⎪
Mg(sp) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ r ⎟ −1⎥⎬Mi(sp) ≅ 0.1Mi(sp)
⎜ Mi(sp) ⎟ ⎥ repulsive at the Big-Bang. It remains
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎪⎭ repulsive until the temperature of the
Universe is reduced down to the
Similarly, Eq.(45) tells us that critical limit, Tcritical . Below this
temperature limit,
 58

Negative
Gravitational Mass of Matter

72%
22%

6% Positive Gravitational Mass

carried by the primordial photons
Positive
Gravitational M ass of
M atter

Fig. X - Distribution of Gravitational Masses in the Universe. The total

energy related to negative gravitational mass of all the matter in the
Universe corresponds to what has been called Dark Energy. While
the Dark Matter corresponds to the total gravitational mass carried by the
primordial photons, which is manifested in the interaction of the
imaginary gravitational masses of the primordial photons with the
imaginary mass of matter.
 59

the attractive component of the imaginary bodies. Just as the real

gravitational interaction became particles constitute the real bodies.
greater than the repulsive The idea that we make about
component, making attractive the a consciousness is basically that of
resultant gravitational interaction. an imaginary body containing
Therefore, at the beginning of the psychic energy and intrinsic
Universe – before the temperature knowledge. We can relate psychic
decreased down to Tcritical , there energy with psychic mass (psychic
occurred an expansion of the mass= psychic energy/c2). Thus, by
Universe that was exponential in analogy with the real bodies the
time rather than a normal power-law psychic bodies would be constituted
expansion. Thus, there was an by psychic particles with psychic
evident Inflation Period during the mass. Consequently, the psychic
beginning of the expansion of the particles that constitute a
Universe (See Fig. XI). consciousness would be equivalent
With the progressing of the to imaginary particles, and the
decompression the superparticles psychic mass , mΨ ,of the psychic
cluster becomes a neutrons cluster. particles would be equivalent to the
This means that the neutrons are imaginary mass, i.e.,
created without its antiparticle, the
antineutron. Thus, this solves the mΨ = mi(imaginary) (131)
matter/antimatter dilemma that is
unresolved in many cosmologies.
Now a question: How did the Thus, the imaginary masses
primordial superparticles appear at associated to the photons and
the beginning of the Universe? electrons would be elementary
It is a proven quantum fact psyche actually, i.e.,
that a wave function may collapse,
and that, at this moment, all the m Ψ photon = m i (imaginary ) photon =
possibilities that it describes are
2 ⎛ hf ⎞
suddenly expressed in reality. This = ⎜ ⎟ i (132 )
means that, through this process, 3 ⎝ c2 ⎠
particles can be suddenly
materialized. mΨelectron = mi(imaginary)electron =
The materialization of the
primordial superparticles into a ⎛ hf electron ⎞
=− 2
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ i =
critical volume denotes knowledge 3
⎝ c2 ⎠
of what would happen with the =− 2 mi0(real)electron i (133)
Universe starting from that initial 3

condition, a fact that points towards

the existence of a Creator. The idea that electrons have
It was shown previously the elementary psyche associated to
possible existence of imaginary themselves is not new. It comes
particles with imaginary masses in from the pre-Socratic period.
Nature. These particles can be By proposing the existence of
associated with real particles, such as psyche associated with matter, we
in case of the photons and electrons, as
are adopting what is called
we have shown, or they can be
associated with others imaginary
panpsychic posture. Panpsychism
dates back to the pre-Socratic period;
particles by constituting the
 60

χ ≅ − 0 .5
t =0 t ≈ 15 billion years
t ≈ 10 −43 s

T = Tcritical = 3.3 ×1032 K T = 2 .7 K

Inflation Period

Fig. XI – Inflation Period. The value of χ ≅ −0.5 at the Initial Instant of the Universe shows that the
gravitational interaction was repulsive at the Big-Bang. It remains repulsive until the temperature of
the Universe is reduced down to the critical limit, Tcritical . Below this temperature limit, the
attractive component of the gravitational interaction became greater than the repulsive component,
making attractive the resultant gravitational interaction. Therefore, at beginning of the Universe −
before the temperature to be decreased down to Tcritical , there occurred an expansion of the Universe
that was exponential in time rather than a normal power-law expansion. Thus, there was an evident
inflation period during the beginning of the expansion of the Universe.

