Chapter - 5 - Hydraulics Structure PDF

CHAPTER-5: HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES IN SURFACE GRAVITY IRRIGATION
5.1 Head work, type, its function and components

A hydraulic structure which supplies water to the off-taking canal is called as a ‘Head work’. Head
work may be divided into two classes:
 Storage Headwork
 Diversion Headwork
Storage head work
When dam is constructed across a river to form a storage reservoir, it is known as storage head
work. It stores water during the period of excess supplies in the river and releases it when demand
overtakes the available supplies.
Diversion head work

When a weir or barrage is constructed across a river to raise the water level and to divert the water
to the canal, then it is known as diversion head work. The flow in the canal is controlled by canal
head regulator.
It serves the following purposes:

 It raises the water level in the river so that the command area can be increased.
 It regulates the intake of water into the canal.
 It controls the silt entry into the canal.
 It reduces fluctuations in the level of supply in the river.
 It stores water for tiding over small periods of short supplies.
A diversion headwork can further be sub-divided into two principal classes:

 Temporary spurs or bunds
 Permanent weirs and barrages.
Temporary spurs or bunds are those which are temporary and are constructed every year after
floods, however, for important works, weirs or barrages are constructed since they are of
permanent nature if properly designed.
Weirs: The weir is a solid obstruction put across the river to raise its water level and divert the water
into the canal. If a weir also stores water for tiding over small periods of short supplies, it is called as
‘storage weir’. The main difference between the storage weir and dam is only in height and duration
for which the supply is stored. A dam stores the supply for a comparatively longer duration.
Barrage: The function of barrage is similar to that of weir; but the heading up of water is affected by
the gates alone. No solid obstruction is put across the river. The crest level in the barrage is kept at a
low level. During the floods, the gates are raised to clear off the high flood level, enabling the high
flood to pass downstream to mix afflux. When the flood recedes, the gates are lowered and the flow
is obstructed, thus raising the water level to upstream of the barrage. Due to this, there is less silting
and better control over the levels. However, barrages are much more costly than weirs.
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Comparison between barrage and weir
WEIR BARRAGE
It is relatively costly due to complicated
It is cheaper because of Simple construction.
structure construction.
A weir has high crest level. It is with lower crest level.
It provides more afflux. It provides less afflux
It provides effective control over the entire
It does not have control all Over the river water.
river flow.
It causes more silting on Up-stream. It provides less silting on Up-stream bed.
Bridge for transportation Purpose can be
Over the weir, bridge cannot be constructed.
constructed
Crest shutter is difficult to operate i.e. more time Gates are convenient to operate.
and labour is required.
Components of head-work
The main components of headwork especially for diversion head work are as follow
 Weir or barrage
 Guide Bank  Crest
 River Training Works  Pervious Floor
 Marginal Bunds  Under sluice
 Spurs  Inverted Filter
 Canal Head Regulator  Sheet Piles
 Divide Wall  Shutters or Gates
 Fish Ladder
 Main Weir and Impervious Floor
 Flexible Apron
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Main barrage portion
This is the main body of the barrage normally of R.C.C. slabs which support the steel gates. In cross-
section it consists of:
 U/S concrete floor to lengthen the path of sewage and to protect the middle portion where
the piers, gates and bridge are located.
 A crest at the required height above the floor on which the gates rest in there closed
position.
 U/S glacis having the necessary slope to join the u/s floor level to highest point, the crest.
 D/S glacis of suitable shape & slope. This joins the crest to the d/s floor level (which may be
at river bed level or below). The hydraulic jump forms on the glacis since it is more stable
than on the horizontal floor and this reduces the length of concrete work requires on d/s.
 D/S floor is built of concrete and is constructed so as to contain the hydraulic jump. Thus it
takes care of turbulence which would otherwise cause erosion. It is also provided with
friction blocks of suitable and at distances determined by hydraulic model experiments in
order to increase friction and destroy residual K.E.
Guide bank
Guide Bank are earthen embankments with stone pitching in the slopes facing water, to guide the
river through the barrage, These river training works are provided for rivers flowing in planes,
upstream and downstream of the hydraulic structures or bridges built on the river. Guide banks
guide the river water flow through the barrage.
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River training works
It includes guide banks, marginal bunds, spurs etc. Functions are as follows,
 To provide and non-tortuous approach to weir.
 To prevent the river from out-flanking the weir.
 To prevent additional area to be submerged due to afflux.
 To prevent erosion of the river banks (protective works).
Marginal bunds
Marginal bunds are flood embankments in continuation of guide banks designed to contain the
floods within the flood plain of the river. Both height and length vary according to back water effect
caused by the barrage. They are not provided with stone pitching and fully cover the backwater
length.
Spurs
Marginal bunds are also called as ‘Spurs’.
Canal head regulator

These are the structure constructed at the head (off take) of the canal adjacent to the under sluices.
Its function is:
 To admit water into the off taking canal.
 To regulate the supplies into the canal.
 To indicate the discharge passed into the canal from design discharge formula and observed
head of water on the crest.
 To control the silt entry into the canal.
 During heavy floods, it should be closed otherwise high silt quantity will leave to the canal.
Divide wall
It is a long wall constructed at right angle to the weir axis. It is extended up to the upstream end of
the canal head regulator. In case of one canal off-taking from each bank of the river, one divide-wall
is provided on front of each of the head regulators of the off takes. Similarly on the d/s side it should
extend to cover the hydraulic hump and the resulting turbulence. The main functions are as follows;
 To generate a parallel flow and thereby avoid damage to the flexible protection area of the
under sluice portion.
 To keep the cross-section, if any, away from the canal.
 To serve as a trap for coarser bed material.
 To serve as a side-wall of the fish ladder.
 To separate canal head regulator from main weir.
Fish ladder
It is a narrow trough opening along the divide wall towards weir side provided with baffles (screen to
control the flow of the liquid, sand etc.), so as to cut down the velocity of flowing water from u/s to
d/s. location of fish ladder adjacent to divide wall is preferred because there is always some water in
the river d/s of the under sluice only. It may be built within the divide wall.
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A fish ladder built along the divide wall is a device designed to allow the fish to negotiate the
artificial barrier in either direction. In the fish ladder, the optimum velocity is (6-8) ft/sec. Fish move
from u/s to d/s in search of relatively warm water in the beginning of water and return u/s for clear
water before the onset of monsoon.
Main weir and impervious floor

The obstruction constructed across the river is weir. Impervious layer consist of u/s apron, u/s glacis,
crest, d/s glacis and downstream apron. Its function is to raise water level locally and divert supplies
into the canal. Main concentration is on raising the water level and taking care of the disturbances
causes by the hydraulic jump.
Flexible apron
A flexible apron is placed d/s of the filter of the filter and consists of boulders large enough not to be
washed away by the highest likely water velocity. The protection is enough as to cover the slope of
scour depth i.e. (1 ×depth of scour on u/s side) and (2 ×scour depth on the d/s side) at a slope of .
Crest
Crest is the weir surface at the required height above the floor at which gates rest at its closed
position.
Pervious floor
It prevents scouring under the impervious floor.
 To serve as inverted filter.
 To check scour downstream.
 To withstand high velocities d/s of the hydraulic jump.
Under sluice
Under sluice is the opening at low level in the part of barrage which is adjacent to the off takes.
These openings are controlled by gates. They form the d/s end of the still ponds bounded on two
sides of divide-wall and canal head regulator.
They perform the following functions:
 To control silt entry into the canal.
 To protect d/s floor from hydraulic jump.
 To lower the highest flood level.
 To scour the silt deposits in the pockets periodically.
 To maintain a clear and well-defined river channel approaching the canal head-regulator.
A number of bays at the extreme ends of the barrage adjacent to the canal regulator have a
lower crest level than the rest of the bays. The main function is to draw water in low river
flow conditions due to formation of a deep channel under sluice portion. This also helps to
reduce the flow of silt into the canal due to drop in velocity of river water in deep channel in
front of canal regulator. Accumulated silt can be washed away easily by opening the under
sluice gates due to high velocity currents generated by lower crest levels or a high
differential head.
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Inverted filter
An inverted filter is provided between the d/s sheet piles and the flexible protection.It typically
consists of 6” sand, 9’’ coarse sand and 9” gravel. The filter material may vary with the size of the
particles forming river bed. It is protected by placing concrete blocks of sufficient weight and size,
over it. Slits are left b/w the blocks to allow the water to escape. The length of the filter should be
(2 × d/s depth of sheet pile). It performs following functions,
 It checks the escape of fine soil particles in the seepage water.
 In the case of scour, it provides adequate cover for the d/s sheet piles against the steepening
of exit gradient.
Sheet piles
There are generally three or four sheet piles. These are made of mild steal, each portion being 1.5 t o
2 ft. in width and " in thickness of the required length and having groove to link with the other
sheet piles. From the functional point view, in a barrage, these are classified into three types as:
 u/s sheet piles
 intermediate sheet piles
 d/s sheet piles
(a) Upstream sheet piles: U/S sheet piles are located at the U/S end of the U/S concrete floor.
These piles are driven into the soil beyond the maximum possible scour that may occur. Their
functions are:
 To protect the barrage structure from scour.
 To reduce uplift pressure in the barrage floor.
 To hold the sand compacted and densitified between two sheet piles in order to increase the
bearing capacity when the barrage floor is defined as raft.
(b) Intermediate sheet piles: They are situated at the end of U/S and D/S glacis and serve as
second line of defense. In case of the u/s or d/s sheet piles collapse due to advancing scour or
undermining, then these sheet piles give protection to the main structure of the barrage. The
intermediate sheet piles also help to lengthen the seepage path and reduce up-lift pressure.
(c) Downstream piles: These are placed at the end of the d/s concrete floor and their main
function is to check the exit gradient. Their depth should be greater than the maximum possible
scour.
Shutters or gates
Weirs are provided either with shutters or counter balanced gates to maintain pond level. A
shuttered weir is relatively cheaper but locks in speed. Better control is possible in a gated weir
(barrage). Their function is
 To maintain pond level.
 To raise the water level during low supplies.
In case of higher floods, shutters are dropped down and overflow takes place while in case of gated
weir, gates are raised during floods.
Site selection of a barrage

The following considerations should be kept in mind while selecting the site for a barrage:
 The site must have a good command over the area to be irrigated and also must not be at
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too far distance to avoid long feeder channels.
 The width of the river at the site should be preferably minimum with a well-defined and
stable river approach.
 A good land approach to the site will reduce expenses of the transportation and the ultimate
cost of the project.
 There must be easy diversion of the river after construction
 Existence of central approach of the river to the barrage after diversion, this is essential for
proper silt control.
 If it is intended to convert the existing inundation canals into the perennial canals, site
selection is limited by the position of the head-regulator and the alignment of the existing
inundation canals.
 A rock foundation is the best but in the alluvial planes the bed is invariably sandy.
The common practice in irrigation has been to build the barrage on dry land in a bye river and after
completion to divert the river through it.
 This gave an oblique approach and created many problems. The following guidelines have
now been proposed by the Irrigation Research Institute, Lahore. Their recommendations are
based on extensive hydraulic model experiments for each individual case.
 Where the angle b/w the headwork axis and the river axis exceeds 10 degree, the problem
arises of concentration of flow on one side and island formation within the guide banks on
the other side occurs due to heavy silting.
 If the river axis is to the right of the headwork axis, the concentration of flow is generally on
the left side with the consequent tendency to form an island on the right and vice versa.
 When a barrage is located below the confluence of two rivers, it should be located
sufficiently far below the confluence and consideration must be given as to which of the
rivers dominate the confluence.
 The barrage should be located as far as possible in the center of the flood plain. Asymmetry
of location increases the likelihood shoal forming and calls for expensive training works.
 The most suitable site for a barrage when constructed on dry land is below the outer side of
the convex bund which is followed by the straight reach of the river.
5.2 Condition and causes of failures of hydraulics structures

