CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUTION
 chapter one Introduction

Chapter One

Introduction

1.1 Pre-Stressed Concrete – Background

Concrete as a building material has been around for thousands of years. Unlike other
isotropic building materials such as steel, wood, and aluminum, concrete and masonry
have a high compressive strength as compared to their relatively weak tensile strength.
Therefore, until the advent of reinforced concrete in the 1800s, concrete and masonry
structures mainly resisted only compressive forces. These structures generally consisted
of columns, arches, and domes to take advantage of their compressive capacity while
eliminating any tensile demand. Several examples include the following:

Roman Aqueduct Brunelleschi's Dome Stari Most Bridge

Segovia, Spain Basilica di Santa Maria del Fiore Mostar, Herzegovina(1567)
(1st Century) Florence, Italy (1461 )

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 chapter one Introduction

In the middle of the 1800s, the idea of adding iron to concrete to resist tensile stresses
was first developed. Joseph Monier exhibited this invention at the Paris Exposition in
1867. With the invention of steel in the later part of the 1800s, the use of steel
reinforcing bars to resist tensile forces in concrete structures quickly became
widespread. Thus, "mild" reinforcing steel is strategically placed within, and
continuously bonded to, concrete members to resist tensile forces to which they may be
subjected. Mild steel reinforcing is also commonly used in combination with concrete
to resist compressive and shear forces.
In the early 1900s, the idea of tightening the reinforcing bars to compensate for the
shrinkage of the concrete was first suggested. Embedded high strength steel rods were
coated to prevent bond with the concrete. “Pre-stressed Concrete ”soon became the
single most significant new direction in structural engineering. This unique concept
gave the engineer the ability to control the actual structural behavior while forcing him
or her to dive more deeply into the construction process of the structural material. It
gave architects as well as engineers a new realm of reinforced concrete design pushing
not only the structural but also the architectural limits of concrete design to a level that
neither concrete nor structural steel could achieve.
Ordinary reinforced concrete could not achieve the same limits because the new long
spans that pre-stressed concrete were able to achieve could not be reached with
reinforced concrete. Those longer spans required much deeper members, which
quickly made reinforced concrete uneconomical. Additionally, steel structures weren’t
able to create the same architectural forms that the new pre-stressed concrete could.

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1.2 Principle of Pre-stressing

The function of pre-stressing is to place the concrete structure under compression in

those regions where load causes tensile stress. Tension caused by applied loads will
first have to cancel the compression induced by the pre-stressing before it can crack
the concrete. Figure 1.2(a) shows a plainly reinforced concrete simple span beam and
fixed cantilever beam cracked under applied load. Figure 1.2(b) shows the same
unloaded beams with pre-stressing forces applied by stressing post-tensioning
tendons. By placing the pre-stressing low in the simple-span beam and high in the
cantilever beam, compression is induced in the tension zones; creating upward
camber. Figure1.2(c) shows the two pre-stressed beams under the action of post-
tensioning and applied loads. The loads cause both the simple span beam and
cantilever beam to deflect down, creating tensile stresses in the bottom of the simple-
span beam and top of the cantilever beam. The designer balances the effects of load
and pre-stressing in such a way that tension from the loading is compensated by
compression induced by the pre-stressing. Tension is eliminated under the
combination of the two and tension cracks are prevented. As a result, durability is
increased and more efficient, cost effective construction is realized.

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Fig. (1) Comparison of Reinforced and Pre-stressed Concrete Beams

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1.3 Methods of pre-stressing concrete

Pre-stressed concrete includes both pre-tensioned and post-tensioned concrete.

pre-tensioning. The prefix "pre" means that the pre-stressing steel is stressed before the
concrete is cast. This method consists of first stressing high-strength steel strands or wires
between buttresses, and then casting the concrete around the steel. Once the concrete
has reached a certain specified strength, the steel is cut between the ends of the members
and the buttresses to transfer the pre-stressing forces to the concrete This process
typically takes place at a precast plant and requires the completed pre-tensioned concrete
member to be trucked out to the job site and then assembled.

Fig. (1.3a) stages of pre-tensioning

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The other method of pre-stressing concrete is called post-tensioning. The prefix "post"
means that the pre-stressing ' steel is stressed after the concrete is cast. Instead of
stressing the high-strength steel between buttresses at a precast plant. The steel is
simply installed on the job site after the contractor forms up the member. The high-
strength steel is housed in a sheathing or duct that prevents it from bonding to the
concrete. The steel is attached to the concrete at the ends of the member by specially
designed anchorage devices. Once the concrete has cured (hardened), the steel is
stressed to induce forces in the concrete.