remnants of organized panpsychism
may be found in the Uno of
Parmenides or in Heracleitus’s
Divine Flow. The scholars of
Miletus’s school were called
hylozoists, that is, “those who
believe that matter is alive”. More
recently, we will find the
panpsychistic thought in Spinoza,
Whitehead and Teilhard de Chardin,
among others. The latter one
admitted the existence of proto-
conscious properties at the
elementary particles’ level.
We can find experimental
evidences of the existence of
psyche associated to electron in an
experiment similar to that commonly
used to show the wave duality of
light. (Fig. XII). One merely
substitutes an electron ray (fine
electron beam) for the light ray. Just
as in the experiment mentioned
above, the ray which goes through
the holes is detected as a wave if a
wave detector is used (it is then
observed that the interference
pattern left on the detector screen is
analogous with that produced by the
light ray), and as a particle if a
particle detector is used.
Since the electrons are
detected on the other side of the
metal sheet, it becomes obvious
then that they passed through the
holes. On the other hand, it is also
evident that when they approached
the holes, they had to decide which
one of them to go through.
How can an electron “decide”
which hole to go through? Where
there is “choice”, isn’t there also
psyche, by definition?
If the primordial superparticles
that have been materialized at the
beginning of the Universe came
from the collapse of a primordial
wave function, then the
psychic form described by this wave
61
function must have been generated
in a consciousness with a psychic
mass much greater than that
needed to materialize the Universe
(material and psychic).
This giant consciousness, in
its turn, would not only be the
greatest of all consciences in the
Universe but also the substratum of
everything that exists and,
obviously, everything that exists
would be entirely contained within it,
including all the spacetime.
Thus, if the consciousness we
refer to contains all the space, its
volume is necessarily infinite,
consequently having an infinite
psychic mass.
This means that it contains all
the existing psychic mass and,
therefore, any other consciousness
that exists will be contained in it.
Hence, we may conclude that It is
the Supreme Consciousness and
that there is no other equal to It: It is
unique.
Since the Supreme
Consciousness also contains all time;
past, present and future, then, for It
the time does not flow as it flows for
us.
Within this framework, when
we talk about the Creation of the
Universe, the use of the verb “to
create” means that “something that
was not” came into being, thus
presupposing the concept of time
flow. For the Supreme
Consciousness, however, the
instant of Creation is mixed up with
all other times, consequently there
being no “before” or “after” the
Creation and, thus, the following
question is not justifiable: “What did
the Supreme Consciousness do before
Creation?”
On the other hand, we may
also infer, from the above that the
 62

Light

(a)

Dw

Light

(b)

Dp

Electrons ?
(c)

Fig. XII – A light ray, after going through the holes in the metal sheet, will be detected as a
wave(a) by a wave detector Dw or as a particle if the wave detector is substituted for the wave
detector Dp. Electron ray (c) has similar behavior as that of a light ray. However, before going
through the holes, the electrons must “decide” which one to go through.

existence of the Supreme
Consciousness has no defined limit
(beginning and end), what confers
upon It the unique characteristic of
uncreated and eternal.
If the Supreme Consciousness is
eternal, Its wave function ΨSC shall
never collapse (will never be null).
Thus, for having an infinite psychic
mass, the value of ΨSC 2
will be always
infinite and, hence, we may write that
+∞
∫−∞ ΨSC dV = ∞
2
By comparing this equation with Eq.
(108) derived from Quantum
Mechanics, we conclude that the
Supreme Consciousness is
simultaneously everywhere, i.e., It is
omnipresent.
Since the Supreme Consciousness
contains all consciences, it is expected
that It also contain all the knowledge.
Therefore, It is also omniscient.
Consequently, It knows how to
formulate well-defined mental images
with psychic masses sufficient for its
contents to materialize. In this way, It
can materialize everything It wishes
(omnipotence).
All these characteristics of the
Supreme Consciousness (infinite,
unique, uncreated, eternal,
omnipresent, omniscient and
omnipotent) coincide with those
traditionally ascribed to God by most
religions.
It was shown in this work that
the “virtual” quanta of the gravitational
interaction must have spin 1 and not 2,
and that they are “virtual” photons
(graviphotons) with zero mass outside
the coherent matter. Inside the
coherent matter the graviphoton mass
is non-zero. Therefore, the
gravitational forces are also gauge
forces, because they are yielded by the
exchange of "virtual" quanta of spin 1,
63
such as the electromagnetic forces and
the weak and strong nuclear forces.
Thus, the gravitational forces are
produced by the exchange of “virtual”
photons. Consequently, this is
precisely the origin of the gravity.
Newton’s theory of gravity does
not explain why objects attract one
another; it simply models this
observation. Also Einstein’s theory
does not explain the origin of gravity.
Einstein’s theory of gravity only
describes gravity with more precision
than Newton’s theory does.
Besides, there is nothing in both
theories explaining the origin of the
energy that produces the gravitational
forces. Earth’s gravity attracts all
objects on the surface of our planet.
This has been going on for well over
4.5 billions years, yet no known energy
source is being converted to support
this tremendous ongoing energy
expenditure. Also is the enormous
continuous energy expended by
Earth’s gravitational field for
maintaining the Moon in its orbit -
millennium after millennium. In spite of
the ongoing energy expended by
Earth’s gravitational field to hold
objects down on surface and the Moon
in orbit, why the energy of the field
never diminishes in strength or drains
its energy source? Is this energy
expenditure balanced by a conversion
of energy from an unknown energy
source?
The energy W necessary to
support the effort expended by the
gravitational forces F is well-known
and given by
M g mg
∫
r
W = Fdr = −G
∞ r
According to the principle of energy
conservation, this energy expenditure
must be balanced by a conversion of
energy from another energy type.