The subsoil flow or the foundation seepage may cause harm in two ways
 Uplift pressure
 Piping (undermining)
Uplift pressure: Barrages or diversion dams are normally built on the porous subsoil, normally
occurring in river beds such as silt, fine sand or gravel. These are low head structures not requiring
rock foundations and they can be built on porous soil, with the provision of necessary safeguards
against uplift pressure. This is defined as residual pressure of the seeping water acting vertically with
the effect of trying to lift up the body of barrage. Therefore, in case of gravity floors, the thickness of
aprons or the glacis must be of greater weight than the uplift pressure. The problem is the exact
determination of the uplift.
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Piping /undermining: There is a second way in which the seepage flow underneath the structure
may danger its stability and is called as piping phenomenon. When the seepage velocity in
microscopic flow channels in the subsoil under the apron is such that the seepage force at the exit
point becomes greater than the submerged weight and friction of the soil, very fine soil particles
become displaced. This can be observed as muddy water emerging from the soil surface. With this
continuing process and a subsoil consisting of fine particles surrounding large particles, the removal
fine particles causes unequal settlement of the subsoil and ultimately the collapse of the structure
due piping. The river discharge over the barrage further aggravates the situation by washing away
the loosened soil due to excessive exit gradient.
The problem consists, therefore, in controlling the seepage force so that it cannot carry away the
foundation material. Various theories are developed to solve these two problems.
 Bligh’s Creep Theory
 Lane’s Weighted Creep Theory
 Khosla’s Theory
5.3 Seepage theory

5.3.1 Bligh’s Creep Theory
The percolating water creeps along the profile of the bottom of hydraulic structure which is in-
contact with the soil. According to Bligh’s theory, water creeps along the bottom contour of the
structure. The length of the path of water is called the length of creep and the loss of head is
proportional to the length of creep. If H is the total head loss between upstream and downstream
and L is the length of the creep, then the loss of head per unit of creep length is called the hydraulic
gradient. Bligh’s theory makes no discrimination between horizontal and vertical creeps. LHL
Creep length: The path traced by the percolating water is known as creep length.
Hydraulic gradient: The loss of the head per unit creep length is known as hydraulic gradient and it is
constant throughout its passage. The head loss is inversely proportional to the creep length.
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head loss ∝
creep length
Let,
S = length of impermeable floor
H = depth of water on u⁄s side of weir
X = X = X = sheet pile lengths
Then according to the Bligh’s creep theory,
Creep length = S1+S2+X1+X1+X2+X2+X3+X3 = S1+S2+2X1+2X2+2X3 = S+2(X1+X2+X3)
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Depth of every cut-off (sheet pile) is multiplied by a coefficient 2.
According to the Bligh’s Creep Theory,
H
head loss per unit creep length =
S
Where,
H = H − H = upstream head − downstream head (in above fig. , H = 0)
So, H= H
Therefore, head loss per unit creep length = =
The reciprocal of hydraulic gradient ( ) is known as Bligh’s coefficient which is denoted by C.

𝑆
𝐶= ⇒ 𝑆 = 𝐶𝐻
𝐻
Safety against piping: The creep length should be sufficient to provide the safe hydraulic gradient
according to the type of soil.
According to the Bligh’s creep theory, if 𝐻/𝑆 ≤ then there will be no danger of piping. The values
of Bligh’s coefficient C for different type of soils as suggested by the Bligh’s are:
Type of Soil Bligh’s coefficient ‘C’ Safe value of hydraulic
gradient be lower than
Very fine sand / silt 18 1/18
Fine sand 15 1/15
Coarse sand 12 1/12
Gravel + sand 9 1/9
Light sand + mud 8 1/8
Boulder + gravel + sand (4 – 6) 1/4 - 1/6
Clay soil (1.6 – 3) 1/1.6 – 1/3
Soft clay 3 1/3
Medium clay 2 1/2
Hard clay 1.8 1/1.8
Very hard clay 1.6 1/1.6
Safety against uplift pressure: Underneath the floor, uplift pressure at various points is of primary
importance and counter balanced by the weight of floor thickness. The uplift pressure exerted by
the water at any point is, uplift pressure = ωh′ ------------ (1)
Where,
ω = specific weight of water = ρg
L
h = ordinate of HGL from the bottom of the floor = H (1 − )
L
Where,
L = creep length w. r. t. required point
L = total creep length
h = h − th = ordinate of HGL from the top of the floor
t = thickness of floor at that point
downward force (resisting force per unit area) = t × ω × G ------------- (2)
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Comparing equation (1) & (2),
ω × h′ = t × ω × G
h = t × G
Subtracting from both sides,
h − t = (t × G) − t = t (G – 1)
𝑡 = (ℎ − 𝑡)/(𝐺 − 1)
As, H= h − t,
𝐇
𝐭=( )
𝐆−𝟏
Where,
H = ordinate of the HGL measured about the top of the floor
G = specific gravity of the floor material , usually G = 2.24 (for concrete)
F. O. S = is applied on above expression therefore,
𝟒 𝐇
𝐭=
𝟑 𝐆−𝟏
This equation gives the floor thickness ’t’ at any point of the floor where the uplift pressure ordinate
measure above the top of the floor is ‘H’.
Limitation of Bligh’s theory

 This theory has not made any distinction between vertical and horizontal creep
 This theory did not explain the exit gradient.
 This theory has no distinction between the outer and inner faces of sheet piles or the
intermediate sheet piles. From experiment, it is shown that outer end sheet piles are much
more effective than inner ones
 The loss of head is not taken as same proportional as creep length
 The spacing between two piles do not specified
5.3.2 Lane’s creep theory

According to lane weighted creep theory the effective creep length is calculated by multiplying the
vertical offsets by 1 and multiplying the horizontal length by 1/3. Lane suggested the following
formula for computing the affective creep length is for previous fig is,
L= X1+X1+S1/3+X2+X2+S2/3+X3+X3
i.e. L = 2 (X1+X2+X3) + 1/3( S1+S2) = 2 (X1+X2+X3) + 1/3xS
Where,
Horizontal length is considered all the sloping contacts less than 45 degrees and vertical length is
considered all the vertical contacts plus the sloping contacts greater than 45 degrees.
Sr. No. Type of Soil C
1. Very fine sand 8.5
2. Fine sand 7.0
3. Coarse sand 5.0
4. Gravel and sand 3 to 4
5. Boulders + gravel + sand 2.5 to 3
6. Clay 1.6 to 3
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Safety against piping: To ensure safety against piping the average hydraulic gradient H/L must not
exceed 1/C.
Example 1: Find the hydraulic gradient and uplift pressure at a point 15 m from the upstream
end of the floor in following fig.
Solution:
Here, Water percolates from point A (pile-1) and emerges at point B (pile-2)
Total creep length (L) = 2x6+10+2x3+20+2x8 = 64 m
Total head available for total creep length of 64 m (H)=6 m
Hydraulics gradient = HL/L = =

.
Creep length up to 15 m from start of percolation,

L = 2x6+10+2x3+5 = 33 m
Head available for 1 m length =
Head available for 33 m length = 𝑥33 = 3.094 𝑚
Residual head at 33 m apart length = 6 – 3094 = 2.91 m
Then, Thickness of floor, 𝑡 =
For concrete floor, Gs = 2.4

.
The thickness of floor, 𝑡 = .
= 2.078 𝑚
By using Lane’s weighted creep length theory,

The total creep length, L = 2x6+10/3+2x3+20/3+2x8 = 44 m
The total creep length upto 15 m from start of percolation,
= 15/3+2x6+2x3 = 23 m
Head available at 15 m = 𝑥23 = 2.156 𝑚
Head residual at 15 m = 6-2.156 =3.843 m

Then, the thickness of concrete floor at 15 m,
.
𝑡= = 2.745 𝑚
.
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5.3.3 Khosla’s Theory
Structure stability of dam against piping and uplift pressure, is checked by Bligh’s theory and Lane’s
theory. If structure is failed by any of the above mentioned theories then the data is adjusted by the
Khosla’s Theory to make it safe.
To adjust the increment in length, we increase the creep length by adding more sheet pile. By this
further desired increment is achieved by increasing the horizontal floor length.
Exit gradient: Exit gradient at d/s end of an impervious floor length and the cut-off is given by,
H 1
exit gradient = ×
d π √λ
Where,
𝐻 = Head causing seepage
√1 + ∝
𝜆=1+
2
𝑏
∝=
𝑑
d = depth of sheet pile and b= total horizontal lenth
According to Khosla’s theory the range of exit gradient is 𝑡𝑜 .
Calculation of percentage pressure by Khosla’s theory
Fig. U/S Pile Fig. D/S Pile

U/S Pile
𝜙 = 100 − 𝜙
Φ = 100 − ϕ
D/S Pile
1 λ−2 π
Φ = Cos x
π λ 180
Φ = Cos x
√
α= and λ =
Intermediate Pile
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Fig. Intermediate Pile
1 λ−1 π
Φ = Cos x
π λ 180
Φ = Cos x
Φ = Cos x
Here, λ=
λ =
α = and α =
Where, d = depth of intermediate pile

b1 = floor length between u/s pile-1 to intermediate pile
b2 = floor length between intermediate pile-2 to d/s pile
Correction for percentage of pressure in pile

i) Correction for mutual interference of piles
Correction C = 19
Here, D = depth of the pile line, the influence of which has to be determined on
the neighbouring pile of depth d. The value of D is measured below level at
which interference is desired
d = depth of the pile on which the effect is considered
b’ = distance between two piles
b = total floor length
Sign Convention
+ ve for the points in near or backwater
- ve for the points on forward direction of flow
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ii) Correction for thickness of floor
( )
Thickness correction for C = x Thickness of floor at C
( )
Thickness correction for E = x Thickness of floor at E
Sign convention
+ve for point in right side of pile
-ve for point in left side of pile
iii) Correction for slope

b
C=C x
b
Where, bs and b1 are slope distance and distance between two piles
Cs is the slope correction factor and is given as below table
Slope Correction factor
1:1 11.2
2:1 6.5
3:1 4.5
4:1 3.3
5:1 2.8
6:1 2.5
7:1 2.3
8:1 2.0
Sign convention
+ve for the downward slope
-ve for upward slope
Exit gradient
It has been determined that for a standard form consisting of a floor length ‘b’ with a vertical cut-off
of depth ‘d’, exit gradient at its downstream end is given by
H 1
G = x( )
d π√λ
√
Where, α = and λ =
Types of soil Safe exit gradient
Shingle 1/4 to 1/5
Coarse sand 1/5 to 1/6
Fine sand 1/6 to 1/7
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Example 2: Calculate the uplift pressure at key points in figure shown below using Khosla’s theory.
Check the exit gradient and thickness of the floor at A, B, C and D as shown in figure. The
safe exit gradient is 0.15
Solution:
Here, Total horizontal length of floor (b) = 20+5+25 =50 m
Depth of u/s pile, d = 100-95 = 5 m
Depth of intermediate pile, d = 101-94.5 = 6.5 m
Depth of d/s pile, d = 97-93 = 4 m
For u/s pile-1
α= = = 10
Now, ϕ = Cos x( )
√ √
Here, λ= = = 5.52
.
Φ = Cos x = Cos = 0.28 = 28%
.
.
Φ = Cos x = Cos = 0.195 = 19.5%
.
𝜙 = 100 − 𝜙 = 100 − 28 = 72%

ϕ = 100 − ϕ = 100 − 19.5 = 80.5%
Correction for 𝛟𝐂𝟏
i) Correction at C1 for mutual interference of intermediate pile-2
Correction 𝐶 = 19
Here, D = depth of intermediate pile-2 = 99 – 94.5 = 4.5 m

d = depth of u/s pile-1 = 99 – 95 = 4 m
b’ = distance between u/s pile-1 to intermediate pile-2 = 20 m
b = total horizontal distance = 50 m
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. .
Then, 𝐶 = 19 = 3.426 % (+𝑣𝑒)
ii) Correction at C1 due to thickness of floor

( )
Thickness correction for 𝐶 = 𝑥 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟
.
= 𝑥1 = 1.7% (+𝑣𝑒)
iii) Correction due to slope is nil as there is no slope at that point

Therefore, Corrected ϕ = 72+3.426+1.7 = 77.126%
For intermediate pile-2
Φ = Cos x
Φ = Cos x
Φ = Cos x
Here, λ=
λ =
α = and α =
Where, d = depth of intermediate pile-2 = 101-94.5 =6.5 m

b1 = floor length between u/s pile-1 to intermediate pile-2 = 20 m
b2 = floor length between intermediate pile-2 to d/s pile-3 = 30 m
α = = = 3.077
b 30
α = = = 4.615
d 6.5
1+α + 1+α √1 + 3.077 + √1 + 4.615
λ= = = 3.979
2 2
√1 + 3.077 − √1 + 4.615
λ = = 0.743
2
.
Φ = Cos .
x = 0.644 = 64.4%
.
Φ = Cos .
x = 0.56 = 56%
.
Φ = Cos .
x = 47.9%
Correction for 𝚽𝐄𝟐

i) Mutual interference due to u/s pile-1
16
Here, D = depth of u/s pile-1 = 99 – 95 = 4 m
d = depth of intermediate pile-2 = 99 – 94.5 = 4.5 m
b’ = distance between u/s pile-1 to intermediate pile-2 = 20 m
.
Then, 𝐶 = 19 = 1.444 % (−𝑣𝑒)
ii) Correction at E2 due to thickness of floor

( )
Thickness correction for 𝐸 = 𝑥 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟
.
= 𝑥2 = 2.584% (−𝑣𝑒)
.

