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Pi IL'_ LA IN Dl!STI{! A f\IINF (/\
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Apuntes paríí el Cicio Uc vul1rer"nClas :

.. Aleaciones Resistentes al Desgaste de Uso en Min e ría ",
real izado en el Hotel O'Higgins de V iña del Mar, Ch ile ,
'­ I?B d Ius 21 y ~ 2 de noviem bre de 1983.

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b~ 'I\.J. J);\W~OJl, S. Shewchuck and J. E. Pritchard

F ,Jeorlbridge Limited

Hebuilding and hardlacing 01' wom components can facing services are ernployed when these processes have
often be used to rninimize maintenance and downtime costs. technical or economíc advantages .
The general types ofhardlacing aUoys are eompared in terms Table IV summarízes the capabilities and limitations of ~: " ':. :"'L;.-~
of relativo cost, composition, code or trade name, properties the hardfacing processes used in mining operations . )lo •

and suitable applications. Field test data and laboratory test Shielded m etal ,U'C' welding is extrernely versatile and uselu!
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data are discussed in terms of seleetíng hardf.acing alloys. when a vuriety of nonrepetitive repairs are made, whereus (~ :- ( ~ ,":
The total eost of maintaining equipment by hardíacing flux cor ed are ami submerged are welding become more r:..~~ ' " T

is usually mane up of material costs, welding labor, rernoval­ eeonomical when rcpetitive repairs are mude. Oxyucetylelit'
ínsta llatíon labor and unplanned downtime costs. When the welding is the prvIerred method of depositiuj; cobalt-bus«
non-material costs are much higher than the material costs, an d tungsten carbi
L o l..
e ovenays '
smce , .. .
uilutiou can. 1)e avoi'0eu.
J

alloy selection can be made on the basis of wear resistanee
alone. However, alloy ranking in terms oftotal maintenance
cos ts can change as UU:" ratio of material to non-material cost
varíes .
l. ­ H a r d fac ing Alloyl' une! D 'epo~i!ion Methoo a
Preparaban ¡¡Ir hardJ¡leing requires the choice 01' a
welding consumable und a welding procedure . Tablc 1 com­
pares the general types of hardlacíng alloys on the basis of
rclatíve eost. Price surveyx mclude six Canadian suppliers 01'
-1 mm or (5/,12 in.) electrodos in 50 kg (lOO lb) quantities.
~()le that the cost per pound ClU! vary by approxirnately 30
till)c~ del)t'nclin~ on tlw type oC ,Jloy se!ected. Prices for
eqlllvaJcn t alluys caD vary hy as rnueh as a lactar 01' five frum
su pp lie r lo supplit'r.
Table IJ COll1p¡jj'CS LIle general type uf haruiacing alloys
ill tenm 01' dcposit chemistry, identifi<.:ation, alloy
characteristics and sUltable applieations. A wide range al'
cornpositiom exists for eaeh type 01' alioy listed , ¡jj1(1, al­
tholl~h A WS speeification... (1,2) exist for sorne alloy types,
mast harJfacing alloys are solo on a tradename basis. 'Ihis
lack ol' st¡jjlda.rdizatio(\ ma.kes alloy selection ver)' difficult,
allel the rcsult;U1t confusion mhioits sorne potential lIsers.
:\t" 'ertheles~ , tl1l' possible saving ID maintenallce costs has
rnutivated Fa1conlmcige Limited to evaluate ayer 70 com­
lllL'fClal hardl:.tCll\g alloy~ and to <.:ornpile a hardlacing
Flame spraying is useful for applying thin eoatings to simple
geometnes SUL'h as cylinders,
Examples o f H a r dfa cing Applications
Irnpact Crusher, Figure 1 shows a hardfacíng pattern
on a rotor in un iuipuct crushcr. The rotor holds lilowbars.
and, as it swings around, it breaks silica rocks by srriking
thern .igainst stationary wear plates. The blowbars and wear­
platcs are eusíly replaced, but the rotor itself is expensive
and must be hardlaced about every 10 days. :\ welder cruwls
inside the equipment to rebu íld and restore the hardfacim;
pattern . Since much of the welding is out-ol-posiüou.
shielJd II\dal are wdding is the only practical depositi on
met1lod . :\ chrOIlllllnl iron was chase n to makt' the stringe r
,..
hcad pattem showll . since this type of alloy ha... exc:ell t-.lt
abrasloll resi st 'Ulce under dry cu nd itions ,¡t moucrak tem­
" .'
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peratures , Thesc relatively h'lcxpensive iron> han' a
structure of eh rom illfT1 earbldes in a hard steel Illatrix ,
Loading .Bucket. Figure :2 shows a diamond harclfacing
pattem on a loading hucket. Sllch pattems arc oftcn morc .:"1.
durable than completely covering a component with han!­
facing . The mast etlective pattem can o nl~ be determined
hv trial .mJ en"or at e,lc h location , but som e gene r.J
g{lidelines are ava.ilable \4, 5). lf the abrasi"e being hand!ed
is fine enough to pack between the \Veld beads, deposits (tr(l
bid perpeIldicuiar to th e material Aow. 111 this way , tht, I~" •

guidebook for compaJl,i maintellallce, tJngineering and abmsivc rllm un it~eLr, rather than the base nH:'W. LU'ge '. "
purchasing stafl'. ~ ,. . ;.
nx·ks tenu to clup off hW'dfacíng beads l¡¡,id perpendicular tu ' el. "
Tlle Wc!dlllg proCI.:S... CS llscd !()[ hardllleing llJ'l: !istl.'d in tlH.' luatería! llow . bul stringt'J" f>cad\ luid plJ.rul](·1 lo tlu: I'\>. ,k -r"
'J"¡¡ble II 1. Sl,ield(·d met,J ,tre, Hux eored ar e, oxya<:etylene liDW ca n st>rve <l.'> rails , which prevent abra~ion 01' tll C base
,llld ftune spraying are widd y lIseJ in mining op eratiolls. !l1(·taJ . Dialllllllc! or herrillglJOIIl' patlt:ms &t' Ilsed \\"11('11
. The rrocesSl's lIlark ed (*) find limited Ust~ un site be­
handling al>r;L'I\·t·S 01' !lllxed sizcs , in an attelllpt to (.'o lJl b lllt'
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ca use ro such fadllrs ,LS Spl'L'laJ operator skills ret.¡uired or

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d.dV,ultages 01' pcrpcndicll/a.r alld par,¡Jlel pattt' ms , S1I1.u1
hig;h ("<tpit~J L'osts. S[1l'L'i<.dty L'oating shops that providt:; hard­ dols of' hardfacillg can minimize the loca.! o\'edleat ing ,UlJ .,
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 [lO SELECTION AND USE OF ll AHDFACING ALLOYS

drs tortiou uf hard-to-weld iJav' metals. Ira hardlilcillg alloy
hel.., lH'c'lI spall iIl¡; off in a rugg ed appl ícation , a dot patt c ru
m",\ h n ll~ so rne im p r» ve n u -n ts . In th e case 01' hi~h - cost
II .irdLIClllg .illoy s such 'L., tllllg., tell carbicle, a dot p att e rn w ill
1(1\\ , ,1' h oll'd Jacillg il' u tl"r i¡u (:o, t.,.
E arth Com pacto!'. Figure ~) shows an carth co m pacto r
t ....4
ea.. ,tlllg f'mm a nJclJ sld c COI\.,trudJOIl sitc, A bcad o!'
aluminicle and iutermetallic coatings were \V1)rT\ <'tll ll pldd\
through alter 2. ~i¡ mon ths (JI' service.
As uoted in ' [;ll>les 1 ,uHl 1I, colxilt- ..UlJ 11l t:k , ~I -h ¡lo'>e
ulloys ar e the most versatile but also the most expensive
types o í' hardíac ing alloys . Th e y are particularly attracnv e
when ex tr e me heat o r co rro si ón is co mbined with metal -to­ "
r 'r.
metal or abrasive wear conditíons. Th ese eoatings tend to
;~ .. "'. .~ ~

ch ro m iu u: iron hanlbcill~ h.J.'> hee n rleposited ar ou nd the polish J un ng se rv ice, ma.king them use íul for sliding or
se a ling suríace s . t'· ..z­
ed ge uf the <.:<L'>lillg .ind carth is trapp ed in th e pock et t, :!. ,.
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fo rrucd , tJIU, p rot c c t ing the co m puctor ír om ab ras íon. Three ty pes 01' co m me rc ial weur p Lale s wcre e valu uted , ;¡
,
,\-fine Cal' Whecl., and Shafts. Th e und ercarriages of lo replac e the low alloy steel ruils in the drag chain co nveyo r,
Hot abrasion was so severe that e xtra m ain te nunce
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truins used to tr an sport ore in mines are su bje ct to ubrusi on , ! , ':

un d bo¡..',ies IlHlsI he rcbu ilt periodicall y, Mine car whcels are shutd owns werr- bc ing con side red . Figwc' ¡.; shows UlC
..rb ruclcd 0'1 Lh e treud w lu- n ore fragm enrs ar e cruxhed urrun g e-rncnt 01'te ,t p ie-ce s and Tah le VI givcs the results o!'
(1)4illJ I., l tll t' tr ..ick , Flallg C., are- so m e times worn so thin that
an eight-month íield tes t.
th, '~ .,h e w· 'llLlIId must [ll' c-nt uel y rehu ilt . F igu re ·1 sho ws a T he braz ed wearplare was p rod ueed by vacuurn eopp e r
m uu- car whcd llClIlg IJU ilt up uy slIlJlllergeu are welding. L r azing a ru urtcn s iri c w lritr - ir on custing to a m ild stet:l
" bac.kpbte. Th is material , which softened dt se r ; ice ternper¡,¡­
t Tlle whe.:! i~ lo{;kec.l UI a hxllJrC "Uld 1lI0unted on a lathe so it
1.::" tures , sllOw e d wear rate s int en nediate behve e l\ th e low
CWl rolatl' about Ils axis .L'> llld a.! is d eposite<l. Th e lt..igh
dq.Jo.,lti on rat e 0 1' .,erlliautoll1J.lic submergecl arc weld ing alloy s teel allJ hard L ce d wear phtes . ~. ~ .
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IllaJ.-e.'> thi ~ pnx:cdllre eUJ llu ln ic:al. Be<.:anse 01' th e smoolh
~ u rC.lCe s pnxl uce cJ , unl y ruinor maehining is requ í.recJ be lclre
The high chromi um, high carbon WP¡u' pbks Wére
produeed by c.i palellled varL.itiO!l uf sub!lH'rged.!Te weld ing
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whu· is r.:Wl be shn lll k-fit oulo the bügie JX.les . The simple known as " bulkwc!di.llg." This prcx:ess i:; dvail,ó le fro fIl a
'> [ 1"'1I~ 0 1' U1e w hee b wld t!JI' }¡ i ,~h frequen cy o[ rep air also number or
speedty coatin~ shops, and it allows brge area.:; ~. i"
rllake ,u llflle rged ,lre weld ing attraetive . A low eari.Jon sted to be harJfaceJ ecollomic alJy. TaLle 6 shows tJUlI \Vear rJ.tt..-'S
w in: i.s u.'> ec1 be cau se it lS ll1J.chülahk aJld í.lIe xpens ive . More were cut by a tiletar offive using bulkwelJed w earplutt: , ,Uld ,
allfa.WJll n:~istarl l il ]] OYS Iw ve ¡JI.len SIIOWTI lO be uneconOln i­ sillt,:e lh e ins talla tio n lab or is a m.. ljor cos t ite m , instaJlcd mi.!
cal hecallsL' rai! (1<ullage incn.:<ls ed. ClJsts \Vere ullly illcre.. lScd by 13'7" . Bulkw elded wearpwtt:s
l3o¡je sh¡Jb are coateJ w ith an ,JlIll\illlllD uronze ,J loy are cun c ntly ot'ing evaluated as inserLs in ioadillg hllckets.
...
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lo give 11Iw(~r fr idl<J11 ,.UIel lo prllveul Ilwt a!-oll-uletaJ \Ve'lr. lla.lllIllCn\l¡IJ HalluIlCl-s. TJw .,e!l'L'!iOIl 01' !1;l.nllueill g
F igun' ,5 shovvs a sha.ft hemg iLune spray mateJ . Powd er 01' alJoys ¡Uld we!(tillg pnx:euw'es for !J¡U111nell.Tlill ha!IlIl}( : r~ hd.~
w irc is leullllo un o xy ac ,.:lyl e:n e I-"jlS s t rea nl ¡Uld IS car ried by l ){~e ll doc'ulIl ent('{l in detail d St:'w he rc' (5). Fi gt u'l' ~ shows ..1.
th e ¡.t,a.., fro lu th e h u ntc r tip to lh e wor kpi cce. T hi:; produces fixluJ'e used tu ¡"" bu iIJ wld \Hu'd Lce hWlllllerlllill h.uTlIUl' r.,.
,1 d, :po slt that can Le Ill~,cllwllc ally bo nd ed and [used in a .\brasJ()Jl wa.., relllovillg \) kg (:2.0 lb) 01' rnet..u frum eal:h uf
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su b.,equelll ope ratHlfI nI' el i rt'cdy fuslOn honde d to th e base Iline , HS kg (2 10 lb ) manga.nese stee l halll m ers t:'\ ery twu ,· ./'
me tal. 1'}¡(:' pnx:c.,.\ 1., Vel., a úle , has low capita.l costs a nd clays . Three sllilb ol'wclders were kept busy h u ilJ lllg up !he >...., 'J. ~
' (llUld, .,IIloo t.h d eposits l.' W I Iw o1.Jta lll e d b y ,u] o pera to r w ith h ..U1Il11 erS \\,¡th lll,m ganest:' ste el wld hardG.ll:Ulg with ,1
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Ilttl e c·xIH: r ie llcc .
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" hro lllllll n iroll . S('ln iau to rnatic lIux L'Ored are wt' ld illg usillg
lIot Drag CLli.n C Oll ve yo r . During the slart up of a Cll lTeJ) t s of ·mo lu 5üü "l fll p S ..lid 2.. -; m m \7í ()..1 1l1. ! d iwnélt' r
Il l'W "llIcl te l , ~e~ l' r aJ \~ eal pro blcln s occulT eu in th c !lm Wlre \hL'> 11'''.] t l l I<lIp r o ve l"( ' p a ir r",r<~ s .
drag cO lI\e ~ o r s)'st em . Ahrasi ve roas ter c..ucine ®charg<-"<l
IIlto th e COlJ\"eyo r ..Jt f)O<! e il ¡ 10 F) is pushed a10ng in a
By adopting the fu\Jow in g proeedures, the wddi ng
labor was rcdul.'cu f¡'o m :15 tu 12 hours per se! 01 kU1I nlers.
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truu gll L¡cl(m: 1)(: 1I)~ t r "LJI.'> J~ 'IT, .:d to anoLhe r furu ace . Figu re 6 \Vom hWllllll ' r~ Wl'l"l' pL lce J in a copper molJ , ¡L" SIrOW Il i./\
·, I H¡ w ~ ,\ I III \"'PI' n>... . :3 fu '> " el " " 1 u f the: 5(j() rn \ 1600 It ) dr•.g ,
F l g l l rt ' 8. Tlr b .'>l ' I·V I'(\ lo L~ .Jlltajn the wel e! alld ..t1 , o ,Jct('{ i .1.' .1
c\ 1J.lll S\ .,tCJlI wllll'h hJ.'> \wl.'n o l >t:' l w d t.o sllow t1ln,(:' dr:.lg f· ­
rl'lerCIlL'I' (litllIll ¡()r o Vl'rLt\ !Tl(;,¡e;w '(·rncll ts . ..\ p¡u r 01 ga ug c, t '
I lmi n lillb . 1IIlt Illc ta l'(l II-llId¡J wear 0(.>I.;1I rn :d a l Uw p ins
l lla t huId (hc ch,ulI to~dl 1('r. Hot a br as lOn 01' tll(' sup port
\ViL., u~(' d lo ¡Il (J¡ c a tL' hw-J fUl'ill g alld b ui.ld up d " nenslu ll>. ·
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T!tesl ' ¡.;a1lgl·" rl' t!u( 'l' d tll l' [lú ss ibiUty of applying !l!wtr':U1eS{' ~ -"
rad, tlll' challl lillks ;.llld collv eyor bo.\ \lit're ,JI preselltíng steel OVe r tJ l(' rl'~!d ll'-l.\ brittlt' kmlb ciJlg a!lu ~J so 1l1...IllL' Jt
pl(lLllt' llI, lo 1'<'1110 \ l' 'lll.:j¡ d epo si ts p ¡; or lo apr¡~ ' ing
1I1111t ' L't' S S.L1)
.\ ,'> I :>' - I I I O ll t h rield le sl '''1..'> used to e .... 'J ua k p ill L'oatin g;s ollilJ up . Tb re e' 1. 1\·C'l'S uf a h igh cllfomiulll wh ltt:' ca.., t ¡ro ll r,,'
. . ¡,
1"l.'l' OIIIlIII ·l ldec! J¡ ~ lwo hc.irdbclllg cOlllpWlIe.,. Fi gure 7 l~ )IIl­ \Ver c useJ to ca p ti\(' hJ.lllJller . 1"he e<.l.'>tJIlg \\"e; th l'Il rt~ '; ' }

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pare, I WW J..IId f¡"ld !t.' ,lcd p lIlS alld Tab le \' lists Ihe IlIax­ !llo ved frorn t h e mold J.lld h.. l1'd&ceJ on th e worki.ng bu' I

Illllljll deplh (JI' IVI'aJ for (';¡,·h type of pinoThe ori~m,J pins TI\(' Iwnllll'r [j[t' , dq)ositioll rale ¡Uld material CO rlsul1lp lioll
we n' C~L'> ( ' carbllri wJ ..1Ilc! WOIl' to a depÚ"1 0 1' (j Il1lll (1/1 ill .) , wen' g real ly illlPI'O VI'd b~' dl've!{)pillg guod \\'(·Idlllg
,. wIJert':l," l l\(' cill'lJllliltlll (';u l nde a.lId [;ol),i/t b,lW spr;W (,¡at.. p j',.l('( it'l'~ , iJle!IlI!lIl¡.', pro¡Jcr tor('!l íUlglt' amI r:!" illl wirt' sto!"
J' mg,> ~, Iu) w(.'d I (~s .'> lhillll) .O,'i IIIIll 1'O .()02 in ,) we;¡r. TiJL' nickc! ..lge bl·di ties .
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SELECTION AND USE OF HARDFACING ALLOYS
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\V(~ar 'l'e¡;ting of Hllrdf ueing Alloys
Fi elJ lt'sllllg 0(' h¡u'dl¡cing allo ys is the onlv way to
1,'
confino cos t e ílective ness. Unlortunatel y, fielJ testsare not
\ 'elY reproducib]« ,L~ illus t ra ted by Tahl e Vl l , which lists
lie ld test data cornparing the pcríonnance uf two white iron
c¡b t illg ulloys in rotary crushers .
The Jata took a lul] ye,u' to ge-nerate , but it docs show
clearl y that the lH'k el' ironis more wear resistant than the
2590 el' iron in this application. Use of the more wear
resistant alloy could result in an annual saving of$.'36,OOO in
materials ulone , plus savings in maintenance labor. Th ís is
exceprioually good field test inlormation that resulted from
keeping uccuratc maintenancc- récords. The scatter in most
field (Lila ' typically precludes ranku 19 0(' ¡J loys , und makes
- ,
cos t- bc uc íit unal y xis impossihlc. Cood (idel test Jata can
so me tirnes be gCllt.: ra teJ lry testing ulloys sim ul taneo usly
und ensuring that test conditions do not introduce a bias into
t}l/:' re sults .
Laboratory te sts oller a r elati vely ine xperisi ve way to
rank allo ys. :\t Falconbridge Metallurgícal Laboratoríes,
two uh rusion tests are- m<~d lo determine wh ich alloy s are
suitablc 101' fi eld cvaluation . Figure 10 shows the operutíng
principie 0(' each tést and 'LtbIe VIII gives sorn e typic;J test
re sulh , ln the low sln~ss, scratching ubrusíon tt'st, a I1.lbbeJ'
whed is lIsed to drag salid across a Hat specimcn . Test
proet:dun:s cOlTlply with ASTM Slm<.!ard Practice G65·-80,
'lIld cOlld it:ioo s are meant to si.lllulate sliJ.ing abrasion oC'
cOlllpollent s slleh as Ül ore chutes, spira.l dussillers, cyclones
and carth augers . In the hi¡;h stress abra.~ion test, a heavi.ly
load e J sample tJaveb ilroulld a s:md cov ered stcé l tra ck.
This te st was uri¡!,u\,Jly developed at tlw orilish Cas t 1ron
~
He .'t:al'ch Assoóaliol1 (6), aJld the <.:Onditions simulate g¡ind­
i illg ai.ml,jon of componeots such as roUerusber roUs , grind­
! ~
ing mc(tia, briquette press roUs, undercarriage rolls and
harnrnennill harnmers. Table VIII shows that hardElCing
;,(l1oys can be deady rankeJ b y both ofthese te sl, . Note that
: ~
a considerable range in abrasion resi.>tance eilil, within each
gencml tYPi! uf al!oy, Table VIII abo in clUl..lc ~, bbofUtol)'
'j
\
abr;.c;ioll data for white irollS A a.nd B whi<.:h m·e tbe same
"1
i
--­ types of ¡ro n field-tt:stcu in the rotal)' iInpact ellls hc rs
~ .~
,1- ' n:'J
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Tablt: VI1) ,
·í
.¡ S<.:attl..'r Ul lhe fielJ Il'sb was TIlore lh..llI fuur times
,í'í grc ater t1¡;U\ in thlo' Iabor<.J.tory test.~. COJlljxuing tht' rt"pro­
'j­
i ducibility of the fit:ld tests am! the laboratory lI..'sts , it call be
il-· showll tilal seVCII(e t.: ll tillH'S the l11.uoher uf {ú:lJ Lt'sls n1llSt.
i, be dOlle Ul cornpari.'iOll w ith labora!.ory te sts to ilchicve the
.:.\
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sa rne ¡JJowable error (AST M RecommenJed Pr.u:tict> for
'L~ Sta tis ti t.~! :\n.Jysis E 122-12). It is not eworlhy that the
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laboratory tests took tlne day to preJiet a40% impn>vement,
wlwrcas t.he fielJ tests took olle year to eo n finn that this
'~ resuh was vali<.l. Thes/:' reswts ernpha.'i2.e the vaJue of
, la bo ra to l y tt'sting to ran.k cán didate m at eri.Js prior to field
.:~ e va !ua tío ll.
3,",
~L To tal Maint.emmc e C Ol»W
The t()t~J cost
of ma.inbining equipmenl by hurd.G.cing
1
'­
,
J.....
is usually ¡nade up ofn.aleria.! c'Osts and norunat,~riah$uch as
P ,
III
welding labor, n -moval-installat íon labor unJ unplunned
downtirne costs. When the nonmaterial costo; are mueh
hi gher than the material costs , alloy selection ca n be rnade
o n the baxis of a h rusio n resistance ulone. How ever, if tlu:
material costs are of prime importance , the selecti on shoukl
be mude on the basis of performance/cost índex where:
• Abrasi ón Factor
Períormance/Cost Index> . ,
Relatíve Co st
The higher the performunce/cost index, the more abra­
sion resistance purchased per d ollar spent. Table LX lixts
some typícal performuuce /cost índices for hardfaciug alloys.
Note that alloy r..mk.ingchangos when the performance cost
índ ice s are consídcred.
\Vhen neithcr material nor nonmatr-riul costs are clom­
iuant, maiuteuance eosts shoukl be iterruzed aud toI¡J(~d,
The íollowing expres s ion can b e used to estimute how total
maintenance cost chang es ¡f o ne ulloy is subsritutcd lor
another:
Helative Total a tm c+ 1)
Muintcnance Costs 111 + 1
Where : a=abrasioll íactor ofpres ent all o y -i- ubrasion ¡lictor of
new alloy
C=Cüst per kg (lb) of new alloy -:-eost [:ler k¡¡; (lb) (if
present a.lloy
m=present material costs -:-present nonmatcri.al
<.:osts
This model assulll es that laharatory test data cm be
directJy reJated to fi eld wear rutes anJ henee, the frequeney
of maintenance repair. It is ¡¡ lIsefuJ rnethod 01" estimating
whether illl a.ltemate harclial.:illg ,Jloy will wter tot<J Illaillk­
Ilan ce cüsts .
Example . A new white iro n hardfacing alloy was
selected to b¡lfdface hammers in a hammenni!l on the !Jasi.,
of the lo\lowing data:
G Pwsent materi,J c:osts==$18,480
., Present wdtling labor :':': $12,4t~l)
(5(;(::
therefóre , ID == 18.480 ~ 12,.108 := lAS
.......
i,':":l ;'
<11 Abr¡¡si~1l[¡¡eta r pres ellt anoy= 1.10
o. "
la Abrasioll bctor ll(;'W alloy7':': U:H
,~'. "
Ulerdore, a"" 1.10 + 1.&1=0.67
l'
e Cost per kg of ne w a1l oy= $2 .40
I
t'J Cost per kg oCprt:sent .Jloy=$J .07
therelore , <: =2.40 + :Ul6= O.78
.,l ..
~
Substituting in th e aoove equation pred.ict~ a rebtive
lotallna.inten¡U1Ce cos t ofO.58. Therefore we!diog ane! mat e­
dal cuo; ts shoulJ drop to 58 % ofthe current ievel; ¡,e ., fi·orn
$:30 ,000 to $17,900, ir th e 5u ÍJs ti tu tio n is maJ e. l{,umnenn ilJ
fieId tests m easured a relati ve tota.! maintenunce cost o{O.6 t
on the sall\e ba.~is (5). lo this exarnple , a gL}od correlatioll .
existe<! betweell Iaboratory and Beld test (bla. Estinta tes of

 112 SELECTION AND USE or HAHDFACINC ALLOYS

--------------------------,--,,---.-------­ .
• f. .

relative muintenance cost are not expected to be this accu­
rate in ge ne ral .
Figure 11 plots relative total rnaintenance costs as a
Iun ction of the ratio of material cost s to nonmaterial costs (m
in the equation ). The plotted línes show the effeet of relative
cost/kg of [\VD ulloys (e in the equation). Note that the
im por ta nce of relative cost/kg diminishes as the ration of
material costs to nonmatcrial eosts hecome srnaller.
1-,
~ 70.
'} ­ Concluding Uemarkil
~ .~ l larJfi\cing alloys are cost efloctive in dealing wíth a
'i ­
variery of maintenance problems in [he mining industry.
~ i
Cenera! guideliues are uvailable to se lec t hardíacing ulloys
;- l~.
and d epos ítion methods. In some cases, laboratory tests can
1 be used ro rank alloys and to estímate changes in rnaínte­
.l ­ nanee costs. Comparutive field testing is required to coníirrn
i that substitutions are beueficial.
J.­
,~ ~ ' .;', ..
Unfortunately , there is still considerable mystery sur­ I '~ , . "
rounding [he selection and U5e of'bardlacing alloys. Product
standardizatíon by manufacturers and the e mergence of reli­
able data for selectíon should broaden the use of these
specialty alloys in the future .
ileferenee8
l . Sp6C J,Hqltilln s l')l' Suríacíug Wcl,üng Il.lxh ~d Electrodos. :\ \VS :\5 . j1.
2. Specifications íor Cornposíte Surfncíng Welding Hods and Electrodos.
AWS A5.21·70.
i...
3 . w. H . Kearus , [;;d. , Weldillg Handbook, Se venth Editi on , Volurne 2,
Chapter 14. American Weleting Sociery, 1978.
.1. Hardfacing CuiJt:iXJOk, Stoody Compan y, Culifomiu, 1963 .
5 . S. Sh cwch uk, [.H. Dawson and I\ .A. Beland, "Ap plieatious lo, ' ¡ ~I'.1St.'
ing in the M ining Industry, ' Canadian :'vlining ano :VletaJlurgiCil\ Bulle­
tin , No vernber , 1~.
6 . J.W . Boyes, " D e ve lop rne ut ano Use of un Abrusion Test for Cast lrons
aml Stee ls," 1ron and Steel , v'olume 42, February 196"J, pp. 57-03.

:!

,-.

.,'
i
~

­ ,) '¡ O

. t

;;
Table I Relative costs of Hardfacing AlIoys
.~ - :J.
1\;',
1~
..
Rolative Cost'
."
, ' .
.