The Uncertainty Principle tells us
that, due to the occurrence of
exchange of graviphotons in a time
interval Δt < h ΔE (where ΔE is the
energy of the graviphoton), the energy
variation ΔE cannot be detected in the
system M g − m g . Since the total energy
W is the sum of the energy of the n
graviphotons, i.e., W = ΔE1 + ΔE2 + ...+ ΔEn ,
then the energy W cannot be detected
as well. However, as we know it can be
converted into another type of energy,
for example, in rotational kinetic
energy, as in the hydroelectric plants,
or in the Gravitational Motor, as shown
in this work.
It is known that a quantum of
energy ΔE = hf which varies during a
time interval Δt = 1 f = λ c < h ΔE
(wave period) cannot be
experimentally detected. This is an
imaginary photon or a “virtual” photon.
Thus, the graviphotons are imaginary
photons, i.e., the energies ΔEi of the
graviphotons are imaginaries energies
and therefore the energy
W = ΔE1 + ΔE 2 + ... + ΔE n is also an
imaginary energy. Consequently, it
belongs to the imaginary space-time.
According to Eq. (131),
imaginary energy is equal to psychic
energy. Consequently, the imaginary
space-time is, in fact, the psychic
space-time, which contains the
Supreme Consciousness. Since the
Supreme Consciousness has infinite
psychic mass, then the psychic space-
time has infinite psychic energy. This is
highly relevant, because it confers to
the psychic space-time the
characteristic of unlimited source of
energy.
This can be easily confirmed by
the fact that, in spite of the enormous
amount of energy expended by Earth’s
gravitational field to hold objects down
on the surface of the planet and
maintain the Moon in its orbit, the
energy of Earth’s gravitational field
64
never diminishes in strength or
drains its energy source.
If an experiment involves a large
number of identical particles, all
described by the same wave function
Ψ , real density of mass ρ of these
particles in x, y, z, t is proportional to
the corresponding value Ψ 2 ( Ψ 2 is
known as density of probability. If Ψ is
complex then Ψ 2 = ΨΨ* . Thus,
ρ ∝ Ψ2 = Ψ.Ψ* ). Similarly, in the case
of psychic particles, the density of
psychic mass, ρ Ψ , in x, y, z, will be
expressed by ρ Ψ ∝ ΨΨ2 = ΨΨ Ψ*Ψ . It is
known that ΨΨ2 is always real and
positive while ρ Ψ = mΨ V is an
imaginary quantity. Thus, as the
modulus of an imaginary number is
always real and positive, we can
transform the proportion ρΨ ∝ ΨΨ2 , in
equality in the following form:
ΨΨ2 = k ρ Ψ (134)
where k is a proportionality constant
(real and positive) to be determined.
In Quantum Mechanics we have
studied the Superpositon Principle,
which affirms that, if a particle (or
system of particles) is in a dynamic
state represented by a wave function
Ψ1 and may also be in another
dynamic state described by Ψ2 then,
the general dynamic state of the
particle may be described by Ψ ,
where Ψ is a linear
combination(superposition)of Ψ1 and Ψ2 ,
i.e.,
Ψ = c1 Ψ1 + c 2 Ψ2 (135 )
Complex constants c1 and c2
respectively indicates the percentage
of dynamic state, represented
by Ψ1 and Ψ2 in the formation of the
general dynamic state described by Ψ .
In the case of psychic particles
(psychic bodies, consciousness, etc.),
 65
by analogy, if ΨΨ1 , ΨΨ 2 ,..., ΨΨn refer 2
∇ 2 ΨΨ +
p Ψ
2
ΨΨ = 0 (137 )
to the different dynamic states the h
psychic particle assume, then its
general dynamic state may be Because the wave functions are
described by the wave function ΨΨ , capable of intertwining themselves, the
given by: quantum systems may “penetrate”
each other, thus establishing an
ΨΨ = c1ΨΨ1 + c2 ΨΨ 2 + ... + cn ΨΨn (136) internal relationship where all of them
are affected by the relationship, no
longer being isolated systems but
The state of superposition of wave
becoming an integrated part of a larger
functions is, therefore, common for
system. This type of internal
both psychic and material particles. In
relationship, which exists only in
the case of material particles, it can be
quantum systems, was called
verified, for instance, when an electron
Relational Holism [44].
changes from one orbit to another.
The equation of quantization of
Before effecting the transition to
mass (33), in the generalized form,
another energy level, the electron
leads us to the following expression:
carries out “virtual transitions” [42]. A
kind of relationship with other electrons m i (imaginary ) = n 2 m i 0 (imagynary )(min )
before performing the real transition. Thus, we can also conclude that the
During this relationship period, its wave psychic mass is also quantized, due to
function remains “scattered” by a wide mΨ = mi (imaginary ) (Eq. 131), i.e.,
region of the space [43] thus
superposing the wave functions of the m Ψ = n 2 m Ψ (min ) (138 )
other electrons. In this relationship the
electrons mutually influence one where
another, with the possibility of m Ψ (min ) = − 2
3
(hf min )
c2 i =
intertwining their wave functions ‡‡ .
When this happens, there occurs the =− 2
3
m i 0 (real ) min i (139 )
so-called Phase Relationship
according to quantum-mechanics It was shown that the minimum
concept. quantum of real inertial mass in the
In the electrons “virtual” Universe, mi 0(real ) min , is given by:
transition mentioned before, the
“listing” of all the possibilities of the m i 0 (real ) min = ± h 3 8 cd max =
electrons is described, as we know, by = ± 3 . 9 × 10 − 73 kg (140 )
Schrödinger’s wave equation. By analogy to Eqs. (132) and (133),
Otherwise, it is general for material the expressions of the psychic masses
particles. By analogy, in the case of associated to the proton and the
psychic particles, we may say that the neutron are respectively given by:
“listing” of all the possibilities of the
psyches involved in the relationship will m Ψ proton = m i (imaginary ) proton =
be described by Schrödinger’s
equation – for psychic case, i.e., =+ 2
3
(hf proton c2 i =)
=+ 2
3
m i 0 (real ) proton i (141 )
‡‡
Since the electrons are simultaneously waves and
particles, their wave aspects will interfere with each
other; besides superposition, there is also the
possibility of occurrence of intertwining of their
wave functions.
 66
m Ψneutron = mi (imaginary )neutron =