Therefore, Corrected ϕ = 64.4-1.444-2.584 = 60.372%
Correction for 𝚽𝐂𝟐
i) Mutual interference due to d/s pile-3
Here, D = depth of d/s pile-3 = 99 – 93 = 7 m

d = depth of intermediate pile-2 = 99 – 94.5 = 4.5 m
b’ = distance between d/s pile-3 to intermediate pile-2 = 30 m
.
Then, 𝐶 = 19 = 2.111 % (+𝑣𝑒)

( )
.
= 𝑥2 = 2.492% (+𝑣𝑒)
.
iii) Correction due to slope for C2

𝑏
𝐶=𝐶𝑥
𝑏
Where, bs = 5 m, b1 = 30 m
Cs = 11.2 [from table for slope of 1:1.11]
Therefore, C = 11.2 x (5/30) = 1.867% (+ve)
Therefore, Corrected ϕ = 47.9+2.111+2.492+1.867 = 54.37%
For d/s pile-3
Φ = Cos x
Φ = Cos x
17
Here, d = depth of d/s pile-3 = 97 – 93 = 4 m
b = total floor length = 50 m
b 50
α= = = 12.5
d 4
√ √ .
λ= = = 6.77
.
Then, Φ = Cos .
x = 0.253 = 25.3%
.
And Φ = Cos .
x = 0.177 = 17.7%
Correction for 𝚽𝐄𝟑

i) Mutual interference due to intermediate pile-2
Here, D = depth of intermediate pile-2 = 95.5-94.5 = 1 m

d = depth of d/s pile-3 = 95.5 – 93 =2.5 m
.
Then, 𝐶 = 19 = 0.243 % (−𝑣𝑒)

( )
. .
= 𝑥1.5 = 2.85% (−𝑣𝑒)

Therefore, Corrected ϕ = 25.3-0.243-2.85 = 22.207%
The summary of corrected %age pressure at key points is as below:
u/s pile-1 Intermediate pile-2 d/s pile-3
ϕ = 100% ϕ = 60.372% ϕ = 22.207%
ϕ = 80.5% ϕ = 56% ϕ = 17.7%
ϕ = 77.15% ϕ = 54.3% ϕ = 0%
The difference in head between pond level and emerge at d/s floor = 105 – 97 = 8 m
Uplift pressures
At D1 = 0.805 x 8 = 6.44 m
At C1 = 0.771 x 8 = 6.168 m
At E2 = 0.6037 x 8 = 4.83 m
At D2 = 0.56 x 8 = 4.48 m
At C2 = 0.543 x 8 = 4.35 m
18
At E3 = 0.222 x 8 = 1.776 m
At D3 = 0.177 x 8 = 1.414 m
At E3 = 0 m
Exit gradient
G = x( )
√
Here, d = 97 – 93 = 4 m
H = maximum pressure head = 105 – 97 = 8 m
b =total floor length = 50 m
α= = = 12.5
√ √ .
λ= = = 6.77
Then, G = x = = 0.245 > 0.15 (Unsafe)

√ √ .
Required floor thickness

.
Required thickness at point A = = .
= 4.405 > 1 m (Unsafe)
.
Required thickness at point B = = .
= 3.107 > 2 m (Unsafe)
. .
Uplift pressure at point C = 1.776 + x25 = 3.921 m
.
Required thickness at point C = = .
= 2.8 > 2.5 m (Unsafe)
.
Required thickness at point D = = .
= 1.268 < 1.5 m (safe)
Example 3: Determine the percentage pressures at various key points in figure below. Also
determine the exit gradient and plot the hydraulic gradient line for pond level on
upstream and no flow on downstream. (From S.K.Garg)
By both method
19
[Note: Necessary Charts as below:]
Use plate 1 (a) for calculating the intermediate pile pressure
20
21
Solution:
For upstream Pile-1
Total length of the floor, b = 57.0 m
Depth of u/s pile line, d = 154 – 148 = 6 m
α = b/d = 57/6 = 9.5
1/α = 1/9.5 = 0.105
Formula for determining key points pressure at u/s Pile 1:
𝜙 =0
22
𝜙 = 100 − 𝜙
𝜙 = 100 − 𝜙
From plate 1 (a)
𝜙 = 29 %
𝜙 = 20 %
Now,
𝜙 = 100 − 𝜙 = 100 − 29 = 71%
𝜙 = 100 − 𝜙 = 100 − 20 = 80%
[ By using formula,
1 (𝜆 − 2) 𝜋
𝜙 = 𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝜋 𝜆 180
1 + √1 + α 1 + √1 + 9.5
λ= = = 5.28
2 2
.
Φ = Cos x = Cos .
= 0.287 = 28.7%
.
Φ = Cos x = Cos .
= 0.199 = 19.9%
𝜙 = 100 − 𝜙 = 100 − 28.7 = 71.8%

ϕ = 100 − ϕ = 100 − 19.9 = 80.1%]
Corrections at point C1 only
(a) Mutual interference of intermediate pile-2
i) Correction at C1 for mutual interference of intermediate pile-2
Here, D = depth of intermediate pile-2 = 153 – 148 = 5 m

d = depth of u/s pile-1 = 153– 148 = 5 m
b’ = distance between u/s pile-1 to intermediate pile-2 = 15.8 m
Then, 𝐶 = 19 .
= 1.88 % (+𝑣𝑒)

( )
= 𝑥(154 − 153) = 1.5% (+𝑣𝑒)
23
Therefore, Corrected ϕ = 71+1.88+1.5 = 74.38 %
Fig: Thickness correction at C1
After Corrections (For u/s pile-1)

𝜙 = 100 %
𝜙 = 74.38 %
𝜙 = 80 %
For intermediate pile-2

d = depth of intermediate pile-2 = 154 – 148 = 6 m
24
b1 = floor length between u/s pile-1 to intermediate pile-2 = 0.6 + 15.8 = 16.4 m
b2 = floor length between intermediate pile-2 to d/s pile-3 = 40 + 0.6 = 40.6 m
b = total horizontal distance = 57.0 m
α = b/d = 57/6 = 9.5
b1/b = 16.4/57 = 0.298 (b1/b = base ratio)
1 – b1/b = 1 – 0.298 = 0.702
Formula for determining key points pressure at intermediate pile-2:

𝜙 = 100 - 𝜙 (1-b1/b value and α)
𝜙 = Direct value from chart (𝐛𝟏 /𝐛 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 & 𝛂 )
𝜙 = 100 − 𝜙 (1 – b1/b value & α)
From plate 1 (b)
𝜙 = 30 %
𝜙 = 37 %
Now,
𝜙 = 100 – 30 = 70%
𝜙 = 56%
𝜙 = 100-37 = 63 %
[By using Formulae,

1 λ−1 π
Φ = Cos x
π λ 180
Φ = Cos x
Φ = Cos x
Here, λ=
λ =
α = and α =
Where, d = depth of intermediate pile-2 = 101-94.5 =6 m

b1 = floor length between u/s pile-1 to intermediate pile-2 = 16.4 m
b2 = floor length between intermediate pile-2 to d/s pile-3 = 40.6 m
.
α = = = 2.73
25
b 40.6
α = = = 6.77
d 6
1+α + 1+α √1 + 2.73 + √1 + 6.77
λ= = = 4.875
2 2
√1 + 2.73 − √1 + 6.77
λ = = −1.968
2
.
Φ = Cos .
x = 0.708 = 70.8 %
.
Φ = Cos .
x = 0.632 = 63.2 %
.
Φ = Cos x = 56.4 % ]4fgdgfdlkjjhj
.
Corrections At points E2 & C2

(a) Mutual Interference of Piles
26
Correction for 𝚽𝐄𝟐
i) Mutual interference due to u/s pile-1
Here, D = depth of u/s pile-1 = 153 – 148 = 5 m

b’ = distance between u/s pile-1 to intermediate pile-2 = 15.8 m
Then, 𝐶 = 19 = 1.88 % (−𝑣𝑒)

.

( )
= 𝑥 (154 − 153) = 1.17 % (−𝑣𝑒)

Therefore, Corrected ϕ = 70 – 1.88 -1.17 = 66.95 %
Fig. Thickness correction at E2

Correction for 𝚽𝐂𝟐
i) Mutual interference due to d/s pile-3
Here, D = depth of d/s pile-3 = 153 – 141.7 =11.3 m

b’ = distance between d/s pile-3 to intermediate pile-2 = 40 = 40 m
. .
Then, 𝐶 = 19 = 2.89 % (+𝑣𝑒)

( )
27
= 𝑥1 = 1.4 % (+𝑣𝑒)
iii) Correction due to slope for C2

𝑏
𝐶=𝐶𝑥
𝑏
Where, bs = 3 m, b1 = 40 m
Cs = 4.5 [from table for slope of 3:1]
Therefore, C = 4.5 x 3/40 = 0.388 % (-ve)
Corrected ϕ = 56 +2.89 + 1.4 – 0.388 = 59.902%
After Corrections (For intermediate pile-2)
ϕ = 66.95 % and ϕ = 59.902 %
For d/s pile-3
d = depth of pile-3 = 152 – 141.7 = 10.3 m
1/α = d/b = 10.3/57 = 0.181
Formula for determining key points pressure at Pile 3:
𝜙 = Direct value from chart (1/ α value)
𝜙 =0
𝜙 = Direct value from chart (1/α value)
From plate 1 (a)
28
φE3 = 38 %
φD3 = 26%
[By using formulae,
1 λ−2 π
Φ = Cos x
π λ 180
Φ = Cos x
Here, d = depth of d/s pile-3 = 152 – 141.7 =10.3 m

b 57
α= = = 5.53
d 10.3
√ √ .
λ= = = 3.31
.
Then, Φ = Cos .
x = 0.37 = 37%
.
And Φ = Cos x = 0.254 = 25.4% ]
.

i) Mutual interference due to intermediate pile-2
Here, D = depth of intermediate pile-2 = 150.7 – 148 = 2.7 m

d = depth of d/s pile-3 = 150.7 – 141.7 = 9 m
. .
Then, 𝐶 = 19 = 1.02 % (−𝑣𝑒)

( )
= .
𝑥(152 − 150.7) = 1.514 % (−𝑣𝑒)

Therefore, Corrected ϕ = 38 – 1.02 – 1.514 = 35.466%
29
fig. Thickness correction at E3
After Corrections (For d/s pile-3), 𝜙 = 35.466%, 𝜙 = 26 % and 𝜙 =0%
Exit gradient
The maximum pressure head, H = 158 – 152 = 6 m
The depth of downstream pile-3, d = 152 – 141.7 = 10.3 m
Total floor length, b = 57 m
α = b/d = 57/10.3 = 5.53
For a value of α = 5.53, from curves of Plate 2 is equal to 0.18

√
𝐺 = 𝑥 = 𝑥 0.18 = 0.105
√ .
Hence, the exit gradient shall be equal to 0.105, i.e. 1 in 9.53, which is very much safe.
Type of Soil Safe exit gradient
Shingle 1/4 to 1/5 (0.25 to 0.20)
Coarse Sand 1/5 to 1/6 (0.20 to 0.17)
Fine Sand 1/6 to 1/7 (0.17 to 0.14)
α = 5.53
30
The corrected pressures at various key points are tabulated below in Table below
Upstream pile-1 Intermediate pile-2 Downstream pile-3
Pressure % Pressure Pressure % Pressure Pressure % Pressure
Head (m) Head (m) Head (m)
𝜙 = 100 6 𝜙 = 66.95 4.017 𝜙 = 35.46 2.127
𝜙 = 80 4.8 𝜙 = 63 3.78 𝜙 = 26 1.56
𝜙 = 74.38 4.463 𝜙 = 59.902 3.594 𝜙 =0 0
5.4 Cross drainage structures