,1-.
General AlloyType February1981 March 1982

i-
~¡

ríA 1.0
.'
t
Low Carbon Steel Buildup 1.0
'.
'1

. ~. -
Manganese Sleel Buildup 1.6 15

..,
Marten silic Sleel Hardfacing 1.5 1.5
'.

,~
Chromium-Iron Hardfacing 2.3 2.3

'P
Copper-Base Hardíacmq 6 6

' . Tunqsten Carbide Hardfacing 15 13

l
. .'
N icko l ..8 asG I-brd facino 18 18
.:j
~. ~
,~ 1 Cobalt -Base Hardfacing 37 27 ..
' ;' '1.,
•r.:OO' ¡.." . .
.~\.~.
>•
"Relatlve co st equa ls the cost of alloy type div ided by the cosl
i3 fil 01 low c arbon sle el buildup The average COSI 01 low car bon
~..,~
sle el bu ildup In 1981 was $3.96/kg ($1 80/lb) and In 1982,
;;: \ $4 .60/kg ($2 .09/lb) .
.,
.J
;-.~

, "1
'1,

\;.1 ,

...·.!Ü
~,
I

,)~
:~
.\ ~
 --------.....---_-.!.:_,
SELECTION AND USE üF HAllDFACING ALLOYS 113
 (\

114 SELECTION AND USE OF HARDFACING ALLOYS 1I

Table 111 Hardfaclng Methods

AreWelding

Shielded Metal A,re

Flux Cored Are

Submerged Arc

Gas Tungsten Arc'

Gas Metal Arc'

Plasma Are'

Elec troslag Weld ing'

Oxyfuel Gas

Oxyaeetylene Welding

Thermal Spraying

Flarne Sp raying

Plasm a Sp raYlng '

Electr ic Are Sp rayrng '

Detonatron-Gun Proce ss'

~ .. .
Table IV WeJding Procesa Selectlon and Comparison
1" ~s .

Srueld ed Flux Coreo Submerg ed Oxy acetylene Flame " ~ -, tt; ,

M etal Ar e Are Are Welding Spr ayrng
\;­
Versatrlily Excellent Good Poor Exc ellent Poor :i!
Ca p ua l Co st Low Moderate Hlgh Low Low ~4 " '.'.;

..•.•:
Operauno
Factor
(Are Time 30% 45% 50% 25% N/A
D,vlded tlY ,..' 0
Total rime)
Operaror
Sk lll H lgh High Low Very hlgh Low
¡;O,-­
Req uJred
Jt'b
H eallnp ut Moderale Slrghlly High Hlgh Lowfor
hlg he r lh an sprayrng,
SMAW hiq h íor
spraya nd
tuse
Oeposmon 3-101b/h 3 -30 1b / h 5 -401b/h 1-31b/h 1-7Ib/h
Rale
\ ' "
, ~ .. >
Volum e o l

. ~
Srnoxe Moder are Exc esslve Mimrnal Mlnlrnal Low

Proou ced
~ ~~. "
.. ",
:
Size ct Full range Full ranoe Dependent on l.imited to l.nrute d lo ,..:,
Par! 01 sizes 01 sizes gemelr y of sm all size 01 .. _ l .

Pi3 rt rotatmq
, ~ r=
'
~"j '
equrprne nt
'o
ne po slllo n 6 5c h~ 82% 100 % 100% G5% , o

Ell lc lenc y
r.·~·j, ~: ~·
Pos ruon AII Flat. Flal AII Honz ontal 1-'
posmons hcnzoru al, posrnoos veruca
ve rtic al

~peol AII alloy s, AII ex cept Low carbo n , C o bau -base, AII alloys
I cJr ll lm; ,ng r<.: / lo c oppo,and martensmc lun g Glen ruf ro
Alloy Table 1 tung sten c arb ioe Iabre 1
carbrde

Fwquency Used or Usedon Usad In Usadon NOI

01 mfrequ enl par ts rnore rep eal ed inírequent re srnc tc d
H ardfaclflg repaus treq ue rll ly ap p hc ations reoarrs by /: ,
rep arred Ireqoency
: " ';~'-~ '.
01 repa«
,~
"
h"
 SELECTtON AND USE OF HAIlDFACING ALLOYS 115

Tanle V Six-Month Trial 01 Conveyor Plns

Maximu m
Samp le Depth 01Wear

Ca se Carb unzed (Req ) 6 2 mm (0 .245 in .) --O rig inal Pin Mater ial

Nlckel Alurninide 34 mm (0.132 in.) - -Worn through eoaling in

sp ray/ fusa coating (C ) 2V2 months

Co -Mo-Cr-Sr Interme tallic 1.9 mm (0.074 in.) --Worn through ano

sp ray/fuse coa ling (E) removed alter 2Y2
rnonths
.. ~. ,"
Chromium Carbide o 15 mm (0.006 in.) -Spalled initially 1", " ~ o.

sp ray eoaling (O)

Co-Cr-W- 8 -C OAO mm (0.016 in.) -Polish ed Wear Sear

sp ray/tese coa ting (A)
. 'i~'
.{ ~ '.
Sym bo ls in par entnesis retor 10 Finure 7 L:

,
t

..

"'l '
,. ,
r,

Table VI Ei ght-Month Fleld Test ot (~Qnvevor flsfls "fF'f'

tnstatteo Rail :,!l . '...
Sam ple Wear Per Monlh Costs Per Meter (foot)" ':f
¡, , '..
~ ' . ,~' .

Low I\II0y Steel 0 .84 mm (0033 in ) $258 .76 ($78.56) o; , .....

1:
$351.43 ($10 7 11) · '.i."
Brazed Wear Plate 048 mm (O 019 in. )
¡ , !ft,
15% Cr, 3% Mo, 3% C

Bulk SAW Wear Plato O 18 mm (0.007 in) $289 .75 ($88.3 1)

5% C , 29% C r, 2.6% Mo ,t~ ~

~ .~ '. ~ v­
81.11k SAW Wear Piafe o 13 mm fO 005 m) $292 .34 ($89.10) · ' .. "

4 5%C. 301i/o Cr, 0.6% Mo

'" ;
' Note Inslallation labor= $Can. 241.68/m ($73.66/H )
~ '.:' ,;,:,:
,..;;
; ~(!

·.
r .

i ..

: ' Iwo- - : ;i : '.

,..
 ('1
O

Tablo VII Rotary Impact Cru sh er Fleld Test on Blowbar AHoys

Ave rage Tons 01Ore Crushed

Mac hine While Iron per Sel al Castmus :

Cru sh er # 1 A 1875"4 70
(30 sets) B 2080 r 490
k .'
Cru sh er #2 A 1520:! 440
(36 se ts ) B 2260:!: 430 1"k <.". .
' 1, r~
( .. ..
Cru sher # 3 A 20 90 = 520 ? '~ ', ",
(27 seIs ) B 2930:! 750 ...' , ", .

' Averag e r one stand ard de via tion quoted

Whlte Iron A = 25 % Cr , 2.5% C

..:~~. ,' ..-"
Whi te Iro n B = 18% Cr, 3% C, 1.5% Mo, 1.0% Ni
(o na ton = 0907 metric tons) ;.r?\.

Table VIII Typicaf Data for Laboratory Abrllsion Tests

~ -. , ;;'.t.
Low Stress High Stress ~ ,. ~
M ate rial Aor asion Facto r' Aorasion Factor"

Mod ified Ch rormum lron Hardl ac ing 30 3.0

~l (5% C, 21% c.
8.S%Nb, 9% Mo . 68 HRC)
-~ .
l ungsten C arb id e Hardfacing 17 2.1
(SMAW 2 4%C , 58% W, 64 HRC)
., . ~; ..
Cnrorruurn Iron Hard facing 20 1.6

(4 8% C. 23% c. .
2% Mn ,

1% Mo, O 4°;;JV, 513 HRC)

I ~ Chrornium lron fl ar,jlacing 46 0.95

: 1· .
·1 (3 l o/u e, 14% er, 2% Mn.
:J ~ o
15% Si. 5% Mo. 53 HRC)
¡

! Ca st Wrl ite Iron ·- A 57 10

¡
(2.5% e, 25% e- 62 HRC)

' 1 '~ ".

;ff-. ·~ ; .
I
; ~"
C ast White Iron - - B 11 14 • • j.\... .

(3% C, 18% c.
15 % Mo, 1 0% Ni,
, 1" ,

l .•
•

6 1 HRC )
'.""
Cast l.ow Alloy Sleel 2.1 1,1
r.
(O4% e, 1 9% NI, 0 8% Cr, 54 HRC)
¡ i¡'é, ..

r
; ~

'1
Marrensu.c ~~I í:: C I
(0 .8 'Y" C , 6 % c ., 1%
Hardfacing
M n ,
1.7 0.95
.., ', ..
1 "'

í"i.
.
J
"

" ,
.
",

1' ~ o 4% Si. 50 }-mC) ~ , '

1
), ~

;L . MangiJncse Steel Buuouo

(07 % C. 14% Mn, 3'7'0 e
21 1.0

¡ ~: o 3% Ni, 97 r iRS)
.~ -
,
M an O ~.Jn e s e Steol Buildup 0 .8 0.6

j",
·ir
j
i
,
,~i
1;1:'
(0 1% C . 1:1% Mn , 10% Cr,

1% NI, 9 1 HHl'3)
'. " -~ .

1.
~ .- Mild Steel Bdr 1.0 1.0
.i.1..-.. (0.2% C. 95 HRS)
~ ...~;.
i
.¡ {!~ ~ ~~ .
' A b r as ro n Fa ctor ~ W e ight l. o ss M ild Steel -r- W e ig ht l. o es o! Sample Mate ria l
/'"
1, f~ J'
 f
SEL ECTION AN D USE OF HABDFACING ALLOYS lli

TablelX l yplcal Pertormance/Cost tnd lces tor Hardtaclng Alloys

tnc ex For lnc ex For

Low Stress Hlgh Stress f ' ,.
Material Abr as ron Abra sión
i~ ;:' . ,
;~ - :.; :1
0.23
Mod ifled Cnro rmum lron
Hard lacmq (5% C. 21% Cr
23
~ - ,.
8 5°;0 N b . g% Mo . 68 HRC )

1un(Jsten Carbrde Hard tacrnq 12 o 15

(SMAW 24% C. 58% W, 64 HRC)

C hrorruum Iron Hard íac inq 14 1 1

(4 S% C. 23% Cr. 2% Mn .
1% Mo, 0. 4% V 58 HRC)
,.l .
Cn rorruum Iron Ha rcí acmo 3 .8 0 78 ~'. '

(3 1% C 14%Cr. 2%Mn.
1 5% SI O5% Mo. 53 I-IRC)

Marlensltlc Steel Hardfac1ng 13 07

(0.8% C 6% Cr. 1°/" Mn. . :~
f .~ .
O~ % SI , 50 HRC)
t·
Manoane::;e st eo: [l ulldup 23 11
(0 .7°/" C . 14 % Mn , 3% c.
0.3% NI. 97 HRB)

Man g anes e Steet Bu ild op 04 03

(O 1% C. 14% Mn. 10% Cr
1% Ni. 9 1 H RB) ~ .: "

. ' :: c;
" 0-; 1

... ' : '.

.~
,­

,. . .,
.

• • · -.. , l
;."

t~

,: /( ",1 HJ-, ( 1I ilJ/f . 1t flll "1 ' /1 h l1r cl j (J. (,lI i,.!. I Jud. 1"7; i " ¡)( / ) I! ¡ :( i /./(; 1 ¡ji.. ..' ! ' ,; II t; , ·¡¡.///d l/ ! ';;.'I" :: p U/l.T' 1 ' 11 ¡" " e f 1' 11" " ,.
í " 1 \ / Il("/d~ ti I/: ~ ud 1/1 I ' l l ·/ d lt l~' II H (l rot ¡» Oi I{ " u rl/ J(lcl !1 [ti n t ! riu] /111t{;' 1

nu!« ,
 f1,
1 l!i SELECTION AND USE UF HARDFA CIN C .\ LLOYS .L u

'o.
'::, .
. "

f..
~ "

.1:

f /(: I fU', j SUII tro¡>p¡'d I>y Iwrdjiwzng /,u rtr' n ¡ he lp.1

Il/ l ' l t 111 ulnu I·¡¡¡ J¡

f,." .. '<:
, . :- ~ ,

:: ", ' "¡,'

"
1' . :.:.\ ' ....

' . ';

¡,o
t'<o.

1:' :
: ­

/ ( . 1 1,I :, / '1 111 1 " , t cl 11 1,' I( I /U1) / nc: NJ

~;
., j

... ~

;.

tl ~ '\:; -':
."
 ~

SELEcnON AND USE OF HARDFACING ALLOYS 1J. 119

: ... {.,'.
Ca L c n e
í

v zw REC A -600 C Mart en" i t1c

~ ',.,;.;

Ste e l ~e úr Pla t es

~
l .
~r'~ '~ -, '

1;, . '

~ " .
·- w: .....{ >.

Expe r mental
í ~. •. j~. :,.
l-Je ar PlateA í
l. ;"
I I e D
PIe uRE 8 - A rran gement oftest rails in drag conceijor[or
¡ - r~
, ~ .~ eight-mo71thfield test.

FI G U RE 1-- D ra g co nvcijor p ilk~ fie ld test ed f uI' .,i x mouths

to eoaluate coat ings (See r abie V for coat ing

ide n tifu; utivu J.

SA N o
.- F'.i
i~ j '
ii:i1

- t'f~

. ~I~Ú t• ._
'; I\.
i::M

,
'. .~ .

:::.~
¡ ~
es
i., ­
.~ .-... ~:
~ ;.

:1, { ...
~ í. ..­
'j
i
~
.1
- ¡---------- - -----j ", "

J LOAD
,j J
~

I 1---- -- --- -
1 ~

1 ~;:,¡
,/ "
A '" ~.
I ~
/ . '.
'1
'¡
...J.-..
'i~

,:1--- F1CI. 'HI·; U - - Fixt ure fuI' rubuilduu; atul hu nlfuóllg lunu ..

lite n uil! [uuunu: rs .

t
~
-t, -. FIC UHE 10 - - Scheuuitic represetüation of laboru torij
abras ion tests. T op-s--lou: stress abrasion. test , Bottorl1-­ ,:;. 1

.~ high si ress ah rasiou test .

~}.-
ij \ '1

i-­
~
1",

:~ R
{; 1)
',!.v-"
,', 8~
:~
 . ~

120 SELECTION AN D USE O F HARDFACING ALLOYS .l ¡:,;

-::F"
1. 0 01
1 x
- - - - --lO.7 '­
l- :.. ..:! ..
(/) .,
0.5 O "
1-
ü ...
~ "
1 "

LU
LL!
>
> 0 .25 ¡::
<! r. . ,': i'
1­ ...J r ¡ Ós ~ ,"

<! W
...J
UJ
u:: ~\.. -':"10', .: .
~.
ce ."t-
. '. ' !t
:~

_ _-v- ...._ _ ---"..:l 0 .1 ..

'
" '. ~
f< ..

~
FIG URE 11 -- 1'Jw cffe ct of mil/eria l costs, nonm aterial I (.

'Í ' -,
costs and a!loy costlkg on total maintenance cosis. !,.:l ,' ••

" , ,

\ ,.~:....
~,
i'''I . '
'. :,",
~ .. , .
" "

r .,

~ -, .
", ;....

1,'"

,~{ ' . 'r Ó,

1"
o "~
 \-' "

' .":

. . , ",,
MATERIALES RESISTENTES A LA ABRAS!ON UTILIZADOS EN

M!NERIA Y EN EL PROCESAM!ENTO DE M!NERALES

l·;,". ';...
T.E. Norman (e)

la definición de "Minería", tal como se usa la palabra en este trabajo, incluye la ex­
tracción convencional de minerales metálicos o no metálicos a cielo abierto o en operaciones
subterráneas, como así también la excavación de tierra y roca en las industrias de la cons­
trucción, tales como la construcción de caminos. "Procesamiento de Minerales" inciuye la
trituración, molienda y tratamientos de minerales, como así también la producción de
cemento u otros prod uctos minerales. En todas estas operaciones se produce un severo
desgaste abrasivo en muchas etapas de cada operación. El equipo que se utiliza en cada una
de estas etapas está siendo hecho cada vez con mayor tamaño y potencia y la tendencia es
de que sea también altamente automatizado. Sin embargo, cuando una parte del equipo
debe ponerse fuera de servicio para reemplazar piezas desgastadas o rotas, esta operación,
que involucra reposición de materiales, mano de obra de mantenimiento y pérdidas de
producción, resulta asimismo cada VOl. mas costosa, Esta situación ha creado un a demanda
para la utilización de materiales de larga vida y muy dependibles para aquellas piezas sujetas
él desgaste abrasivo.
~ ,. .~

Algunas aplicaciones npicas. en las qul'l ¡JI dm,gaste abrasivoes un motivo de preocupa­ ~.
,.'
ción, se muestran en las figuras 1 a 5. La fiOIJra 1 muestra un raspador de m ineral, de dos
~: ~., 'l. • :~
metros de diámetro, en acción en una de nuestras minas en Colorado, E I desgaste abrasivo
. ~ 'j' . • ~
y el impacto en la placa de respaldo, los brazos y la guía de este raspador son severos. Una -:l " t-.
combi nación de distintos materiales férreos es usada para esta pieza, de manera de ex tender ,,,,.
,.1"
la vida mínima de servicio al objetivo deseado de aproximadamente 250.000 toneladas de
mineral procesado.
La figura 2 nos da una vista de la cámara quebrantadora de uno de nuestros quebr an ­
tadores giratorios, Que es capaz de tomar rocas de casi dos metros de diámetro tal como
vienen de la mina. El manto y las placas cóncavas de revestimiento de esta cámara quebr an­
tadora, pueden procesar normalmente de tres a cinco toneladas de mineral ante de que sea
necesario proceder a su reemplazo.
La f igura 3 muestra e! interior. de uno de nuestros molinos de bolas pr imarios, ~~, . t,
de unos tres metros de diámetro. Los efectos de! desgaste abrasivo l:i i el revestimiento del 1',' ,"" .
• ; ; :' I
molino son evidentes, la vida de estas placas de revestimiento, cuando se usan las aleacio­
,r...... / .. ','.
nes férreas de mejor resistencia a la abrasión, es de aproximadamente 7 a 9 meses de ope­ , ..
ración continua. :~. ~.
L."
En la figura 4 se ve uno de nuestros clasificadores de arena de doble espiral. Une de
1:. J ellos se usa e n circuito cerrado con cada uno de nuestros molinos de bolas en Climax. las
zapatas de d esgaste de cada espiral se hacen con el hierro fundido blanco 15 Cr-SMo y
tienen una vida promedio da alrededor de dos años , Dudo que poner el clasificador fuera
de serv icio para re emplazar zapatas requi ere cerrar una unidad completa de molienda, es
esencial y muy económico utilizar el material resistente a la abrasión de mejor calidad
para estas zapatas,
~... o ' , ( 1
,t- \
c: ~'" ~r¡ :
(a) Gerent e de Desarrollo de A leaciones Resistentes u la Abrasión de Climaz MOlybdenum
.1 '1
..' -,
Company, División de Arnax , Inc. de Denver, Colorado.

~,:. , r:
t:
¡,
i: t: •

i....e.
, ,
I~J ." . ¡~
.~.J l, 't: '
 2

La figura 5 muestra un banco de espirales Humphrey en Clímax. Mineral en suspensi6n

acuosa fluye por el interior de las espirales para hacer una separación de minerales pesados
(tungsteno y estaño). Cuartelo las espirales se hacían de fundici6n blanca perlítica de baja
aleación. su vida era aproximadamente 10 años. Algunas espirales de fundición blanca
15Cr-3Mo, que fueron instaladas 14 años atrás, muestran muy poco descaste. Basándonos
en mediciones de desgaste estimamos que su vida útil supera los 25 años. Consecuente­
mente todas las nuevas espirales que han sido instaladas en los últimos años se han hecho
en la fundic ión 15Cr-3Mo.
Las figuras 1 a 5 ilustran sobre só lo unas pocas aplicaciones en las que el desgaste
abrasivo es motivo de preocupación en minería' y en 01 proce samiento de minerales. En
gener.al. este problema es más serio' y causa las mayores pérdidas en operaciones de
excavación y movimiento de. tierra, en quebrantadoras o trituradoras, en molienda y en
el bombeo de barros abrasivos. .
Este trabajo da un sumario de las composiciones, propiedades V perfomance de
las aleaciones férreas más frecuentemente usadas para resistir el desqaste abrasivo en "
minería y en el procesamiento de minerales. por' razones de conveniencia, las composi­
ciones han sido divididas en nueve' tipos enumerados 'eh el cuadro A. Los tipos han sido
enumerados en orden decreciente aproximado de resistencia a" la abrasión, aunque se
debe reconocer que algunos cambios en tal orden de .,resistencia pueden tener lugar,
dependiendo d el t ipo de abrasión u otras condiciones de servido. Al seleccionar un tipo
de composición de esta lista para un uso específico, es por supues to necesar io considerar ~. ; '/.,
'. . ¡,r ~

su resistenc ia mecán ica, en particular la resistencia a -irnpactos O tenacidad . . además de " .

la resistenc ia a la abrasión, dado que .algLJ nas composiciones, como las del tipo 3, son ,', ....
relativamente frágiles, .mie ntras que otras, como. los tipos 7 y 8, están entre las aleaciones ,.
, o. ' ­

l.,' ", .
férreas más fuertes y ten aces que se puedan obtener a un costo razonable.
; ~ ".
1. Fundiciones Blancas Martensíticas de Alto Cromo
'. \A:
,:'

El cuadr o 1 enumera una serie de composiciones de fundiciones blancas de alto ero­

mo. Para simplificar , un número de variaciones de estas compos iciones, que se comerciali­
í:,:t'
zan bajo marcas determinadas, no .h an sidoincluídas en dicho cuadro. Por supuesto, tratan­
dose de hierros blanco s, son composiciones para obtener piezas por el método de fundición
y no por laminaci6n ni forja. Una excepción es una modificación del tipo de 12Cr-Mo que
se produce ron un contenido de carbono de sólo 1,5 a 2,4 porc iento, y que es un acero de
herramientas de alto cromo y alto carbono, Esta variedad no t iene mayor aplicación en mine­
ría por el muy alto .costo de forjar un acero de alto cromo y alto carbono.
", Las fundiciones blancas d e alto cromo ' se caracter izan por su estructura de carburos
primarios V secundar ios, princip almente del t ipo M7C3, embebidos en una matriz de rnarten­
sita y austenita {l l. Son bien conocidas por su resistencia a la abrasi ón en aplicaciones que no 1:'

impliquen esfuerzos mecánicos de consideración, tales como para bombas de lodo. Más recien­ ~; ~:.-'~-,
¡¡:- «
temente ha sido reconocido que tamb ién sonextraordinar ias bajo cond iciones de abras ión con r, ••
-.,
:
impacto del rnatertatabras ivo contra la superficie de desgaste. En gener al, estas aleaciones tie·
nen substancialmente mejor tenacidad y resistencia al descascar amiento en servicio que

las fundiciones de los tipos 2 y 3 del cuadroA. En todo caso, ha sido más bien una sorpresa

encontrar que fundiciones de alto cromo pueden utilizarse con éxito en algunas de las ~' ..~~
.
. . f.: ~~
aplicaciones de altos esfuerzos o . fuertes condiciones de impacto que anteriormente se
r.. ·' .;
reservaban sólo para 16s aceros de mayor tenacidad. • ~ J"
,:y .
Una ventajade las fundiciones de alto cromo es la propiedad que t ienen de responder
favorablemente a los tratamientos tér{nicos (2l. Las piezas pueden sor recocidas para su i:, :~ .';.
maquinado, y luego endurecidas a una estructura martensrtica por un proceso de re-austeni­

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zación sequ.do por un temple 01 aire. al aceite o en un baño de sales fundidas . Cuando las
fundiciones mencionadas en el cuadro A como tipos 2 3 son tratadas en forma similar,
ó

hay una tend encia a lél descomposición de los carburos de su estructura con producción de
gráf ito . Esto pOI supuesto . educe substancialmente ra resistencia a la abrasión de esas
areaciones
Las composiciones oel cuadro 1 fn;tán enumeradas en orden decreciente apr oxi medo
de I esrstencia a la abr as.o». Sin embargo . para salecconar una ateación de esta lista pera
una apIIC:JCIÓn dada . es necesario considerar tanto el costo r elatrvo como el efecto del
espesor V del d ise ño de la pieza ,
LiJ alea ción 15Cr 3Mo, cuando está pl enamente endurecida. ha demostrado consis­
tenternente ser la de mejor resistencia a la abra sión entre las ale aciones í érrees de costo
moderado. tanto en condiciones de servicio como en ensayos controlados de laboratorio . .' ,
Fue de san o liada para uso comercial hace unos 17 "ríos y es ahora usada extensamente en . : t

revestimientos de molino en barras y revestimientos de pulverizadores de Impacto, en ~apll '

ras de desgaste para clas it icadoras de arenas, e n revest imientos de conductos can aleta por ,, .
gravedad, en bombas de lodo v en una variedad de apticacioncs a ltam ent e abrasivas de otras
mdustr ias. rales como impulsores para máquinas arenadoras o limpiadoras de granalla . Una
aphcacró n r ecrentr- es la de revestimientos cóncavos de quebrantad oras girator ias. donde su
rcsrst encra al desgaste es de cuatro o cinco veces super ior a la de los aceros al manganeso del
.'
tipo Hadtr ekí . Otra aplicación reciente es su uso como placas unid as por soldadura de
bronce a un respaldo de acero (3) en piezas tal es como nejas de ventilador para gases (o
air e) carq sd o de partículas abr asivas . ~:

l.a a leació n 15C. -3Mo cuando está plen amente endurecid a. exhib e su mejor r esis
tencia a la ab rasro n cuando el contenido de car bono está en el rango de 3. 30 a 3.60 por
CIento Sin embargo , algunas piezas de alto espesor no se endurecen plenamente si son
producrdas con ese ten or de carbono Es esenc ial. para óptima resistencia a la abrasión .
oo tener una rnat riz mar tensrt IC<l . libre de perlita o de ot ros productos resultantes de la
transformación de la ausranita a altas temperaturas. Mientras la adición de molibdeno es
muy efect iva para evrtar la formación de perlita , el uso de altos conten idos de carbono,
deseable por otra parte . tiende a promover la f orrnact ón de perlita. Este problema ha sido
extensivamente estudiado en nuestro laboratono de Investiga ciones en Ann Arbor . Michigan .
V también p OI numerosos otros Invest igadores tales com o Wedderburn {41. e n Sud Africa .
y Garb er y sus colaboradores {51. en Rusia . Estudios de nuestro laboratorio de investiqaclo­
nes Indican que el molibdeno e l n íquel, el cobre y el rnanqaneso. ya sea solos o en combi·
nación . pueden util izarse para supr irrur la perl ita en los hierros de alto cromo. Sin embargo f' ,
el n íqu el . el manganeso y en menor grado. también el cobre. tiene n un efecto estabil izador ~.
de la austeruta Que promueve la retención d e un porcentaje apreciable de austenita en la t.

estructura de la fundición ya tr atada termicamente. Esta austenita retenida tiene un ~ .•

efecto detr irn ental para la res istencia a la abrasión, así que los contenidos de níquel. rnanqa­
neso y cobre deben tener sus d ebidos límites. Es permisible usar hasta 1.2 por ciento de
cobre en estas composiciones sin producir una excesiva retención de austenita . Dado que
se encontró que una cornb: nación de 1,5 a 2 porciento de molibdeno más 1.0 porciento de
cobre . tiene un efecto más fuerte para supr imir la per lita que 3.0 po rciento de mol ibdeno
utilizado SOlO, esta combinación cobrl'-mol ibdeno se u sa a hora com o modificación de la
aleación 15Cr·3Mo. Las ale aciones 15Cr·2Mo·l Cu y 20Cr·2Mo·1 Cu. ind icadas en el cuadro
1 son do s modificaciones recientes de la aleación orig inal Cr/Mo. Ambas son especialmente
adecuadas para piezas fund idas de gran espesor y ya se están usando en importantes tonelajes
para revesurnicntos de molinos de bol as, de rod illos y autógenos, impulsores V car cazas de
b omb as de lodo y part es sujeta s a desgaste en máquinas de producir ladrillos refractarios .
La aleación 12Cr·Mo . del cuadro 1. es una modificación, de más baja aleación. de la

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rs.
 , '\

4
l'
15Cr-3Mo. Cuando se la utiliza en seccio nes livianas que se pued en templ ar ráp idamente
para 11 t.:g ar a plena dureza. tiene a proxi mada mente la misma resisten cia a la abrasión y
tenacidad de la aleación original 15Cr-3Mo, Este hierro 12Cr-Mo es part icularmente adecua­
do para bol as de molienda para la ind ustria cernentera, en diámetros de 75 mm y menores, ,
~ ~.
Se indica (6) qu e bolas d e est e tipo tienen una resistencia a la abrasió n hasta d iez veces
superior a las de acero forj ado, en la molienda de clinker Ensayos de desgaste en pequeña ,l. , _.....
, escala, hechos por el autor con bolas marcadas (7) (8) (9). y por Wesner y colaborado·
i ," re~.{·101. indican que una mejor a en resistencia a la abrasión del orden arriba indicado es
1¡
~
¡
muy posible para la mol ienda de clinker de cemento con bolas de 12Cr-Mo. En la molienda
~
~
~
d e piedra en húmed o para la fabricación de cemento. o en la molienda de feldespatos,
hernatita o magnetita, se obtiene una mejora de 2 Ó 3 a 1 sobre bolas de acero marten sítico
.,
'.1
:~
I
~ .
forjad as o fundid as. En la rnoli onda de cuarzo o minerales de alto contenido de cuarzo, la ...,. .. , ,
mejora puede ser del orden de solo 20 a 30 porc iento sobre las bolas de acero . La economía
de-usar las bolas de aleación 12Cr·Mo¡ de contenido de aleación y costo relativamente altos,
,
i
depende en gran parte de la dureza del mineral a moler . En general las bolas 12Cr·Mo resul·
!