Fig.(1.3b) Stages of post-tensioning

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Post-tensioning is an attractive method of reinforcing concrete slabs and beams due to

its versatility and economy. Post-tensioning is also more versatile than pre-stressing
due the ability to cast members in place, including many situations where pre-stressing
is not feasible.

Post-tensioning is a highly efficient structural system that offers many benefits in a

wide range of construction, repair, and rehabilitation applications.
Post-tensioning has been successfully used for small as well as large projects. The
efficiency stems from being able to use high strength materials, to structurally utilize
the entire cross section. To vary the force and location of the reinforcing to best resist
applied loads, and to control the timing of when the pre-stressing force is applied to
the structure.

Post-tensioning offers a perfect balance of two materials which complement each

other. Concrete is strong in compression and relatively weak in tension. The tensile
strength of concrete is about 10% of its compressive strength. Pre-stressing steel, on
the other hand, has a very high tensile strength (270,000 psi for strand) which is about
four times that of common reinforcing bars. By combining the two, a structural
member can resist both compressive and tensile forces caused by various loads. This
results in greater efficiency in resisting tensile as well as compressive stresses resulting
from the applied loads.
Post-tensioning can be used in all facets of construction from buildings and bridges to
highway pavements, slabs-on-ground and ground anchors. It has also been used for
rehabilitation and retrofit applications.

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1.4 Benefits of post-tensioning

Post-tensioned concrete is used in commercial buildings, residential apartments, high-

rise condominiums, office buildings, parking structures, and mixed-use facilities such
as hotels and casinos. Benefits of post-tensioning include:
 A significant reduction in the amount of concrete and reinforcing steel required.
 Thinner structural members as compared to non-prestressed concrete, resulting in
lower overall building heights and reduced foundation loads.
 Aesthetically pleasing structures that harness the benefits of cast in place structures
with curved geometries, and longer, slender members with large spaces between
supports.
 Superior structural integrity as compared to precast concrete construction because
of continuous framing and tendon continuity.
 Monolithic connections between slabs, beams, and columns that can eliminate
troublesome joints between elements.
 Profiled tendons that result in balanced gravity loads (typically a portion of dead
load only), significantly reducing total deflection.
 Better crack control, which results from permanent compressive forces applied to
the structure during pre-stressing.
 Post-tensioning reduces overall building mass, which is important in zones of high
seismicity.

Post-tensioning also offers the following construction advantages as compared to steel,

non-prestressed concrete and precast construction:
 Faster floor construction cycle
 Lower floor weight
 Lower floor-to-floor height

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 Larger spans between columns

 Reduced foundations

High early-strength concrete allows for faster floor construction cycles. The use of
standard design details of the post-tensioned elements, minimum congestion of pre-
stressed and non-prestressed reinforcement, and earlier Stripping of formwork after
tendon stressing can also significantly reduce the floor construction cycle. Greater
span-to-depth ratios are allowed for post-tensioned members as compared to non-
prestressed members. This results in a lighter structure and a reduction in floor-to-floor
height while maintaining the required headroom.

Fig (1.4)reinforced concrete floor and post-tensioned slab

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1.5 TYPES OF POST-TENSIONING SYSTEMS

There are two types of post-tensioning systems

1.5.a Unbonded Post-Tensioning Systems

The tendons in an unbonded system typically consist of single-strands that are coated
with a corrosion- inhibiting coating and protected by extruded plastic sheathing. This
allows the strand to move inside the plastic sheathing and prevents ingress of water.
The strands are anchored to the concrete using ductile iron anchors and hardened steel
wedges. The tendon is supported by chairs and bolsters along its length to maintain the
desired profile. Fig. (1.5a) shows the typical components and construction sequence
for an unbonded system. Depending on the exposure of the single-strand unbonded
system it can be classified as a standard or an encapsulated system. Encapsulated
systems are required for aggressive environments where there is a possibility of tendon
exposure to chlorides or other deleterious substances. Encapsulated tendons are
designed to prevent any ingress of water during and after construction.