A “cross drainage work” is a hydraulic structure which needs to be constructed at the crossing of a
natural stream and an irrigation canal flowing normally at right angles underneath or over the
natural stream.
It is generally a very costly item and should be avoided by,
 Diverting one stream into another.
 Changing the alignment of the canal so that it crosses below the junction of two streams.
Necessity of cross- drainage works

The following factors justify the necessity of cross drainage works,
 The water shed canals do not cross natural drainages. But in actual orientation of the canal
network, this ideal condition may not be available and the obstacles like natural drainages
may be present across the canal. So, the cross drainage works must be provided for running
the irrigation system.
 At the crossing point, the water of the canal and the drainage get intermixed. So, for the
smooth running of the canal with its design discharge the cross drainage works are required.
 The site condition of the crossing point may be such that without any suitable structure, the
water of the canal and drainage cannot be diverted to their natural directions. So, the cross
drainage works must be provided to maintain their natural direction of flow.
31
5.4.1 Types of cross drainage structures
Depending upon the relative bed levels, maximum water levels and relative discharges of canals and
drainages the cross drainage structures/works may be of following types.
1. Type1-Irrigation canal passes over the drainage
Fig. Canal crossing Fig. Aqueduct
In this type of C.D work, an irrigation canal is taken over the drainage
This condition involves following type of cross drainage:
Aqueduct: The hydraulic structure in which irrigation canal is passing over the drainage is known as
aqueduct. This structure is suitable when bed of canal is above the highest flood level of drainage. In
this case, the drainage water passes clearly below the canal.
Siphon aqueduct: The hydraulic structure in which irrigation canal is passing over the drainage, but
the drainage water cannot pass clearly below the canal is known as siphon aqueduct. It flows under
siphoned action. This structure is suitable when the bed level of canal is below the highest flood
level of the drainage.
Fig. Syphon Aqueduct

Advantages of type1:
 The canal running perennially is above ground and is open to inspection.
 Damage done by floods is rare.
Disadvantages of type1:
 During high floods, the foundation can be scoured or the water way of the drain may be
chocked with trees.
32
2. Type2-drainage passes over the irrigation canal:
In this type of cross drainage work, drainage is taken over the canal.
Fig. Crossing of canal and drain Fig. Super passage
This condition involves the construction of the following,

Super Passage: The hydraulic structure in which the drainage is passing over the irrigation canal is
known as super passage. This structure is suitable when the bed level of drainage is above the flood
surface level of the canal. The water of the canal passes clearly below the drainage.
Siphon Super passage: The hydraulic structure in which the drainage is taken over the irrigation
canal, but the canal water passes below the drainage under siphonic action is known as siphon super
passage. This structure is suitable when the bed level of drainage is below the full supply level of the
canal.
Canal Siphon: If two canals cross each other and one of the canals is siphoned under the other, then
the hydraulic structure at crossing is called “canal siphon”.
Fig. Canal syphon

Advantages of Type2:
 C.D works are less liable to damage then the earthwork of canal.
Disadvantages of Type2:
 Perennial canal is not open to inspection.
 It is difficult to clear the silt deposited in the barrels of the C.D.work.
3. Type3-Drainage and canal intersection at the same level:

In this type of work, the canal water and drainage water are permitted to intermingle.
33
Level Crossing: When the beds of the drainage and canal are practically at the same level, then a
hydraulic structure is constructed which is known as level crossing. This is suitable for the crossing of
large drainage with main canal.
Fig. Level crossing
The level crossing consists of the following components.

Crest Wall: It is provided across the drainage just at the upstream side of the crossing point. The top
level of the crest wall is kept at the full supply level of the canal.
Drainage Regulator: it is provided across the drainage just at downstream side of the crossing point.
The regulator consists of adjustable shutters at different tiers.
Canal Regulator: it is provided across the canal just at downstream side of the crossing point. The
regulator consists of adjustable shutters at different tiers.
Inlet and Outlet: In the crossing of small drainage with small channel no hydraulic structure is
constructed. Simple openings are provided for the flow of water in their respective directions. It is
not necessary for the number of inlets and outlets to be same. There may be one outlet for two or
three inlets. A canal inlet is constructed when the cross drainage flow is small and its water may be
absorbed into the canal without causing appreciable rise.
Advantages of Type3
 Low initial cost
Disadvantages of Type3
 Regulation of such work is difficult & requires additional staff
 The canal has to be designed to carry the increased flood discharge of drain.
 The faulty regulation of the gates may damage the canal.
 There is additional expenditure of silt clearance.
5.4.2 Suitability of cross-drainage works

The factors which affect the selection of the suitable type of cross drainage works are:
1. Relative bed levels and water levels of the canal and drainage
2. Size of the canal and the drainage
The following considerations are important,
34
 When the bed level of the canal is much above the highest flood level (H.F.L) of the
drainage, so that sufficient headway is available for floating rubbish etc and also for the
structural elements of the work. An ‘aqueduct’ is the obvious choice. Similarly, if the bed
level of the drain is well above the flood surface level (F.S.L) of the canal, ‘Super-passage’ is
provided.
 The necessary headway between the canal bed level and the drain H.F.L can be increased by
shifting the crossing to the downstream of the drainage. If, however, it is not possible to
change the canal alignment or if such a shifting does not give sufficient headway between
the two levels, a ‘siphon aqueduct’may be provided. Thus in case of siphon aqueduct, the
H.F.L of the drain is above channel (canal) bed.
 When the canal bed level is much lower but the F.S.L of the canal is higher than the bed level
of drainage, a ‘canal siphon’ is preferred.
 When the drainage and the canal cross each other practically at the same level a ‘level
crossing’ may be preferred. This type of work is avoided as far as possible.
The considerations governing the choice between aqueduct and siphon aqueduct (or a super
passage and siphon-super passage) are,
(i)Suitable canal alignment
(ii)Suitable soil available for bank connections and
(iii) Nature of available foundation
As discussed earlier, the relative difference between the bed level of the canal and the H.F.L of the
drainage can be suitable altered by changing the canal alignment so that the point of crossing is
shifted upstream or Downstream of the drainage.
For example, if the canal alignment is such that headway is not available between the H.F.L of the
drain and the bed of the canal, a siphon aqueduct is to be constructed at the crossing.
But if the other conditions are not favorable for the construction of the siphon aqueduct, the canal
alignment may be changed so that the crossing is shifted to the downstream and sufficient headway
required for the construction of an aqueduct is available.
5.4.3 Proper site for drainage crossing

The site selected for the cross drainage works should have the following main characteristics,
 It should be such that it requires minimum disturbance regarding the approach and tail
reaches of the drainage channel.
 Suitable foundation soil should be available at reasonable depth.
 Sufficient headway is available for the super structure of the aqueduct over the H.F.L of the
natural stream.
 Suitable existing topography, geological and hydraulic conditions for the cross drainage
works at reasonable costs.
35
5.5 Canal escape
As the name implies, an escape is a side channel constructed to remove surplus water from an
irrigation channel (main canal, branch canal, or distributary, etc.) into a natural drain. The water in
the irrigation channel may become surplus due to some mistake; or difficulty in regulation at the
head; or due to excessive rainfall in upper reaches. Sometimes, the cultivators may find that the
demand of water is over and may close their outlets suddenly. In such circumstances, the canal
supplies shall become surplus, and this excess may overflow the banks unless escaped.
No doubt, in all such circumstances, the supplies shall be reduced or stopped from the head works,
but the effect of this reduction is felt only after a certain time. Therefore, in order to avoid damage,
some immediate action is required, and this is achieved by means of an 'Escape', generally called a
'surplus water escape'.
The importance of such an escape is realized more, in case, a breach occurs in a channel. If a breach
occurs, immediate information is sent to the head, so as to close down the channel supplies. But the
water already contained in the channel from the head to the breach site will cause wide spread
damage if allowed to pass through the breach. In such circumstances, the escape existing on
upstream of the breach is opened and most of the water is allowed to escape. Hence, it can be
stated that escapes are the safety valves of canals and must be provided at regular intervals
depending upon the importance of the channel and availability of a suitable drainage for the
disposal of the escaped water. The minimum capacity of the escape is generally kept as half of the
channel capacity at the point of the escape.
5.5.1 Types of Canal Escapes

Such an escape may be of the following two types:
i) Weir type. In this type, the crest of the weir wall is kept at R.L. equal to canal FSL. When water
level rises above FSL, it gets escaped
ii) Regulator type (Sluice type). In this type, the sill of the escape is kept at canal bed level and the
flow is controlled by gates. This type of escapes are preferred these days as they give better control
and can be used for completely emptying the canal.
5.6 Canal Drop

Generally the slope of the natural ground surface is not uniform throughout the alignment.
Sometimes the ground surface may be steep and sometimes it may be very irregular with abrupt
change of grade. In such cases a vertical drop is proved to step down the canal bed and then it is
constituted with permissible slope until another step down is necessary. Such vertical drops are
known as canal falls or simply falls.
Purposes
 To account for the difference in the natural bed slope of the canal.
 To save us from cutting and filling.
 To Increase the velocity of the water in the canal.
 To control the seepage in the canal.
Necessity of canal falls

The canal falls are necessary in case the following conditions occur:
36
(a) When the slope of the ground suddenly changes to steeper slope, the permissible bed slope
cannot be maintained. In such cases canal falls are provided to avoid excessive earth work in filling.
(b) When the slope of the ground is more or less uniform and the slope is greater than the
permissible slope of the canal. In such case also the canal falls are necessary.
(c) In cross drainage works when the

difference between bed level of canal and that of
drainage is same or when flood surface level of the
canal is above the bed level of drainage then the
canal fall is necessary to carry the canal water
below the stream or drainage (i.e. in case of
siphon super passage)
5.6.1 Types of canal falls

The different types of canal falls are,
1. Ogee fall
2. Rapid fall
3. Stepped Fall
4. Trapezoidal Notch Fall
5. Vertical Drop or Sarda Fall
6. Glacis Fall
1. Ogee fall
In this type fall an ogee (a combination of convex curve and
concave curve) is provided for carrying the canal water from
higher level to the lower level. This fall is recommended when
the natural ground surface suddenly changes to a steeper
slope along the alignment of the canal.
2. Rapid fall
The rapid fall is suitable when the slope of the natural
ground surface is even and long. It consists of a long
sloping glacis with longitudinal slope which varies from
1 in 10 to 1 in 20.
3. Stepped fall
Stepped fall consists of vertical drops in the form of
steps. This fall is suitable in places where the sloping
37
ground is very long and requires long glacis to connect the higher bed with the lower bed level. This
fall is practically a modification of the rapid fall. Here the sloping glacis is divided into a number of
drops so that the flowing water may not cause any damage to the canal bed.
4. Trapezoidal notch fall
In this type of fall a body wall is constructed across the
canal. The body wall consists of several trapezoidal
notches between the side piers and the intermediate pier
or piers. The sills of the notches are kept at the upstream
bed level of the canal. The size and number of notches
depends upon the full supply discharge of the canal.
5. Vertical drop or Saradafall

It consists of a vertical drop wall which is constructed
with masonry work. The water flows over the crest of
the wall. A water cistern is provided on the downstream
side which acts as a water cushion to dissipate the
energy of falling water.Hence it is sometimes known as
Sarada fall.
6. Glacis Fall
It consists of a straight sloping glacis provided with a
crest. A water cushion is provided on the downstream
side to dissipate the energy of flowing water. Curtain
walls and toe walls are provided on the upstream and
downstream side. This type of fall is suitable for drops
up to 1.5 m.
This type of fall may be of the two types,

(i) Montague type
(ii) Inglis type fall
(i) Montague type

In this type of fall the straight sloping
glacis is modified by giving parabolic
shape which is known as Montague
profile.
(ii) Inglis type fall

In this type of fall the glacis is straight and
sloping but baffle walls are provided on the
downstream floor to dissipate the energy of
flowing water. The height of baffle depends on
the head of water on the upstream side.
5.6.3 Condition for applications of canal fall