.j
tan económicame nte convenientes para la molienda de minerales de dureza Mohs 66
l\­ inferior. mientras que las bolas de acero martonsrtlco resultan más económicas, por su
L
,menor costo inicial, para moler aquellos minerales en los que el cuarzo, o compuestos
1

1l1iÍ~ duros que el cuarzo, so n el abrasivo principal.

',J­
,\
- Las aleacion es de 25 a 32 porciento de cromo sen las qu e siguen en la lista del cuadro
1. Este tipo de fundición se está ap licando en una variedad de ' piezas fund idas resistentes
"1 a ta -abr asión desde hace más de 35 años. Durante los últimos 10 a 15 años se las ha usado
p(¡'nci$J¡¡Imellte para bombas de are na y grava y maquinaria da la indu stria cerámica. Si
"- 1
' ~-. bien' no hemos encontrado que este tipo de fundición t enga tant a resistencia a la abr asi ón
."J ­
t:
corno un- 15Cr·Mo adecuad amente controlado, esta aleación ofr ece una excelente cornbi ­
nación de resistencia a la abrasión y tena cidad a un costo algo menor. El reciente desarrollo
,;L de las aleacio nes 15Cr·2Mo-1Cu y 20Cr -2Mo-1Cu, q ue son más compet it ivas sobre la base
,. de costo or iginal, con una resistencia a la abr asión generalmente superior a las de 25 - 32
)i porciento cromo, hace que estas últimas est én siendo despl azad as en la rnavor ía de las
, :3~ aplicaciones .
:...1 En nuestras Investigaciones sobre la resistencia a la abr asión de las fund iciones de alto
1"'¡~
cromo, hemos encontrad o que hasta so lo un 0,5 porcicnto de molibdeno ya tiene un efecto ~ .

"
muy significativo para la supres ión de perlita. Por este motivo , un 0,5 por ciento de molibde­
no se agrega con frecuenc ia a ID fundición 27/35Cr para piezas pesadas, tal es como las de
grande s bombas para arena y grava. Esta inf luencia del molibdeno también se utiliza en los
hierro s de 10 a 14 por ciento cromo. donde es particularmente importante dad a la fuert e
tenden cia a la t or ma ci ó n de perlita en los mismos.
La composición 8Cr·6Ni es una reciente adici ón a la Iarnil la de fund iciones blancas
de alto cromo. Utiliza niquel, en lugar el e mol ibdeno. para suprimir perlit a en la estr uctura
de secciones pesadas. No hemos encontrado que tenga tanta resistenc ia a la abrasión, en
nuestro s ensayos, corno la aleación 15Cr·3Mo y sus modif icacion es. Tien e, sin embargo, la
alta te nacidad caracter rstica de las fundiciones de alto cromo. así que se la usa algunas
veces en preferencia sobre la a leac ió n 4 Ni·2Cr (del ti po 2 d el cuadro A) en aq ue llas aplica '
cienes en qu e resulta insuficiente la tenacid ad de la fundición 4 Ni·2Cr.
Las fundiciones blancas de 10 a 15 por ciento de cromo, en un ranqo relativamente
bajo de carbono y, usualmente, con bastante alto manganeso, no han adquirido gran difusión l·

en los Estados Unidós pero sí han sido producidas bast ante extensamente en Europa. Su
bajo costo de aleación hace que su performan ce result e buena en muchas aplicaciones. si
bien d ebido a su bajo carbono y alto rnanqaneso tienen menor resistencia a la abrasión que
las otras composiciones del cuad ro 1. Se han usado princ ipalmente para bolas y revestimien­
tos de molino para la industria del cemento en Europa, poro probablemente serán desplaza­

~.
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 , :..'

.~ .. ~.

1• 'it
r- • das por las otras composiciones, de mayor resistencia a la abrasión, dadas en el cuadro 1. k }.
'1 1
2. Fundiciones Blancas Martonslticas de Mediano Aleaci6n [;;.:1;

-' las aleaciones tipo 4Ní·2Cr del cuadro 2, fu eron desarrolladas a mediados do la ',-, {

décad a del 30. Durante los últimos 20 años han sido muv populares para revestimientos . ",' .:j
y bolas de molino y para una amplia variedad de otras apllcaciones, Varias modíficacio)1~i ( ,.

de este tipo de fundición han sido desarrolladas, en las que una parte o topo el níquel se" ~.:'
'1 ­ ;'t. :¡. ,
reemplaza con molibdeno, cobre y algunas veces manganeso, Estudios recientes de estas
modificaciones, hechos en nuestros laboratorios de I\nn Arbor, han indicado Que la deseable

¡ '; '"
estructura libre de perl ita se puede obtener cuando el porcentaje de molibdeno, más la mitad"

del de cobre, más el 'de níquel, alcanzan a un mín imo de 4, para piezes de sección pesada

.~
, - .'
enfriadas en sus moldes. Estos hlerros de 2 porclento de, cromo, con una comb inación ,vro· r,

~~ .:
Cu-Ni según la formula arriba indicada, resultan de interés principalmente durante un
j ~
,'j .-­ pertodo de escasez de níquel. Sin embargo, una combinación que ha sido producida en ..
"
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•

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tonelajes muy substancial os es la de la aleaci ón 3Ni·2Cr-1 Mo, ind icada en el cuadro 2,
,} - j
Nuestros .ensavos de desgaste indican que su resistenc ia a la abrasi ón es algo mejor que la
'¡ ~ ~~ de la fundición típica 4Ni·2Cr y que es mucho ~nág do(ell que se llegue a !\(\gregar-grafito
en las secciones pesadas. r· ,
Las fundiciones de mediana aleación dadas en el cuadro 2 son en general de menor
resistencia a la abrasión que las de alto cromo dadas en el cuadro a. También están muy
"¡ su jetas a d escascararse y romperse en servicio, aunque" su tenacidad se pu ede aumentar
1
1 ~
mucho con un tr at amiento térm ico de dobl e revenido. Estas fundiciones de mediana
ale aci ón tienen una vsnta]a competitiva de que se pueden producir en eubi lote. Esta
~
ventaja está desapareciendo él med ida que se de sarrolla la tendencia de producir en hornos
eléctricos todas las fundiciones blancas resistentes a la abrasión. Sobre la base de fundir en "<
"
t...·~
r
horno eléctrico, las aleaciones del grupo 1 son más competit ivas.
-e--;

, 3. Fundiciones Blancas Perlrticas

;..-."
j L¡¡ producción de fundiciones blancas no aleadas para combatir la abrasión data del
'.
,1
siglo XVII. Se trata simplemente de hacer fundic ión de hierro de bajo silicio que resulta
..~ ~-

i en una red de carburos primariosprinciplamente del tipo Fe3e, en una estructura perlítica.
I Para evitar que los carburos primarios se desdoblen en grafito y ferrita, el hierro se debe
·i enfriar muy rapldamente, o 56 debe usar algún elemento estabilizador de carburos, como " ";'

' ~ -' el cromo. El uso de pequeños porcentajes de cromo en estos hierros fundidos data df! unos ...
"'-
"
90 años atrás. "
-) e: ft.~ .
,
~.
El cuadro 3 muestra dos composiciones t ípicas para las fundi ciones blancas perl!ticas. ;, (

1 El tipo de bajo carbono fue desarrotlado principalmente com o un a composició n base para
\e., obtener fundici6n maleable ferrftica por recocido, En su con d ici ón no recocida se la ha usa­
:~ do para una varied ad de piezas pequeñas resistentes a la abrasi 6n. Fundi-do en coquilla, este
. tipo de hierro , con un contenido de ca rbono de aproximadam ente 3 porciento, permanecerá
relativamente libre de grafito hasta en secc ione s de 100 mm de espesor. Ha sido usado en
esta form a para bola s y revestim ientos ele mol ino . Una alternat iva, pro bab le ment e algo más
común, es la otra co mp osic ió n d el cuadro 3, la q ue contien e de 1 a 2 porc iento de cromo ' .'!'

para suprimir la formaci6n de grafito y produ c ir una perlita m ás f ina en su estructura. Tarn­
bi én se la ha usado, fundida en arena V en coouilla. para bolas V revestimientos de molino,
Debido a que su resisten cia a la ab rasión es inferior a la de las aleaciones de los
cuad ros 1 y 2, y ¡¡ la falta de controles de calidad , en gen eral, en su p roducción, est as
"
fund icion es del grupo 3 están siendo despl azad as por las de los grupos 1 y 2 tratados
.' anteriormente .
..
~
'

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4. Acoros Martensfticos de Alto Carbono

En el cuadro 4 se dan c inco rangos típicos de composición pura los ac eros de alto
carbono que, endurecidos a pleno, se usan par" piezas resist entes a ti! abrasi6n. Incluye
tanto composiciones para piezas fundidas como fo rjadas o hechas con aceros laminados.
En tod as el tenor de carbono es super ior a 0,5 porciento .
La composición , C·BCr-' Mo es similar a la de un acero para herramientas de tipo
A2, pero pura aplicaciones resistentes a la abrasión se utiliza gener almente en form a de
I
i .-" p iezas fu ndidas, d e alto espeso r, tales como revestimientos para molino s. En nuestros
1 e nsay o s, ha resu lt ado ~I acero fundido de mayor res istencia a la abrasi ón. La experi encia
práctica co n composiciones de este tipo indica, sin 'embargo, que hay un a tendenc ia al
desar rollo de altas tension es internas en piezas pesadas, lo que puede resultar en que las ¡-t . ,
mismas se rajen ya sea durante el tratam iento t érmico o en servicio . Por consiguiente, ' la
. ~ ..; ..
' ~.'
apl icación comercial de esta composición, a la fecha, ha sido bastante limitada. En nuestra
operación minera en Colorado la hemos usado para revest im iento de molinos con bastante
grado d e éxito (11 l. ~ 'T . ~
,
La composición 1C·12Cr del cuadro 4, tiene cierta similitud a los viejos aceros para 0' - . ,..1

he rramientas de t ipo D 1, pero pa ra aplicaciones resistentes a la abrasió n se usa en piezas

fundid as, más bien que forjadas. A pesar de su alto conten ido de cr omo, no hemos encon­
,;
trado en nuestros ensayar que tenga tanta resistencia a la abr asión como el tipo 1C-f.)Cr·1 Mo,
"
llevando a m ba s a su plena dureza. Este acero 1C·12Cr, ha sido usado extensamente en
,. ~ - ••í
Europa para reve stimiento de mol ino s, pero está siendo d esplazado aho ra por las fund ic iones , "
-.1
j- blancas d el cuadro 1. En los Estados Unidos, ca si no ha sido us ad o corno material para
J revestim ie nto d e molinos. ;... " ,
,1~
El ace ro de 1C·1 Cr d el cuadro 4 es adecuado princip almente para p ieza s pequeñas,
i templ adas en 1íqu idos, d ado que carece de prop ied ades de temp!abi lidad su ficie nte s para
piezas pesadas . Su resistencia a la abrasión es algo su pe rio r a la del tipo de 0,8 porciento de
., ca rbo no y está encontrando ap lica c ió n como m at erial p ara bol as tanto fundidas como
j forjad as.
.¡­ El acero d e 0,8 porciento de carbono del cu adro 4 también es adecuado para piezas ~.
~ , rb~ r
peque ñas, t em p ladas en medio líquido. Se lo usa ex t e nsa me nt e para bolas fu ndidas o forja­
J das en di ám etros de hasta 125 mm. Un desarrollo reciente ha sido el u so de este acero en
",
. .-;­
\~
1 barras d e moliend a, en est ado lami nado y tratado t érmicamente.
i El ace ro de 0,6 porciento de carbono con cromo y mo libdeno, c uando está suficiente­
) -- ~

mente aleado , pu ede endu recerse a pleno, en secciones re lat iva me nte gruesas, con un t emple
en aceite o , en algunos casos, con el. método "marternper ing" en baila de sal. Se lo está
usando a ho ra, tan to en forma de piezas fu ndidas corno hechas con ace ro laminado, para
revestimie nto de molinos de bol as y de barras. Si b ien no t ien e tanta resist e ncia a la ab rasi ó n .~

co rno las fu ndi cio nes bla ncas del cu adro , 6 la compos ició n 'Cr·1 MD del c uad ro 4, la rela­ ,
r,
"

c ión de costo con desgaste hace que el uso de estos aceros sea ec o nó m ica me nt e posible ~. . .
para algu na s apl icaciones e n algu nas áreas geo gráf icas. Su uso ha es tad o ba st ant e Iim i taco, ~, .
'L a esta fecha, por el hecho de que pocos productores de reve st imient os cuentan con el eq u ipo
oJ-,

necesari o para temples en aceite o en baños de sales fundid as, qu e requieren las pi ezas de
alt o espesor he ch as con est a com posición.

J • • •~
5. Aceros Austeníticos de Med iano Manganeso
;l. ,
.,
. ¡
Unos 12 años atrás, hicimos una muy completa serie de e nSi!Y OS de abrasión y de pro­
piedades mecánicas sobre ac e ro s aus te n íticos al m anganeso con un contenido d e manganeso
reduci do al rango ele 5 a 9 porciento, en contraste con el ra ngo u su al de 12 a 14 porciento
para aceros al rnan qa neso t ipo l1adfi eld . Se encontró qu e con el conten ido de manganeso re ­

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ducido so plOtJuclll una mojo/a MJo:;llI11cial do la resistencia ti lu abrasión an apllceclonos un ;~ .~.; .;. ~

qu e el mat er ial abrasivo resulta triturado entre dos superficies d o desqasta (121. La aleeción ~ 1': :?
~T~ '1': '- .
6Mn· 1Mo, dada en el cuadro 5, fué la elección fin al para una aleación cornerciatrnente atrae­
tiva en esta serie de mediano manU<Jneso. La adición do 1 porciento do molibdeno tiene
el objeto de dar suficiente ductilidad y tenacidad para aplicaciones que involucran secciones
pesadas. Durante los últimos diez años, esta aleac ión 6Mn-1 Mo, ha sido el material sta n­
dard ut ilizado en nu estras propias instalac io nes de Colorado para revestimientos, grillas de
descarga de molinos de bolas, bocas de carga de molinos y cribas. Aplicacionas que han sido
desurrolladas para este acero en otras industrias son eslabones de cadenas de arrastre en
plantas de cemento, dientes de excavadora que no sean de gran tamaño, revestimientos
de quebrantadoras de mandíbula y algu nas p iezas de desgaste en pulverizadores . Op inamos
que esta a leac ión será caba vez más usada en muchas de estas apl icaciones, como las grillas
de descarga de molinos de bolas. Para otras aplicaciones, como los revestim ientos para esos
molinos , hemos encontrado recientemente que las fundiciones blancas martensíticas de alto
cromo, t ales como la 20 Cr - 2Mo - lCu y la 15 Cr - 3Mo, tienen más larga vida y una relac ión
costo-desqaste más ventajosa.
1
.:
¡
-­ La aleac ió n 9Mn . lMo del cuadro 5 es una modificación rec iente de la 6 Mn - 1Mo.
~~ Estamos invest iga nd o este acero 9Mn - 1Mo para revestim ientos de alto espesor en que­
I
!
)
brantadoras cónicas y otras piezas en las que se requiere mayor tenacidad qu e !a obtenible
en la ale ación 6Mn . 1Mo. Más experiencia de ensayos en la práctica y en el laboratorio no s ;;:'-' ."
permitirá averiguar si la nueva aleación ofrece ventajas de importancia sobre los aceros al ¡-
12 y 14 porciento de manganeso normalmente empleados cn quebrantadoras. El Profesor
Kniaginin (13) indica que un acero al 9 porciento de manganeso ha dado muy buenos
t-
~! -- ,~
resultados, en Polonia, para martillos de pulverizadoras por impacto. ~" ' .
.í
I~
t: 6. Aceros Perlíticos de Alto Carbono
j
i .-..
El cuadro 6 da dos rangos de composición usados para producir aceros resistentes a
,' ~
:~ la abrasión con una estructura perlítica. Su dureza normalmente estará dentro de un margen
J ~;

o"!._
j ~
bastante amplio, dependiendo del espesor de las secciones y del tratamiento térmico . El
tipo cromo -molibdeno, usu almente producido en pi ez as fundidas de alto espesor, se usa
' ~
extensamente en mu chos revestimientos de m o lino s Que tienen gran tamaño y condiciones
J\ de imp acto en servicio muy severas para permitir el uso de fundiciones blancas. Es relativa­

1~
1'­
;
1
,

J .-..
1
mente fácil producirlos en hornos eléctricos ác id o s o básicos. Cuando se los usa para

revestimientos, la dureza normalmente se lleva a 330-401 BHN y el carbono está en el

ranqo de 0,6 a 0,9 porciento, Cuando se requiere mayor ductilidad o tenacidad, como en
grillas de d escarga de molinos, el carbono se baj a al rango de 0 ,5 -0,6 porciento y las piez as
. ;"
,

¡ son reven idas a una dureza que puede ser tan baja como 255 BHN.
I '­
í La co m pos ic ió n cromo-molibdeno, con un tenor de carbono alto y un tenor de
j~ aleación bajo, dentro del rango indicado, también se ha us ado bastante ex te nsivamen te
J
-j para bola s d e molienda fundid as, de 50 a 125 mm de d iámet ro . Las bola s gene ralme nte
i"
) se usan tal como fund ida s, sin treturn iento térmi co, y t ienen u n ranq o de dureza qu e va
.,' desde 37& Cl 444 BHN . Estas bolas de "perlita du ra" ofrecen un a combinaci ón de resisten­
i~
, ! era a ICl ab ras ió n, tenacidad y bajo costo inicial que las hace at racu vas para un número de
,j
! ­ operaciones mineras y cernenteras en Canadá y Sud Alrica , aunque la tendencia actual
r', :
.! ~ parece ser hacia el uso de los aceros martens ít icos o de fund iciones blancas, tales co mo
la co m posición de 0,3 porciunto de carbono d et cu ad ro 4 o 1:1 alea ci ón 12Cr . Mo del
"
.1
'

,j -­
cuadro 1.
': ~ El ocero común al carbono tipo C del cuadro 6 se un liza normalm ente para piez as
.\
: ' -. forjadas o hechas a partir de formas laminadas. Cuerpos moledores de es te ace ro , forj ados
\{ -, y tem plados al aceite, tendrán un a dureza en el margen de 352 a 401 8HN , dependiendo
-¡
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del diámetro del molino. Este tipo de bola ha sido muy usada en molienda de minerales,
pero está siendo rápidamente desplazada por las de mayor resist encia a la abrasión en
aceros y fundiciones martensíticas.
'¡
Barras de acero tipo e han sido muy usadas, tal como laminadas, en mol inos de

.' barras. Estas barras tienen una dureza en el rango de 292 a 321 BHN, En algún grado, estas

barras de moli enda están siendo desplazadas por barras hechas con acero martensítico de
0,8 porciento de carbono, las que se indica que tienen una vida mayor (14). en ensavos
comparativo s en gran escala hechos con ambos tipos de barras. Tal superioridad es del
orden de un 35 a un 55 porciento ,
0"

7 Aceros Austeníticos tipo Hadtield

1I cuadro 7 du I()~ IlUUVU !.)rudus du ucero uuntcn n ico upo Hddfluld quu fi!l~lr¡¡n un
la Designac ión ASTM A 129-64 . A esta lista podríamus agregar una modificación del
grado e que contiene un 17 porciento de manganeso, la que se usa algunas veces en
·i Europa para mandíbulas quebrantadoras . Cuando se usan para piezas fundidas, todos la;
grados deben tratarse térmicamente llevando las piezas a la temperatura de austeniza­
': -.;3
ción (950 a 11000 Cl. para luego ternplarlas en agua .
.1 ~
1 Los grados B-l, 8·2, B-3 y 8-4, son los que probablemente se usan más para
revestimiento de quebrantadoras qiratorías v cónicas en los Estados Unidos. El grado
C se usa normalmente para mandíbulas de quebrantadora, piezas de desgaste de QU~ '
~, .

brantadoras por impacto y algunas veces también para revestimientos de Quebrantadoras "

cónicas. El grado O, con un tenor de carbono de 0,7 a 1,10 porciento, ha sido usado para
pie zas de secciones pesadas y para piezas sujetas a fragilízarse por efecto del calor. Ha sido
ahora desplazada de muchas de estas apl icaciones por el grado E-l. En mantos giratorios
grandes, que pueden tener secciones de un espesor de hasta 250 mm, el grado E-l, con un
tenor de carbono de 0,95 a 1,10 porciento, ha demostrado el mejor rendimien to de todos
los grados ensayados.
El grado E-2 es más comunmente conocido como la aleación 12Mn - 2Mo. Normal­
mente se le da un tratamiento térmico especial de "endurecimiento por dispersión". Este
grado ha perrni tido aumentar la vida de los revestimientos de muchas quebrantadoras en
un 15 a 35 porciento . 'S in embargo, su mayor costo inicial, y las políticas de precios tan
,;
altamente competit ivas que son usuales para los revestimientos de acero al manganeso,
han hecho que no haya alcanzado aceptación general.
Nuestro laboratorio de investigaciones de Michigan ha desarrollado recientemente
un método dependible y reproducible para medir la resistencia a la abrasión del acero al
r.
manganeso en servicio de quebrantadoras. Este ensayo utiliza una pequeña quebrantadora ¡H
a mandíbula operada bajo condiciones muy controladas. Nuestros resultados a esta fecha
indican que la resistencia a ' la abrasión del acero al manganeso mejora a medida que el "
tenor de corb o na se eleva desde 0,7 porcient o hasta aproximadamente 1,4 porciento. El
tenor del carbono parece ser la variable más importante que incide sobre la resistencia a
la abrasión . Sin embargo, a medida que aumenta el tenor de carbono, aumenta también
la tendencia a la fragilización por la formación intercristalina de películas conteniendo
c arburos. Esto es especialmente cierto para piezas de secciones pesadas. Hemos encontrado
que la adi ción de 0.5 a 1,0 oorciento de molibdeno es muy efectiva para suprimir la
influencia fragilizadora de los altos tenores de carbono. Muchas fundiciones usan ahora
adiciones de molibdeno en ese rango cuando sus clientes pielen un contenido de carbono ¡..;.
mayor que el usu al en sus piezas fundidas de acero al manganeso. Creemos Que es posible ,
seguir progresando en esta dirección. Por ejemplo, pequeñas adiciones de titanio (0,10 a
0,30 porciento) junto con las adiciones de molibdeno, parece que mejoran la estructura del
acero .

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 9

8. Aceros Martensíticos de Medio y Bajo Carbono

El cuadro 8 clasifica los aceros martensíticos de medio y bajo carbono en tres tipos
, .
, ~.

generales según el contenido de carbono. Ellos cubren un amplio ranqo de composiciones

específicas, la mayoría de las cuales están identificadas por marcas registradas, las que a su
vez identifican su origen. Piezas resistentes a la abrasión se hacen con estos aceros tanto
por fundición como por la fabricación partiendo de acero lam inado o forjado. En la
industria minera, se usan extensivamente en placas laminadas y tratadas terrnicarnente en
equipo de excavación y movimiento de tierras, para revestimiento de conductos en que
se mueve el material por graved<ld y otrns aplicaciones en las que altas propiedades maca­
nicas y tenacidad deb en estar combinadas con una buena resistencia a la abrasión. Corno
piezas forjadas, se usan en dientes de excavadoras, puntas desqarradoras y brocas, Corno
piezas fundidas, se US3n extensamente en puntas excavadoras, esquinas de raspadoras y otras
piezas de equipo de excavación y movimiento de tierra qJe deben estar protegidas del
¡, - .
• ¡).. •
desgaste abrasivo . -(,
En los tres tipos de acero enumerados en el cuadro 8, las adiciones o combinaciones r
de elementos de aleaci ón están seleccionados para dar suficiente templabilidad, de manera
que las piezas se endurezcan a una estructura plenamente martensítica cuando se templen.
~ . ' .
Las piezas son luego revenidas para producir la combinación deseada de dureza, fortaleza r
.~
y tenacidad para cada aplicación específica. Desde que la tenacidad de algunas de estas
piezas, toles corno dientes de excavadoras, es una consideración de máxima importancia, r.. .•..
, .~ .
una res istencia m íni ma al impacto se especifica junto con la dureza m ín ima. Por ejemplo,
puede especificarse una resistencia al impacto de 1,66 Kgr m a ·40 0C en ensavo' Charpv
con estalladura en V, junto con una dureza mínima de 460 BHN. Para cumplir tal especifi­
cación se necesita un estrecho control sobre la composición, la práctica de fundición y el
tratamiento térmico. El uso de un contenido relativamente alto de molibdeno (0,4 a 0.6
porcien to] resulta útil, dado que permite usar altas temperaturas de revenido sin perjuicio
de mantener una dureza alta y con la consecuente mejora de tenacidad.
La aleación de 0,4 porciento de carbono del cuadro 8 se usa principalmente para
piezas forjadas o fundidas en aplicaciones en que se desea la mayor resistencia él la abrasión
de los tres tipos. Está balanceada para endurecerse plenamente con un temple al aceite,
de modo que piezas hechas en este acero estarán menos susceptibles a deformarse o rajarse
y estarán más libres de tensiones internas Que aquellas hechas en aceros que necesiten ser ,.. ..
.- ~ templados al agua. Los dientes de pequeño tamaño para baldes de excavadora se hacen
muy frecuentemente con aceros de est-e grado. También se los usa para revestimientos
cóncavos de qu ebrantadoras giratorias, particularmente en quebrantadoras usadas para el .,
mineral de hierro taconita, en las que los aceros austemticos tipo Hadfield se deforman
por escurrimiento en servicio.
.'~ ::.
El tipo de aleación al 0,3 porciento de carbono se usa extensivamente en placas
laminadas y tratadas térmicamente. También en piezas fundidas su uso representa una
¡<. ~.
proporción muy importante del total de p iezas fundidas do acero. En el campo que nos .". : . ¡

ocupa se usa para dientes de excavadora, esquinas en pl anchas de topadoras, puntos de

desgarre y una variedad de piezas rnisccláneus.
El tipo de aleación al 0,15 porciento de carbono se usa principalmente para placas
laminadas y perfiles, tanto para aplicaciones resi stentes" la abrasión corno para requeri­
mientos estructurales de alta resistencia. Se lo selecciona con preferencia al tipo de 0,3
porciento de carbono cuando se necesita doblar o formar el acero en frío, o cuando se
requiere alta fortaleza y tenacidad en uniones soldadas . También t iene excelentes pr op ie­ ,,:' ::t­

dades de resistencia a impactos a baja temperatura.

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10

9 Aceros de Bajo Carbono tal como Laminados

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Cuand o el gr ado de abrasión es lo sufic ientemente ba jo como para que pocos o ningún ~ ;.)
I ' .
reemplazo de la pieza gastada sean necesarios dentro de la vida útil del equipo, resulta
1'..,.­
entonces ob viamente m ás co nve ni e n te usar un ace ro de bajo costo, tal como sa le de la ¡ "o
larninación . sin ningún tratamiento térmico, aunque la resistencia a la abra sión sea relati­ ~,
.... ...