Fig[1.5.a] the typical components and construction sequence for an unbonded system

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1.5.b Bonded Post-Tensioning Systems

Bonded post-tensioning systems consist of tendons with multiple strands or bars. The
strands or bars are placed in corrugated galvanized steel, high density polyethylene
(HDPE) or polypropylene (PP) ducts. Depending on the site conditions and system
used the strands may be installed before the concrete is placed or the ducts may be
installed without the strands. The strands are then pulled or pushed through the ducts.
Once the concrete has hardened the tendons are stressed and the ducts filled with grout.
Inlets and outlets are provided at high/low points to ensure that the grout fills the ducts
completely.Figure(1.5.b)shows the components of a typical multistrand grouted
system.The grout provides an alkaline environment and protects the prestressing
strands from corrosion.It also bonds the strands to the surrounding concrete.

Figure[1.5.b] shows the components of a typical multistrand grouted system.

1.6 COMPONENTS OF A TENDON

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Post-tensioning systems can be broadly divided into three categories-single strand,

mullistrand, or bar, depending on the type of prestressing steel used..The entire
assembly of high-strength prestressing steel. End anchorage, and the duct is referred to
as a “tendon.” In a single-strand post-tensioning system. The tendon consists of a
single 7-wire steel strand, P/T coating, fixed end anchorage. Stressing end anchorage,
and intermediate anchorage for long tendons. Fig[1.5.a ]shows the components and
construction sequence ofan unbonded system.

In a multistrand system. Multiple strands are typically installed in a single duct. Ducts
create voids in the concrete and may be made of galvanized steel. Multistrand anchors
are specially designed devices that are supplied by the post-tensioning supplier. These
devices are intended to anchor multiple strands to concrete and are specially designed
to accommodate the concentrated forces produced in the anchorage zone.

1.6.1 Prestressing Steel:

The prestressing steel used in a post-tensioning system can be either strand or bar.

1.6.1.1Strands

Strand for post-tensioning is made of high tensile strength steel wire. A strand is
comprised of 7 individual wires, wrapping six wires around a central straight wire.All
strand should be Grade 1860 Mpa (270 ksi) low relaxation, seven-wire strand
conforming to the requirements of ASTM A416 “Standard Specification for Steel
Strand, Uncoated Seven Wire Strand for Prestressed Concrete.” ASTM A416 provides
minimum requirements for mechanical properties (yield, breaking strength,
elongation) and maximum allowable dimensional tolerances. Strand from different
sources may meet ASTM A416 but not necessarily be identical in all respects. Strand
is most commonly available in two nominal sizes, 12.7mm (0.5in) and 15.2mm
(0.6in)diameter, with nominal cross sectional areas of 99mm2and 140mm2 (0.153 and
0.217 square inches), respectively.Though the majority of post-tensioning hardware
and stressing equipment is based on these sizes, the use of 15.7mm (0.62in) diameter
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strand has been increasing.Strand size tolerances may result in strands being
manufactured consistently smaller than, or larger than nominal values. Recognizing
this,“Acceptance Standards for Post-Tensioning Systems” (Post-Tensioning Institute,
1998) refers to the “Minimum Ultimate Tensile Strength” (MUTS), which is the
minimum specified breaking force for a strand. Strand size tolerance may also affect
strand-wedge action leading to possible wedge slip if the wedges and strands are at
opposite ends of the size tolerance range.Strand conforming to ASTM A416 is
relatively resistant to stress corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement due to the cold
drawing process. However, since susceptibility to corrosion increases with increasing
tensile strength, caution is necessary if strand is exposed to corrosive conditions such
as marine environments and solutions containing chloride or sulfate, phosphate,
nitrate ions or similar. Consequently, ASTM A416 requires proper protection of strand
throughout manufacture, shipping and handling. Protection during the project, before
and after installation, should be specified in project drawings and specifications.

Fig (1.6.1) Steel tendons used in Post Tensioning of Slab

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1.6.1.2 Bars

Prestressing bars typically have an ultimate strength of 1035 mpa (150 ksi). And
diameters ranging from 0.625 in. To 2.5 in. Couplers are used to connect bars and
lengthen the bar tendons. The types and configurations of bars vary by suppliers. Bar
tendons are typically used when short, straight tendons are required.

1.6.2 Anchorages

Anchorages are mechanical devices that transmit the tendon force to the concrete. For
single-strand tendons this includes wedges that grip the strands and a bearing plate that
transfers the tendon force to the concrete. Flat plate bearing directly against concrete
with nuts are used in bar systems as shown in figure(1.6.2)
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Fig (1.6.2) Post-Tensioning Anchorage System

1.6.2.1 Stressing End Anchorages

Stressing end anchors are used to stress the strand on site. A pocket former is typically
used during forming and casting operations to embed the stressing anchors in the
concrete. After stressing, the tendon tails are cut, and the pocket is grouted with non-
shrink grout to prevent the ingress of water. Figure(1.6.2.1) show the stressing
anchorage arrangements.