 The location of falls is decided from the following considerations:
38
 For the canals which do not irrigate the area directly the fall should be located from the
considerations of economy in cost and excavation of the channel with regard to balancing
the depth and the cost of fall itself.
 For a canal irrigating the area directly a fall may be provided at a location where F.S.L
outstrips the ground level, but before the bed of the canal comes into filling.
 The location of the fall may also be decided from the consideration of the possibility of
combining it with a regulator or a bridge or any other masonry works.
 A relative economy of providing large number of small falls v/s small number of big falls
should be worked out. The provision of small number of big falls results in unbalanced
earthwork, but there is always some saving in the cost of the fall structure.
 For a minor or distributary, falls may be located on the downstream of the outlets as this
helps in increasing the command area and improving the efficiency of the outlet.
Example 4: Design a canal drop (Sarda fall) structure for given data:
Design discharge = 5 m3/s
U/S Full supply level = 110.5 m
D/S Full supply level = 109.5 m
Normal water depth at U/S and D/S = 1.5 m
Bed width = 3 m
Bligh’s coefficient = 7
Solution:
Here, Design discharge (Q) =5 m3/s
U/S Full supply level (FSL) = 110.5 m
D/S Full supply level (FSL) = 109.5 m
Normal water depth at U/S and D/S (d) = 1.5 m
Bed width (B) = 3 m
Let, Length of crest = bed with = 3 m
Crest Level:
As Q = 5 m3/s < 14 m3/s, So provide rectangular crest fall
Assuming top width = Bt = 0.8 m
/ /
Then, Discharge 𝑄 = 1.84𝑥𝐿𝑥𝐻𝑥 = 1.84 𝑥 3 𝑥 𝐻 𝑥 .
i.e. H = 0.92 m
Assuming side slope as 1:1 (V:H), Velocity approach 𝑉 = 𝑄/𝐴 = ( . ) .
= 0.74 𝑚/𝑠
.
Velocity head = = .
= 0.028 𝑚
Now, U/S TEL = U/S FSL + Velocity head = 110.5 + 0.028 = 110.528 m
R.L. of crest = U/S TEL – H = 110.528 – 0.92 = 109.608 m
39
Height of crest above U/S floor
= 109.608 – U/S bed level = 109.608 – (110.5 – 1.5) = 0.608 m
Shape of crest:
𝐵 = 0.55 √𝑑
Here, d = height of crest above d/s bed = 109.608 – (109-1.5) = 1.608 m
Then, 𝐵 = 0.55√1.608 = 0.7 𝑚
( . ) .
Thickness at bed = = = 1.25 𝑚, 𝐾𝑒𝑒𝑝 1.3 𝑚
U/S Curtain wall:

.
Depth of curtain wall = = = 0.5 𝑚, Provide 0.8 m depth of curtain wall
Cistern:
Depth of cistern (X) = (𝐻𝑥𝐻 ) /
Here, HL = 110.5 – 109.5 = 1 m
Then, X = ( 0.92𝑥1) /
= 0.236 𝑚, 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 0.25 𝑚
RL of cistern = 108.0 – 0.25 = 107.75 m
Length of cistern = 5𝑥 (𝐻. 𝐻 ) = 5𝑥√0.92𝑥1 = 4.8 m

Impervious floor:
Maximum static head (Hs) = R.L. of creest – d/s bed level = 109.608 – 108
= 1.608 m
Total required floor length = C . HS = 7x1.608 = 11.256 m,
Provide 12 m length of impervious floor
Minimum d/s floor length = 2(water depth + 1.2) + HL = 2(1.5+1.2)+1
= 6.4 m (say 6.5 m)
Maximum unbalanced uplift at the d/s toe of crest = 0.25 + 𝑥 6.5

1.608
= 0.25 + 𝑥 6.5 = 1.121 𝑚
12
40
.
Required thickness at d/s of toe of crest = = = 0.8 𝑚
.
Provide 0.8 m thick concrete with 20 cm thick brick layer

.
At 3 m from the toe of crest = 0.25 + 𝑥 (6.5 − 3) = 0.72 𝑚
Required thickness at 3 m from the toe of crest = 0.72/1.4 = 0.514 m

Provide 0.5 m thick concrete with 0.2 m thick brick layer
.
At 5 m from the toe of crest = 0.25 + 𝑥 (6.5 − 5) = 0.45 𝑚

Provide 0.3 m thick concrete with 20 m thick brick layer and a nominal thickness of
0.3 m concrete on U/S.
D/S Curtain wall:
.
Depth of wall = 𝑦 /2 = = 0.75 𝑚
D/S cutoff wall:

Depth of wall = yd/2 +0.6 = 1.5/2 + 0.6 = 1.35 m
Provide 1.5 m deep cut off wall for more safe on the D/S end of floor
D/S Pitching:
Total length of D/S pitching = 13.5 + 2 x H L = 13.5 + 2x1 = 15.5 m
Provide pitching slope of 1:10.
Example 5: A diversion weir with a vertical drop (Sarda fall) to be designed for an irrigation
system has following data:
Design discharge = 560 m3/s
Natural width of the source river = 200 m
Bed material = coarse sand
Lacey’s silt factor = 1.2
Height of weir above d/s water level = 3 m
Top width of crest = 2.0
Fix the length of floor and depth of cutoffs using suitable seepage theory. Compute the
thickness of the floor at key points. Make suitable assumptions if necessary.
Solution:
Here, Design discharge (Q) =560 m3/s
Natural width of river = 200 m
Bligh’s coefficient (C) = 12
Lacey’s silt factor (f) = 1.2
Let, Length of crest = width of source river = 200 m
41
Crest Level:
As Q = 560 m3/s > 14 m3/s, so provide trapezoidal crest fall
Top width = Bt = 2.0 m
/ /
Then, Discharge 𝑄 = 1.99𝑥𝐿𝑥𝐻𝑥 = 1.99 𝑥 200 𝑥 𝐻 𝑥
i.e. H = 1.479 m
( / )
( / ) .
Using Lacey’s formula, Velocity approach 𝑉 = (𝑄𝑓 )/140 =
= 1.34
.
Velocity head = = = 0.09 𝑚
.
Depth of water = = .
= 2.09 𝑚
Let, R.L. of U/S bed = 100 m,

Now, R.L. of U/S FSL = R.L. of U/S bed + depth of water = 100 + 2.09 = 102.09 m
U/S TEL = U/S FSL + Velocity head = 102.09 + 0.09 = 102.18 m
R.L. of crest = U/S TEL – H = 102.18 – 1.479 = 100.7 m
R.L. of D/S FSL = 100.7 - 3 = 97.7 m
R.L. of D/S bed = 97.7 – 2.09 = 95.61 m
Height of drop (HL)= R.L. of U/S FSL - R.L. of D/S FSL = 102.09 – 97.7 = 4.39 m
Shape of crest:
𝐵 = 0.55 √𝐻 + 𝑑
Here, d = height of crest above d/s bed = 100.7 – 95.61 = 5.09 m
H = 1.479 m
Then, 𝐵 = 0.55√1.479 + 5.09 = 1.4 < 2 𝑚, OK
Provide 2 m thick crest with 1:3 slope at U/S side and 1:8 slope at D/S
U/S Curtain wall:
.
Minimum depth of curtain wall = = = 0.7 𝑚,
Provide 0.8 m deep masonry wall over 0.3 m thick concrete

Thus, depth of curtain wall = 1.1 m
Cistern:
Depth of cistern (X) = (𝐻𝑥𝐻 ) /
Here, HL = 102.09 – 97.7 = 4.39 m
Then, X = ( 1.479 𝑥 4.39 ) /

= 0.87 𝑚, 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 0.8 𝑚
RL of cistern = R.L. of D/S bed - X = 95.61 – 0.8 = 94.81 m
Length of cistern = 5𝑥 (𝐻. 𝐻 ) = 5𝑥√1.479 𝑥 4.39 = 12.74 m
42
Impervious floor:
Maximum static head (Hs) = R.L. of crest – d/s bed level = 100.7 – 95.61= 5.09 m
Total required floor length = C . HS = 12x5.09 = 61.08 m,
Provide 62 m length of impervious floor
Minimum D/S floor length = 2(water depth + 1.2) + HL = 2(2.09+1.2) + 4.39
= 10.97 m
Here, the length of cistern is only 12.74 m but minimum length at D/S floor is 10.97 m,
So, provide 15 m length at D/S of crest and remaining 62 – 15
= 47 m at U/S of crest.
Maximum unbalanced uplift at the d/s toe of crest = 0.8 + 𝑥 15

5.09
= 0.8 + 𝑥 15 = 2.03 𝑚
62
.
Required thickness at d/s of toe of crest = = .
= 1.64 𝑚
(Assuming G = 2.24 for stone masonry)

Provide 1.7 m thick concrete with 20 cm thick brick layer
.
At 3 m from the toe of crest = 0.8 + 𝑥 (15 − 3) = 1.78 𝑚
Required thickness at 3 m from the toe of crest =1.78/1.24 = 1.439 m

Provide 1.5 m thick concrete with 0.2 m thick brick layer
.

Provide 1.3 m thick concrete with 20 m thick brick layer
.

Provide 0.8 m thick concrete with 20 m thick brick layer and so on.
43
D/S Curtain wall:
.
Depth of wall = 𝑦 /2 = = 1.05 𝑚
D/S cutoff wall:

Depth of wall = yd/2 +0.6 = 2.09/2 + 0.6 = 1.65 m
Provide 1.9 m deep cut off wall over 0.3 m thick concrete
Example 6: Design the following components of syphon aqueduct for discharge of canal 20 m3/s,
depth of water 1.5 m, full supply level on canal is 251.5 m and drainage discharge is 200
m3/s, high flow level, bed level and ground level of drainage are 250.7 m, 248.5 m and
250 m respectively.
i) drainage waterway
ii) canal waterway
iii) afflux and head loss through syphon barrel
iv) uplift pressure on drainage slab
v) cufoff wall and protection work
Solution:
Here, Discharge in canal = 20 m3/s
Depth of water in canal = 1.5 m
Full supply level in canal = 251.5 m
Discharge in drainage = 200 m3/s
High flow level in drainage = 250.7 m
Bed level on drainage = 248.5 m
Ground level of drainage = 250 m
As, bed level of canal is below the HFL of drainage, so syphon aqueduct is provided.
Design of drainage waterway,
Lacey’s regime perimeter, P = 4.75 Q = 4.75√200 = 67.31 m

Provide 8 bays of 8.5 m each and 7 nos. of pier with 1.5 m
Total length of waterway = 8 x 8.5 + 1.5 x 7 = 78.5 m
[Note: about 20% extra length can increase directly for piers]
Let, the limiting velocity through syphon barrels is 2 m/s,
Required height of barrel = = ( . )
= 1.47 m, provide 1.5 m

Thus, provide 8 nos. of bays with 8.5 m each with 1.5 m barrel height.
Actual velocity through the barrel = . .

= 1.96 < 2 m/s , OK
Design of canal waterway,
44
Let, Bed width of canal = 30 m
Width is reduced to 15 m
Provide a splay of 2:1 in contraction and 3: in expansion transition
Length of contraction transition = (30-15)/2 x 2 = 15 m
Length of expansion transition = (30-15)/2 x 3 = 22.5 m
Length of flumed rectangular portion = 78.5 m
Design of transitions
Transition width is given by Mitra’s equation as, B = ( )
For contraction transition, B = 15 m, B = 30 m and L = 15 m
Then, B = ( )
=
The distance of X is measured from the flumed section and value of Bn is given in tabular
form:
X (m) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15
450 15 16.04 17.27 18.72 20.42 22.5 25 28.1 30