,
vamente pobre . Cuando la abra sión sea más sev era y se nec esiten re empla zo s con ci erta
frecuen cia, utilizando los aceros del cu adro B se puede me jorar la vid a útil de una p ieza
en 3 a 10 vec es e n comparac i ón co n la vida útil qu e da un ac ero estructu ral al bajo carbon o .
Much as ac erias t ambi én producen un grado de ac eros pura pl acas que, sin trat am iento
térmic o, tiene un a dureza de 200 a 250 BHN , con un contenido d e carbono mayor que e l
ele los aceros estrucut rales de b ajo c arbono (0,35 a 0,50 porcient o). La resiste nc ia a la . : ..~y

abrasión es inte rmedia entre los ace ros que n os ocupan y lo s d e l grup o anter ior, d ad os en el r~ .: ,'

! ,~~

cuadro B. La tendencia actual, sin embargo, parece estar dirigida al uso de aceros rnatens íti­
I: ~
cos templados y revenidos para placas en servicio abrasivo.
I

- "
. . ' SUMARIO
;
¡" ,
~ '~
El uso de eq u ip os grandes, de alta potencia, pa ra operaciones de alto tonelaje en m ine­
ría y en el procesamiento de min erales, ha creado una dem anda p ara componentes de larga
vida y muy dep endibles, para re sistir el de sqaste abrasivo . Esta d em anda es , en gr an p arte ,
cubierta por e l u so de rnateriales férreo s, tal es como los varios grados de fundición blanca y ,¡f. ...

ac ero d e scriptos e n es te tr ab ajo.

r
Los materi ales férreos resi stente s a la abra sión han sido clasificados en nueve t ipos t '.
generale s, qu e van desd e las a leac io nes fé rrea s d e ma yor res ist en c ia a la ab ras ió n obtenibles
co m e rc ia lmen te a precios razonables, hast a las menos resistentes, Las c o m p o sic io nes
típ icas, o m árgene s de compo sic ión, ju nto con lo s tratami entos t érrmcos usua les y el rango
d e dur ezas p ara cada tipo gen eral, h an sid o tabulados y brevemente descriptos,
Cuand o exi st en concli cion es abrasiv as seve ras y I,IS fuer zas de impacto , tracción o
fle xión son moderarías, ent onces las fundi ciones blancas m nrtensú icas, tal como los tipos
1 y 2 d el cu ad ro A, ge ner ¡,ln w n t l! d an el m e jo r serv icio (¡eneral y eco no mía. Han desp lazado
mucho a las fundicion es blancas perl ític as d el tipo 3, Cu ando las c ondic iones de impacto son
m ás sev e ras o c ua nd o ex iste n algun as otras condiciones es p ec iale s, los aceros martensíticos
de alt o carbono, del tipo 4, o los aceros au stens iticos del t ipo 5, de medi ano m anganeso,
pu eden utiliz ar se con ventaja . ,; . ' .
Los ac e ro s perl iticos ele alto carbono, del ti po 6 , han sid o una elección popular y se ~

.
,
'j 1
~ han util iz ado con bu en servic io po r muchos años, en a p licac io nes que ti enen condiciones .. , ....
i
J de im pact o mo derad as. A hora es t á n sie ndo desplazad os d e muchas d e estas apl icaciones r ;.'
.,1
j
­ por la s fund ic iones blan cas rnartensrtica s del t ip o 1 y lo s ace ro s d e lo s t ipos 4 y 5. -, J.',
Los ac eros au ste ns rt icos al rnanq aneso tipo Hadf ield (lipa 7 del cuadro Al , han s id o
una sel ecc ió n p OPUI M por m ás de 8 0 afias e n apl icacio nes abrasiv as en q u e un acero d e
" ~
a lt a du ctilidad y ten acidad , junto con capacidad de e nd u rec e rse mucho en servicio, son ¡r-'-': ~
desead as . Sus propiedades úni cas h arán que con tin úe sie ndo muy úti l e n equ ipos d e t ritura­ r:"
ció n , b alde s de ex cavadoras V una variedad d e condiciones d é muy alto impacto,
., l.os ace ro s martensíti cos d e med iano y bajo c arbon o, del tipo 8, Que se u san tanto
para pi ezas fund idas como forjadas y fabri cada, con acero Iarrun ado, c o m b ina n las propie­ ~, 7
i­ dades de resistencia a la abrasión mod eradamente buena, con a tta ten sión de rotura y limite
-J
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d e ftu enci a. buena res istenc ia a impactos, soldeb ilidnd y facilida d d e formar en frío o en
ca lien te . S o n p art icularmente út i les e n equ ipos d e excavación y d e movim iento de ti erras.
. ~
Para pl acas lami nadas usad as en aplicacion es abrasivas, han desplazado en 9t'an parte a los
:1 "
1;"
ac e ros estru cut rales del tipo 9, que se u san t al corno lam inados, sin trat amientos térmicos.
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RECONOCIMI ENTO

El autor agradece a la Gerencia de CIimax Molybdenum Company, una División de

Amax, el permiso de preparar y presentar este trabajo. La cooperación y la asistencia del
plantel técnico que opera la mina Climax, en Colorado, dond e un pn;)grama de largo
alcance para evaluar los materi ales cubiertos por este trabajo se está desurrollando desde
hace muchos años, es reconocida con agradecimiento.

REFERENCIAS

(1) T.E. Norman, A. Solomon y D.V. Doane, "Martensitic WhitG Irons for Abrasion
ResistantCastings",Trans. AFS Vol. 67.1959, pág. 242 : 2 56 .
(2) W.W. Fraser, "Heat Treated Martensitlc White lrons", Tech . Heport, C6·17.2, ASM,
Metals Park, Ohio, 1966.
(3) P.C. Kempe, "Larninated Martensitic"White lrons", Bulletin, Canadian lnst. of Mining
and Metallurgy, Septiembre, 1967;
(4) 'W.M. Weddeburn, "A Review ofSome GaS! Abrasion-Resistant Materials and their
Aopl ication", Journal of the South Atricari lnst. of Mining and Metallurgy, Vo1.66.
Diciembre 1965, pág. 160·174. .
(5) M.E. Garber, E.V. Hozhkova y 1.1. Tsypin, "Effect of Carbon,Chromium,Silicon
and Molybdenum on -tne Hardenabi lity and Wear Hesistence of White lrons",
Metallov edeniye ¡ T errnicheskava Obrabotka Metallov, 1969, NO 5. pág. 11-"4.
(6) Capitel Foundry Div .. Midland ·Ross Corp .• Phoenix , Arizona, "Kromox High Alloy
Balls", Bulietin CF - 370, 1970. ¡l .. .
¡
(7) T.E. Norman y C.M. Loeb, Jr., "Wear Tests on Grinding 8alls", Metals Technology, f",::,,::
AIME, T.P. 2329. Abril 1948. . '..'«.
(8) " The Role of Molybdenum in Abrasion-Hesistant Materlels", Bulletin, Climax Mo­
Iybdenurn ce.. 1962, pág. 22.
(9) T.E. Norman y E.R. Hall, "Abrasive Wear of Ferrous Materials in Climax Operations" ,
l . ASTM, STP 446,1969, pág. 91 . 113. '.
""" (10) A.L. Wesner, M. Poberesk in y J.E. Campbell, "Study of Grindinq-Ball Weélr Emplo ­
ying a Radioactive-Tracer Technique", Trans.AIME , (Mining), Vol, 217, 1960.
(11) T.E . Norman, "Factors ! nfluencing the Resistance of Ste el Castings to High Stress
Abrasion", Trans, AFS, Vol 66, 1958, pág. 187 - 196. . ';

(12) T.E . Norrnan, D.V. Doane y A. Solornon, "Austenitic Manganese St eels" . Trans. ,,' : ",

,'. #-~
AFS, Vol, 68, 1960, pág. 287·300. • I

~. ", .>"
(13) G. Kniaqinin y C. Chojeck i, "Investiqation of the Method ofM elting andApplication
of a New Austenitic Manganese Cast Ste el with a Low-M anganese Content", Prace
Rady Naukowo-Techniczne], Huty irn Lenina 20,1967, pág. 49 - 79 .
(14) " Grind ing Balls and Rods", Bulletin, Armco Ste el Corp .. Kansas City, Mo., 1970

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 12

Cuadro A

Tipos Generales de Aleaciones Férreas Resistentes a la Abrasión

-­ =mm ,.._oc: nrmt ... °1'T?"'T""'-n'_'"'Ff!V"'WI!Jl'r)!'W'!"S.. e

Tipo Descripción

Fundicionesblancas martensíticas de alto cromo

(8·32 o Cr).
2 Fundicionesblancas martensíticas de mediana aleación.
3 Fundiciones blancas perl íticas.
4 Aceros rnartens íticos de alto carbono.
5 Aceros austen íticos de mediano manganeso.
6 Aceros per líticos de alto carbono.
7 Aceros austentticos tipo Hadfield,
8 Aceros martensíticos de mediano y bajo carbono.
9 Aceros de bajo carbono tal como laminados.

,
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1
Cuadro 1 ~ ~: :
fundic.iontt1 Blanca1 Marlens(tlcas de Alto Cromo (8 . J2 0 /0 Cr) ¡.,
Compoución Tiplta - Porcieruo Tretarmeotc Dureza
Tipo Térmico BHN
e Mo, Si ('J Mo Cu(31 No 11) (21
15Cr·3'.Io 2,4 .3,6 O) 0,6 16 3 TA Y R 601 767
~. '
16-C. ·2Mo·1Cu 3,4 0,7 0,6 J6 1,0 lA y R 627 712
=\U
r W C'·2Mo.1Cu 2,8 0,7 0,6 20 1,7 1,0 TAy R 627 712 ,'.
12C,·Mo 3) 0,7 0,6 12 0,5 T Y R 141 601 712

2S · 32 c. 2,3 • 3,0 1,0 1,0 27 0,5 TA y R 556· 712

a cr . GNi 3,3 0,6 1,5 U 6,0 lA y R 461 ·627
' 1
10· t5>C' 1.2.2,6- I,S 0,6 12 TAy R 555 . 627

t 1) ll}!;. compc aicro nes también puedan usarse con lÓlo un tratamiuruo de aftviar.ión rjCJ tcn $lOn~ ¡lumpre que \811n (ffifri~ ,n rApl­
da rnerue debajo de O()()OCpura suprimir la tcrmec ióo da perl ita .
I ;¡ TA: Temp lado; R : Rev.nido; T: Templado

(2. OUrelirl por conve",6n de vetcres Re.

(J) En ¡'l g u no ~ CBS(n 'i!' usa c1b 0,5 a t ,O % Ni un lugar do 1,0 Cu C'fl EtIlOs compociciones te
\ .
141 Pil"3 wprjm,r petlilii en e-¡¡,III comooncióo se requiere un temple bastante ttlpido en aire. o sino en sal fundida o aceite. ,;:. -'.'.

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 13
Cu~rol

FUlld;óoue, 6'~~ M3rw llti1'cM. dtt Mwdibnd Alo~ )ón

'c;;;;;;r~:. Pl;~-:;~ i'r,,(,jtln~"~~iO ~;¡,¡

T..... e Mn Si e. Ni Mo T"'mico 6HN

". ' ~ 4N1·2C. J,J O;> 0,6 2,0 4) Rl2l 51• . 6bJ

1 Ni· zo 1Mo 3ft O) 0.6 1.1 3,0 1,0 Rl21 566 .6ll2

11) Ol.lf'lll~ poto conv eruOn de valoru5. Re

12J R: Revenido . LM pieliJ1 !)tl1l6l'4lmente deben entnarse lentamellle ea "J1 moldes de arena , íueqo se le1 da un revemdo ol 130 ­

29Q0C . Al~f\it3. ~ WJ Us.il un revenido u 4500<: ~,)U«:io de cfl1n alnioo lo al aire y un nuev o revemdo a 230 - ?9 JOC

Cu...woJ
fundloio.¡M 61"""," P.,HIl<-II'
!oo, '
: -~ j i;./. \.
Tratarru entc Dureza
Tipo C Mn Si c. I'érmrcc BHN
._- ---- --_ ._ - - -
u..,oc""",,., 2,4
- - --- - - - - --- ­
O,~ 1,3 :1:11 401
NI~1J'lO

Alto C".i;rl)a1O 3,3 0,6 0,5 1,0· ],0 NW"'::I..lf-o 444 534

',1 ~,, '

Cu&dro 4
A~o. hh,tundoQ)t do Alto C.ro.:mo l ;'
/-
e,
Raogo de Cornposrcr ón . Purcrento ( 1) Tral dNHQnto Dureza
T ipo __ e Mn Sí CI Mo T érrrucc t21 BHN
lCOCr·1M o 0,9 1,2 0,3 ·0,5 0,4 ·0,7 5,0·7.0 \ ,0 1,7
---­
TA v R 555 6]1

\C , 12C, 0,0 1,.2 0,3 ·1,6 0,3·0.7 10 .0-13,0 0,0 1,:1 TAoTAcyR ,,5 6 7 7

le le, o.o \,3 0,3 ·0.9 0,3 · 0 ,6 0 ,4 - 1,6 0 .0 \ ,2 T "" o'(A~ vR 5 1. 653

0,8 e 0,7 0,9 0,6 - 1,0 0,3 ·0,5 0 ,1 0,5 0,0 O) fAg v R 601 717 ,"
0 .5C -c,· Mo 0,5 · 0. 7 0,5 · r.e 0,3 ·0,0 0,5 - 2 ,' 0 .2 0 ,5 T Ac v A 555 653 ... ...
..,:",,1.

t~.:'. "

l.

11) Pü(a uN! pieza t:ipOCita o 00 un prove<tdor 8spocífico. los ra,nt)OS<k componcróo son má~ estrechos Que 10\ aqu I I1ddm
. '. .. .

1"
Cuad,o 5

Ñ"iWrn AUJten/tw-oJ de MedHmO ( .onI4nt<lo de AI8ft(i6"

COfllPº,icíOI1it1T ipiCl;l.i .! or t ien H:'-_ _ ~ Tra14mlanto Dureza

,­
A _ _ _ _ _

,~
Ti¡", C '-'in SI Mo T, 1 ....nuc o BHN

,- - . .:.' --~-
~~ "'''/
6Mn -1Mo 1,2 6,0 0,6 1,0 0,6 MA., TAUIIi 121
~: \.-;:,.'f / .
9Mn· 1 "40 1,2 9,0 e.e 1.0 0.2 0,5 Ma., TAO (11 121 '/

.: ~

.e - "

.
l '
'

".

, "
 14 , . ,,.,
Culld<oG ~ ü
t, O ·
~ ..
~~"'- "," , ~, ¡

,k
Aaf'01 Po,fil ian de Alto Curbono

B ~I '!-~ I ,1..> C O j\ J!1Q¡~~ ' , :..;"'-""~n

PO'5 i ",-",
IO,-- _ T ",tWt\ lltn I O [Ju rUl'"
Tipo e Mn SI C, Mo Ni l dtm..-.o '21 IlHN

c. , Mo 0,5 · 1.1 0.6 ·0.9 0,3 ·0.8 1.0 ·2,6 0,3 ·0,5 0,0 · 1,0 TAYR 256-556 ,..
e 0 ,7 · 1,0 0,6.0,9 0,2 • 0,3 TAe o TL 292 - 401
," .
"' .

m fA : Tomplado td oi••
1 Ac: Tt"mplwo al aceite
Tl : To.I como lal11mMk>, R: "wollido

Cuadro 7 (1)
; ."

,j •.-..•: . .
Acoros Austen íticos al Manganeso Tipo Hadfield \ .

'~'

1- ' Comp osición· Porcionto (2) ~

:. ",
Grado :·
'i-.
1
¡
Carbono Manganeso Crom o Molybdeno Níque/

A 1,05 a 1,35 11,0 m in o

8-1 0,9 a 1,05 11,5a14,O
8-2 1,05 a 1,2 11,5a14,O
; .~

B-3 1,12 a 1,28 11,5 a 14,0 ,~ , ."

B-4 1,2 a 1,35 11,5 a 14,0

C 1,05 a 1,35 11,5 a 14,0 1,532,5
".{ '

D 0,7 a 1,3 11,5 a 14,0 3,0 a 4,0

E-l l,05a1 ,45 11,5 a1 4,O 1,8 a 2,1 (. ­
E- 2 1,05 a 1,45 11,5 314,0 '/ ,8 a 2,1

(1) De la Design ac ió n ASTM A 128-64

Silicio Fósfo ro
(2) En todos los grados: % rnáx.
1,O 0,07 % máx .

.~

, '1 ,.
.,.
~\' :'
1 ",'."

-,

,
- - - -- -
 15 ~

Cü«Io-oI!

""""" M........ltiroI óo rilGdlalO y &jo Cortlo""

.... 7 '.:..
G
-~

Rongo do ~6n - Porciestto (1)

Tratamiento Dureza
lA .,,~ e lIIn $Á Cr Mo Ni Térmico (21 BHN
-' AleKIÓfl
0.4C 0.31>0.&0 0,6-1,1 0,i'1,8 0,4-2,0 0,2{),6 0 ,0-2,0 TA<:y R 321-&01

.., Alllocl6o
0 .3 e O,2!>{).J2 0,5-1,7 0,2 ,1,8 0,0 -2,0 0,2·0,6 0 ,0-2,0 TA!lv R 321-5.55
~(1j
.
, A/('!UC lOO
O ,I~ e O,IO{).21 0,4·1,7 O,2{).o 0.4 '2 ,0 0,2.0,6 0 ,0·1 ,6 TAVY R 311 - 401
--_._- --­

11) Pafl uoe I\Plicacióne-sp.I;cíflca o chl un ~ Mptt<;ífíco.ICM r~ ¡w

ccmnoncióe 5011 mJ.s ~H~hQ:~ que 101 ~'xJos , Mam.k
C<t los t11~rTlcn'c»d4 aleocioo indic.adt». kn tX;.er(» puooen cooteoer pt.'qJct'\.u (:J.ntk1hdM oe Ti, v, Cb v has1;)0,006 °/0 B.

121 TA: Templedc al Aco;I~; TAl" T<m<>lBdo ... ~; R: R""""ido.

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t.. ~
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r.~ :,
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FIgura 1: Rdspad or d e m ine ral, d e.2 m de d iámetro, en acc ió n e n Iq mina Chm ax.
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',:1 FilJUra 2: Vista do la cámara quebrantadora de Un quebrantador giratorio.

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ga stados.
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Figura 4: Calsificad ores de are na, de dob le esp iral , usados en circuit o cerrado con m OJI· ~ . ::. ..
, .. , ,:..:,.
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nos de bolas. ~

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Fi\}ura 5 :
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Ban co d e esp ira les Humphrve , u sados par" sepa rar rnm er ales pesad os de las co­
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las de celdas de flotac ión.
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8'vie'Jv o f M a t e r ia ls f'or
1
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, ~
GriIl d ing M il l Liners
a
j-
I
,j­
i
,1
-r:
,
"1.-.
~
', L.
The principIe of g rindirig ores, and mineraIs with
turnbli n g medi a in r otat ing barrel-sh np cd milis W/lB
known and u se d at le a st as e arly as t h e rnid­
nineteenth century. H owever, the dev elopmenL of
m echani cally-suitable m ili s to g r ind in t h is m ann er,
with a con t in uous f e.ed a n d di scharge, did not occ ur
j J. -,
" until about 1908, Following thei r development, these
,~ rni lls wer e rap idly adopted lo r ep lac e Chi lea n mi lls,
stamp rn í lls and other m ethods ofgrind ing , It.qui ckl y
. -: became obv íous that these milis would huve to be
~.'¡1 lined with a s uitabl é ab r aeío n-resis tan t material,
'.~~j aince th e structui'~l grade of s t eel or jrr a y i r on u ~ed
in the shell and en d s tend ed to wear out q u lt e ru pid ly.
~...~ During the period from 1908 to about 1912, when
much p r og resa was made in t.he d evelopment a n d d e­
.':.{
aig n of ¡rrindi n g milis, the cho ice of su i ta b le m at e­
','~~ ~ rials nv ui lable for mill linin gs wa s q u it e limitad.
, "
Ca st w hite i ron, Hadfield-typ e a us ten itic m an g a nese
: ~J steel and una lloyed h igh-carbon st eel wcr e th e p r in ci­
¡'): ~ ~.j pal ferrous mat erials suitable for these linln gs. A
~ -. ,
non-m et allic lining, mud e hom cu t f1int b locJcs 01'
natural st on e wh ich w a s cem ented in t o f orm a
smooth "Silex" lining, \Vas also u sed quite exten sively
in ftne -grinding milis, which generalJy us ed f1int
pebbles f uI' gri nd ing medi a. Th ere was also consid er­
a b le Use of composite linings mude from high·carOoll
sleel and concrete and of líner desígns whil:h wouhl
tr u[J and hold gr inding balls Ol' pebble8 in poekeb> lo
form part of t he wearing surfa ce of th e liner o M03t
of th ese cady mills hnd reJativ ely s ma ll d i am eters,
"
usually in th e r ang e oí 3 to 7 ft (O.D to 2.1 m ),
whi~h did not impoge the requiremenls on rnaLel'ials
f or lin e n~ which a r e d em and ed by t h e lÚJ'g'e-di nm et el'
ball, rod an d uu t ogenou s m ili s lls ed in m an y p r es cn t ­
day g rinding op er ation s .
The trend towa r d lar ge-di am eter mil is beg un in
ub out 192G w h en 9-ft (2.7-m) di nmet er ball milIs
207
~ ~ ,
JJ
by TELFER E. NORMAN
Climax Molybdenum Company
l. •
were nstnll ed at Andes Cop per Mi nin g Com p any.
í
Si mi la r milis were inat a lled a f'ew y ears lat er at
Clímax Molybdcnurn Compa ny, foll ow ed by 10-ft
(3.0- m) d i am uter mi lls at th e Mor en ci plunt of Phelps
Dod ge Corp . F r om about 1950 u p to the present time .
wh en many new m il ls w e re in stall ed t o g ri nd t a con it e
"
iron or es, low-grnde coppe r or es and a]30 cem ent
plant f eed an d produces, the trend tow ard lar g e, high­ l .
h orse powe r milis cont lnued, s o th at a t pr es en t the "
max irnum s ize of r od milis is ab out 15-ft '4 .G-m)
di arneter: t h e maximum size of ba ll rn i lls is present lv
abo ut l8- f t (5 .5- m) d ia m ete r , and th e m ax i m um s i ze
l .
oí au t ogcn c us m ills is abou t 35 ..ft (lO .7-m ' d i ameter ,
with p r os pce ts of even larger mills i n si g ht . It is
ob vi o ua thal s hu tclow n t ime f o r re lin ing t h es e la rg e
m il ls s ho u ldue k ep t at a m ín imum, so th ete h as been
a stead i ly i n cr ca sin g dcmand for lí ne r materials wi t h
h i gh abr a si on resis tan ce and irnpro vec! t c u ghne ss ,
Bet ween a bout 1930 and the pres ento th cre ha ve
been literuJly hund¡'eds of f errous materi aL; inresti·
g-at ed 01' t es l ed f or m ill Jinen. A few of t hese coul d
be c!assed as n ew a llo y typ es, whi le man y othe l's r ep ­
res entcd v al'iatio ns i n compositi on , h eat treatment.
ha r clness amI stru cture of the resp ective alloy typ es .
In allditio n, two non-metallíc ma t er ials , specifica!ly
:-Jpecial l'u bber for mulations and high-nlllmina br k k.
}~ ¡¡ V Q lJccn developed far use in mill ¡¡nings.
'l'hl' ::;tcelH111ld Ír Ol1 fl pl'r.Hcn tly uscd in g-rindiug mili
liners may be classified in1,o ten general t ypes. T h e
cOln po¡¡itiOll!l mHI h al'Cln eHs rnnge t1 of e tlr~h t ype a ro
li8tcrl in T ab le 1. Th ese ten c o m pu~¡ ti o ns re preflent
th ü IJrinci pal typ es o E fB1TOUS mut erial~ which h :t VC
RUI'vi ved thü t es t of tim e anel co m n¡ :~rci :t1 use . Tl w ~'
are lisleu in appl' oxirnu te ord er of decre nsing' ab rll­
~;iO! l I'CSist allce; it sho ul c1 be I'ccogn izecl tha t mi no r r¿­
versals in tllil.> or der may OCC lll', depellding on clla)' o
a ct er of Ow m ili f ee d an d Oll op craL in g ('()ndi tio n~ .
\,.
 J '1,
'l'EL FER E. NOn~! AN 208 \ ..

1)
-\ ~,~

¡(h?-,~ \
.' .
The mart enait ic Cr- Mo wh íte iro n, Itero 1 in 'I'a ­ .,.
ble 1, is basically a r ange of com posi tlons, conta in in g
14 to 23 %· ch rorni um w ith sufficient moly bdenum plu s
opt iona l am ou n ts of nic ke l 0 1' copper so that heavy­
sect ion lin ers can be hard en ed by h eat treatment
to p roduc e a structure of chrornium-ir on curbid es
(C r~C: I type) in a ha rd mar ten s it ic m at rix . Th is alloy
i ron norma lly has the bcst a br asio n re si stan ce of any
of t he f'e r rous materials listed in T able 1. It also ha s
su r pr isj ngly good resiatance to spall ing nnd breakage
in se rv ice . There are, however , sorne hi gh-impact
mi lla which will br ea k 0 1' spall lina r platas oí this
mate r ia l. Its use should the re fore be approached I I I I I I I I
wi th ca u ti on whe re hi gh-i m pnct condit.ion a ¡{re known
to ex is to Abo, t he a lloy norrnall y carr-ies a h ghe r ñrat
í

cost than any of the c the r materi.als listed in 'I'able r.

·z I¿
1 \:';1 lI:I C'J ~:::> tJ:) o
.~ ~ -i rl ~ . ~
- . ,J Consequent ly, it may be econom ically cornpetitive {al' oooo ~ I I I
use in one ope ration but not in .another , o o o C'5 o o
Some fu rthe r expluua tion oi t he re lativa weu r rutes ,.

list ed f ur eac h of the i te ms in 'l' a ble 1 m aybe in or der . o

Oe--JU'OC­
M rlÓ ~O ~O rl
rllf:)C

Th ese wear r ut es we re determi ned inpr imary -g rind .~ o..;. o oc\J a,J> o I I
ha ll milla gr inding- a h igh-si líca ore: Under th ese rl o o o o o o o
conditions , t he s pread in r ela tiv e wear rat es between
eac h it em ten ds to be rathe r sm all , Wh en these s arne OOOLOC'lX v.>O o
M¡":ooe-ie-i~e-ie-i M
C'l C'l ¡:¡
mat eri a ls a re compared in red m ili al' autogeno us mili I 1 I 1 I
O C'J o '<l'a> LO LO o
'1
o
service whe re t he feed t o the rnills is coa rser th an "(ji .-i M ~
..... C'l
r...i oo o o
t hat to ball mills, a substantially grea t er difference
in re lat iva wear r at es normally is obtained, though Oa> "' 00 lt:> r-oo o ","00
the order of m er it t ends t o remain the sarne, Recent ~OrlO ~oo P';o oI
., I 1 l . I 1 1 1
U)..,.COMtO""M~"'-n
I ( .
da t a f'ro m compa r ative service t ests at -s ever a l rod­ 00 00000000
milling and autogenous-millíng operatíons, \vl\ei e
-" Items 1, 4 and 7 were comparad, conñrm thls obeer­ OOLOOOlt:>r-a>oo o
vation .' e .-i...4~o~cOo"lr~-: ¡
~ '';'.
In vicw of LIJe incrensing írnport ance and ouse . oi . . u; J:, 10 ~ tb .h JJ o~
-t
~,

l --­ the martensitie Cr -Mo white irons , as represented

oo ci o ci u:i o ....... : o o
by Item 1 in Ta ble 1, it mu y be o fI nterest tú relate
i, ­ th e or ig in an d h istory of th ese iron s, wh ích contaln C'l C\l 00 f.O lo " ~ ~ o ":1' o \D
¡
ch ro rnium contenta in t ermediate between th e high­ '0 '7 ~ c11 e?
""1't-CV)\n-.:r
~
~
0
~.(j
~ ~
_~OO
:¿ 1,"
;.:.
carbon, 12 % ch r om ium t oo1 steel t y pes and the 27 % C'ioo-iC\id~o ""':oc-4
, ­ chrom ium white iron t ypes. E a ch of these corn posi ­
tions h ad been d eveloped for ab rasion ap p 1i cat ion ~
prio r to 1930, and bot h 'p1ayed u pa rt in the s ubse­
quent development of t he Itera 1 ir on s in T a ble L ·
In Lhe lat e 1930's, thel'e was some use of 15 to 18 %
eh romi um white ir ona for m ud-p um p line rs and ot h er
abrasion resi.'l tant parts used by th e oí! industry . To
obtain the desí r ed pea rlite-free 01' f,er rite-free st r uc­
tu re in the fini sh ed pa r ts , wh ich were usually ma­
,¡ chined then h ll.r d ened by hea t treatmen t, it was
necessal'Y to add molybdenum, nickel , copp er 0 1' torn­
uilllltions uf t hese alloying ele lll\)nts to the com ­
1 position. However', the 27 % ch rorni um iro ns (Item &
·1
i iJl Table I) continued to be favored in preference to
j -
.¡
¡
the 15 to 18 % chrom ium irons ÚP to 1948when
R. D. Haworth 2 pre sented his results of wea'r t ests
at Annou r Research Foundation. RíB results 'ind i­ ......
cut ed th a t 16 % chromi um mart en sitic white irol)s
had be tter abntsion resistanc e tha n the 27 '10 ch ro ­
miu m iron g, Ha worth's lab or at ory tests we r e fql­

".