=− 2 (hf neutron )
c2 i =
F = G M i (imaginary) mi (imaginary) r 2 =

( ΔE ⎞
)
3
⎛
=− 2 mi 0(real )neutron i (142 ) ⎜ me ± m n − m p + 2 ⎟ M
3 ≅⎜ c ⎟G i (real )i mi (real )i
The imaginary gravitational ⎜ ΔE ⎟ r2
⎜ me + m p + m n + 2 ⎟
masses of the atoms must be much ⎝ c ⎠
smaller than their real gravitational Therefore, the total gravity is
masses. On the contrary, the weight of M i (real )
the bodies would be very different of g real + Δg (imaginary ) = −G −
r2
the observed values. This fact shows
that mi (imaginary ) proton and mi (imaginary )neutron
⎛
( ΔE ⎞
)
⎜ me ± m n − m p + 2 ⎟ M
−⎜ c ⎟G i (real )
must have contrary signs. In this way, ⎜ ΔE ⎟ r2
the imaginary gravitational mass of an ⎜ me + m p + m n + 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠
atom can be expressed by means of
the following expression Thus, the imaginary gravitational mass
of a body produces an excess of
⎛
(ΔE ⎞
mi (imaginary )atom = N ⎜ me ± m n − m p + 2 ⎟i ) gravity acceleration, Δg , given by
⎝ c ⎠
where, ΔE , is the interaction energy.
By comparing this expression with the
⎛
( )
ΔE ⎞
⎜ me ± mn − m p + 2 ⎟ M
following expression Δg ≅ ⎜ c ⎟G i (real )
⎜ ΔE ⎟ r2
⎛ ΔE ⎞ ⎜ e
m + m + m + ⎟
mi (real )atom = N ⎜ me + m p + mn + 2 ⎟ ⎝
p n
c2 ⎠
⎝ c ⎠
Thus,
In the case of soft atoms we can
mi (imaginary )atom << mi (real )atom
consider ΔE ≅ 2 × 10 −13 joules . Thus, in
Now consider a monatomic body with this case we obtain
real mass M i (real ) and imaginary mass Mi
M i (imaginary ) . Then we have
Δg ≅ 6 ×10 −4 G (143)
r2
In the case of the Sun, for example,
⎛ ΔE i ⎞ there is an excess of gravity
Σ⎜ mi (imaginary )atom + 2a ⎟
M i (imaginary ) acceleration, due to its imaginary
= ⎝
c ⎠
= gravitational mass, given by
M i (real ) ⎛ ΔE a ⎞
Σ⎜ mi (real )atom + 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ (
Δg ≅ 6 × 10 − 4 G ) M iS
r2
ΔE ΔE ⎞
⎛
(
n⎜ me ± m n − m p + 2 + 2a ⎟i ) At a distance from the Sun of
= ⎝
c c ⎠ r = 1.0 × 1013 m the value of Δg is
≅
⎛ ΔE ΔE a ⎞
n⎜ m e + m p + m n + 2 + 2 ⎟
⎝ c c ⎠ Δg ≅ 8 × 10 −10 m.s −2
⎛
(
⎜ me ± mn − m p + 2 ⎟ )
ΔE ⎞
≅⎜ c ⎟i Experiments in the pioneer 10
⎜ ΔE ⎟ spacecraft, at a distance from the Sun
⎜ me + m p + m n + 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ of about 67 AU or r = 1.0 × 1013 m [45],
Since ΔE a << ΔE . measured an excess acceleration
The intensity of the gravitational towards the Sun of
forces between M g (imaginary ) and an
Δg = 8.74 ± 1.33 × 10 −10 m.s −2
imaginary particle with mass
m g (imaginary ) , both at rest, is given by