B =
30 − X
For expansion transition, B = 15 m, B = 30 m and L = 22.5 m

.
Then, B = . ( )
=
The distance of X is measured from the flumed section and value of Bn is given in
tabular form:
X (m) 0 2 4 6 8 ... 18 20 22.5
675 15 15.07 16.46 17.3 18.25 ... 25 27 30
B =
45 − X
Design of trough
The trough is divided into three equal compartments with 5 m each wide having 2 nos. of
internal partition wall of thickness as 0.3 m and 2 nos of outer wall od thickness 0.4 m.
Overall width of the trough i.e. length of the barrel = 15+0.3x2+0.4x2 =16.4 m
Afflux or head loss through syphon barrels,
Head loss through the syphon barrels, h = 1 + f + f
Here, V= 1.96 m/s

f1 = coefficient of head loss at entry = 0.505
f2 = a 1 +
45
Take, a = 0.00316 and b = 0.03 for cement plastered barrels
. .
R = A/P = ( . . )
= 0.64
.
Then, f2 = 0.00316 1 + = 0.0033
.
. .
Thus, head loss through the syphon barrel, h = 1 + 0.505 + 0.0033 .
x .
= 0.311
Now, High flood level on U/S = 250.7 m
High flood level on D/S = 250.7+head loss in barrel (afflux) = 250.7 + 0.311
=251.011 m
Uplift on drainage slab,
Static head,
Assuming trough thickness = 0.4 m,
R.L. of trough bottom = FSL of canal – water depth – thickness of trough
= 251.5 – 1.5 - 0.4 = 249.6 m
R.L. of barrel floor = R.L. of bottom of trough – height of barrel
= 249.6 – 1.5 = 148.1 m
Let, the floor thickness of barrel = 0.8 m,
Then, R.L. of bottom of barrel floor = 148.1 – 0.8 = 147.3 m
Bed level of drainage = 248.5 m
Assuming the water table has gone to bed level of drainage,
Static uplift on the floor = 248.5 – 147.3 = 1.2 m of water
Seepage head,
Total seepage head = F.S.L. of canal – bed level of drain = 251.5 – 248.5 = 3 m
46
Assuming total length of drainage floor = 30 m
Length from canal end to center of first barrel (ab)
= length of contraction transition + half of pier width
= 15 + 8.5/2 = 19.25 m
Length of center of barrel to edge of drainage floor = 15 m
Total creep length = 19.25 + 15 = 34.25 m
Residual seepage head = 3x15/34.25 = 1.31 m
Total uplift = Static head + Seepage head
= 1.2 + 1.31 = 2.51 m x γ = 2.51 x 9.81 = 24.62 KN/m2
Weight of barrel floor concrete = 0.8 x γ = 0.8 x 24 = 19.2 KN/m2
Hence, balanced to be resisted by reinforcement due to bending action = 24.62 – 19.2 =
5.42 KN/m2
Design of cutoff and protection work for drainage floor,
Depth of scour (R) = 0.47
Assuming f = 1, R = 0.47 = 2.75 m
Provide depth of cutoff for scour for U/S and D/S = 1.5R = 1.5 x 2.75 = 4.12 m
And, Let, length of U/S and D/S protection of brick pitching = 2xdepth of cutoff scour
= 2x4.12 = 8.48 m
Thus, Provide 0.4 m wide of 1 m deep toe walls
Example 7: Design the drainage waterways, canal waterway, bed level, transition and head loss
in the barrel of suitable cross drainage work for following data:
Discharge of canal = 50 m3/s
Bed width of canal = 32 m
Full supply depth of canal = 1.8 m
Canal bed level = 200 m
Side slope of canal = 1.5: 1 (H: V)
High flood discharge of drainage = 400 m3/s
High flood level of drainage = 200.6 m
General ground level = 200.2 m
Solution:
Here, Discharge of canal = 50 m3/s
Discharge of drainage = 400 m3/s
Bed width of canal = 32 m
47
Full supply depth of canal = 1.8 m
Canal bed level = 200 m
High flood level of drainage = 200.6 m
General ground level = 200.2 m
Side slope of canal = 1.5: 1 (H: V)
The bed level of canal = 200 m < H. F.L. of drainage (200.6 m), so syphon aqueduct is
suitable.
Design of drainage waterway,
Lacey’s regime perimeter, P = 4.75 Q = 4.75√400 = 95 m

Provide 12 bays of 8 m each and 10 nos. of pier with 1.5 m
Total length of waterway = 12 x 8 + 1.5 x10 = 111 m
Let, the limiting velocity through syphon barrels is 2 m/s,
Required height of barrel = = ( )
= 2.08 m, provide 2.1 m

Thus, provide 12 nos. of bays with 8 m each with 2.1 m barrel height.
Actual velocity through the barrel = = 1.98 < 2 m/s , OK

.
Design of canal waterway,

Let, Bed width of canal = 32 m
Width is reduced to 15 m
Provide a splay of 2:1 in contraction and 3: in expansion transition
Length of contraction transition = (32-15)/2 x 2 = 17 m
Length of expansion transition = (32-15)/2 x3 = 25.5 m
Length of flumed rectangular portion = 111 m
Design of bed level at different sections,
48
At section 4-4, V = =( )
=( = 0.8
. . . ) .
.
Velocity head, = .
= 0.033 m
R.L. of canal bed at 4-4 = 200 m

R.L. of water surface at 4-4 = 200+1.8 = 201.8 m
R.L. of TEL at 4-4 = 201.8 + = 201.8 + 0.033 = 201.833 m
At section 3-3, The section is rectangular in section at this section and depth of water is
constant of 1.8 m
Q Q 50
V = = = = 1.85 m/s
A (B x Y) 15 x 1.8
.
Velocity head, = .
= 0.175 m
Head loss from section 3-3 to 4-4 = 0.3 x = 0.3x(0.175 − 0.033) = 0.042 m
R.L. of TEL at 3-3 = R.L. of TEL at 4-4 + Loss in expansion transition

= 201.833+0.042 = 201.875 m
R.L. of water level at 3-3 = 201.876 - = 201.876 - 0.175 = 201.7 m
R.L. of bed level at 3-3 = 201.7-1.8 = 199.9 m

At section 2-2, The section is rectangular in section at this section and depth of water is
constant of 1.8 m
The head loss from section 2-2 to 3-3 is given by , H =
Here, η = 0.016
.
R = A/P = .
= 1.45
. .
Hence, H = = 0.055 m
.
Q Q 50
V =V = = = = 1.85 m/s
A (B x Y) 15 x 1.8
.
Velocity head, = = = 0.175 m
.
R.L. of TEL at 2-2 = R.L. of TEL at 3-3 + HL

= 201.876+0.055 = 201.93 m
R.L. of water level at 2-2 = 201.93 - = 201.93 - 0.175 = 201.76 m

.
At section 2-2, Head loss from section 1-1 to 2-2 is = = 0.2(0.175 − 0.033)
= 0.028 m
49
Velocity head, = = 0.033 m
R.L. of TEL at 1-1 = R.L. of TEL at 3-3 + 0.028

= 201.93+0.028 = 201.96 m
R.L. of water level at 1-1 = 201.96 – 0.033 = 201.925 m
Design of transitions
Transition width is given by Mitra’s equation as, B = ( )
For contraction transition, B = 15 m, B = 32 m and L = 17 m
Then, B = ( )
=
tabular form:
X (m) 0 2 4 6 ... ... 14 16 17
480 15 16 17.14 18.46 ... ... 26.67 30 32
B =
32 − X
For expansion transition, B = 15 m, B = 30 m and L = 22.5 m
.
Then, B = . ( )
=
tabular form:
X (m) 0 2 4 6 8 ... 22 24 25.5
720 15 15.65 16.36 17.14 18 ... 27.7 30 32
B =
48 − X
Design of trough
The trough is divided into three equal compartments with 5 m each wide having 2 nos. of
internal partition wall of thickness as 0.3 m and 2 nos of outer wall od thickness 0.4 m.
Overall width of the trough i.e. length of the barrel = 15+0.3x2+0.4x2 =16.4 m
Afflux or head loss through syphon barrels,
Head loss through the syphon barrels, h = 1 + f + f
Here, V= 1.98 m/s

f1 = coefficient of head loss at entry = 0.505
f2 = a 1 +
Take, a = 0.00316 and b = 0.03 for cement plastered barrels

.
R = A/P = (
= 0.83
. )
50
.
Then, f2 = 0.00316 1 + .
= 0.0033
. .
Thus, head loss through the syphon barrel, h = 1 + 0.505 + 0.0033 .
x .
= 0.314
Now, High flood level on U/S = 200.6 m
High flood level on D/S = 200.6+head loss in barrel (afflux) = 200.6 + 0.314
=200.914 m.
5.7 Head and cross regulators

The supplies passing down the parent canal and off take channel are controlled by cross regulator
and head regulator respectively.
5.7.1. Functions of cross regulators

 Regulation of the canal system.
 Raising the water level in the main canal in order to feed the off take channels.
 To facilitate communication by building a road over the cross regulator with little extra cost.
 To absorb the fluctuations in the canal system.
5.7.2 Functions of head regulators

 To regulate and control supplies entering the off take channel (distributary) from the main
(parent) canal.
 To control silt entering into the distributary.
 To serve for measurement of discharge.
5.7.3 Alignment
The best alignment of the off take channel is when it makes angle zero with the parent canal initially
and then separates out in a transition. In this case there is a transition curve for both off take and
parent channel to avoid silt accumulation. Another alternative by making both channels an angle
with respect to parent channel upstream as fig. (b). In case of obligatory straight alignment of the
parent channel, the usual angle of the off take channel is 60º to 80º .
51
fig. (a) fig. (b) fig. (c)
5.8 Design consideration for head regulator
1. Waterway
The effective waterway of head regulator should not be less than 60% of bed width of off taking
channel and mean velocity should not exceed 2.5 m/sec. The discharge through the waterway is
given by: 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 2𝑔 𝐵 (ℎ + ℎ ) − ℎ + 𝐶𝑑 𝐵 ℎ 2𝑔(ℎ + ℎ )
Where,𝐶𝑑 = 0.577 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑑 = 0.80

B = required clear water way
h = difference of water level U/S and D/S of the crest as shown fig.
h1 = depth of D/S water level in channel above the crest

Hv = head due to velocity of approach which is very small and is generally ignored. The
formula then, becomes as: 𝑄 = 0.577 √2𝑥9.81 𝐵 ℎ + 0.8 𝐵 ℎ √2𝑥9.81𝑥ℎ
𝑄 = 1.69 𝐵 ℎ + 3.54 𝐵 ℎ √ℎ
𝑄 = 𝐵 √ℎ[1.69 ℎ + 3.54ℎ ]
2. Crest level
Crest level of the distributary head regulator is generally kept 0.3 m to 1 m higher than crest level of
cross regulator (C.R.). The crest level of C.R. is provided at bed level of parent canal.
It should be worked out from the formula,
𝑄 = 𝐶. 𝐵 . 𝐻
Where, Cd = coefficient of discharge
Be = Effective length of crest = Bt = 2(N.Kp + Ka) He
Bt = Net length of the crest
N = Number of piers
Kp = Piers contraction coefficient
Ka = Abutment contraction coefficient
52
3. Shape of crest
The U/S face of the crest should be given a slope of 1:1. The D/S sloping glacis should not be steeper
than 2:1.
4. Crest width should be kept equal to 2/3 of He
5. Vertical cut-offs
U/S cut off : The minimum depth of U/S cut floor level is kept as, (yu/3 +0.6) m, where yu is the depth
of water in chanel U/S
D/S cut off : The minimum depth of D/S cut off below the D/S floor level is kept as; (yd/2 +0.6) m,
where yd is the depth of water in the channel D/S.
6. Total floor length
The total floor length “b” is worked out from safe exit gradient consideration as explained earlier.
This total floor length is then suitably distributed upstream and downstream.
7. Uplift pressure and floor thickness
The thickness of the D/S floor required is worked out by the uplift pressure by Khosla’s theory. The
maximum unbalanced heads at key points are worked out for the maximum static head. The
pressure at toe of glacis is also worked out for dynamic condition. The floor thickness is designed for
the worst case. The nominal thickness of 0.3 to 0.5 m is provided on U/S side
8. Protection works
The protection works are designed for a scour depth (D) equal to (yu/3+0.6) m on U/S and (yd/2+0.6)
m in the D/S. Downstream of floor, properly designed filter apron by concrete blocks should be
provided as the approximate length of inverted filter is kept equal to 1.5D Similar protection is also
provided in the U/S in a length equal to D. the cubic content of material in launching apron should
be equal to length 2.25 D m3. m/m length
Example 8: Design a cross regulator and a head regulator for a channel which takes off from the
parent channel with the following data:
Parent channel Distributary Channel
3
Discharge of parent channel = 140 m /s Discharge of distributary = 15 m3/s
F.S.L. of the parent channel U/S = 210 m F.S.L. of distributary = 209.1 m
F.S.L. of the parent channel D/S = 209.8 m
Bed width of parent channel U/S = 52 m
Bed width of parent channel D/S = 46 m
Depth of water in the parent channel at U/S and D/S = 2.5 m
Silt factor = 0.8 mm
Safe exit gradient = 1/5
53
Solution:
Here, Design discharge at parent channel = 140 m3/s
Design discharge at distributary channel = 15 m3/s
F.S.L. of the parent channel U/S = 210 m
F.S.L. of the parent channel D/S = 209.8 m
F.S.L. of the distributary channel = 209.1 m
Bed width of parent channel U/S = 52 m
Bed width of parent channel D/S = 46 m
Depth of water in the parent channel at U/S and D/S = 2.5 m
Silt factor = 0.8 mm
Safe exit gradient = 1/5
Now, A) Design of cross regulator