209 A REVIEW OF MATERIALS FOR GRINDING MILL LINERS
Jowed up and confirmed by field tests at the Climax
mine, where the 15 to 18 % chromium irons, with
ab out 3% molybdenum add ed to obtain the desired
hardenabilíty, were tested as marked grinding baila,
cla sai fiel' wear shoes and in severa! other abrasiva
applications including ball mil! linera. As a cense­
quence of these favorable resulta, which were brieñy
reviewed by T, E. Norrnan s in 1958, a com mer cia l
specificabion for "15 Cr-3Mo" irons was born and sub ­
sequently approved by ASTM in 1965 .
The 15Cr-3Mo irons showed considerable promise
for g r i nd in g milI linera as ear-ly as 19GO. However,
bec a use of the heavy section of some of these linera,
a "fully-hardcned" or murtensitic structure was not
always obtained, so investigations were initiated at
the Ann Arbor research Iaboratorv s of Clímax and
by 1". Marutray3 in France on the factors influencing
the hardenabilitY and other properties of the high­
chromium i rons. It was known rrom the early studies
and wear tests on these irons that nickel, copper and
manganeae could be used to increase hard enabl lity,
hut at the sarne t im e, these three elements t ended to
degrade abrasion r esistance by r etaining ex cesalve
arnounts of austenite in the structure. However, the
investignti on a by tho Clímax research laboratory and
by Maratray further indicated that by a suitable
balancing of the carbon, silicon, chromium and 1110­
,-"
lybden urn in the compo sition, accompariied by rela­ sornewhat prone to cracking in the foundry or during
tively small add itions oí nickel 01' copper, un íron
-vith high hardenability plus near-optimum abrasi ón
re siatance, when used in heavy sections, could be
produced, These "balanced" compositions form the
bas ís for the present liner compositions as listed for
Itern 1 in 'I'able 1. A typical microstructure oí a
heat-treated heavy section made from one of these
"bllJanced" composit ions is shown in Figure 1.
Concurrellt with the investigations by the Clímax
research laboratory and by Maratray, an extensive
'! 3tudy of the abrasion re si stan <:e of heat-tr eated
¡­
j heavy-aeetion high-chromium white ¡rons WIl.S made
t
I ,_
by Avery6 at th e Abex laboratory. The compositions
1
j
studied contain ed va r ying am.. ounts of carbon, silicon,
.! ­
¡ manganese , ch r omiu m, molybdenum and nickel. By
.\
j ­ app]ying a computer regression analysis to the te­
~~ sulta of his tests, Avery worked out a formula fol."
1".1 ..­
compo3itions which would provide optimum abralJion
resistance whe n us ed in h eavY-Bection liners. 7 It
should be noted that the compositions de3ig-nated by
Avery's formula fall within the composition range
for Item 1 in Table 1.
Item 2 in Table I , r epres ellting several grades oí
high-carbon martensitic ateels, contains sufficlent
chromium and molybdenum, plus opUonally :;lome
nick el, so th at heavy-section liners made from these
grades can be heat treated to ful! hardness by a
quench in air 01' molten salto A grade containing
about 1.0% carbon, 5 to 6 % chromium plus 1.0 %
~ ; --­ molyhdenurn, which is similar to the air-hllrdening
i 'l'ype A2 tool steel, ha s ex cel1ent abáísion r esist ance
,J ~
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¡.
!
.¡;¡
FTGURE 1. Typical mierostructure oí a heat-treated linar
p¡ate made f'rom an Item 1 composition contuini ng
2;S9C, O.73Mn, O.55Si , 1!l.3Cr, 2.1Mo. l.OCu . Hardness is
64 HRC. Structure shows eutect íc and secondary Cr ,C.­
t:vpe carbides in a marte naitie matrix, 500 X.
plus good sp alling resi stance, but tends to devel op
h;igh internal stressas when produced in heavy 01'
non-uniforrn ca s t sections. Consequently, it h as been
service, This has limited its commerci al use, which at
present is largely confined to a number of cement
milling operations in Europe. Another grade in the
Item 2 cla ss ification contains about 0.70 0/,- car bono
1.0 % mangan es a, 1.5% chromium and 0.5 % molyb­ :.'
?",I. '
:} :J ~
denum. It ís hardened by a quench in rnolten salt , th en .!,:
.,+. ' ~
tempered tú a hardness of about 500 to 550 HB to
.. ,
sui t operating conditions in the 111il1. It is less prone
to cracking thun the 5Cr-1 Mo grade, but is ab o
somewhat lesa abrasion r esistant. It has been us ed
quite successfully in a number of high- and m ediurn·
impact ball mil!:> in th e U.S.A.
ltem 3 represents the high-chromium whitc ¡ron
whi ch was originally dcveloped for h eat and cor r o­ F, .
'.
sien resi stant castings and was found to hav e hiirh
abrasion resistance especially when us ed in slur r y
pu mps . It has found limited use in grind ing m i ll line rs
in the U .S.A. und has now been almost entirely dis­
placed by the Cr-Mo irons in Item l . However, th ere l'
is still some use of the Item 3 irons for cement mi li
liners in Europe.
Itero 4 representa the well-Jmown Ni- Hard types of
white iron. Th is type of iron was made fol' many -: -
years by cupola m elting'. It was cast in sancl 0\' per­ "::':. -.'.:.
manent molds and required ollly a s imple stress-relief .'.
heat treatment. At present most Ni-Hard is m ade by I~ •
eleetric furnace melting, which proyid es better con·
trol over composition and als o ava ids the air-pollution
problema ássociated with cupola melting . The N i­
H ard irons haye good to excellent abrasion r esist ance
when used in linel's, but they are not as re sistant to
H .:
,:
I
 '."
i -
j
:j~ ~
r:! r-'
breakage and spalling as the Item 1 Irons 01' the steels
r ep r-es en t ed by Iterns 5, G,7,8 and !J in Tabla L Ce nse­
quently, ita use has been confined largely to medlurn­
and low-irnpact conditions in ball milla. Ni-Hard is
algo bei ng a ucceas tu lly uaed (chi1l ca s t ) in aorne of
t he large rod rnil!s. providcd th e milis are o pe r u t ed
with a high pulp level to cushion the shock of the rods
hi tting the linera.
Item 5, representing the marten sitic m édium­
carb ón Cr-Mo (Iow-alloy ) steels, covers a, number
of recently-devclopcd compositiona for both wrought
, and cast steel linera. Tú obtain fuI! hardening with
~ -:-
; their relatively low alloy content, the linera are usu­
',¡
'1 ~ ally oil quenched, though certain recently-developed
¡ compoaitions in this classiñcation canalso be fully
' J -"
".j
J
.~ hardened by an aír quench. Currently the use of the
Item 5 type of steel for rod mill linera and ror liners
in sorne high-irnpact ball milla tsgrowing quite rapo
idly, so it appears to have a good future , 'I'he-steel
has relatively good toughneas and good abrasion
re s iBtance.
Item 6 represents an austenític manganese aleel
with mllngancl:lc reduced lo about 6 %. whích provldcll
it with better abru sion resistance than the more
cOllven liollal HudEeld-typc 12 % mnnganese :rtoela.
Th e 6Mn-l Mo type has the inherently good toughne:;ss
of an au stenitic ateel, though it ís not as tough 8,S
the Hadfield 12 % manganese types. HoweyeI:, 11'\t;JSt
millliners do not require the high toughness oí Had­
field atee!. ConsequcnUy, the 6Mn-lMo type has,
during the paat 12 years oí its existence, providecl
a good performance record in ball milla úperating
under relatively high-impact conditions. It ia also
partic ularl y wcll-suited to use in ball-mill discharge
grates with 1/ 2- to 1-in. (13- to 25-mm) wide open­
ings . The ateel tellds to peen sufficicntJ y on th¡;wear­
ing ed ge of the grate bars so that a sh oul der is main­
tained at the grate openings, which in turn preve.nts
or ~educeg plugging of these op enings by \Vorn blLlls.
. , The wo¡-J{ hurdcning und tlow cha r acteri l:l ticll oí the
stee l are such that just about the righ.t amoun~ oí
peening occurs on th e grate bara. Abrasion resi st1mce
of t he steel ia no rmally better t-h nn t hat of pcai'litic
.. ~,} "ch ro me-moly" ateels (Item 7), though it is aomc­
';...:...
wh at lesa abrasion re~jstant than the mlirtensitic
medium-carbon steels (Item 5) . Initial hardness oí
the 6Mn-1Mo steel i!:l relatively low, but it will wórk
hardún to :1 maxil'l1um of about 550 UD on the we!l.l'ingo
!lurfuce.
Itero 7 represcnts the well-known penrlitic chrome­
moly slet~h whieh have been llvailable for castliners,
with only slight modificatiol1s, sÍnce about 1930. The
at ee! conta ins sufficient amounts of ch ro mium and
molybdenum, with an optional níckel cont"ent, so
that heavy-section liners made from this alloy de­
velop a fine-pcarlitic structure with a hardne;;s of
about 350 to 420 HE when they are air eooled or
air quenched from th e heat-treating temperature.
Th e linera are stress relieved ol' t emperad to a sorne:'
~ , '".
uU
TELFER E . NORM¡\N 210
what lower hardness to improva toughnesa , Presently
most foundr ies supply this steel in two g.racica con­
taining norninally 0.60 and 0.85 % carbón. respec­
tively. The lower-carbon grade is used for hall mili
g rates and in certain rod 01' b all mülc wherc impact
condltions are unusually h igh . 'I'he O. 8 G C'~ carbón
grade, which is norrnally somewhut harder aud more
abras íon reslstant than the 0 .60 t;"~ carbón g r ade, is
preferred for most ball milis and for sorne rod milla. " ,
In general, linérs made from these chrome-moly ~\t'~ ,
steels muy 'be classed a.~ hav ing excell ent re siatance ,
to spalling plus suffícient r esistance to bre akage so ~,r>. ;
. "
that they can be worn down: to o1/.\ -in, (fi-mm ) th ick­ .. j . , .. .
. \. r
ness 01' less before their r emoval frorn the mill. The
steel is norrnally more ab rasion reaistant than aus­
tenitic 12% manganese steel when used in ball milla. ~-
When used in rod milis. the relative performance , . ~,
life of the two ateels ís less predictable, though the t, "
',.
i ~, ~'
chrome-moly grades muy be preferred because of
1 ..
their higher yield strength and consequent grcater h.:_ .
resiatance to flow anLI plu(:ltie deforrna1.ion in scrvice,
Thís is a partí cularly important consideration when .¡..'.­ .
~
th c uteel s Ilre used .cOl' clampor Ji fter bar8 in both
rocl :;tnd -ba ll milis. B re nka ge of lin er bol ts during
Bcrvicc can nor~llal1y be rcdu<:.ed 01' clilllínnt ed whell
chrome-moly stcels are llsed to replnce the austclli tic
12 % manganesa stee!.
,t.(
Ite.m 8, representing the Hadfield 12 % mangan ese
steel, was useet for lin ers in practically all of the
..
high-hnpact ball and rod mills up to about 1930,
when corripetition ;from the chrome-moly cas t steels
began. In the U.S_~., thel2 % manganese steels have
now been largely di spl aced for ball mill liners by
the other more a.bra sion r esi stant steels and irons,
However, for rod mi]] liners ope r a t ing under severe '..!
impact condtions, the 12 % mllnganese gr¡¡de is still r­
preferred in a number of operations . It provides a. "
combínation of high toughness , mod erate cost, avail­
:: .
a bilit y and fai r ly good abl'asion res istance.
The yield strength ane! r esi stance to pla:; tic tlow in
servíceof the 12 % m anganese steel can be impro ved
by additions oí chrom ium a nd / or molybdcnum . H igh
ca r bon e on t ellts ..d i o imp l"ove thc yicld stl'<!Og th ano
abrasion re si stance wit h sorne Joss in du ctility 0 1'
toughneas of the cast inga. However, even with curbon
contenta n ear t he h igh side of the range listed in ,­
Table l, the toug-hn ess of the steel is quite fl dequ at e
'for rod mi]] I1MI' s ervlc e.
Item !.l, representin~ the unulloyed, peal'litic high­
curbon'steels, is usu ally llsecl in the form of as·roll ed
bars or rai ls . Oríglnally the large use of th is st eel l"'·
was in the form of scrap raill'oad rails cemented in
p14ce to f orm a composite rail-cement lining. Thi s
·us e oí rails in the U.S.A. is now confined to one 01'
two of the oleler milling operations where a large
number of relatively ama lJ ball milis are still utiJ.izcd
for grinding. A more recent develo pmen t in volves
the use oí th is high -carbon, as-rolled st eel in th e
"L01:ain" rolled-plate and clamp-bar !ining, which

211 A f¡r,~VI1LW O¡.' MA'flmlAI.¡¡ flO/J. CRINDING MILI. LINEHa
was ñrst developetl by U. S. Steel Corp. in about
19:39. This Lorain de sign has been used quite exten­
s ively in rol! and ball milis for both ore and cement
g r ind ing in the U,S .A. To sorne extent, thc original
Loraín de signs Me now being replaced by rolled heavy
aections havirig a single- 01' double-wave configura­
tion, which us e a heat-treated, high-hardness low­
all oy steel fallíng within the Item 5 cla seifícation.
Item 10, rcpr eacntiug the unalloyed 01' low-chr o­
i -,
mium pearlitic white iron s, was used extensively for
.,¡
- shell and end liners in low-impact ball milla and in
1
" pebble mili s. Starting in about 1935, ·it began to be
>, displaced by Ni-Hard (Item 4) which'was much more
i abrasion re si stant and aleo, somewhat su rprtaíngly,
.¡rl had bett er t oug h nesa. At present, the use of unalloyed
I ­ or low-chromium wh i te iron for Iiners has aimoBl'
di sappea red, th cugh it still is in use in' a f ew pebble
I
)­
milis and low-irnpact regrind ball milla, There are
" ., ­ s everal reasons for its di sappeárance; ·whichinClude
,i inferior abra3i~n r esiatance, low i. ~~ghiiess, lack: (ji
1
1 quality control in production and the fact that under
\
1 present-day conditi ons it is no longar a Iow-priced
'1 -
material when cast into liners,
...i ~~ At present there are ASTM specífications govern­
.
~
l_ ~;. ing the composi tion s and properti ésof Iteml! 1, 3,4
1 and 8 in T able I. 1'he other items in the Iist are not
'j -
covered by published specifications though the p!,"o,·
I
,­ ducera of these materials normally have theif own
t interna1 spccifieations to assure pl'opercontrol pver
the quality of th e liners produced.
Rubber formulations for mill linings have undel'­
~ gone considerable development and improvement
<l-­
since 1921 wh en the first rubber lining was insta!1ed
in a 4 ft by 20 ft (1-2 m by G.l m) secondary ball
., mill grinding go ld ore. By eombining these improve­
~"-
\ ments in quality with improvernents in the- de sign
".!'
. ;~::I. and fastening methods, rubber lin ers can now be used
~. : ":"J successfully and economically in a wide range oí fine­
(
grinding condi ti ons and also to a more llmited extent
in course-grinding operlltions in ball and r:od milla.
The rubber formulations used for these Iiners are
considered proprictury by the m allufacturcrs. The
formul ation!l are normally d esign ed to 8uit the oper·
ating canditions in the particul ar mili where the
~
I¡ners are to be u"ed . Speci al rubbeJ' grades maybe
required where flotation oils are pl'esent in the
- f eed 01' where the t emperatul'e in dry gl'inding ex,:
-~ J cceds 180 F (80 e). Rubber ia not a suitllble material
..
.~
f or liners in cement clinker milis. where the high
oper a t ing tempera tu res quickly destroy wearíng
"¿.;'.. ' quali ties_
, The good abrasion resistance of l'ubber dependa on
~l . its ability to yield ela st ically without being cut or
Bcratched when un abrasive particle impingesUPo~
- or iB pressed inlo its surface. Consequent}y, rübber
Iiners tend to provide the best service when the a:bra­
8ive particles are Bmall, as in fine grinding anCl, when
the particle¡¡ are reIatively freefrom hard" sharp
cornera 01' edges. Extensive researchand fieId t~sting
~ '·t
1,
~
v­
10;, ' -.
I :''-; '''~'
,',.
havo been conducted by the producers to expand the t,- -, ,
,to t
range of operating conditions in which rubber linera l.
wi ll perforrn s uccess f'u lly. As a result, there has been
a steady g rowth in the use of rubbor milI lining s,
start.ing in 1961 and continuing up to the present
~' :
time .
Ceramic lin ings for ñne-gr inding milis represen t
an evolutionary develapment fram the natural stone
Ii nin gs used in many of the ñn e-g r inding mills, par­
tícularly pebble mills, duririg the early days oí gr ind­
ing mil! development. Thc natural stone 0 1' Silex
liningswere usually made fram cut f1int blocks ce­
mented in place. 'I'he development of ceramic brick
to -r ep la ce. natural stone introduced several disti nct
( ""
advantages. 'I'he preaently-available high-alurnina
ceramic s ha pes huye much better abr-ae íonrus íst ance,
better resistanceto spalling, better strength and
toughness, better resístance to heat and chemical
attack and better adáptability to economic producti on
andinstaJ1ation under pr esent-day condi tions. In
sorna cases, these ceramic linings can econornically
replacernetal and rubber linings. Where contamina­
tion.of the ground product by wear of metal 01' ru b­ .' j " 1"
ber Tinings must be avoíded, the use of a ceramic
liníng will normally solve the problem. The produc­
lÍon of white cements and titanium paint pigments
constitute two oí the largest markets for ceramie
milI liners and al30 fOl" ceramic grinding media. :
;:- : '
~
'rhe orlginul cermnic Iinings wero made Íl'om por.
cclajnrwhich is a fired c!ay, quartz and feld spar mix­
ture , with a lower alumina content thll.n the eernm ic
brioke and sh apcs now used for mili lincrs. Ordinary
p¡n:celains ,do not have as good abrasion r esistance or
's pa llin g resistance as the high-alumina ceramics. For
comrnérclal use in rnillliners, the ceramic bricks con­
tain about 85 % alumina, though for special appl iea­
tions, even higher alumina con tents m ay be used .
The bricks are fired a t about 2700 F (1480 C) to
'p r ovid e a high -density, non-porous productoThey are
normally cemented in place using partland cement,
acid' ~re3ilJtant cements, epoxy cement 01' silicone rubo
'ber cements. Supplem entary fastening with bolts 01'
othe!' typús of fusteners may also be useu . Speci al
shapes are sometimes used to form lifter bars in thc !"
j ' ,.­
mil! lin ing. The high s palling resistance of cer amic
k:
mm bricks makes their use in Iifter bars feasible fol'
:·f
many fine-grinding mills.
Cerll.mic Iining brick has a specific gl'a vity of 3.'1,
whlch is about 44 )( of the sp ecifie gravi ty of steel.
H ardness oi the ceram ic is 9 on the Mohs' Rea le, wh ich
indicates it should not be scratched ol' worn by abra­
sive minerals su eh as qu artz. Wear oi th e cerami c
pl'obably occurs by a micro-spalling meehanism. This
wear can be materially reduced in wet grinding by
maintaining a high-vis co¡JÍty, high-d ensity pulp in the
mill and by operating the mili at rel atively low cr it ica!
speeds and with peripheraI sp eeds under 270 f pm
"
.
(82 m/min) . If favorable cOl1ditions ean be ma in­
tained in the mill, a cerv.mic 1ining muy 1ast 10 times
\
,
!.:-"
~ ­
 , . 1

uiJ
212

loriger than metal 01' rubber linings and 20 to 30 times in stallation we re added to obtain th e in st alled cost
longer than natural stone. On the other hand, if these per lb. To obt ain th e relativa weíghts, it was assumed ¡ o,
f avorable conditions are not or can not be maintain ed, that for ea ch mill, the relative volum e was th e sarue I

wear wil] occur by a micro-spalling mechanism and for cach oi the ferrous alJoy and cerarmc hnlngs L,,;
the life of the cerarnic lining m ay be substan tia lly A similar assumption wa s not possi lJle f or rubhe r
less than that of a metal or rubber lining in the same linings due to their differen ces in design and TI, thl:
mi ll . fact that the rubber linmgs actually consrstcd "f rub :. "
- i
ber plus metal re inforcement. Conseou ennv. thp , o , ,). ,, '

weight oí rubber linings relativo to the weigh: \ ) f

COST ÜY LINER MATERIALS
meta] linings was baaed OH data from u numbe: of
Cost of linera is a very important consideratíon: ¡urge milla where rubber linings, as recommended h~ ~ 1, J

especially in the rnilling oí low-gradc ores 01' rela­
tively low-priced mater ials suco as cement, T otal cost
of a lining should include the cost of the llner mate­
rial , the cost of in stallation an d at moat opara tions,
" l' the cos t of s h u tdown time for relin ng , whi ch ion tu rn
í of the metal l ini ng
is measured in t errns of lost prcduction. 'I'h e coat oí
lost product.ion varí es con siderably, depending on
conditions at ea ch rni lling opera t ion . but may under
sorne circumstances total more than 50% of the in­
stalled cost oí the liner 'I'he install ed cost ol the
liner is usually. however, the major factor nvolvedí
in its selection . The instalJed cost of ]jners has in·
crensed rapidly ay er the past SO years. In termo of
relative CO gt~, thera ia a trend toward nnrrowin!? tiJe
differenceg among tlle various candidate matcl'j¡l.ls.
'rabIe II lists typical relative costs of the vari­
tbe manufacturero had been used to replace metal 1:' :"',
liu ings. Whcre t.110 rubber Iinings wero approx i mntulv
equal in volu me to meta! lin irigs. their weip ht. 111C"luli
írrg bolts, was between 0.22 and 0,24 of t he we rg h 1
'1'0 obtaí n the relative operatí ng cost or oconomv
of ca ch lining materi al in 'I' able II the r elatrv e in ­ t ·.r
st all ed cost should be divided by i ts hours or dav s of
life in service For the f'errous materials. thi s servi ce
life should be greatest for Item 1 aud leas! fur
Item 10. For the rubber and ceramie li ners the mi ll
operating conditions have a strong mfluence un se r ­
vice life. For fllle gl'inding under favor able condi til)llB .
the- l'ubber and ceramic liners may huye s ub s tant lul]y
longer Jife than any of the metal línel's , \\'hde for
coarse grinding of hal'd ores 0 1' minel'ab \\'\Th I ' "d~ r.."

ous cand idate 01' r eadily-available materials fol' Un­ 01' balls larger than 3-in . (75-mm \ di am eter the life
ings in the Western U.S.A For the preparation of of rubber 01' ceramic liners may be too sh or t to pel'mit ..
; -,:
\
'

Table II , the current delivered priccs of materials
for shcll liners were obtained from the major sup~
pliers of Jiners In thi s arca Th eir prices \Vere a\-er­
aged, and the approximate cur r en t cost of bolts 'for
an average Iining in milis 7- to 14-ft (2.1- to 4 .3-m\
their oconomi c us e Other fa<:tors, such as relati\'e
resistance t o breakage 01' s pa llin g . must oí cours e
also be considel'ed in the seJe ction of material::, froro . - .. ,
the list in T ab le Ir . The toughn ess ratín g of rhe mil
teria1s in Table II in d icat es their order of re slstitnCe
'. .{ . :

diameter, plus the estimated cost oflabor for liner to breakage and spulling in high-impact ser\'ic ('

TABLE H-!I'ypical Relative Costs of Materíals Used fol' Linings in the Western USA-December 1973"

Inst al- Relative Relati vE' ~ ..'

lati on Installed WeiJ"htof In stnl led ~.~ ?' 1
Cost Cost Cost Complete lüst of Toughlles:,
It em h Mat erial Por lb Per lb' Per lb Linillg' Lin illg' r !(atilll!' ~. ':: 1:
-------
1 Martensitic Cr-M o Whi(.(, Iron 0.38 0.04 ... -
O , .) 100 ·I ~ 6
",.1

4 Mar te nsiti c Ni-Cr Whi te Iron 0. 30 O.O·! 0. S1 100 3~

5 Martcnsitic CroMo St eel 0,36 0.0<1 0.·10 100 ·10 5
,.
6 Austenitic 6Mn"l Mo Steel 0,32 0.04 0.36 100 36 3 ~. '
7 Pearlitic Cr-Mo Stcel 0.28 O.O,¡ 0. 32 100 32 4
8 Austenitic 12Mn Steel 0.30 0.04 0.34 100 3~ 2 ;,' ¡; '.
10 Pearlitic White !ron 0.22 0.04 0.26 100 26 8 , . ::1'
R Rubber 1.17 0.10 1.27 23" 29 1 · f
C Ceramic 0.37 0.18 0. S5 4·1' 24 9
¡.
• Typicul costs and weig-hts are based on averaged. dat.. froro a numb er oí la r l!;e ore-milling operlltion s where campa r,
isons oí th e variou s materials have been or are being made,
b Itell1s 2, 3 and () in Tuble 1 are omitted from Table II due to lack oí comp arative data.

Ji IInstallation cost includes cost of bolts plus instal1ation labor, except on ruiJber, where holt cost is included in coat
per lb, and on cera rnic where cement wa s used in place of bolts .
• Relative wcig-ht oí r ubber Iinin g includes weight oí bolts and metal reinforcement. ,,. .
• Ceramic assmn ed to have sam e liningvolume as th e ferrous materi als.
, Heluti ve illst alled cost of lini ngo cl ae:> not include cost of lost production dUl'ing shut down for rclining.
• Toughn ess rating refe rs to r esistance to 8palling or b'reakage as determined by servicc expel' ience. H i/;hest ol-d t'r o.f
toughness == 1 .. nd lowcst = 9.