Note that the general expression for
the gravity acceleration of the Sun is
(
g = 1+ ≈ 6 × 10 − 4 G ) M iS
r2
Therefore, in the case of the
gravitational deflection of light about
the Sun, the new expression for the
deflection of the light is
(
δ = 1+ ≈ 6 ×10 − 4 ) 4GM iS
(144)
c2d
Thus, the increase in δ due to the
excess acceleration towards the Sun
can be considered negligible.
Similarly to the collapse of the
real wave function, the collapse of the
psychic wave function must suddenly
also express in reality all the
possibilities described by it. This is,
therefore, a point of decision in which
there occurs the compelling need of
realization of the psychic form. Thus,
this is moment in which the content of
the psychic form realizes itself in the
space-time. For an observer in space-
time, something is real when it is in the
form of matter or radiation. Therefore,
the content of the psychic form may
realize itself in space-time exclusively
under the form of radiation, that is, it
does not materialize. This must occur
when the Materialization Condition is
not satisfied, i.e., when the content of
the psychic form is undefined
(impossible to be defined by its own
psychic) or it does not contain enough
psychic mass to materialize §§ the
respective psychic contents.
Nevertheless, in both cases,
there must always be a production of
“virtual” photons to convey the psychic
interaction to the other psychic
particles, according to the quantum
field theory, only through this type of
quanta will interaction be conveyed,
since it has an infinite reach and may
be either attractive or repulsive, just as
§§
By this we mean not only materialization proper
but also the movement of matter to realize its
psychic content (including radiation).
67
electromagnetic interaction which,
as we know, is conveyed by the
exchange of “virtual” photons.
If electrons, protons and neutrons
have psychic mass, then we can infer
that the psychic mass of the atoms are
Phase Condensates *** . In the case of
the molecules the situation is similar.
More molecular mass means more
atoms and consequently, more psychic
mass. In this case the phase
condensate also becomes more
structured because the great amount
of elementary psyches inside the
condensate requires, by stability
reasons, a better distribution of them.
Thus, in the case of molecules with
very large molecular masses
(macromolecules) it is possible that
their psychic masses already constitute
the most organized shape of a Phase
Condensate, called Bose-Einstein
Condensate ††† .
The fundamental characteristic of
a Bose-Einstein condensate is, as we
know, that the various parts making up
the condensed system not only behave
as a whole but also become a whole,
i.e., in the psychic case, the various
consciousnesses of the system
become a single consciousness with
psychic mass equal to the sum of the
psychic masses of all the
consciousness of the condensate. This
obviously, increases the available
knowledge in the system since it is
proportional to the psychic mass of the
***
Ice and NaCl crystals are common examples of
imprecisely-structured phase condensates. Lasers,
super fluids, superconductors and magnets are
examples of phase condensates more structured.
†††
Several authors have suggested the possibility of
the Bose-Einstein condensate occurring in the
brain, and that it might be the physical base of
memory, although they have not been able to find a
suitable mechanism to underpin such a hypothesis.
Evidences of the existence of Bose-Einstein
condensates in living tissues abound (Popp, F.A
Experientia, Vol. 44, p.576-585; Inaba, H., New
Scientist, May89, p.41; Rattermeyer, M and Popp,
F. A. Naturwissenschaften, Vol.68, Nº5, p.577.)