Crest Levels
Crest level of cross regulator is kept same as U/D bed level of parent channel
= 210-2.5 = 207.5 m
Required waterway (neglecting velocity head), 𝑄 = 𝐵√ℎ[1.69 ℎ + 3.54ℎ ]
Here, Q = 140 m3/s
h = U/S F.S.L. – D/S F.S.L. = 210 – 209.8 = 0.2 m
h1 = D/S F.S.L. – crest level = 209.8 – 207.5 = 2.3 m
Then, 140 = 𝐵 √0.2 [ 1.69 𝑥 0.2 + 3.54 𝑥 2.3],
𝐵 = 36.9 𝑚
Provide 5 bays with 8 m each clear width with clear waterway = 5 x 8 = 40 m and
provide 4 no. of piers @ 1.5 m width each = 4x1.5 = 6 m
Thus, overall waterway = 40+6 = 46 m
Vertical cut offs
Provide U/S cut off for a depth = Yu/3 + 0.6 = 2.5/3 +0.6 = 1.43 m
Level of its bottom = 207.5 – 1.43 = 206.07 m
D/S upstream cutoff
Depth of D/S cutoff below floor level = Yd/3 + 0.6 = 2.5/3 + 0.6 = 1.85 m
Hence, bottom level of D/S cutoff = 207.3 – 1.85 = 205.45 m
Total floor length
From exit gradient, 𝐺 =

√
Here, H = maximum static head = U/S F.S.L. – D/S bed level = 210 – 207.3 = 2.7 m
d = depth of D/S cut off = 1.85 m
GE = 1/5
.
Then, = .
𝑥 = 0.137
√ √
54
= = =
√
( ) ( )
.
b = 17 m
[Note: by using plate 11.2 of S.K. Garg,
For = 0.137, 𝛼=9 Then, b = = 9 𝑥 1.85 = 16.65 𝑚 ≈ 17 𝑚 ]

√
Length of D/S floor
Minimum d/s floor length = 𝑥 𝑏 = 𝑥 17 = 11.3 𝑚
[Note: by using plate 10.1 and 10.2 of S.K.Garg,

Here, specific discharge, q = 140/40 = 304 m3/s/m
And HL = 0.2 m
From Plate 10.1, Ef2 = 1.85 m
Then, R.L. of D/S floor level = D/S F.S.L. - Ef2 = 209.8 – 1.85 = 207.95 m
But, R.L. of D/S floor level = D/S F.S.L. – Water depth = 209.8 – 2.5 = 207.3 m
Hence, R.L. of D/S floor level or Cistern Level = 207.3 m
Now, Length of D/S floor = 5(Y2-Y1)
Here, from plate 10.2, for Ef2 = 1.85, Y2 = 1.8 m
And, For𝐸 =𝐸 + 𝐻 = 1.85 + 0.2 = 20.5 𝑚, Y1 = 0.8 m
Thus, length of D/S floor = 5 (1.8 – 0.8) = 5 m]
As D/S floor length is taken as greater one i.e. 11.3 m
Now, Gracis length = 2xh = 2 x 0.2 = 0.4 m
The balance length i.e. 17 – 11.3 -0.4 = 5.3 m is provided as U/S floor length as shown below
fig.
Calculation of uplift pressure

For u/s cutoff
55
α= = .
= 11.89
Now, ϕ = Cos x( )
√ √ .
Here, λ= = = 6.46
.
Φ = Cos x = Cos .
= 0.26 = 26%
.
Φ = Cos x = Cos .
= 0.179 = 17.9%
𝜙 = 100 − 𝜙 = 100 − 26 = 74%

ϕ = 100 − ϕ = 100 − 17.7 = 82.3%
[Note: by using plate 11.1 (a) of S.K.Garg,
.
1/ α = = 0.085, then, Φ = 18.5 % and ϕ = 26.5 %
Thus, ϕ = 100%
ϕ = 100 − ϕ = 100 − 18.5 = 81.5%
ϕ = 100 − ϕ = 100 − 26.5 = 73.5 %
Assuming U/S floor thickness = 0.5 m,
i) Correction at C1 for mutual interference of D/S Cutoff
Correction, 𝐶 = 19
Here, D = 1.85 + 0.4 = 2.25 m

d = depth of u/s cutoff = 1.43 m
b’ ≈ 𝑏
. . .
Then, 𝐶 = 19 = 1.913 % (+𝑣𝑒)

( )
. .
= 𝑥0.5 = 2.797% (+𝑣𝑒)
.

Therefore, Corrected ϕ = 73.5+1.913+2.797 = 78.211 %
For D/S cutoff
Φ = Cos x
Φ = Cos x
Here, d = depth of D/S cut off = 1.85 m
56
b 17
α= = = 9.189
d 1.85
√ √ .
λ= = = 4.622
.
Then, Φ = Cos .
x = 0.308 = 30.8%
.
And Φ = Cos .
x = 0.213 = 21.3%

1/ α = 1.85/17 = 0.109
Then, ϕ = ϕ = 30%
ϕ = 21%
ϕ = 0%]
Assuming D/S floor thickness = 0.7 m
i) Mutual interference due to U/S cutoff
Here, D = 1.43 - 0.4 = 1.03 m

d = depth of D/S cutoff = 1.85 m
b’ = b = total horizontal distance = 17 m
. . .
Then, 𝐶 = 19 = 0.792 % (−𝑣𝑒)

( )
. .
= .
𝑥0.7 = 3.594% (−𝑣𝑒)

Therefore, Corrected ϕ = 30.8 – 0.792 – 3.594 = 26.42%
Floor thickness
At toe of glacis,
. .
% pressure at toe of glacis = 26.42 + x 11.3 = 60.84 %
Maximum unbalanced head at toe of glacis due to maximum static head

= 0.6084 x 2.7 = 1.61 m
Required thickness at toe of glacis = 1.61/1.24 = 1.3 m, provide 1.4 m
At 8 m beyond toe of glacis,
57
. .
% pressure = 26.42 + x 3.3 = 36.47 %

= 0.3647x 2.7 = 0.98 m
U/S protection
U/S protection for scour depth = Yu/3 + 0.6 = 2.5/3+0.6 = 1.43 m
Launching apron
Provide a launching apron of thickness 1.2 m in length = (2.25xD/t) = 2.25 x 1.43/1.2
= 2.63 m
D/S protection
D/S protection for scour depth = Yd/2 + 0.6 = 2.5/2 + 0.6 = 1.85 m
Launching apron
Provide a launching apron of thickness 1.2 in length = 2.25xD/t = 2.25x1.85/1.2 =
3.46 m
B) Design of distributary head regulator:
Crest Level
The crest level of distributary head is kept 0.3 to 1.0 m higher than the bed level of
the parent channel. Let, the crest level of distributary is kept 0.6 m higher than crest
of the parent channel
Crest level of distributary head regulator = 207.5 + 0.6 =208.1 m
Waterway
The discharge formula for distributary head regulator,
Q = Bx√h [1.69xh + 3.54 h ]

Here, B = required clear waterway
h = F.S.L. of parent channel – F.S.L. of distributary canal = 210 – 209.1 = 0.9 m
h1 = F.S.L. of distributary – crest level = 209.1 – 208.1 = 1 m
Q = 15 m3/s
Then, 15 = B √0.9 [1.69 x 0.9 + 3.54 x 1], B = 3.12 m
The waterway is very small, so increase little more with providing 2 bays of 3 m each
with 1.0 m thick pier in between.
Overall waterway provided = 6+1 = 7m and clear waterway = 6 m
Vertical cut offs
Provide U/S cut off for a depth = Yu/3 + 0.6 = 2.5/3 +0.6 = 1.43 m
Level of its bottom = 207.5 – 1.43 = 206.07 m
58
D/S cutoff
Depth of D/S cut off below floor level = Yd/2 + 0.6 = 2.5/3 + 0.6 = 1.85 m depth
Hence, bottom level of D/S cut off = 207.3 – 1.85 = 205.45 m
Total floor length
From exit gradient, 𝐺 =

√
Here, H = maximum static head = U/S F.S.L. – D/S bed level = 210 – 207.3 = 2.7 m
d = depth of D/S cut off = 1.85 m
GE = 1/5
.
Then, = .
𝑥 = 0.137
√ √
= 0.119 = = =
√
( ) ( )
.
b ≈ 21 𝑚
[Note: by using plate 11.2 of S.K. Garg,
For = 0.119, 𝛼 = 13 Then, b = = 13 𝑥 1.6 = 20.8 𝑚 ≈ 21 𝑚 ]

√
Length of D/S floor
Minimum required D/S floor length = 𝑥 𝑏 = 𝑥 21 = 14 𝑚
[Note: by using plate 10.1 and 10.2 of S.K.Garg,

Here, specific discharge, q = 15/6 = 2.5 m3/s/m
And HL = U/S F.S.L – D/S F.S. L = F.S.L. of parent channel - F.S.L. of distributary
210 – 209.1 = 0.9 m
From Plate 10.1, Ef2 = 1.8 m
Then, R.L. of D/S floor level = D/S F.S.L. - Ef2 = 209.1 – 1.8 = 207.3 m
But, R.L. of D/S floor level = D/S F.S.L. – Water depth = 209.1 – 1.5 = 207.6 m
Hence, R.L. of D/S floor level or Cistern Level = 207.3 m
Now, Length of D/S floor = 5(Y2-Y1)
Here, from plate 10.2, for Ef2 = 1.8, Y2 = 1.7 m and 𝐸 = 2.7 𝑚, Y1 = 0.4 m
Thus, length of D/S floor = 5 (1.7 – 0.4 ) = 8 m]
As D/S floor length is taken as greater one, so take 14 m
Now, Gracis length at D/S = 1.6 m
Length of crest = 1 m
Length of U/S glacis = 0.6 m
The balance length of 3.8 m is provided as D/S floor as shown below fig.
59
Calculation of uplift pressure
For u/s cutoff
α= = .
= 14.685
Now, ϕ = Cos x( )
√ √ .
Here, λ= = = 7.859
.
Φ = Cos x = Cos .
= 0.232 = 23.2%
.
Φ = Cos x = Cos .
= 0.162 = 16.2%
𝜙 = 100 − 𝜙 = 100 − 23.2 = 76.8 %

ϕ = 100 − ϕ = 100 − 16.2 = 83.8 %
.
1/ α = = 0.068, then, Φ = 16.5 % and ϕ = 24 %
Thus, ϕ = 100%
ϕ = 100 − ϕ = 100 − 16.5 = 83.5%
ϕ = 100 − ϕ = 100 − 24 = 76 %
Assuming U/S floor thickness = 0.5 m,
i) Correction at C1 for mutual interference of D/S Cutoff
Here, D = 207.5 – 207.3+1.6 = 1.8 m

d = depth of U/S cutoff = 1.43 m
b’ ≈ 𝑏
. . .
Then, 𝐶 = 19 = 0.868 % (+𝑣𝑒)
60
( )
.
= 𝑥0.5 = 2.62% (+𝑣𝑒)
.