Figure(1.6.2.1 ) Stressing End Anchorages assembly

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1.6.2.2 Fixed End Anchorages

For unbonded systems. The fixed-end anchorages are typically installed at the
fabrication facility before the tendons are shipped to the project site. This involves
stressing the tendon to a specified load to seat the wedges securely in the anchor. This
ensures that no slippage occurs at the fixed end during the stressing operation. Fixed-
end anchorages are used when the tendon is stressed from one end only. Proprietary
anchorage systems are commonly used in multistrand systems. For multistrand
tendons. The anchorage at the fixed end can be achieved by splaying the strands or
bonding the strand to the concrete for a sufficient length beyond the end of the member
see figure(1.6.2.2).

Figure (1.4.2.2) Fixed End Anchorages

1.6.2.3 Intermediate Anchorages

When the tendon is very long, or for staged construction. It may be necessary to provide
a construction joint along the length of the tendon. An intermediate anchorage is
required to stress the strand at a construction joint. Figure(1.6.2.3) show typical
intermediate stressing anchorages for unbonded.

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Figure (1.6.2.3 ) intermediate stressing anchorages

1.6.3 P/T Coating

Strands in unbonded construction are coated with a corrosion inhibiting material that
typically consists of special grease. The coating is usually applied to the strand as a
part of the extrusion process. It acts as a barrier for ingress of water, inhibits
corrosion of the steel and lubricates the strand so that it can move independently of
the surrounding concrete.

1.6.4 Grout

In bonded construction the ducts containing the strands are filled with cement grout
as soon as possible after stressing of the tendons. The grout serves several important
functions. First the grout bonds the strand to the duct and hence to the surrounding
concrete, facilitating the transfer of force between the tendon and the concrete.
Second the grout provides a cementitious cover that slows the ingress of water and
corrosion causing contaminants. Third. The alkalinity of the grout creates a passive
environment for steel, further inhibiting corrosion. To be effective, the grout must
essentially fill the voids in the tendon. To do so, it must be fluid enough to be easily
pumped over long distances in confined spaces without excessively high pumping
pressure that could burst the duct or damage the structure, and it must maintain its
fluidity during the grouting operations.

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1.6.5 Duct/Sheathing

Ducts are used in bonded and, in some cases, in external post-tensioning to provide a
void that permits the installation and stressing of strands after the concrete has been
placed and hardened. The ducts also provide protection to the post-tensioning strands
after construction. Ducts for post-tensioning systems can be either rigid or semi-rigid
and made from ferrous metal, High Density Polyethylene Pipe (HDPE) for External
Tendons or Polypropylene(PP) .Ducts may be round, oval or flat. For bonded post-
tensioning, the ducts are corrugated to facilitate the transfer of force between the tendon
and the concrete. In contrast, the ducts for external post-tensioning usually have smooth
walls. Use of HDPE or PP ducts is recommended for corrosive environments. Plastic
ducts provide a noncorrosive impermeable barrier between the concrete and the grout.
Metallic ducts are usually galvanized to provide a degree of corrosion protection both
before and after construction. Galvanized ferrous ducts also provide a barrier to water
ingress but are not impermeable and may corrode over time in aggressive
environments. This may lead to an increase in the penetration of moisture and chlorides
or other deleterious substances, potentially reducing the long-term durability of the
structure.

Ducts are normally joined with fittings and sleeves that minimize grout leakage and
water ingress. Recently, a number of specially designed fittings have been developed
for plastic duct systems that are essentially watertight. These fittings, if properly
installed, can significantly decrease the amount of water that gets into the tendons and
can greatly enhance the structure's long-term durability.

Plastic sheathing is used for unbonded post-tensioning. Polyethylene is directly

extruded onto individual strands that are coated with P/T coating Figure(1.6.5) The
plastic sheathing provides a barrier that is in direct contact with the concrete and
permits the lubricated strand to slide independently during stressing and service
loading. The plastic must be impermeable to water and other corrosion causing

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contaminants such as chloride or other deleterious substances, and serves as a barrier

to corrosion. The sheathing must also be sufficiently durable to permit handling the
field and stressing without causing breaks and tears that would expose the underlying
steel strand.