consciousness. This unity confers an
individual character to this type of
consciousness. For this reason, from
now on they will be called Individual
Material Consciousness.
We can derive from the above
that most bodies do not possess
individual material consciousness. In
an iron rod, for instance, the cluster of
elementary psyches in the iron
molecules does not constitute Bose-
Einstein condensate; therefore, the
iron rod does not have an individual
consciousness. Its consciousness is
consequently, much more simple and
constitutes just a phase condensate
imprecisely structured made by the
consciousness of the iron atoms.
The existence of consciousnesses
in the atoms is revealed in the
molecular formation, where atoms with
strong mutual affinity (their
consciousnesses) combine to form
molecules. It is the case, for instance
of the water molecules, in which two
Hydrogen atoms join an Oxygen atom.
Well, how come the combination
between these atoms is always the
same: the same grouping and the
same invariable proportion? In the
case of molecular combinations the
phenomenon repeats itself. Thus, the
chemical substances either mutually
attract or repel themselves, carrying
out specific motions for this reason. It
is the so-called Chemical Affinity. This
phenomenon certainly results from a
specific interaction between the
consciousnesses. From now on, it will
be called Psychic Interaction.
Mutual Affinity is a
dimensionless psychic quantity with
which we are familiar and of which we
have perfect understanding as to its
meaning. The degree of Mutual
Affinity, A , in the case of two
consciousnesses, respectively
described by ΨΨ1 and ΨΨ 2 , must be
68
correlated to Ψ and Ψ 2
Ψ1 . Only 2
Ψ2
‡‡‡
a simple algebraic form fills the
requirements of interchange of the
indices, the product
ΨΨ2 1 .ΨΨ2 2 = ΨΨ2 2 .ΨΨ2 1 =
= A1, 2 = A2,1 = A (145 )
In the above expression, A is due to
the product ΨΨ2 1 .ΨΨ2 2 will be always
positive. From equations (143) and
(134) we get
A = ΨΨ2 1 .ΨΨ2 2 = k 2 ρ Ψ1 ρ Ψ 2 =
mΨ1 mΨ 2
= k2 (146)
V1 V2
The psychic interaction can be
described starting from the psychic
mass because the psychic mass is the
source of the psychic field. Basically,
the psychic mass is gravitational mass,
m Ψ ≡ m g (imaginary ) . In this way, the
equations of the gravitational
interaction are also applied to the
Psychic Interaction. However, due to
the psychic mass, m Ψ , to be an
imaginary quantity, it is necessary to
put mΨ into the mentioned equations
in order to homogenize them, because
as we know, the module of an
imaginary number is always real and
positive.
Thus, based on gravity theory,
we can write the equation of the
psychic field in nonrelativistic
Mechanics.
ΔΦ = 4πG ρ Ψ (147 )
‡‡‡
Quantum Mechanics tells us that Ψ do not have
a physical interpretation or a simple meaning and
also it cannot be experimentally observed. However
such restriction does not apply to Ψ
2
, which is
known as density of probability and represents the
probability of finding the body, described by the
wave function Ψ , in the point x, y, z at the
moment t. A large value of Ψ
2
means a strong
possibility to find the body, while a small value of
Ψ 2 means a weak possibility to find the body.
 69
It is similar to the equation of the attractive, if A is positive
gravitational field, with the difference (expressing positive mutual affinity
that now instead of the density of between the two psychic bodies), and
gravitational mass we have the density repulsive if A is negative (expressing
of psychic mass. Then, we can write negative mutual affinity between the
the general solution of Eq. (147), in the two psychic bodies). Contrary to the
following form: interaction of the matter, where the
ρ Ψ dV opposites attract themselves here, the
Φ = −G ∫ (148) opposites repel themselves.
r2
This equation expresses, with A method and device to obtain
nonrelativistic approximation, the images of psychic bodies have been
potential of the psychic field of any previously proposed [46]. By means of
distribution of psychic mass. this device, whose operation is based
Particularly, for the potential of on the gravitational interaction and the
the field of only one particle with piezoelectric effect, it will be possible
psychic mass mΨ1 , we get: to observe psychic bodies.
Expression (146) can be
G m Ψ1
Φ=− (149 ) rewritten in the following form:
r
Then the force produced by this field
m m
A = k 2 Ψ1 Ψ 2 (153)
V1 V2
upon another particle with psychic
The psychic masses mΨ1 and mΨ 2 are
mass mΨ 2 is
r r imaginary quantities. However, the
∂Φ
FΨ12 = − FΨ 21 = − mΨ 2 = product mΨ1 .mΨ 2 is a real quantity. One
∂r
can then conclude from the previous
m Ψ1 m Ψ 2
= −G (150) expression that the degree of mutual
r2 affinity between two consciousnesses
By comparing equations (150) and depends basically on the densities of
(146) we obtain their psychic masses, and that:
1) If mΨ1 > 0 and mΨ 2 > 0 then
r r A > 0 (positive mutual affinity
VV
FΨ12 = − FΨ 21 = −G A 12 22 (151) between them)
k r
In the vectorial form the above 2) If mΨ1 < 0 and mΨ 2 < 0 then
equation is written as follows A > 0 (positive mutual affinity
r r VV
FΨ 12 = − FΨ 21 = − GA 12 22 μ̂ (152 ) between them)
k r 3) If mΨ1 > 0 and mΨ 2 < 0 then
Versor μ̂ has the direction of the line A < 0 (negative mutual affinity
connecting the mass centers (psychic between them)
mass) of both particles and oriented 4) If mΨ1 < 0 and mΨ 2 > 0 then
from mΨ1 to mΨ 2 . A < 0 (negative mutual affinity
In general, we may distinguish between them)
and quantify two types of mutual In this relationship, as occurs in the
affinity: positive and negative case of material particles (“virtual”
(aversion). The occurrence of the first transition of the electrons previously
type is synonym of psychic attraction, mentioned), the consciousnesses
(as in the case of the atoms in the interact mutually, intertwining or not
water molecule) while the aversion is their wave functions. When this
synonym of repulsion. In fact, Eq. (152) happens, there occurs the so-called
r r
shows that the forces FΨ12 and FΨ 21 are Phase Relationship according to
quantum-mechanics concept.
 70
Otherwise a Trivial Relationship takes
place.
The psychic forces such as the
gravitational forces, must be very weak
when we consider the interaction
between two particles. However, in
spite of the subtleties, those forces
stimulate the relationship of the
consciousnesses with themselves and
with the Universe (Eq.152).
From all the preceding, we
perceive that Psychic Interaction –
unified with matter interactions,
constitutes a single Law which links
things and beings together and, in a
network of continuous relations and
exchanges, governs the Universe both
in its material and psychic aspects. We
can also observe that in the
interactions the same principle
reappears always identical. This unity
of principle is the most evident
expression of monism in the Universe.
 71