Therefore, Corrected ϕ = 76+0.868+2.62 = 78.62 %
For D/S cutoff
𝟏 𝟏
𝛌−𝟐 𝛑
𝚽𝐄𝟑 = 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝐱
𝛑 𝛌 𝟏𝟖𝟎
1 λ−1 π
Φ = Cos x
π λ 180
Here, d = depth of D/S cutoff = 1.6 m
b 21
α= = = 13.125
d 1.6
√ √ .
λ= = = 7.081
.
Then, Φ = Cos .
x = 0.245 = 24.5%
.
And Φ = Cos .
x = 0.171 = 17.1%

1/ α = 1.6/21 = 0.076
Then, ϕ = ϕ = 25.5 %
ϕ = 17.5 %
ϕ = 0%]
Assuming D/S floor thickness = 0.8 m
i) Mutual interference due to U/S cutoff
Here, D = 1.43 - 0.2 = 1.23 m

d = depth of D/S cutoff = 1.6 m
b’ = b = total horizontal distance = 21 m
. . .
Then, 𝐶 = 19 = 0.62 % (−𝑣𝑒)

( )
. .
= .
𝑥0.8 = 4% (−𝑣𝑒)
61
Therefore, Corrected ϕ = 25.5 – 0.62 – 4 = 21.5%
Floor thickness
At toe of glacis,
. .
% pressure at toe of glacis = 21.5 + x 14 = 59.6 %

= 0.596 x 2.7 = 1.58 m
At 6 m beyond toe of glacis,
. .
% pressure = 21.5 + x 8 = 43.3 %
Maximum unbalanced head = 0.433x 2.7 = 1.17 m

Required thickness at toe of glacis = 1.17/1.24 =0.945 m, provide 1.0 m
U/S protection
U/S protection for scour depth = Yu/3 + 0.6 = 2.5/3 + 0.6 = 1.43 m
Launching apron
Provide a launching apron of thickness 1.2 m in length = (2.25xD/t) = 2.25 x 1.43/1.2
= 2.63 m
D/S protection
D/S protection for scour depth = Yd/2 + 0.6 = 1.5/2 + 0.6 = 1.35 m
Launching apron
Provide a launching apron of thickness 1.2 in length = 2.25xD/t = 2.25x1.35/1.2 =
2.54 m, Say 2.6 m
5.9 Canal outlets
An outlet is a hydraulic structure convening irrigation water from a state owned channel i.e
(distributary, minor etc) to a privately owned water course.It is basically the last hydraulic structure
at the end of irrigation system.
5.9.1 Types of outlets

Outlets may be classified as,
1. The non-Modular Outlet
2. Semi-Modular / Flexible Outlet
3. Modular/Rigid Outlet
1. Non-modular outlet
A non-modular outlet is the one in which the discharge depends upon the difference in level
between the water level in the distributary channel and water course. Common examples are
orifices and wooden shoots etc.
62
2. Semi-modular / flexible outlet
A flexible outlet or semi-modular is the one in which the discharge is affected by the fluctuations in
the water level of the distributary channel only. Common example is pipe outlet
3. Modular/rigid outlet
A Rigid modular is the one which maintain its discharge constant, within limits, irrespective of the
fluctuations in the water level of the distributor channel and or field channel.
5.9.2 Characteristics of an outlet

The design of an outlet depends upon its performance while the performance depends upon the
characteristics of outlet. Following are the characteristics of an outlet:
 Flexibility of an outlet (F)
 Sensitivity of an outlet (S)
 Minimum Modular Head (H min)
 Silt Drawing Capacity
 Safety against Tempering
Flexibility of an outlet (F): It is the ration of the rate of change of discharge of outlet (dq /q) to the
rate of change of discharge in the parent channel i.e. distributary (dQ /Q).
Mathematically,
(𝑑𝑞 /𝑞)
𝐹 =
(𝑑𝑄 /𝑄)
Where,
q= discharge in outlet
Q= discharge in distributory
F= Flexibility
If,
F=1 the outlet is called as “Proportional Outlet”.
F<1 the outlet is called as “Sub-Proportional Outlet”.
F>1 the outlet is called as “Hyper-Proportional Outlet”.
Sensitivity of an outlet (S): It is the ratio of change of discharge in the outlet to the rate of change of
water level in the parent channel.
Mathematically,
(𝑑𝑞 /𝑞)
𝑆=
(𝑑𝐺 /𝐺)
Where,
S= Sensitivity
q=Discharge in the outlet
G=Water level of parent channel
Minimum modular head (H min): The necessary minimum difference of water level or pressure
between supply and delivery sides to enabler a module or semi-module to work as designed. It is the
63
minimum head required for normal functioning of outlet. It is taken as 10 -20 % of water head in
parent channel i.e.
𝐻 = (10 − 20%) 𝐺
Silt drawing capacity: It is vital that outlets draw their fair share of silt. This avoids silting or scouring
and consequently remodeling of the distributary. In a distributary system absorption losses are
generally taken as 10-15 % and therefore, the silt conducting power of outlets should be around
110-115 % as compared to 100 % of distributary to enable them to draw their proportional share .
Safety against tempering: There is a tendency on the part of the cultivators to draw more than their
lawful share of water by tempering with the outlets. Therefore the outlets must be tamper proof.
Most of the semi-modules depending upon the formation of hydraulic jump are quite tamper proof.
Adjustability: Readjustments of outlets are required in view of the revision of areas under command
and because of the changed conditions in distributary.
Coefficient of discharge: In order to use the outlet as measuring device the coefficient of discharge
should remain constant in the full modular range.
Modular limits: Modular limits are the limits beyond which an outlet is incapable of acting as a
module or semi-module.
Modular Range: It is the range of various factors between the modular limits within which a module
or semi module works as designed.
Drowning ratio: It is the ratio between the depths of water level over crest on the downstream and
upstream of the module .i.e. Water level above crest level downstream / Water level above crest
upstream/
Efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of the head recovered to the head input.
Setting of an outlet: It is the ratio of the head acting on the outlet to the full supply depth of the
distributary channel, where the head acting on the outlet is equal to the crest level of module below
the full supply of the distributary channel.
Mathematically,
𝐻
𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
𝐷
5.9.3 Selection of the type of outlet
 When the discharge and the water levels are likely to change the following points must be
noted in selecting the type of outlet to be use:
 For a temporary discharge variation a proportional semi-module is desirable to distribute
both excess and deficiency in the parent channel.
 Seasonal variation in the slope requires the use of outlets with low flexibility i.e. sub-
proportional.
 For channel running with full supply for a certain period and remaining closed for a certain
64
other period (rotational running) it is desirable to have a high flexibility, i.e. hyper-
proportional .
 The silt drawing capacity of outlet must be 110-115 % assuming a 10-15 % loss in the parent
channel.
 In general rigid module is desirable in the following cases,
 For other cases than those mentioned above semi module outlets are desirable.
In the choice of selecting the type of outlet the available working head is an important criteria.
5.10 Design of pipe outlet

There are two types of pipe outlet as free pipe outlet and submerged pipe outlet.
5.10.1 Design of free pipe outlet

It is simple and old type of outlet. The discharge through this type of discharge is dependent on the
water level of distributary and freely discharge to atmosphere. The discharge through the pipe is
given by: 𝑄 = 𝐶 𝐴 2𝑔𝐻
Where, Cd = coefficient of discharge =0.62 in general
H = head measured from F.S. L. of distributary to center of the pipe outlet
A = area of cross section of pipe
5.10.2 Design of submerged pipe outlet
Fig. Horizontal submerged pipe outlet
Fig. Inclined submerged pipe outlet
There are two type of submerged pipe layout i.e. horizontal and inclined submerged pipe outlet.
Generally, 10 to 30 cm size of diameter is used and embedded in concrete.
The total loss of head = entry loss + frictional loss + velocity head loss at exit
i.e. HL = 0.5 V2/2g + flV2/2gD + V2/2g
HL = V2/2g [ 1.5 + fl/D]
Where, HL = difference in the water level of distributary and water course
l = length of the pipe
D = diameter of the pipe
65
f = coefficient of friction
Then, the discharge is calculated as, Q = AV
And actual discharge is computed as, 𝑄 = 𝐶 𝐴 2𝑔𝐻
Where, Cd = coefficient of discharge, its general value is 0.73
A = cross section of pipe
HL = difference head between F.S.L of distributary and F.S.L. of the water course
Example 9: Design an irrigation pipe outlet for following design data:

Full supply level of outlet = 0.05 m3/s
Full supply level of distributary on U/S side of outlet = 200 m
Full supply level in water course on D/S side of outlet = 199.92 m
Depth in distributary on U/S side of outlet = 1.05 m
Solution:
Here, Discharge through outlet = 0.05 m3/s
F.S.L. of distributary on U/S side of outlet = 200 m
F.S.L. of water course on D/S side of outlet = 199.92 m
Depth of distributary on U/S side of outlet = 1.05 m
Available head to outlet = F.S.L. of distributary – F.S.L. of water course = 200 –
199.92 = 0.08 m
Since available head is very small, so use non modular outlet i.e. submerged pipe outlet
Assuming, Cd = 0.65 for pipe outlet,
Discharge through pipe outlet, Q = D 2gH
0.05 = 0.65 A √2x9.81x0.08
= 0.061, D = 0.278 m
Use the pipe diameter size of 0.3 m = 30 cm = 300 mm

The R.L. of the bed of the distributary = 200 – 1.05 = 198.95 m
Let, the top of the pipe is at the level of 20 cm below the F.S.L. of the distributary
i.e. Lower level of the pipe = 200 – 0.2 – 0.3 = 199.5 m which is greater than R.L. of bed of
the distributary (198.95).
Example 10: Design a pipe outlet for the following data:

Discharge of outlet = 0.05 m3/s
Discharge of head of outlet = 0.09 m3/s
Full supply level of distributary = 205 m
Full supply level of water course = 204 m
Solution:
Here, Discharge of outlet = 0.05 m3/s
66
Discharge of head of outlet = 0.09 m3/s
Full supply level of distributary = 205 m
Full supply level of water course = 204 m
Available head to outlet = 205 – 204 = 1 m
Let, Cd = 0.65, and discharge at head of outlet (Q) = 0.09 m3/s
i.e. Q = C A 2gH
Assuming the diameter of the pipe as 25 cm,
.
Then, 0.09 = 0.65 2x9.81xH = 0.62 x 0.049 x 4.43√H
Ho = 0.44 m, i.e. water head at U/S of outlet = 0.44 m

R.L. of centre of pipe outlet = 205 – 0.44 = 204.56 m
R.L. of invert of pipe outlet (sill level) = 205 – 0.25/2 = 204.43 m > R.L. of water course, OK
Thank you
67

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CHAPTER-5: HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES IN SURFACE GRAVITY IRRIGATION

5.1 Head work, type, its function and components

Diversion head work

It serves the following purposes:

A diversion headwork can further be sub-divided into two principal classes:

Canal head regulator

Main weir and impervious floor

Site selection of a barrage

5.2 Condition and causes of failures of hydraulics structures

5.3 Seepage theory

The reciprocal of hydraulic gradient ( ) is known as Bligh’s coefficient which is denoted by C.

Limitation of Bligh’s theory

5.3.2 Lane’s creep theory

Hydraulics gradient = HL/L = =

Creep length up to 15 m from start of percolation,

Head available for 1 m length =

Head available for 33 m length = 𝑥33 = 3.094 𝑚

Residual head at 33 m apart length = 6 – 3094 = 2.91 m

Then, Thickness of floor, 𝑡 =

For concrete floor, Gs = 2.4

By using Lane’s weighted creep length theory,

Head available at 15 m = 𝑥23 = 2.156 𝑚

Head residual at 15 m = 6-2.156 =3.843 m

Calculation of percentage pressure by Khosla’s theory

Fig. U/S Pile Fig. D/S Pile

Where, d = depth of intermediate pile

Correction for percentage of pressure in pile

iii) Correction for slope

𝜙 = 100 − 𝜙 = 100 − 28 = 72%

Here, D = depth of intermediate pile-2 = 99 – 94.5 = 4.5 m

ii) Correction at C1 due to thickness of floor

iii) Correction due to slope is nil as there is no slope at that point

Where, d = depth of intermediate pile-2 = 101-94.5 =6.5 m

Correction for 𝚽𝐄𝟐

ii) Correction at E2 due to thickness of floor

iii) Correction due to slope is nil as there is no slope at that point

Here, D = depth of d/s pile-3 = 99 – 93 = 7 m

ii) Correction at C2 due to thickness of floor

iii) Correction due to slope for C2

Correction for 𝚽𝐄𝟑

Here, D = depth of intermediate pile-2 = 95.5-94.5 = 1 m

ii) Correction at E3 due to thickness of floor

iii) Correction due to slope is nil as there is no slope at that point

Then, G = x = = 0.245 > 0.15 (Unsafe)

Required floor thickness

𝜙 = 100 − 𝜙 = 100 − 28.7 = 71.8%

Here, D = depth of intermediate pile-2 = 153 – 148 = 5 m

ii) Correction at C1 due to thickness of floor

= 𝑥(154 − 153) = 1.5% (+𝑣𝑒)

Fig: Thickness correction at C1

After Corrections (For u/s pile-1)

For intermediate pile-2

Formula for determining key points pressure at intermediate pile-2:

[By using Formulae,

Where, d = depth of intermediate pile-2 = 101-94.5 =6 m

Corrections At points E2 & C2

Here, D = depth of u/s pile-1 = 153 – 148 = 5 m

Then, 𝐶 = 19 = 1.88 % (−𝑣𝑒)

ii) Correction at E2 due to thickness of floor

= 𝑥 (154 − 153) = 1.17 % (−𝑣𝑒)

iii) Correction due to slope is nil as there is no slope at that point

Fig. Thickness correction at E2

Here, D = depth of d/s pile-3 = 153 – 141.7 =11.3 m