Fig (1.6.5) bounded and unbounded system

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1.5TENDON LAYOUT
1.5.1- Overall Disposition of Tendons
There are several possible arrangements for the layout of the tendons in each design
strip.Figure [2.1-1]illustrates the alternatives. Note that the tendons in each direction
may be arranged in banded, distributed,or a mixed layout. In the banded direction all
of the tendons of a design strip are grouped in a number of flat bundles and placed
parallel to one another with a relatively small gap separating the constituent bundles.
The tendons form a narrow band, typically up to or slightly larger than 1.20 m (4 ft) in
width, following the support line. Tendons in the distributed direction are placed in
bundles of one to 4 strands, spread over the entire width of the design strip with
essentially equal spacing between the bundles.
 Banded tendons in one direction, and distributed in the other direction
 Banded in both directions
 Distributed in both directions
 Mixed banded and distributed in both directions

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FIGURE 2.1-1

All of the stated four options are deemed to provide equal strength capacity. The choice
of layout is generally governed by constructability. The option of banded in both
directions (Fig. 2.1-1(a)) is not permitted by the ACI Code. The constructability
advantage of this scheme is that it does not require interweaving of tendons in different
directions. The distributed tendons directly over the support (see Fig 2.1-2) are placed
and secured in position first, followed by placement of all banded tendons. Then the
rest of the distributed tendons are placed over the bands. Most other tendon layout
schemes require some interweaving. One other advantage of the banded-distributed
option, from a design standpoint, is that both directions can be designed with the
maximum permissible tendon drape. Banded and distributed tendons generally do not
cross at their high or low points, with the exception of two distributed tendons over the
supports (see Fig. 2.1-2). Therefore, the bulk of the strands can be placed with the
maximum allowable drape without interference from tendons in the perpendicular
direction. Views of distributed and banded tendons in a multi-story hotel construction
are shown in Figs. 2.2-2 and 2.2-3 respectively.
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FIGURE 2.1-2

FIGURE
2.2-2

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FIGURE 2.1-3

1.5.2- Tendon Profiles

Tendon profiles are generally made up of parabolic segments and straight lines.In the
distributed direction and in beams the reversed parabola shown in Fig. 2.2-1, is
adopted. For banded tendons, a partial parabola as illustrated in Fig. 2.2-2 is commonly
used. In practice, the sharp break shown for the banded tendon profile over the support
is not achieved. The actual tendon profile follows a more gradual transition over this
region.

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FIGURE 2.2-1

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 1.6 Types of Post-tension slabs

Floor system and layout of post- Typical span Typical COMMENTS

Tension tendons range loading
(column
center-to-
center)
Flat Plate • Lowest formwork cost
Light: • Flexibility in column arrangement
Up to • Flat ceiling
5 KN/m2 • Greatest flexibility in under-ceiling
To services layout
(6 to 9m)
Medium: • Must efficient if bay size is
5-10KN/m2 approximately square
• Load path easy to visualize
• Punching shear strength can be
Bands in one direction, and uniformly distributed
increased using stud rails, shear
tendons in the other
heads, or conventional shear
reinforcement

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 Flat slab with column capitals Light: • Effective system for increasing
Up to punching shear capacity if
5 KN/m2 architectural considerations permit
To • Small caps have minor effect on
(8 to 11m)
Medium: flexural behavior
5-10KN/m2
Bands in one direction, and uniformly distributed
tendons in the other

• Larger drop panels can be effective

Flat slab with Drop panels Light: in reducing flexural reinforcement
Up to • Normally used for longer spans
5 KN/m2
(9 to 12m)
To
Medium:
Bands in one direction, and uniformly distributed
5-10KN/m2
tendons in the other

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 Slab with slab band Light:
• Can be very effective in panels with
Up to
rectangular aspect ratios
5 KN/m2
• two-way behavior must be justified
To
(8 to 14)m to avoid more restrictive one-way
Medium:
code requirements
Bands in one direction, and uniformly distributed 5-10KN/m2
tendons in the other .
Waffle slab with Drops Medium:
• Very effective for heavy loading
5-10KN/m2
and relatively long spans
Heavy:
(9 to 18)m • Most efficient if bay size is
Over
approximately square
10KN/m2

Ribs both ways

Note: ideally the" drops" and "ribs" haw the same depth

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 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIE

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 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

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