APPENDIX A: Allais effect explained

≅ 1.3 × 10−18 kg.m −3 that can work as a
A Foucault-type pendulum slightly gravitational shielding and explain the
increases its period of oscillation at sites Allais and pendulum effects. Below this
experiencing a solar eclipse, as compared layer, the density of the lunar atmosphere
with any other time. This effect was first increases, making the effect of
observed by Allais [47] over 40 years ago. gravitational shielding negligible.
Also Saxl and Allen [48], using a torsion During the solar eclipses, when the
pendulum, have observed the Moon is between the Sun and the Earth,
phenomenon. Recently, an anomalous two gravitational shieldings Sh1 and Sh2 ,
eclipse effect on gravimeters has become
are established in the top layer of the lunar
well-established [49], while some of the
atmosphere (See Fig. 1A). In order to
pendulum experiments have not. Here,
understand how these gravitational
we will show that the Allais gravity and
shieldings work (the gravitational shielding
pendulum effects during solar eclipses
effect) see Fig. II. Thus, right after Sh1
result from a shielding effect of the Sun’s
gravity when the Moon is between the Sun (inside the system Moon-Lunar
atmosphere), the Sun’s gravity
and the Earth. r r
The interplanetary medium includes acceleration, g S , becomes χ g S where,
interplanetary dust, cosmic rays and hot according to Eq. (57) χ is given by
plasma from the solar wind. Its density is
inversely proportional to the squared
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ ⎞
2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎪
distance from the Sun, decreasing as this 2
n D
distance increases. Near the Earth-Moon χ = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
r
(1A)
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ρc ⎠ ⎥⎪
system, this density is very low, with ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
(
values about 5 protons/ cm3 8.3×10−21 kg m3 . ) The total density of solar radiation D
However, this density is highly variable. It arriving at the top layer of the lunar
can be increased up to atmosphere is given by
( −19
~ 100 protons / cm 1.7 ×10 k g m [50].
3
)
3
D = σT 4 = 6.32 × 10 7 W / m 2
The atmosphere of the Moon is Since the temperature of the surface of the
very tenuous and insignificant in Sun is T = 5.778 × 10 3 K and
comparison with that of the Earth. The
average daytime abundances of the
σ = 5.67 × 10 −8 W .m −2 .K −4 . The density of
elements known to be present in the lunar the top layer is ρ ≅ 1.3 × 10−18 kg.m−3 then
atmosphere, in atoms per cubic Eq. (1A) gives §§§
centimeter, are as follows: H <17, He 2-
40x103, Na 70,K 17, Air 4x104, yielding χ = − 1 .1
~8x104 total atoms per cubic
( −16
)
−3
centimeter ≅ 10 kg.m [51]. According to The negative sign of χ shows that
Öpik [52], near the Moon surface, the r r
χg S , has opposite direction to g S . As
density of the lunar atmosphere can reach
values up to 10 −12 kg.m −3 .The minimum
previously showed (see Fig. II), after
the second gravitational shielding
possible density of the lunar atmosphere is
in the top of the atmosphere and is §§§
essentially very close to the value of the The text in red in wrong. But the value of
interplanetary medium. χ = −1 .1 is correct. It is not the solar radiation
Since the density of the that produces the phenomenon. The exact
interplanetary medium is very small it description of the phenomenon starting from the
cannot work as gravitational shielding. same equation (1A) is presented in the end of my
However, there is a top layer in the lunar paper: “Scattering of Sunlight in Lunar Exosphere
Caused by Gravitational Microclusters of Lunar Dust”
atmosphere with density (2013).
 72
(Sh2) the gravity acceleration χgr S g ′ = g ⊕ − (− 0 .4 ) g S − (− 0 .4 )g Moon =
2

r r
becomes χ 2 g S . This means that χ 2 g S ≅ g ⊕ − 9.6 × 10 − 4 m.s − 2 =
r
has the same direction of g S . In (
= 1 − 9.7 × 10 − 5 g ⊕) (4 A )
addition, right after the lunar (Sh2) This decrease in g increases the
r
gravity becomes χg moon . Therefore, the pendulum’s period by about
total gravity acceleration in the Earth g⊕
T′ =T = 1 .000048 T
will be given by ( )
1 − 9 .4 × 10 − 5 g ⊕
r r r r
g ′ = g ⊕ − χ 2 g S − χg moon (2 A) This corresponds to 0.0048% increase
in the pendulum’s period. Jun’s
abstract [53] tells us of a relative
Since g S ≅ 5.9 × 10 −3 m / s 2 and change less than 0.005% in the
−5
g moon ≅ 3.3 × 10 m / s Eq. (2A), gives
2 pendulum’s period associated with the
1990 solar eclipse.
For example, if the density of the
g ′ = g ⊕ − (− 1 .1) g S − (− 1 .1)g Moon =
2
top layer of the lunar atmosphere
≅ g ⊕ − 7 .1 × 10 − 3 m .s − 2 = increase up to 2.0917 × 10−18 k g m 3 , the
(
= 1 − 7 .3 × 10 − 4 g ⊕ ) (3 A ) value for χ becomes