~\ .
 :: ,. ()
• 1
JJ
213 " nsvnsw or MATP;RIALS FOH ORINDING MILI. 1.lNJCltS

While this rating' is sornewhat arbí trary, it do es
represent a consensu s of field experience with the
various materials whcn used in Iiner servíce.
DEVELOPMENT OF LINER DESIGNS
Concurrent wi th the development of improved ma­
terials for lirrers, there have been many improvements
and modifications in Iiner designo A review of these
developments is beyond the scope of this papel'. How­
ever, it should be mentioned that there is often a close
relationship between the material used in a liner seg­
ment and its design o For exarnple, if rollad steel sec­
tions are used, the liner cross section is limited to
certaín standard shapes. Wnen cast iron or steel
liners are used, thei r cross section should be such
that they can be cast economically and heat treated
without cracking 01' the development of h ígh internal
stresaes. Alao liners with a high lift con tour, which
tends to increase impact in the mili, may require a
tougher and more spall resistant material than low
lift or relati vely smooth linera . The material used in
linera also has an important influence on the methods
and designs used to Iasten Iiners in the mill, In gen­
eral, it muy be stated that líner design has an ímpor­
tant infiuence on liner life, grinding efficiency, per­
cent utilization of the material up to the time the
mili lining is worn out, and cost per ton oí ore or
mineral ground.
which influcnoe these wear rates ineluda size nnd
hardness of the material being g round, kWh per ton
used for gr indi ng, mili diameter and speed, liner
design, abrasion resistance of the liner material and
the pcrcent oí original Iiner weight or volume which
has been worn away up to the time the Iining is
scrapped.
Probably the most important application where
liner wear is economícally significant is in the ñeld
of primary gr inding oí low-grade ores. Most oí th ...s:
ores contaín h ig h percentag es oí silica or other hard,
abrasive mínerals. In 1950, a typical Iiner consump­
tion, which included shell and end Iiners plus dis­
charg e g rates, if used, was about 0.20 lb per ton
(0 .1 kg/metric ton) when grtnding low-grade ores.
Due to the use of more nbrasion resistant liner ma­
ter íals and in sorne cases better liner designa, liner
consurnption in the 1970-73 period seldorn exceeded
0.15 lb per ton (0.08 kg/metric ton) and was fre­
quently less than 0.10 lb per ton (0 .05 kg/metric ton).
There was a corresponding drop in the wei ght per
kWh figure. >
Table III lists typical wear rates 1 of liners in 15 . ...~ { ~. : I.
:~ . ~"
high-tonnag e milling instalJations in the U.s.A. and
Cariada involved in wet prímary gr inding of 10IV­
grade ores. The woar rates cover averages obtained
over several years during the pcriod from about 1966
to 1973. The types of liner materials used in these
milla are listed as Items 1,4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 in Taule 1.
While the planta surveyed represent only a fraction
of the mouem high-tonnugo mi]ls gl"Índing low-!!.l'!\de - . ;..

CONSUMPTION AND LI F E OF LINERS ll:..

lo
IN non AND llALL MILLS
Consumption of steel and iron rod and ball mili
linings may range from a high value of about 0.5 lb
per ton (0.3 . kg/metric ton) of mil1 feed for a ball
mili wet grinding coarse, abrasive ore down to a low
value of about 0.001 lb per ton (0 .5 g /metric ton)
in dry grinding soft limestone or cement clinker.
When expressed in pounds per kWh, the correspond­
in g range may be from about 0.05 lb (2315') per kWh
down to about 0.0001 lb (0 .05 g) per kWh. The faetors
ores, the ranges in listed wear rates probably COV f!r
l ... ~
those wh ich would be obtaincd from at Icual 90'(é of
the plants whi (:h use ball mi 11s, or l'od mi Ils plus ball
mills to gl'ind low-grade ores.
Sorne comments relative to the data in Table III
are in order. The wear rates repl'esent total weal' of
shell Iiners, cnd liners and grates, where used, and
include the weight of metal scrapped when the Iiners
\Vere worn out. Where a rod mil! plus one or two ball
mills constituted a grinding unit, the liner consump­
tion represents the total for al! milis in the unit. In
.

l."I .

.:' ­ ,,
TABLE !H-Wear HaLea of Mili Linings in Primary Grinding .'......
," - "¡

Liner Weal',lb/ton

Plunts Mill Size~.

Feed Size Rnnges, (kg/metric ton)

,j " Survcyed Units ft (m) Ore

i n. (mm) max min ave

;.-J ­
I
1 _
8 Singl e..Stnge
Ball Mills
Üx 9 to
13 x 12
Cu-Mo -* to-%
(-19 to -10)
0.150
(0.075)
0.080
(0.040)
0.102
(0 .051)
: ',': ."
.J., (2.7 x 2.7 to
j '1.0 x 3.7)
3 Donblr;-St"ge. 10.5 x 14 to Taconite -1 to-% 0.153 0.070 0.099
liod M il! plus 11.5 x 16 (--25 to -19) (0 .077) (0.0 35) (0.050 )
BaH Mi1l8 (3.2 x 4.3 to
3.5 X 4.9)
5 Douhle -Stagc, 10 X 13 to Cu·Mo --% to -lI¿ 0,146 0.088 0.106 (
1...
.
.
Hod Mil] plus 12.5 X 16 (-ID to -13) (O .O?:!) (0.04·1) (0.053)
.i ~ BaH Mills (3.0 X 4.0 to
3.8 X 4.9)
 ¡' ,

TEL~' BR F. . NOIU1 Al' 214

j' rnost cases, the lowest wear rates were obtained from
mills which used martensitic white iron, such as
Iterns 1 and 4 in T able I, in the mili lin ings . The
higher wear rates were mainly from milla where
h igh-impact conditions or favorable cost-wear ratios
requ ired the s election of relatively tough eteela, such
aa 1tema (3 and7 In Table L
A comparison between liner wear In single-stage
and double-stage grinding is lntereating. Normally
it would be expeeted that double-stage grinding' in
a rod mill plu s ball mill comblnation wou!d produce
higher total wear ratea. However, the data in 'I'a­
net ton (44 kWh/metric ton ), while the ore-gririding
operations listed in Table III consumed fr om 5 to
12 kWh per ton (5 .5 to 13 kWh/metric ton \ in th e
one 01' two stag es of primary grinding.
Table IV summarizes the linar wear ratos reported
by 35 cement planta located principally In Europe
and in North and South Am érica. From Table lY II
can be seen that in the grinding of raw cement rack,
the liner wear rates in wet-grinding mills are from
ñve to seven times greater than the weur rutes m <Ir ~
grindíng. Alao there ís n wido rungo in tho rep ortad
wear rates from individual plants. 'I'his wide range ~< , -',­

ble IIl do not su pp ort this conclusion. If anything, is due princlpally to difIerences in the abru aiveness
, ... ....: .:.
~
~ .,
the total wear rutes on linors are sornewhat lower of the raw fe ed and to differences in the a br usion
in the double-stage g r inding operatíon. One princi­ re siatance oí the Irene and steels used in the lin er s.
pal reason for thi s is that for aecond-staze g rindí ng In general, the liníngs with low wear rates were rnade " :. (

, ',. '
in the ball milis which follow red milla, relatively from martenaitic irons and eteels, such as Iterns 1 -.
amall balls are used which produce relatively mild through 5 in 'rabie I. while the linings \VI th hlgh ¡. .. .... .
~'" . .
irnpact conditi ons on the lin era Consequently, tor wear ratos were rna de from pearlitic 01' austenitic • '0:.'

;t 1 '
the double-stage g rinding planta listed in Table III, terrous mater ia ls such as Items 7 through 10 In Ta ­ ~ ~. , . ~

the highly abrasion r esistant martenaitíc white irons ble 1. This statement also applies to the lirn ngs used
01' steela (Ltems 1, 4 and 5 in Table T) were used in in the cllnlcer milis. ~ ., '
the ball mills. Also, in the case oí the plants which It sh ould be noted that the data In Table IY app iy ('.: .
were grinding the very abrasive taconite ores, the only to the ferrous materials used for liners 10 the se :.;i
wear rates on the rod mil! liners wel'e kept low by milis. In recent yeara, sorne of the r aw mills In cem en t ., .. \ .~
.. .

use of the marten sitic iron or stee] al!oys.
Recently, it has been found that in most of the
do ubl e-stage grinc!ing plants, rubber liners will give
good servi ce in the ball milis, which ahould bring
about a further reduction in totalliner wear and líner
costs.
In additiol1 to Iiner consumption, the service life
of lin er a is an important factor influencing overall
cconomy. At tho plunts litltcd in Tabla lII, the serv[ce
life of the liners in the single-stage ball milla ranged
from a minimum oE llbout 200 op crating days to a
m aximum of 500 days. For the doll ble-stage grinding
operations, the rod mili liner Iife t:an~ed from 300
to 500 days whíle the ball mili liner life ranged from
900 to about 2,000 days. These lives were iniluenced
mainly by the abrasive charaeteristica oí the ore,
the abrasion resistance of the 'liner material. and, to
sorne extcnt, by th c design and thlckneSfl of the now
liner9 .
plarita have used rubber Iiners quite sllccessfully,
though no data on apecific wear rates are yet avail,
able. Rubber liners are not suitable fol' clinker mJ1Js.
where the high operating temperatures \Vould rapldJy
de stroy the we aring qualities of rubber However .
ceramic liners have been us ed successfully i n somc
clinker milis and are particular]y lIseful, in COn.111n(·,
tion with ceramic grinding med ia. fol' proclllcti on r¡f
whi t.e cernen t. ~ (.' ,::­
As is indicated from the weal' rates of liners III
;4;' .
~ .
Table IV, the service life of grinding mili Iinel 's III
cement plants tends to extend over a \Vide range .
Minimum s ervice Iife is about one year for \\"e\
grinding in raw mills, while maximum senice Iife
may be ten years or more for dry grinding in r llW
milla and finiah grinding in clinker mi lis .
" . ',.
(';:'~,'
~; ~

The grinding milis lIsed at cernent plants probabl'y TA!3LE IV~Wcar Rntes of Mm Linings in
".
,
o'
" ~
constitute the se con e! moat important upplication íor 35 Cement Plauts ~~
i . .
mili linere. Lin er wear per unit weight of cement pro­ (Dnta based on five-y ear averagl!S at ea ch plant) t· : · ·~·r.J:<¡
duced tends to be substantially less than in .ore grind­
ing since the cement clinker ami the raw materials Liner Cons u mptlOn.
ground in cernent plants are usually much less lb/net ton
(kg/metri c ton)
abr1l3ive thlln low-grade, high-silicll ores. The dl'Y·
Grlndil)g Service max min ave
B'l'indinB' practices in cement plants also fl1.vor low - ­-------_..
wcar rutes on the liners . However, these factora tend. Raw MiIls. 0.286 0.0 08 0.112
ing to produce low wear rates on linera are parti~lly Wet Grinding (0.143) (0.004) ( 0.056)
offset by the necd for fine grinding and consequen t Raw Milis, 0.068 0.002 0.02 2
high energy cOllCmmption for both i;he raw cement Dry Grind ing (0.0 34) (0.001 ) (0.011) : "

, :.' ro ck and th e clinlccl'. naw milling in cemen t planta Fini sh Milis, 0.148 0.008 0.0 66
consumes about 30 kWh per net ton (33 kV/h /metric Clinker Grindíng ( 0.074) (0.004 ) (0.033)
ton) (uve.), clinker milis consume about 40 kWh per
 215 A R E I/ f¡,;W 0 1" MATli:RlAL8 FOR GHlN DJ NG MIL1" LI N ERa

SELECTlON OF LINER MATERIAr.s fuU-º! ª!.l1!'.'t~ . (1n. 0J)

90 -
- - \. lo ¡i, (10 10 30)
In the sel ec tion of a liner material f ar a parti cular \. \ \ . -' - 11; , to JI ¡ (30 (0 40 )
85 - - - - - - 2 \02';(50 \0 6 5>
grinding millo the re are so many local factors involv ed 3 to 4 (75 ro 100)
'J
¡f!. \ • ,
t hllt o n ly n f ew gen eral rules 0 1" consi de r ations ca n -g 8 0 - --:.",...."-.J ~'""-- - .---
be statcd h ere. Thur e are cu r r en t ly th ree prin cipal 4)
C). '::-'L,"
' . . . . ....... _ '''"
_ • '<, "

Vl 7 5 .~:::.
•. -¡.;;:"'.,
~~;-;:-"'"
di viaion s in ca ndidate mater lals ror Iiners . Tn es e ar e
11) ferrou s-allo y cust or w rcu jrht m ater i als, b ) rub­
~ .... ', .......

~ 70 ~ - ­ -,'- '~
be!" o r cth cr elu:¡lulIlIJl':l au d e ) cerurnic 01' n a t u ral
)
\
­ s to n e rnu tcriu ls. J\ fo ur t. h muí. cr i al, s pc ciflcu lly sin­
ti 5 -- - - - -­
¡ 60 L-_ _.l.-_ _..L-_ _..L...._ _..l.-_---J
t ered tun gst en carbi de, ha s also been used for small,
o 5 10 15 20 25
sp ecia l..duty mi lls , but n ormally its ñr st cost makes :,1.
.-. t
'l, __ ?iJ Sor vic e tuo . ¡O'n
it econ omicu l lv i rnp r ucti cal f'or rnost com m crc íu l-s íze
,iI __ FIGURE 2. Rela t iou of bull size an d cri tic a] speed to ser..
g r in di ng m ilis. Fu t ura lini ng s may in volve the use r~ . ". ~
vice lif e oí ru b ber míll liner s.
of bon d ed com posi tes or lam inates m ad e from t wo
¡- . . :­
o r more of thc ab ov e-menti on ed rnaterials,
vice. then for a .m ill us ing 3-in. (7 5-mm I ba lls , ru bber
Ferrous a lloys have been..the principal lirring mate­ linerswould only be suitable at m ili speed s bel ow 75e; "
ri al in ball and rod milla. The performance ch arac­ r·, c-:
critical. S ince many primary gr in ding m il1s op er at e
t eri stics a.f these f errous m aterials are well known, at speeds higher than 75 % cri tical, it appears th at
"¡
~
A suitable cornposition 01' type can beselected to f'urther improvements in rubber cornposi tio ns or ru bo
m eet th e r equirem ents -of a lmostany milling condí­
ber linar desi g n wi ll be ne cess ary bef are ru bber
t ion with t h e posai ble exceptlon of certainmills where linera can be unlvers ally accepted for nll prirn ary ~, .
contaminati on oí the ground product by iron or alloy­ ball mili ap p llcatlons. An alternati ve for ne w g ri nd ­
~:
1 _~
ing' elements in t he linera must be avoided . in g planta m igh t be t o de sign t he milis so that they " .
'

¡ Th e use of r ubber or other elastomera for linera operate at su ceda bel ow 75% criticnl, A lso f'or dry­
provides several ad vantages over fenous alloy linera g riridi ng op e r a tions, it is r ecommen ded that t he
in those ap p licat ion s whcre r ubber is te ch nl ca lly and working temper ature at the we aring s u l'face of th e
econ omi call y usab!e. So me adv an t ages of rubbe r ove r linera sho u ld not excecd 190 F (9 0 C ) tha ugh certain
1 ......
t1 - metal are its lighter weight, l:¡etter noise-damping special grades oí rub ber may be used up to a bout ~,
J :~. , .
properties an d lon g er servicc Jifewhen used ·in s u tt ­ 250 F (120 C) .

a ble g rind ing en vironments. T h e economical :us e' of.

As ~s ind ica ted in T able n, th e in st all ed cost of a l."', ,
rubber Iín ers is larg ely restricted to fine-gr indins" rubber lining ( in 1974 ) is somewhat Jess than that t~' ;
op eration s or to milis which do not have large, ·sllarp­ oí m¿st oí the f errous -all oy linings of eq ual volume . · ,•.t
....
eornered pa rtlcl es in tha f eed which can cut in to tha · '.
To determi n e th e rela ti ve econom y of rubber versus ·. ; ~.,

ru bbe r s u rface. For exam ple. at the g- l'in di n g ph1nts !netal or ce ram ic linings. the reln ti ve cast fact or in f
1·1 ~ listed in 'rabIe IIl, ru bber Iíners are now giving' gaod Table II should be divided by the ex pected 0 1' obtained ¡ "
e1-
i
1'-' service in sorne of t he hall mills wJiich grind Il. rela­ /lervic e life oi t h e r esp ective mllterials. / ..
t '_,'
tí vely fin e pl"oduct from the rod miils . Rubb er linera
¡ ~

al so give exc elle nt scrvice Jife in con centrate regrind

Ceramic, porccl ain nnd natural ston e liner s Ola )'
be u sed in fin 8-gl 'inding oper nt ions-...here i m pact con­
C"
~
.. '

mills . On th c othe r hand. rubber lin ers had s hor t diti ons a re low so that b r ea kage a nd mi<: r o-,Jpa lling­

se rvi ce lives and we r e not econ omically justiflablein a re a vo ided. Low cri tical speeds and hi gh pul p de ns i­

l'od mil! s cr vicc. Fo r s ingle -8tage pr im ary gl'indi llg
in ball milis where ba ila 3 in . ('15 mm ) or larger in
di ameter were present in the grinding medial .the
sever al t ests to d ate h a ve ind icated th at rubbe.r llners
wi11 not prov ide as good a Jife as ferrou s-alloy liners.
' . : H owever. th e economic possi biJities fol' l'ubbel' Iiners
L in primary grin u ing are not ye t c\enrly de fined . I (the
m ilI feed is r eluti vüly fre e of hard, shurp-col'n fl'red
pi eces of rock ane! t h e critical speed of the Illill 18
bel ow ab out 75 %, th en rul.>ber linera nw.y provide
-.1
'. :,: -. good !lfe allcl be economical 1y jueti t1ed Inprfmnl'Y·
. '~ grinuing s ervice,
~: .' 1
Ües will subs t antially r educe t h e wear rates of ce­
rumi e liners. I n most cases, ceramic lin er s are used
in conj unct íon with ceramic balls 01' na tural st on e
pebbles. Provided th ese favo r a ble condi ti on s are
maintained in the mill, ceramic liners are capable of
providing very long ser vice Jife. T hey ca n al so be
llsed fo r dry g rindi ng at elev a t cd t empe rat ures .
where rubber liners would fail quite ru pidly. i:
f{i gh-lllumina cerami c brick linings have m uch
bet tel' o.brasion reili9tEmce than porce llli n or naturn!
atone linings . Conseq uenUy, J'elatlvelv thln, high­
. alumina lin ingl.l have la r g ely di splaced t ho thi el«jr

F igure 2, fr om a manufactu rer 'of ru bber 1i nel'e!~. pOfceluin or nat ur a l stone (Sílex) linin gs in t hos e

in di catcs that t hc service lif e expeetancy of properly­ milis wherc eel'amic lin ings are feas ibJe. Principal

,
"l desi gned r uhher mi 11 linings varies as critical speod '
of t he mil] a nd ba ll size ar e vari ed . I n using the
curves in t h is fig ure. ii alife of 5,000 hours is a rbi­
tr uri Iy t:hoson !l:.J the minimllTll f or satis fact or y. ser-
uses f or cerami c linings h uve been in miJJs grin c1 in g
\.
w h ite ceme nt, titanium pigments une! por celai n en­
l
amel . wh ere i ron ol' chl'omi um cont amination m ust
be av oid ed. Cel' mnic Iinings also huve ex cell ent l'es is­

_ ~'O

tu nee tú m ost ty pes of corrosion . In some ore-milling
plant s, ceramic linings may be con s iclered f or fine
g r ind ing of o res and conc entr ates, with ce ra mic balls
0 1' pebb les as g r ind ing media. As indi cated in Ta­
ble Ir, the r ela tiv e installed cost oí a cerarnic lining
(i n 1974) is less t h an th a t of m etal or rubber linings
oí equa l volurn e.
In the selcet íon oí f er r ous-allcy l íni ngs ( in clud in g
g r ute s i f o r bal l und r otl m ill a, th ere are t en candid ate
com posi t ions listed in 'I'able 1. Ho wever, there ia
currently very Ii ttle pr ocluction of Items 2, 3 an d 9
for th e lin era used in ore- g r indin g milis in the U.S .A.,
an d tnese three ite ms have been om it te d from Ta­
ble JI . 'I'h e r em a iui n g seven ferr ous a lloys in T a­
ble II are listed in th e ap proxim ate arder of decreas­
ing ab ra aion res is t a nce. In selecti ng a rerrous alloy
fr om this se ries f or use in a parti cular mil! líníng,
t h er e are three m ain con sid erations: installed cost,
rel ative abrasi on r esi s t a nce 01' liner life and r elative
, ., to ug hn es s . T h e re lati ve a braaio n r esistance of the
i te rns va r ies cons ider a bly depen ding on s ervi ce con­
d i t ioris . Fo r ex arn ple, Item 1 muy provide 50 % longer
li fe than It ern 7 in a pr irna r y ball mili liner grínd íng
a h igh-silica ore, while in r od mili a l' au t cgenou s
Jiners g ri ndin g t he sa m e 0 1' si mila r ore, t h e 1'cem 1
material rnay ha ve two to three times the life of
Item 7. In ua ll mil I g ri nd in g of mi n er al s wi t h a Mohs'
ha rd ness less than ab out 6.5 , the ma rten sitic irons
a nd :lt eels ( IteIns 1, 2 a nd 5 ) tend to have fr om t hr ee
t o ei g ht times better abrasi on resistance than t h9
a us ten it ic 0 1' pearl itic s t eels (Item s 6. 7 an d 8) , while
in gri nd in g síl ica 01' ot her minerals w ith a Mohs'
hardness g r eater than 6.5, the m artens itic iron s and
steels will n orm a)]y provid e only 30 t o 60 % longer life
than t he austen iti c and pellrli tic steels. 'I'his obs er va­
tion is particularIy s ig ni nc ant in t he g r in d in g of
cement clin ker wh ich may be class ed as a " 50ft"
mi ne r al, 'whe r e (he m arten sitic iron s and stecls no r ­
mall y h ave from thl'ee to eig ht tim es batte r ab rasi on
resista nce t h an th e au st en itic and pe arli tic s t ee ls , It
sh ould be r ecognized, howeve r, th at marten siti c i r on
an d steel lin ers a r e m or e s us ce pti ble to br ea kage 01'
Fpallin g in sc rv ice th an the a ustenitic 01' peal'liti c
steels, a nd t hi s fa cto r must be cons id er ed where high-
I _ impaet con d it ions exj s t in a milI. . able from each material. Frequently s el'v ice t ests on
T he I'ela li ve wear r a t es of él. wide va r iet J' of fe rrous
lin er m ateri al s wh en t ested in pri m ary ball mills
r rin din g a hígh -qu artz m oly bde num ore at Climax
h av e been determin ed by a apeci al technique wh ich
used m:ll"ked fi-i n . l125 - m n» diumel6l" b alls hLlv ing
t" le s am e comp ositi on an d struct ur e as the ca n d ida te
I .. linar materi als . 1 , Ü Th e::le wear rutes are lis ta d in Ta­
ble 1. F ield exp el"ienc e at Clímax and nt a num ber of
I-t oche r oper utio n s indi cates th at the wear r ates .in
Table 1 correla t e quite weJl with service r esu!ts on
line ra in prím ary ball m ilis grinding high-silica or es.
Th e differ ence s in llur asi on l'esi sta n ce a mon g t h e
materials, a ~ listed in Table I , are rell.ltively smal!.
When th e sa me rna t eri a1s ar e used for rod mi l1lincrs
TELFER E . ¡';(l R~IA ). 216
wh ich op érate on 1). coarse grind , 01' where nl\ ni1 ra l~
softer th an quartz constitute the princi pal abrasi ves,
substan ti ally larger diff er en ces in r elativa wear rat as
are usuaJly obtain ed.
'I' h e ma rtensitic whi te i rons , Item s 1 nnd 4 in
'I'ables 1 and H , f req uently compet e t er th e sume llP'
pl icati on s. s o t h oy s hou!d pro bably be cons idered to­
ge ther. 'I'h e hi gh-chr omiurn-molybdenurn wh ite ir ons
(I t em 1) were devel oped durin g th e la te l D50's nnd
repressn t IUl irnproved m odi ñcation of the hi ¡rh­
chromium white irons ( Itern 3 ). The n ick el-chrom iurn
wbite irons include Ni-Hard and its modifica t ions ,
The Cr -M o iron s are n orm ally cast in sane! molds
then hea t t rea te d to prod uce a s t r ucture of Cr , C3 ­
type carbides in a martensitic m atrix . The Ni -el'
trona may be caat in aand molda, F'or hea vy-secti on
linera, toughn es s and ab ras ion r es istan ce ca n be im­
preved by chí ll ca s t íng in perrnanen t molds made
fr om gray cast iron 0 1' g r nphi te. Thes e Ni-C r ir ons
no rmaJly receive on ly a s t.res s-r eli evin g h eat t r eat­
m ento
Du e to the differ en ce \ n matrix st r uct ur e, th e
Item 1 i ro n s a r e norma lly tougher than the Item 4 ! .'.::1·~: · .
'ir ons . The Item 1 i ro ns a r e al so m or e abr-asi ón "• .....;'l.>
re sistant. Consequently, t he It em 1 irons can be used ! ~~ .' ­
successfullv in rnany rnill linera where t he It em ·1 ~
,. '".,
~'F>'
irons would break 01' s pa ll unde r the re peat ed impact
of balla o r r ods in the milI. H ow ever, m any m il1 s ope r ­
a t e und er s ufficíent ly m ild impact condi ti ons to per­
mit the us e of th e Item 4 irons. They have become
quite popular fo r use in ore-grinding m ills dlle to
their better cos t -w ea r ratio t h an th e peal'litic and
aus ten ltlc steels,
Liners mad e fr om the Item 1 an d Item 4 irons a r e
best adapted t o use in m ilis where a h igh pul p leve!
is cQn s t an t1y m ai ntl\ined to provi de a cu shion belween
t he cU5cading g r in di ng m edia a nd t h e Jin 8r s . They
may break 0 1' sp a ll wh en u sed in sh elJ liners fo r lo\\"­
pul p-ievel m ill s eq u ip pe d wi t h dis ch arge grates . , . ~
thou gh t.hey can u su lllly be lIse d s u cce ss f u lly in th e
í eed-elld líner8 for 8uc h m ill s . T he d ec i~ ion on
whe ther t o us e the ltem 1 01' Item 4 i ron s fOl" a pa r­
t icU1al' mill depends prin ci paJ\y on imp ae t cond it ions
in t he mili a nd th e r elati ve cos t- wea1' ¡'a tios obtailJ­
bo t h iran s a re neceSS<lfY before a tinal d ecision can
be m ad e.
Item 5 r epresents th e m ed ium- carbon ( 0.4 to 0 . 7~ )
steels whi ch contain s ufficien t alloy cont ent t o be
f u \l y hn rd eIletl to n m¡u: te ns i t ic ::;tnlcl u re w h e n he al
treated in h eavy-section liners. T h ey a re prod uced in
both ca st and wrought f ormo The Item 5 s t eel , i n addi ­
..
tio n to pro vid ing r ela ti ve ly goo d a br as ion r es is t nnc e,
ca n fre qu ent1y be used in hi g h-irnpact I'od a nd ball
mills wh ere s palli ng 01' breakage would occu 1' on th e
Item 4 ¡rans and even in s om e ca ses OlJ th e Item 1
b"ons . Conseq uen t ly , the I t em 5 s te e! i~ bec om in g in ,
creas in gly po pul a r , pa rti cuJarly for sh ell Iiners in
high-impact rod milis and i n primary ba!] mi Jls us in g
"t
 217 A IU:VJEW OF MATERIALS t'OR ORINDING MILL LINERS
baila 3 in. (75 mm) or larg er in diameter. This stee!
may eventually displace the less abr asion resistant
atcela, Iterna 6, 7 and 8, in many applí caticns.
.·~" I
Item 6 is a modified austenitic manganesa atee!
developed ubout 1959 fer use in ball mili linera and
discharge g rates at tho Climax: Molybdenum mine in
Colorado. 10 Thia steel has better ubrasion resistance
than the lIadfield manganese stcel (Item 8) along
with adequate toughness for use in high-irnpact mili
liner and g rate service. It is also more abrasion
resistant than the pearlitic chrome-moly steels which
it displaced in the Clímax milis. It also performed
better than the pearli tic chrome-rnoly steels in dis­
charge gr ates where its combination of good abrasion
resistance and favorable peening characteristica pre­
vented clog ging of the grutes by worn balls, Tila
Item 6 steel has recently becn largely displaced by the
Items 1 and Gmartcnsi tic irons and steelain the 13.ft
(4 .0-m) diameler overflow-type primary milla at
Clir .iax, but i t is sti Il the preferred material f'or the
low-dischargn, D-ft (2.7-m) diarneter primary mlll
uhell lincru 1\11 ti diHcliargo g rutes ,
The pearlltic high-carbon chrome-moly steels
(Ttem 7) combine rnoderately good abrasion reais­
tanee and relat.ive]y low cost with adequate toughness
for U8e in most high-impaet aervice. 1'hey are not
as abrasion resistant as the martensitic irons and,"
steels, but are norrnally more abrasion resistant than .
thc Hadfield austenitic manganese steel (Item 8)
when used in ball mill liners. Due to their higher
yield strength, chrome-moly steel liners do not flow
al' warp like the austenitic manganese steel when
exposed to the repeated ¡mpact from the cascading
rods 01' ballB. Consequent!y, there is less incidence 0:(
Hller boll breakage when chrome-moly at.eel linera
repl<lce austenitic manganese stcel liners 01' lifter
bars , The chrome-moly steels, when made with 'a car­
bon content oí 0.50 to 0.70 % are also well-suited fQr
use in ball mill discharge and diaphragm grates. At
present the pearli tic chrome-moJy steelf) are one oÍ'
;, ,..:.
the most popular materials for mil1 Jiners, clamp Ol"
lifter bars and grates used in moderate" to hlgh­
impact sel'vice, However, it should be recognized that
this material may eventuaJly be displaced in many
of these applications byalloys with more abrasion re·
:stance, such as Items 1 and 5 in Tables 1 and n,
The austenitic 12 % manganese ateel (Item 8)
was probubly the most popular Iiner material dUr­
¡nI[ the years when ball and l"od mi 118 fll'st came into
general use. This grade of steel combines moderately
guod abrasion resistance with excelJent toughness
and impact resii:ltunce . The wearing surface of the
steel tl!nd:l to work harden up to a maximllm of ahout
550 HE when cxpm¡cd to tha l'epeated irnpllct of
the grinding media. The work hardening efi"ect is
accompanied by sorne plastic flow and volume expan­
:;ion of the metn! which may produce warpagc 01'
~ ~l ;.
high interna! stresBes in the Iiner eastings. This In
turn may cause high stress es and occasional breakage
of Iiner bolts, Also, closely-ñtted Iiner platea nave on
a few occaei ons expanded suffi.ciently in service to
overatrean and crack the sholl of the milI.
'I'he development of better-wearing ateels uutl trona
such as Iterns 1 through 7, which are also mu ch more
resistant to plastic flow in service, has mar ked ly re­
duced the use of the austenitlc 12% manganesa st eel
for mill liners. At pr esent in the U.S.A., use of the
12 % manganese steel ia confined largely t o certain
rod mili Iiner applications where the impact condi­
tions are too severe to perrnit the use oí other types · ' 1 '" $­
of steel and ír on . Where the 12% manganese steel ;::~ ;Ji ~'
linera are used, it is advisable to specify carbon con­
tents near the high side of the range in Table 1 slnce
thís will írnprove both yield strength and abrasi ón
resietance whi le still retaining adequate toughness
for rnill liner service.
'l'he pCIU-¡¡t\C high-carbon steels (Itern :J) huye l ~ ¡-'I
been used principally as rolled bars and shapes. They ~, .~:-~ ~ ,
-~ , ' ",
combine moderate abrasion resistance with adequate
toughnesa and relativelv low ürst costo In pust. yenrs,
much oC thls uteol wus UIlC<1 in tho form o/ worn
railroad rails cut to sui table lengths for the mi ll
li ní ngu and cemented in place. More recently, at least
one major steel producer has made bolted-in linera
Íl'om rollad pIates and c1i1mp-lIfter bar!:! in lhis type
of stee1. Howevcr, the preaent trend ia to replace
the peurlitic high-carbon steels with the more abra­
sioJ] resistant martensitic steels and irons su ch as
'!tems 1, 4 and 5 in Table TI.
The pearlitic white iron (Item 10) \Vas a popular ;.-i ·) .'!
material for linera in low-impact ser vice during the , " ,. '
',~ :if
early days of grinding mill development. It \Vas origi­
nully sufficiently low in first cost to make jt economi­
cally competitive with the other ferrou s alloys in
Tables 1 and II in spite of its inferior abrasion and r.
impact resistance. In recent years, however, it s coat
of production has risen more rapidly on a pereentage
basis than the other items in Tables 1 and II . Con­
sequentJy, the lIse of pearlític white ¡rons for mi)]
liners has practically disappeared in the U.S.A. and I ,T r
in most other countries. Generally, where the white l'~i': .>
irons can be used without breakage 01' spalling in . ' ~ ;:;¡
mili liners, the pearJitic type has been r eplaced by
the martensitic Ni-el' white iron (Item 4) 01', in
more recent installationg, by rubber Iiners.
In considering the overall trends in the selection
oí liner materials, the steadily increas ing labor rates
for line!' productlon ll.nd install!ltion huve tended to
narrow the diEference in cost among various candi­
date materia!s. Consequently, the trend in se!ecting J. '." .
t· ,;"
materials for linem has been townrd those which .......
provida best service life even though their cost may
be a little highel' than for a mHtllrinl with !e~s wear
resistance. It is probable that this trend wil! continue.
1t is alBO reasonable to expect that, through the coop­
erative efforts of prod~lcer5 and uto..:nl of linen;, there
will be continued improvements in both the desig'n ¡.'"\' \
~; ~ . ~\ ;
and quality of materials,
l·./ -:
 TELFER I~ . NORMAN 218
r . l. ·
..' .~}:

ACKNOWLED G MI~NT
~

~: ' .:ri.: ,
Th:e auihor is gmteful t o the management o] Climax
Molybdenum Cornpan y [or the long an d cont inuino
euqrpori. 01 th e research: and deoetoinnent. 1U01'/c on
abrasion resi stan t al/oys [or m ill linere and to ihe
managem ent and ma intenance personnel at Clímax
{or their cooperation in evetlu atin g ihe performance
o] th ese alloys ¡:n Sel·vice. The cooperati on and assis­
tance o[ the many 1J1'oducers atui users ot liners ioho
sicpplied data and inf orm ai ion us ed in this paper are
also gmtefully aclcnowledved. ¡,'::. ",
• «:
l .· ,
1 - : ¡.
'(" ( 1 1
, ..,~ ..
~ . :\:;'
REFERENCES
: . , . ..
~

l. Privo te comru un icut.ion. Mill Liner AJloys f or Optimum W ear Resistance,

AIME Annual Meeting, Preprint 69-B-6, (Feb,
2. R. D. Haworth, .J' r ., The Abrusion Resistance of
1969).
Metl\ls, Tran s. ASM, 1,1, (1 !).i!)), 819/ 869.
7. H. S. Avery and H . J. Chapiu, Abex Corp., U. S.
3. T. E. Norrnan, High-Chrorniurn..Molybdenum White Patent 3,410, 682. (Nov. 12, 1968).
.". Iron for Abrasion -Res istunt C astí ng s, Foumdru, 's6
(6). (1958) , 128/ 13l. 8. 'I'rellborgs Gummir ab r iks, AB, T1'ellbo7 'g M ili L.i71­
in{J8, Brochurc, (1973).
4. Clímax Molybden um Company of Michigan, Ann
I - Arbor, Mich., un published re search reports, (1960 9. T. E. Norm an and E. R. Hall, Abrasiva Wear of
to 1968). Ferrous Materials inClimax Operations, ASTM
Techn. Pub. 446, (1969). 91/11 3.
5. F. Maratray, Choi ce of Appropriate Cornpositions
10. T. E. Norrnan, Cl ímax Finds New A u stenit ic Alloy
for Chromium.. Molybdenum White Irons, Trans.
A.F.S., 79, (1 971), 121/124. . Ideal f or Ultra-Abrasive Mine Mill Appl ications,
EnginecTing and Minino Journal, 66 ( 4 ) , ( 1965) . r.· '.
6. H. S. Avery and H , J. Chapín, Selection ofGrinding 86/90. \

DISCUSSION
HOWARD S. AVEIW. MI'. Normun has at his comruand . a
wealth of experience with the abr úsion resistant mate­
rials used in ore dressing mills and El rare inaight into the
meehanism s of such wear. Hi s analyses of the behavior
of rubber and ccrumic liners Dore worth emphasizing. .
In a previous papel', the need t o give more considera­
tion to the factors of cut t ing versu s deformation wear
within the practical ca tegor ies of abrasion was pointed
out. MI'. Norrnan has done this by showing that abrasiva
partides that are rel ativcly largo and that h ave sharp
edges cut rubb er and a r e d etrimenta.1. The cleavage and
frn cture churact eristi cs of ti minoral infiuence Bu'eh
ed g-es which are mud e in the mili during comminutlon.
It is helpful to recognlze that rubber is vulne r able to
cuttí ng but indi ñ'erent to deformation w ear,
In contrast, th o micro..spalliug mcntioned is 11 defor­
mat íon ·wea r ph enornenon, and ceramic li ners with El
Mohs' hardness of 9 are almo st immune t o cutt ing wear
by srlícate abrasives but are vulnerable to impaet and
concentrated compressive stresses. Sorne oí the . con se­
quent damage may be caused by ball impact aJon e.
Understandin g oí the differing responses to mili and
ore con dit ion s will help in !\voiding misapplicatíons . The
mo.z-tensltic tlbrtlsion l·esist ant cad h'ons are inwrh'lodi­
ate betweell the steele and ceramics, and as s uch con
pz-ovide optlmum p erform an ce in mnny mili s .

t:. "

i:.L
 I ..
':i J

PEENING ACTlüN o n wea ri ng tace of chrorne-ruoly gr ate DESIRADLE l'EEN!NG of corners al the wcaring face of a
bars pre ve nts plu ggíng by worn ba lls in grat e ball míll. wo rn Chrome-Mo ly grate bar is sho wn in c ross sect ion.

How " 0 Select Clf}romeom~¡loly

!;" ... ~
or Ba:i 2iJl10 Rod MilI Liner-s
r-:' ¡ v

T. E. NORMAN famil y 01' range of cornpositlons wh ose herently better toughness along with
co mbin ar ion of toughness and wear su fficient wear resisrance to provide
TH E RECENT T REN D lo the use of Iarge resistan ce can be va ried, by adj ust­ definite savings in many types of
ba ll and rod milIs ernphasizes the need ments in co mposi tion and heat treat­ liner servi ce .
for careful selection of mil! liner rna­ rnent, to suit the needs of spec ific T he fields of ap plication {or th ese
teri al s. Loss of prod uction due to app lications, pearl itic steels inelude Iiners for ball
shu tdown s for liner re placement 15 mills and rod milis operating under
an irnpo rta nt considerution in these Classification of Chrome-Moly mod érate to high irnpact co nd itions.
largo capaci ty units. Furth errnore, cost Liner Steeis low discharge grate assernblies for low
of liner materials, and labor to in­ discharge mills, and wcdge or clamp ~, • . , I

Two imp orta nt types o f Chrorne­ bar s uscd in so me liner designs ro '. :..
stal! new line rs hav e risen sharply.
Moly liner stee ls, classificd accordi ng hold line r piares in p ince. T hese sreels
In or der to hold shuuíowns for liner
repl accrnent s or rcpai rs to a mini­ lo their roicro structure and h ardness are also being uscd succcssfully in ; .... .... , >
ar e as follow s: ;1;
mum and to provid e mux imum eco­ liner plates haviug a com bination 01' r.
..
t ~

nomy per ton 01' ore: ground , the Typc Brí nell Hur d n ess R ango thin and thick sec tions, such as the [', ' ' : ~
se lc ct ion o f he l incr ma teria l bese
í
(.\ ) .P"adi l ic 2.10 ISO "d ouble wav e" design o
suited tu euch npplication is an irn­ (13) . Mart cn sit ic ·150-700 One physical property which rnust
port ant cons ider atio n at al! millin g 'In the above classifications, carbon be considered in rn anv liner instal la­
op er arions . tion s is th e resistance 01' the metal
and alloy content of the steel and
"Chrome -Moly" steel liners, are now to plastic flow un der the uction of
its heat tre atment can be varied,
be in g used in many bal l milis a nd within limits, to suit speci fis a pplica­ ball s 01' rods, Thi s fío w in turn mav
rod milis. Su bstan tial savings in rnill tion s 01' liner designs and also to cause brea kage of liner bo lts 01' even t" ~A~;
liner cos es and in shurdow n time have sorne exte nt to suit th e prod uc tio n buc kling and serio us wa rpag e of the le:'" _..: :~~ i
been obi ained fr orn their c~m b i n a t i on faci lities and alloy pr eferences 01
liners. Lo w yield streng th mater ial,
;, o' ,
of dcsirable p ropert ies, which in c!ude such as aus tenitic rnanganese stcel
var ious pro ducers .
are suscep tible to this plastic flow. F:. :~ :::..
goo d wea r rcsistance, eoughness, con ­
sistent anel uniform performance, fre e­ Th e Ch ro me. Moly liner seeels, on ehe
do m fro m flow in service, and avail­
Pearlitic Chrome-Moly S+eels
A pplications und Ph ysical P rop er­
oth er hand, have a relatively high
yield stre ngth (90 ,000 to 150 ,000
r.' ..
abilíey . -':. ,~

T his ort icle covers the propert ies.
fi t.:l ll~ o( ap pliculion and compara eive
WC,lI ' resistallce o f th<.:se "Chrome­
Mol )''' liner stecls. T hese comprise a
Mr N'U'lll nn 11.. melUlhlrw k nl clI /lln Cé l" ror ClImtll(..
tieso T his is the type of stee l wh ich
h us, in the p ast o been g encm lJy m ade
by prorJucer s of Chro me- Moly líner s.
While it is not as ha rd or as wear
resistant as the high carbon m arten­
sitic sleds, it i8 usually casier a nd
psi). T his permits them to resist fiow
very s uccess fu lly. Th is h as beeo a
gove rni ng factor in the choice of
Ch ro me-Moly steels for certain milis.
pareiculurly lhose o f the h igh im pact
lyp e.

,q
M o l yt'HJe nu lll Co .. M h..ll.),ud S:.... /IIL: S Bld ¡z.• D c:nver
1. COlO. chea p e r to pt'o d uce ~n d it h .. . in ­ P e n rl i.tic
.
Chro rn e_ M ol y lin~r ~ tl2eJ~

r.:... 102 Engine ering and .Mining ]ournal- V ol,1S8.."lo.7

 ~, .

..,
-r u

l. " ." .
~ . .-;:.
j' • ;~ . 'i ';

SPIRAL WEAn patt ern is clockwise even thou gh rotation of NOTE FAINT couruerc lockwise wear p.ruern in l h" mili Il i, f,
mili al C tirnax is coun terc loc kw ise. Type 2 ma rtens itic stee l. c lcck wise ror au o n . T ype ~ chro rne- m o ly m urrcn-uic s ree:

a re gc nerally produced to vari ous
ha rdn ess ra nges to mec t var ying co n­
dit ion s of ser vice o r line r design o
T ypical ra nges are as follows :
A p p l lc a t l o n
Not e adjace nt sec tio n cut from a wo rn strue ture after a suitab le heat treat­
Chrome- Mo ly gra te b a r. Not e h ow the ment . The use of addi tio nal alloying
. ~;;
e lem euts such as nickc l o r van adi urn
rr:. ;..
... l
b alJ a c tio n has peened the wea ring
ed ge of this bar to Io rrn a sho ulde r. is optionn l and usu ally depcnds 011
Brincl! Hur-d n.e s s Thi s is u desira ble con d it io n , pro vid­ the a Jloy p refe re n ces o f indiv idua l é.'· . ri:

I.ine r pIale> I I JI' se ver e
i m pan
I.incr rnod ­
p l.J.t l: ::> l rn'
era u . or ¡i¡{ nl un pa c t
\\ edg e or cla m p bar-
Low di schargu g'C d tc~. , .
These ranges m a y be modified
some wh at LO s u it thc li ne r design o
F or insta nce, long line r plat es with
three or m ore bo lt ho les, or li ner
plat es wit h t hin a nd th ick scctions
shou ld no rrn ally be o n t he low side
of th e aboye ha rdness ran ges. L in er
pla tes, which a re short, w hich a re
. '+ of near u n iform cross se c tio n, 01'
.J whic h are held in p ince by wcdge
01' Chill1 P bars ea n snfcJy be used
near th e to p side o f Ibis hardness
range The higher side of ¡he hard­
ness range will, of course, normally
give best we a r r esisla nee.
A spccia l eo ndi tian exi sts in th e
11:, physicill property rcqu ircmen ts for
'0';)
low discharge gra tes. H erc, slots in
the gra tes will show mueh less ten­
deney lo plug up with \Vorn ba lls
or 5leel slugs ir grate bars wh ich
form Ihese , lots [¡re he pI so ft cnoue h
ing, of co urse, the peening is not ex­ produ ccrs, T yp ical cornpo sition ranges
300-3 50 ce ssive to the po in t that the 110\'1 o f are as fo llows: 7-.:
ground p ulp th rough the grate op en ­
3S0--i20 in gs is se riously restrictcd. In the cas e Curbo u O 70 - 1 JI) II ,iO I1 ; [1
300-350 sh own p 102, th e gra te openings wcre ~ 1 ,l ll g a l1 c ,; e O 60 -0 90 11 60..( 1 i) (I
250--300 or iginaIly 3/4 in . wid e a nd the se w e re S ilicon O 30· ·0 SO 11 HJ o Sil
na rr o wed do wn 10 a bo u t 1/ 2 in. a l th e Chro ru i um I so _, ÜO I IlCI ! 5('
e nr ra nce by th e pe en irig ac .ion . T his :\ lüly b dcll lll11 o 30 -0 .:;0 () '" 11 .; 11
wa s fou nd l o be a bou t ri ght for t he :-\íckel (o p t io l1a l¡O OO--l .i O 11 00 I ,/1
m ili in w hich th ese gra tes wcr e used . Co mpos uio n (a) a bo ve w ith its
H ar dness of the gra te ba r shown was higher carb ón co nt ent o is uscd largely
255 b rinel l. whe re m ax irnurn we ar rcs istan ce is the
Me thods o f Man ufac ture . Pe a r­ p r im a ry con sidera rían . Co rn p o s. i t io n l b )
lit ic ty pes of C hrome-M o ly stce l Iiners w ith its lower carbón aud oft cn a
may be p rc duced in either cast 0 1' lowcr chrorni um content does no t have
wro ught (ro l!ed) form o When mad e as as go od wear resistance as (a ) bu[ JI
cas tings they ca n be desigoed in sh"pes wi!! 1l0nnaIJ y have grcater tough ness
a nd co n to u rs to suit needs of indi­ Com po s ilion (b) ¡s, thcre fo re. p refer
vidua l mi lis . Ro lle d liners mus! be o[ a ble for ball rniJl grates a nd fo r lmers
simple ami sta nda rd izeJ design al1d 0 1' clamp bars subject to scvere im­
uSlla!ly co nsist of plates of uni lo rm paet.
thickness he Id in place by wedge a r Although the ab ove r onges in cheml.
clamp ba rs. For "shell" o r "ba rre l" cal eo m position are wide. the range
li n e rs bo th Ih e casI and th e ra Bed adopted by a pro duce r of line rs shou!d
types are used . F or end lincr s an~ be mu ch narrower than those given
disc ha rge grates, shape co ns ideration s aboye . Abo wh ere niekeJ i~ used in
are sllch that line IS a re almost uni­ the composition. it should be como
versülJy m ade as c'lstil1gs . bined wil h cl1 ro miunl COtltCllts whlch ..~ ' ,;

10 allow a eonlrolle¡J a mou n t of
peening by acÜon 01' lhe ball charge.
This peenin g forms a constriction
of lh e openi ng to each slol. Any
~tecl sl l.l gs which are sm all enoug b
lo pass through lbis o pcn íng wil1
th en be too srnall to wcdge be­
twecn tiJe grate bars. See pho to of
low di\chargr grate which has r l~ en cd
propcrly in ~e rvicc . No te freedom
from plugging oC the gn, tc o peni ngs .
Chrome·Moly liner steds are lI SU­
ally mclted in acid- 01' basic-lined
el eclri c ol' ope n hearth furnaces. Th cir
ad ap ta biJit y to prod uc t ia n in var ious
m el t in g uni ts makes t b ~ m wicle])'
ava¡lab le from ll1any sourccs of sur plv.
C hemiea! Co mposition . P-:arl it ic
types of Chrome-·Moly liner stcels ar e
cssc nti:.t11y a h igh ca rbo n stc-=! con ­
tainíng sumcie nt chro m ium a nd m olyh·
dcnum to produce a "han.! pcarl ilic"
are on ¡he Jower side of ¡he aboye ......
ranges. Th e sjJ<ociR.c composit io n ud· 1­
op ted by ind ividual rroduccrs shouhl
J e pe nd, to so rne extcnt .1t ka st . 011
f¡ICililies for heat lrc: atl1lm ( <1nd (Jua ¡­
ity control. ,­
H ea l T n::atment. Whi le C hrome­
Moly steel linas havc heen used wir h
go od SlIcce~ s in (hc!r :l ~ · \~ a ~ 1 01' a ~, ·
roJlcd co nJi lio n, ;t is ,h:sirublé. f rCJl\1
lhl~ ~tan dro¡nt of \Iniformil Y ilnd co n·
 SPALLlNG ANO CHACKING of shell liners was due 10 ex ­ rc l a uvely good hu' da nger o f p r emature failure due \O spallin,;
- "~
~
ce vsrvely brrul c m aterial in experimental liners . Liner life was rules out ttus iype of liner for high -im pact gr in drng mill,

sisten cv o f prop ertic s, 10 gi ve the se
l iner-, a hcat rreutm cnt Prefcrubl c
. reatrnent IS as Iollows:
Heat ro J 70 0-1 HaO deg F a nd soak
al temperaturc about o ne hour per
inch o f sec tio n.
Cool in m iJJl y m ov ing ai r.
¡ Temper al 800 to 1000 F for ser v­
, ice requ iring best wea r resist an ce with
the des ircd h ardn ess ra nge witho ut
ditficulty
Mlcros tructure Ex tensive wea r iesr­
mg shows that two main Iactors con ­
trollin g wear ra tes o f steel liners (and
gri nding me dia). in ba l! an d rod milis ,
a re the carb ón content a nel the micr o­
s-tructure. It has Iu rther been dem on­
stra ted by bot h sma ll an d Jar ge sca le
to 700 brinell, ha ve mteresung pos­
sibilities for hall and re d m iJl liners.
Such a struc ture. when u has a me­
d ium to high ca rbo n co n teut, 15 nor­
m ally mo re wear resistant than a "h ard
pca rlitic" structu re arid i, rnuch more
~: ..
l. '
¡' .-,<,
wc ar re sist an¡ th an a us te ni tic man o
f ---'-·
ga nese stcel. However, the de velop­ " .
m ent of a su ffícient ly tou gh martensitic
i';: '

¡ u:
j moderare toughness. tests in o ur o wn ball m iUs a t Cl imux, structure in lar ge, hca vy section liner
or and in rnills al other min ing opera­ castings involves certain production
<· 1l-· Temper lit 1100 [O 1250 dcg F fo r tions, that a high-carbon steel with problerns and higher production costó.
) service requiring highest toughness a "ha rd pearl itic" st ruct ure wi l! h ave F ur the rrnore, there is (he risk 01' break­
rwuh sorne sacriñce in wear resist­ outstanding weur resistancc which is ase o r sp alling wh en th ese ve ry hard
ance: cxcccdcd only hy a hnnle r (but usuully ma rtensitic st ru cturc s cxist in liucr­
Actu al hardn ess attai ned in Iiners les, tough) hrgh carb ón ma rtc nsitic In spitc o/ these d iüicult ies, the pos­
lar grates) after this heat tr eatrnent stru cture Chrome-Moly steel lincr sible advantages frorn longer liner
will depcnd, within limit s, o n th cir composition s and trc atrncrus ele­ ht e ale surfic icnt ro ju stif y seriou­
specific co rnposi tion, sectio ri -size, de­ seribcd in th is scetio n are designe d to con sider atio n of a murte nsiuc steel
gree of air circulation d uring cooling dcv elop thb " hard pca rlitic" stfL\cturc for many lincr applicati on s. Thc sc ar
ami tem perin g tem pcralure . We rec­ Fi g. 3 sho ws a typie al struc tu rc o f plieation s Il1clude end liners tor hall
omme nd that these va riableS' be ad­ this type, whi ch W [lS o btai ned fr om m ills a nd shell a l' barre:! lincrs ta r
11I,ted and bal anced b y each pro ducer a S-in . thi ck secti on of a ba ll mm mi lis op er nting under mo de rat e to
. .':M _
to d ev el op t h e h a rdn e ss bes l su ile d liner I¡gbl imp act.
'r.•~ lo specific ap pl ica tio ns, as givcn on Severa l liner prou ueers ar e now ... "
.~7·' .
, ·-,'; ,1 page !0 3. Most proJucers of liners Mdr1'ensitic Chror(le·~v1oly Steel making cast Chrome-Moly stecl Jíners
"j and gra tes now have had sufficien t Stec ls with a m artensitíc struc ture . of the martcnsi tic typ e and thcse
cxper ience so that they ca n me et whic h norm ally range from abo ut 4 50 ha ve o pera ted succ essf ully in a numbe r
of large ball m ills, where the y \Vere
used both as end and as shell 01'
hond line rs.
Ch rom ium and rnol ybdcnum , some­
times in co mbinatio n with oth er al·
T le 1. T h r e "'~ Yype5 of NHU l h~ers loyiog cleme nts, a re uscd in th ese
C o m pOli¡ l !o n ' - p e,. cc n t ' T ypc 1 T y p.., 2 Typ c ] lll11 rle nsitic ste el tiners to ob ta in the
nceessary ha rdenab ility. T he campo­
C a r bon . . . .. 0 . 30·--{J '40 o 60-0. 80 O. SO--! . 20 sitians antl treatments used for the se
.\ I,lJ1gallc, c. .. 1. 00-1. 50 0 . 60-0 90 0.60--0 90
liner s m uy be c!ass ified into thre e
S ilicon . . . 0 .:10-0.80 O 4-0- 0 . 80 n .-lo-o .SO
Chmmillfll gene ra J types. See Ta ble J.
... . .... ... 0. 50-1.00 1. 25-7.00 5.00 - 7. 00
~ 1() 1~ ·bde nll m . . , .0 . 40-0 . 60 0 . ,W- 0 .60 0. 70-1 00 Type 1, with its relati vely low car­
'I ~rd en i n \; trca t menl (T ypc of (llIc n<.: hl. . . . \Va le r Lir¡u id 0 1' a ir .\ ir han co nte nt, wilJ show goo d IOllgh­
I-Ia ru ne,,-· Uri ncll 450-S50 5S0-6S0 600- 700 ness in spite of its high hartlness.
Th is type can be water qucnched
IC om potll t ío n hmlh ~ lV c n Ilbove COVr.;f LI H: c ntlrc n.l.H &C fro m s e v e ral pro d uce rs . Thc re n g c ln c ,)m
po~ l tiul\ truln eso indiV idu a ) prodllcer wll! normaUy be much nurro wcr l han [hose g ivc n t\bo ve . without cr acking, hcn ce it requ ires

104 Engine ering and Min ing ]ourIJiJI- -Vol.15 8,N o.7
 only a relatively low alloy content
10 produce ful! hardening. However,
the low carbon content of Type 1
steel has an adverse effect on wear
rcsistance, so that in spite of its high
hardness it mal' not show any better
Jife in liner s th an is obtainablc from
:.j
rhe soüer but higher carb ón grades
ul pcarlit ic Chrorne -M nly steel. Ser­
vice record, 00 this low carbón type
01 rnartcnsruc ste el are still quite
limiied, so an accurate prediction of
Ils relative merits is not yet possible.
Type 2, wrth its combination of
[uirty high carbón content and high
: - hurdness, is potentially an excellent
.~ ; wearing material for liners. lt is, of
.1 .....:
course, less tough than the Type \
i steel and to avoid quench cracking
"
.1 during hardenirig the liners rnade from
1
this Type 2 alloy must be given a
1 , f- " .,
.j less drastic quench, such as an air
quench 01' quench in a molten salt - ~

.,,] ~ bath, A higher alloy content is re­

-, :;';."

j quired to produc.e full hardening uuder

., .~ . these conditions. ,,- ,
~
' .... "
J
...1 Many hundreds of tons oí Type ;:t . .
j
1
2 martensitic steel have beco cast 1 .. ,
,~ .
:i - '\
and used in ball and rod mili linera
reccnrly. Use of this type of steel
lo' . "

';.-4
as a commerclal liner material now ;
appears to be well est abli shed, In our t·

own mills at Clímax. this type of steel '"

f sho ws about 20 % longer Jife than
f,'
pe arlit ic (type a) Chrome-M oly steel.
J
·:1 The Type 3 cornposition, when its J ;.

~
carbon content is on the high side
.;"Ii_ ot the range, probably represents the
{
-,• near-optimum in cornrnercially fea­
~ I b l e we ar resistan! st ccls for ball or

v .,
1 rod mili liners . Thi s stee l is still in
m initial developrnent stagcs, with
:1
I only limited commercial usage to date
.i.i as cast stcel lincrs. I-lowevcr, the wear
't.. tests whi ch we have run 00 this steel
in our own ball milis at Clirnax have
o" !
.­.
~
indicated that it does have outstand ­ l·.
,~
Ing weur resistuncc, togethcr with good ",
resistance to breakage 01' spalling, :~
so it could well beco me an important
lincr material 01' the futurc,
MlCROSTRlJCTURE o f high -cur bon pearlite Chr orne-Moly stecl. C onrains larncll ar
Seleetion of a Materia! p e a r li t c a o d u rrd i s s o t ve d c a r b i d e . )( 1000.

tor ~1ili Liners ;

The pl'eceding scctions of this ar­ How to Soled Liner Steel 01' (4) TflC ll'lcdillm c:lrl1on (tyr e 1,) p•.