This decrease in g increases the χ = −1.5 × 10 −3

period T = 2π l g of a paraconical
Thus, we obtain
g ′ = g ⊕ − (− 1.5 × 10−3 ) g S − (− 1.5 × 10−3 )g Moon =
pendulum (Allais effect) in about 2

g⊕
T′ = T = 1.00037 T
(
1 − 7.3 × 10 − 4 g ⊕ ) ≅ g ⊕ − 6.3 × 10−8 m.s −2 =
This corresponds to 0.037% increase ( )
= 1 − 6.4 × 10−9 g ⊕ (5 A)
in the period, and is roughly the value So, the total gravity acceleration in the
(0.0372%) obtained by Saxl and Allen Earth will decrease during the solar
during the total solar eclipse in March eclipses by about
1970 [48].
As we have seen, the density of 6.4 × 10 −9 g ⊕
the interplanetary medium near the
Moon is highly variable and can reach The size of the effect, as measured
values up to ~ 100 protons / cm 3 with a gravimeter, during the 1997
(1.7 ×10−19 k g m3 .) eclipse, was roughly (5 − 7 ) × 10 −9 g ⊕
When the density of the [54, 55].
interplanetary medium increases, the The decrease will be even
top layer of the lunar atmosphere can smaller forρ ≳ 2.0917 ×10-18kg.m-3. The
also increase its density, by absorbing lower limit now is set by Lageos
particles from the interplanetary satellites, which suffer an anomalous
medium due to the lunar gravitational
acceleration of only about 3 × 10 −13 g ⊕ ,
attraction. In the case of a density
increase of roughly 30% during “seasons” where the satellite
( )
1.7 × 10 k g m , the value for χ
−18 3 experiences eclipses of the Sun by the
Earth [56].
becomes
χ = − 0 .4
Consequently, we get
 73

Top layer of the Moon’s atmosphere

(Gravitational Shielding)
Interplanetary medium
≈ 10 −19 kg m 3
≈10−18 kg.m-3
Solar radiation ≈10−17 kg.m-3
≈10−12 kg.m-3 r
χg Moon
r Sh1 r Moon r Sh2 r r r r Earth
gS χg S g Moon χg Moon χ 2 g S χ 2gS g⊕

Fig. 1A – Schematic diagram of the Gravitational Shielding around the Moon – The top layer of the
Moon’s atmosphere with density of the order of 10-18 kg.m-3 , produces a gravitational shielding
r r
when subjected to the radiation from the Sun. Thus, the solar gravity g S becomes χ g S after the
r r
first shielding Sh1 and χ 2 g S after the second shielding Sh 2 . The Moon gravity becomes χ g Moon
after Sh 2 . Therefore the total gravity acceleration in the Earth will be given by
r r r r
g ′ = g ⊕ − χ 2 g S − χg moon .
 74

APPENDIX B n2h2 n2h2

En = = (3B)
In this appendix we will show 8mg L2 8η 2 mi L2
why, in the quantized gravity equation
(Eq.34), n = 0 is excluded from the From this equation we can easily
sequence of possible values of n . conclude that η cannot be
Obviously, the exclusion of n = 0 , zero (E n → ∞ or E n → 0 ) . On the
0

means that the gravity can have only other hand, the Eq. (2B) shows that the
discrete values different of zero. exclusion of η = 0 means the exclusion
Equation (33) shows that the of m g = 0 as a possible value for the
gravitational mass is quantized and
given by gravitational mass. Obviously, this also
means the exclusion of M g = 0
M g = n 2 mg (min ) (Relativistic mass). Equation (33) tells
us that M g = n 2 m g (min ) , thus we can
Since Eq. (43) leads to conclude that the exclusion of Mg = 0
implies in the exclusion of n = 0 since
mg(min) = mio(min)
mg(min) = mi0(min) = finite value (elementary
quantum of mass). Therefore Eq. (3B)
where
is only valid for values of n and η
different of zero. Finally, from the
mi0(min) = ± h 3 8 cdmax = ±3.9×10−73kg
quantized gravity equation (Eq. 34),
GM g ⎛ Gm g (min ) ⎞
is the elementary quantum of inertial g =− = n 2
⎜− ⎟=
r2 ⎜ (r )2 ⎟
mass. Then the equation ⎝ max n ⎠
for M g becomes = n 4 g min
we conclude that the exclusion of n = 0
M g = n 2 mg (min ) = n 2 mi (min ) means that the gravity can have only
discrete values different of zero.
On the other hand, Eq. (44)
shows that
M i = ni2 mi 0(min )
Thus, we can write that
2
Mg ⎛n ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ or M g = η 2 M i (1B)
M i ⎝ ni ⎠

where η = n ni is a quantum number

different of n .
By multiplying both members of
Eq. (1B) by 1 − V 2 c 2 we get
mg = η 2 mi (2B)
By substituting (2B) into Eq. (21)
we get

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