.. tiele ha ve diseussed properties and martensitic steel listed on page IO-L

:~ fields 01' applieation for severa! types
o f Chromc·Moly slee! s. The selection
oC the best typc f or use in a specific
applic8lion depcnds on muny faetors,
sllch as fnst costo design, availability,
relative wear reslstance, and relative
toughness . Usu ally it is ncce ssary to
run servicc tests lIt each milling op­
cr at ioo on sevcr;"I types of materials.
indudmg co mpctitive liner alloy s. be­
fore a choice of lhe most economical
mateflal can be defined. \Ve can, how­
cvcr. oner some suggestions to ~erve
as a guide in this selection and test­
iog program o
First, select a' material wh'ich will Where impact eondit ions a re mode ·
nC'l spaJI 01' break under the speeific rale, or whcre very han! and rel ativei y
conJitions oE service io a given milI. brittle materials, such as the manen · ... .
Whcre impact eonditions are sevcre, sitie white irons. will serve without ~ .
lhe use 01' the high ellrbon types of brcakllgc or spalling. eonsidcr the r
marten sitic Chrome-M aly steel s (and higher carboo lypes oi mnrtensit ic r
¡he rnartensitic white ¡ron alJoys) Chrome-Moly sleel listed as types ~
sho uld he a p p ro ~l e h ed \Vith caution . aod 3 on page 10-1. The se rW(1 h i ~hl'r
Un cl cr lhese ei rcum :>taoccs. lhe three ca rbon lypes 01' Chrome-M oly mar·
compctitive materials normalJy ehoseo tensitie steel are inhcrenrly lOugher
for eomparative test s are : (1) Austen­ than the marten sit ic whilt' iron:;7 so
ilie, Hadfield type, m anganese steeJ, (2) could read í!y serve in sorne app!ica·
One of the pearljtic CroMo slecl,; listed lians where Ihe martensitic iron s have
on page 10.1, (3) A rolled high car­ givcn trouble from breakage or spa ll­
bon, unalloyed 01' low aHoy stcel, ing.

fuJy 1957-ElJgine~rjng and Mining ]ournaJ JOS

 Tcble 2. ~ chi ve We a f R tes of o r icus Li ner ¡I/\ ~te¡' i c~ s When Tes ed
as 5~ in . Gri nr.Hng B (.~ lb en ~ BCl U M,m Cl1' CHm (1 x .
Com position - pcr ccn t Il nrd - Relu ti ve

I te ,u _ .._._ - - . .- .._ . _. ~--- -._ - . - - - - - --- - - - n ess'

Wear Ordcr uf

- ..
'~
:\0.

1
.....
_.~ ~ -

-
Dcs cr lp t io n

Martcn:;i t lc Cr -M o wh it e iro u
- ----_.... _...
~
e
2 B
Mn
_-- .___ Cr
__ ._0-
1.O 15 O
.
Mu
---_.._- - -­ N I
J O
(BIIN) IZa te' T o tl ~ h n c l; ~ ¡
- -- - -- --~ --- - -

7-10 89
.... .._- -- ­
6
2 M " rt c n:;ll lC lll t:h C r wh u c iron 2 .7 I O 20 .0 7US 911 7
J M ar t en su ir h q.;h cur b on C r -Mo ste cl (TYPI' 3) ..
1.O O s (\ O 1 O 015 \ Or¡ S
4 M ar t ensitic h l ~ h car bo n C r- M o s tee l (Ty pe 2)
O 7 0 .7 2 .0 0 ,4 560
5
6
M a rt en sinc NI·Cr whit e iron .

Mar t cn sit rc m edr um car bon Cr .Mo' s t ee l (T' y p e r ) .

3.2
0 .4
O 8
1.S
2 ,0
O 8 O .. .. O 650
560
\\ 0
112
\ 20
4
8
2
P ea rlit ic high carbón Cr -M o stee t (T y pe a)
0 .8 0 .8 2 S O4 380 127 3
S Au s rerut ic (H a dfic td ) rnanga n ese s ree l
1. 2 12 , 0 470 138 1
Har dn c es c5. ar e c o n v er re.d fr.o m t h e c v e r-a ge o f R oc k w e ll e r e Qd ) n & ~ o n r(¡s\:cr rut es o f wca r a nd fnc tor a o f lss thuu 100 indic are propo r t ion urely
t he wor n s ur facc o f tue bal ls H e rdn esse s bc low t tus co ld workcd sur Ia ce slcwcr ret e s o f wvu r.
Uf(.. lI or m iJ,ll y I O Vl cr I"h~ n t h os c g i vc n ab.ove . "O cd c r u ( t Q '.1~;h n l.; ;j ;¡ e a l ~ :l t c d h es-e ia o qua llt ü tivl:' v u lu e . lt in. b used
p a r ti al l y 0 0 t he r ca u lt s of Iu b o re tor y p hyslCal t ...a t s a n d pnr tiu l1y on t h c re ­
' ~ c:l U tl v c; we ar r a t e s u rc b aa ed OIl u norrn n a ll y nssig n ed fa c t o r of 10U [or s is t a n ce t o b r e uk ujjc a nd sp a llirig wh ic h t he rcs p e ct iv e mn terlats \u .ve
t h e hlUh c u ru on ma r t c ru.r tn: s tc c l (L t vrn J). Fuc t o r s g r cn tu r t hnn 100 i n d icutc alro w n III u c t u a l ecr v ic c.

1
J cer ned, it is stil! irnportunt corn­
How to Run a Test 01' abrasive being ground a ud abo to
some ext ent o n the o perati ng con ­ mer cialJy bec ause of it:, high tough­
I t normally rc qu ire s ma ny yc ars ness . On th e ot her h and , the ma r­
d itions. Tests w h ic h we h a vc run i n
to cstublrsh a rch ab lc set of corn­
a n umber of other mi lJs indica re that tcnsu ic Ni-Cr iro n, as rcpresented by " ' r:: '~ .­
,.
purativc data un rclative wcai re­ itern 5, is also uscd quite successfully l ,. ...
.
a much w id cr spread may be cx p cc tcd
sistance o / vuriou s line r rn uteria ls a t in m any m ilis, in spi te of tbe fact i
in the gr ind ing of ¡ron or es, feld sp ar ;, .
I
.
a spel:Jilc operatio n, wbe n tbese dat a tha t it has the lo west toughn ess o [
~: ;
or eement m aterials, whi le smaller :, t
<t re based on actual se ts of Jiners ;:ll1 Y of lhe m at erds ¡¡sted in Tab!e
sp rea J s m ay oc c ur in grinJing mine ­
.l ~ .
worn out in scr vicl:. Du ring sllch a
long lesl pe riod, opera ling co ndi tjons
ral s barLler than qu artL. 2. It is obvi ou s, t!lé:rcfüre, lhal items
4, 6 ái1d 7, whjch ar e the regu lady
~' . .
~~: :..., ;I~_"

o r liner d e ~ i gn s may be cha nged so

ltem s 1 to 3 in Ta ble 2 ar e ex­ ~~, ~
pe rimcntal ma terjaIs, at least in so avai lab le grades of Ch r0me -lv[cl y steel, s o_o :;.
that the co m parati ve valuc of such [a r as the ir use in liners is concern ed . an d wh ico are inlerm ed iate in t.ough­
dala th en becomes question able. To
T lteir relati ve!y h igh ¡¡Ho y co ntent an d ne ss bctween austeo ltic ma!1ganese
overcome thi;; d il1ic lIlly, we h uye d.:·
con scqucn t bigher co sl rnu ~ t be ba lo stee l a nd th e ¡·-.J i-er martensilic iron,
viscd a mc thod of comp a ring liner s!Joulel be usab Je in a wide raoge
anced again st toeir o utstandi ng wear
m íll(;rial ~ in whtcJ¡ (he various ma­
re sistancc . !-Jowe vc: r, in certain mills, M liner applicatiollS . This has beco
.
.' j tcriab a re made into ¡arge (5-in. d ial
ma rke d balls a nd trcat ed to prod uce
anLl par ticul arl y in t hose gr inJing demon slralcd by lh e wiuespread use
of these steels. They have fou nd their
m illcrals sorter t ha n quartz, oll r wc ar
the sam e structu re and hardlless in gre¡\tl~st ¡¡cId o[ applit: ation to dale
le, h havc indicateJ l1111t u liocr ma ue
lhes..: balb as ís nurm all y obla ineJ as a replacem ent for nusteniLÍc man­
fm m item s ! to 3 mj gbt Jast tw o
in linees of the same compos jtion . ga nese stee l lin ers.
o r e vclI three tim es as lon g as iteros
Th cse rnar kcLl te,\t ha lls ar e then r u n, 7 o r 8.
¡dl al on e time, along with the re gular
ball cha rge in a Jarre ball m ilI o per at· Liner lvlateric,!s of the Fllture .. ,.
Service Resul ~s
: ~.

ing unde r norm¡¡J g rinding co ndi ríons T he-- dat a in T a ble 2 p ro vidcd a í~ . ::.
ro r th at miJ!. A [ t ~ r a perioo ol' op er a­ C h ro me -Mo ly stcd ball or rod mi l! num bcr o f c lues to wh ilt \Ve may ~ .: .;, .
lio n, ¡hese lilrge test balls ilre l' e ­ liners ar e useLl regularly in al !¡;nst find in lín er mater ials of the l'uture. il':
1: . , ­
mo ved from lhe mil i a nd thci r relat ive fHtce n of the m ajor o re mi l1 s ilnd W h ilc ítem 1 sUm us at {he tap of
¡ "> .
wea r rates a re dete rmi ned. Whe re a t man y sma ller o pe ra tions in U. S. th is J¡st in \Vea r f csist;!.nce, tb is must 0': -.

c,¡mpari,o ns ar e <lv a ilable, tlle r esult s They ar e also being used in ma ny be ba lance d against ilS relativcly high
o l' test s on th e ~ e liner ma terials in ceme nt gr ind ing milis. At mosl o f allo y cost and its limited toughlless.
the for m o f !ar gc balls hav e corre ­ {hese op erati ons th e basis for selec­ NcvertheJess, it m ay p rove cconom i· r
,:,. '. 1.­
l"I .:L1 wcJ! with the r esult s o t co m­ ( i on o f t h e most eco n o m ica l ¡¡oe r m a­ ca l in mili s wh ich ob t¡¡ in a wide sprcad
pa ra tivc tesls o n ~ , c t u a l. lincrs ma de t~r i al an d dcsign has bcen govcrncd in relativc wea r r ates .
from lh¡; S<l I1\C milt c l·ia ls. T a ble 2 gives by m an y factor s. Wh i!e th e goo d wcar The Chrome-M oly stee] represente d
the rc ~ult s fram such a test in one resist an ce of the Ch rome-M oly stce ls by íte m 3 a lso has mast in teresting
of our prima ry grinding mili s At has bcen l\n im poll an t f actor in its po ssibi lities. lt s more mo dernte alIoy
I
', '-"
.1 C lllnax. T h is m ili was a 9x 9-f t gralc ­ se lectio n, jt Cilnnot he co nsidcred ns cost. com b ined wilh its güod wear
lb chargl: l ) p.;: , gr lll LilOg c ru,il cd mo· lh-: unly fa,,:wJ'. () ,her impü rt alll'- l)nCS r~~ j. t" l1t.: '; Hnd betl .:r tllugh nc:,s. in­
lybLl enu rn o re (in wate r) to a p roJu cl !eading to this c ho ice we re favora ble d icate th at thi s alloy sho uld be seri­
>uit<l blc for sub:,cqut.:nt t reatme nt by first co st, reaJy ava ilabilit y, f r(;eLlom ously co nsictcred as one of the more
fllHat io n. Th e principal ubrasive in fro m pr e mature fa ilure by brea kage pro mising materials for baJI a nd re d
lhis ore was qu a rlL or spa lling, resista nce to exce ssivc mi li liners .
Rcla livc wea r ra ( c ~ given in Ta ble f1 0w in se rv ice , cons islen cy o f pe r­ For high imp ac t milis or [o r liner ,- -
:2 appl y only (() (he grinding co nJ i­ formance o f life, ¡¡nd ad apt abi!it y 0 1' Ll esigns wh t..:h req uire som e cl uc tilir.y
tiDns which existed in the Cl imax th e stecl to use in lhe spec ific de­ in l.he mater ial, it w ill pr e bably al­
primary ball m ilb . For other ball s igns prel'erred by eac h m illín g op er a­ wa ys be difficult lo use any of th e
mi lis, wc h.\ve fé:.lSO n to belie ve, fr o m t ie n. co mpositio ns represe nte d by irems
simila r tests, ih at lhe or der of m erit Items 4 through 8 re present lin er I tbro ugh 5. For suc h pur poses, th c
o f the eight ma teriuls listed will gen­ materials no w in re gular co mmerc íal two Chro me.Moly slee ls re pr escoted
e rally rc main .,bo ul the sa me b UI lIse. Wh íle allstcni tic m anga nese stee l by items 6 and 7 stilJ have muc h
lhe sprt:;IJ in Wl!a r rates may be (itcm 8) is al th e bott o m o f the l ist to a lfe!' i1 nd prob ably wilJ con tinuc
gre a te r o r lcss depcnuí ng 0 11 the typc in so far as wcar rcsísta nce is con- lo be used for many years to come.
-- o~ . _ ~ 7' # ' M : _ o ~ , .... ...._ .... . t 1/" .•• ' f ( ' 1/ i'I.r" '7
 Sorne metal/uf ;cal [actor: influence
by T E. Norman, D. V. OoaM ood A.

l " \.1
, .
l"

~l :::- .'?: ·: :
AeSTRACT 12 per ceru mangantsc steel were combined with mod
Th~ rMUlta 01 .tudl... 1...¿lni ro the UnprOVII=t 01 ificauons ot the conventional heat trearment to pr~

"'...... r..iltAnC0 and machanlca1 p«>p&rd... 01 c:aot eu.. vide nnprovemerus 1lI both wear resistance and

t'l!mltlc m.9r-«~ steete i. preeented. ~lodifiCliltiollfi in strength, with Iiule or no loss in ductif ity

compoaition and h" .. t tnlllltmont w.,o lItudied. TIw>

developrnene of Impeoved "m. ion 'M¡.tlln ~.. in caot
With this line oí attack, improved austenitic steels

suita ble Ior use m slusher scr<lpers. in cone crusher '.

..
~ ;~

12 per cent manl!fU'l~ ouotenitlc _ 1 w hile rotainine liners and in orher paru requiring high ductitity have 1 .. . " .~

tho high ductility ch<U"llctarirlic o, thi. tyl'<I o, lJtool. been developed T'his dcvelopment i& covered in (he

and tlle dotv.lopm0nt o, lecm aUoy austenltic oteol.

tirst pan oC the paper

w hieh combino tnOd<or.. te ductillty w!th DUlr!<edly im·

The second Une of attack was an exploration o!

proved ..bt-uk>n r...¡ahlnCO'! oUO out\!nod.
lower alloy contents m high carbón austeniuc steels
INTl'<ODUCTION '0 achieve rmproved wear resistance at a somewhat

In rhe ope ratlons 01 the authors company s mme lower duculitv or rou ghness leve! "Lean allov" aus­
• nd rrult al Climax. Colo stecls ha ving rhe charactcr tenues gave prornrse of fu!filling these requiremenu.
.sucallv high toughness of austenitic 12 per cent particularlv under conditions of high stress abr asr oa 2
T he developmenr a nd stud v of these lean allov aus­ i~'
fTlangane~ steele are req u íred in a nurnbcr oí major
""~aring pans Sorne o! these are in the slusher scrapers
tenitu steels has now been carried to me po im where
.,. rhe underground operations and In the gyrato!:y
a co rnrn e rc ía llv suitable alloy has been developed {o.­
and cone cru sher linera in the crushing plaru In other use in parts requiring onlv moderare ductilirv or
major wearing parts, such as grinding mili liners. strength, cornbined with a high degree of abrasión ~ .
more wear re~htanl and less ductil!." l'Vpes oC ferrous resist ance
alloys are u,u:d. such as lhose discussed In previous Such parts mc!ude gnnding mili liners. g¡.-inding
papen b'f the aUlhors.1. 2 . 8
JI, ustenitl{ types oí high carbon atee! Sllch as the
mill scoop lips. screen deck.8 and po3Sibly jaw crw.ber
liners. This development i5 covered in Ule serotlti
i ..·.: f
,t.. , .
Jo,

- ¡~ ; '.~ ,0;
)1 c1assll Hadflt:ld mangane5e atee!. havt" a comblilation pan ol the paper i~ " •

•)f demab.!t' propenies, both for proccssing and use.

IVhich make th ern commerciaIly attractive !f these
properues could be combined with improvements in
fC1istance to wear and flow in servlI:e ulen 11 is ob·
vious thal theae auatcnitic steeb would become more
!secure!y entrenched in ¡hose applícations where high
toughnC33 is requ ired. At ¡he same time, they wouid
prohably regain ~'lllle oí lhe marltels they have 10Sl
In those applications where high loughness i5 a desir·
able but not absolute1y nece53ary requirement in wear
¡ng or structural paru.
Pan of a continuing investigation ioto means for
lmproving the wearing qualilies. and in sorne cases
the mechanical properties. oi high carbon aU!tenitic
necia are covered in this reporto Prdiminary studies
,ndicated two promi!inglines of attack on the pral>­
lem. In ooe. tlu: us.<: 01 special alloy additiol1S to
T E. NOttMAN l. M.t. 5-ro<¡, •• en..... l.4olybel"n¡,m
.,..,¡ D. V. OOANI: l. Mol. SW¡H. a"4 A. SOlOMON i.
en..... Molyl>d.......... Co. ,,4 MIe/¡I\lOfl. o..,¡.."lt.
--" ' ,
DEVELOPMENT OF' STEJELS \"JIT'H
IMPROVED WEAR RESISTA..~CE ANO
HIGH roUGHNESS
To improve the wear rt:aistance of ilwu:nitic mano
ganese steels without. at lhe ~me time, setious1y
in jur ing their toughness. <1 logical approach appeared
[O lie in lhe production oí pro~rly dispoelf"".;.:d hArcl f _ ¡,
carbides in lhe auslen itic matrix of the Slttl. lncre.u­
ing lhe carboo in solution in lhe amtenite WM a so a
possible approach lt has been observed, hOWC'Y'er.
lhal in the conventional Hadfield m.a~n<':;;e ued.
an increase in the carbides, or !he carbon in rotuliano
was u51lally i1crompankd by the fonmnÍon oí em·
britlling-typc rurbide envelo~ around grain bouncl·
aries or as platetl along cY)'!otallographic plane­
To avo id such embrittlemenl, the forro in ",hich
¡he carbidel occurred in ¡he aunenite would obviously
C<>.• 1)"".,.,.
Il.ch. Auooo.. have to be modified, tithcr by ilddition of or.her 211oy. ~f<. ~ ~~ '
ing elements or by spedal thenn.ll.l tr'l!!atmenu. !'10th :..:..~";,
21f7 t,.,¡;
f..:;:'::
...
.
i
.• ~, i

.,

lo··..•···
 288
pouibilititi have beco investigated, and me resulu
to dale are surnmnized in the reporto
COMP081TiON MODIFiCATIONS EFFECT
C_OOn
I\hny invcstigatoo have reponed me influence of
carbón on the properties of austenitic manR'a:lete steel,
In combinarion wiih manganese, Il gTt:atly influenccs
the characterisucs of the austenite, incIuding such
properties as tensile and yield strength, ductility,
stability and wcar resístauce.
In general, íor wear reaisraru castings, il is desir­
able (Q hold the carbón content al me
highest !evtl
possjble without serioualy injuring ~\e ducrility o~ th.e
steel. For the conven.tional Hadheld sreel, this 15
-s-: usually in a range of LUO to 1.25 per cent. Higher
. , carbón contents than 1125 pe! cent usually tend to
embri rrle the steel by íorming cnvelopes oí (Fe.Mn).C
type carbides around the grain boundaries, or by
Iorming plate-type carbide predpitates along crystal­
lographic planes . Means of avolding lhl~ emb~¡ttle­
<;( ment, by modificarion of the lYpe of carbidc, willbe
.L
discussed in. subsequent 5eCtiOIU.
" ': 1
MMll.!lll~
To retain a fully a usten itic structure, the manganese
contcnt of an ausrenirized and quenched high carbón
steel must be above certain mínimum levels. Figure I
~'; i"
ind icares these lcvels íor steels with varying manga·
ro.
nese and carbón contenta, as have been determined
",
by several investigators. t,1I.6, 7
, .,
_1 ._
1" I
j The globular type oC carbide forme<! in u-ast
l ~
·1
\, ,~
. tliametcr risel'S wed on large cuting5. !t penisla wit.."l
I I I I I I
... .., ~~.d loO
FIIl. 1 - Cómporuoll 01 M. temperatutea rr_.urod by
Vo.rio,," Inv...ti¡taton.
The dau in Fig. I indieate thal a quenched Iteel
ro. comainlng. (or I:xamplc, 1.20 pcr cent arbon, wlII
be 1\llIy auatenilic when it cont.'Un~ .5 to 6 per cent
llUnganm. The dotlopment oC high ductility and
loughn eu In the aU11 nlu: generally lcquirea in eXtu.
of 10 ?Ct (%nt manlPn~. Thia lA iIIwtratcd in Fig.
2. which ,ummari~ temile properUeJl obt.1ined by
lhe i'luthol'1 on a n Uli ber oí ;¡ullenlth~ and quenchc:d
1.2 pcr rol! earbon necia wilh CTOIlI 5.5 ·la U per cene
llUJmAneie•
Cmt.une1·cially produttd austcnitic mlllngdnell<: 1t«:1
!
~ o ", ·
..... "
I
castings generally contain 11 lo 14 per cent manga­ t'·
nese, with a manganese-carbon ratio oí about 10 te 1 j..' '.
' ,- .
or higher. The necessity oí adhering 10 specífic mano
.' ,
ganes-~-earbon ratios in formulating compositions lJ.
however, questioned by the authors.
Chromium, NicJtel, Molybdenwn
lr.!1nence OD As..clllt Pro:;Hlrt!ea. Heavy section
casríngs made from the higher carbón grades oE ~u51e~'
itic manganese stcel are oíten prone lo cracking in
the foundry while they cool in their as-cast condition.
This is believed tO be due largely to embrittlement
resulung írom precipitation of carbides around grún
boundaries or as platea along crystallographic planes.
1"
It' is well-known that chromium additions tend ro
aggravate this oonditicn, and thiJ is coníirmed by L'1e
authors' observations. Molybdcllu~. on me other
hand. when prellCnt in . ar:lOIlTlts over about !.5 per
,.­ tent, produces a globular type o{ ca\"bide which forms
(rom the mcll in inr.erdendritic Aites ólnd minimizcs
me development o{ graln bonndary FeaC type car­
bides.
This is illumated in Fig. 3. which compares me
aH:;151 microstructurt.'S. land cast in 2-in. miel IIC(;.
tiom, o{ plain 1.2 per ceot. carbon.rn.a:f'..gal1~ stee!
with !.he roicroslructures oE two 2 per ant mo!ybde­
num steels eontaining 1.2 ana 1.7 per anl carbono
structures oC the 2 per cent molybdenum ~lcdi! h;u -:
abo been observed io heavy sectiOfl! such a., l~¡n.
.
"
earbon contentll up to abolAt 1.7 ~r Cl:nt and is b-~
Iieved to be .an M.e type complex cubide. The ar·
bide formed in me plain or chromium modified man­
i 0 ;.­
;, 1
..
ganese steels are o{ me (Fe,Mn).C type. The glchu­ j• •
lar type oí carbide forroed in the a:+-cUl 2 ptt etnt
molylxlenum 5tee!S should pennit lhe use oí. hi()n~
carÍX>n content!o ¡JQ'3liibly up to as h1gh as 1.7 p.'!!'
cent in ~erdsi castings. ."
!nf!uoniCe 00 8.¡;lutivll 'i'm.llt<lll! P o~. T~
clf~cts oC the tl1ft:\: moat commonly u!;td sl!oyhlg
demcntll - chromium. nlcke! aod molvbdemuD - on
the mech¡mical properties of light ~¡ón cuti~ 1m:
aummarized by Avt!ry and Ch""pin 8 in Yig. oto ThiA
indiCIlf.e1 thal molybdenum addítiom u p ro ¡rout 2
~r «:nt increaaes the yield strer.gth 'lI-ithout loweri ng
me dUclility or tensile &trength. ChromiuJ1l in
me yield strength. al though I1t l'.l slO n~, bu t
 f •.

~:
52 i ': ' ;'~;,,~

......
'0,

F íg, 3 - M c tybd enum an d ca r bo n ínf1ue nce on as -caat rmcroarructur es 01 12 per ce nt rnanganeee

atee le. LoII - 1.34 per ce n t C . 12 .85 per eent M n ; center -- 1.3 0 pe r cent C. 12 .31 per cent Mn. 2 .0
pe, ce n t Mo ; ril1hr - 1.7 per ce n t C. 12.0 por cent Mn. 2.0 per ce ur Mo. 2 per ce n t nlUlI etch . 100 X

"

~.;.': ...

lowers the d u c ti lity and tensile strength. Nickel docs Silicon

not show a streugthening eííect.

Silicon is nonnal1y added only in the amoun ts re­
Addiuons of chrom ium , which tend 10 accen tu at c quired for good deoxidation of austeniric rnanganese
°L ' the formation 01 carbide nerworks around grain steel heat s, H owever, Averys has reponed that it rnay
boundaries, are probably responsible Ior the reduced be added in arnounts up to about ji pcr cen t lO pro-
J ueti lity of aus teniric manganese steels comaining
over about 1 per ce nt chromium. A comparison of the
rcnsile properties ob tai ned by th e authors from ¡\YO ... ~..,---, t I
high carban aus te n i tic manganese steels in Table I
~ ""I"'--':"'~'--''1'-.--",
~ flN)~ U~n ....... Mo

-; lD;)
Iurrhei eonfirms th e embrittling effect o f a !l per cent
chromium ad d it ion in light secrion castings. The ~ 10 <, Tr:N3IL~. .,~
-,
•
j&lt<l
chrorniu m ad d it ion <l oes, howe ver, improve yield ~ IlOj-O -5Te...~.Nt}rr~ o • 110
stre ngth, a nd presurna bly would im pro ve resistance ~ o - - · - · · _ .o,o-NI
lo How in service . '~ lIJO "-... 100
In spire oí the em b r iu ling eífec t oC chrornium, an ~ [ ~!~U< 'T!c """'",liArmH..~ .. CA ,.
'i ."
aJdition of about 2 per cent is frequently used in
the beli ef that it improves res ístance to wear in servo
",'"
~
~
I
&ro -
~
Il0· l.ll
\Wn.r
~
14;1"7'
~
040 OA'
~1JK'nc~C'd ,ro-rn 2000-"
..
-leo
I
~s¡.o
ice. T'he aut h ors ' o b serva t io ns indica te that under

~~ : ~ ~

! ,¡.\
sorne condirions, ehromium ad dit io ns do improve

:::;.--.~:'
. ~~
wear reslsra nce, although similar o r greater improve ­
rnenrs m ay he ob ra i rred b y Jowering rhe m anganese Srl'rl!HOTH • :
, ~ - Q o ~
: con teru o f a chrorn iurn-Iree steel, with less loss in ij se --v-··¡¡-_··--L··--o-·-NI 11.1'0 ~.
j- ductilily. These effects will be covered more fully in
the SotCond pan of this paper.
~ ..-c-.-H,
.)­
, t;
TABUl: 1 -- CH RO M IU M INFLUENCE 01'1 H I GH

CAROON AUSTRNIT IC MANO.'.NESR STEEL

:~! - _____ MJ:!:CHARICAL !' ~ O ? KR T_I_

E_S _
~ <>

i (\V ncr Q ucnchrd trom 2000 F) i ~[ ~ m

-, 1----
,,~ Heat M33 Heat M3<i

IfJ ~ Clt
~ .j

C. 'í'o . . " " •. " . . " -W- l.~ tlj ° f l , I I

M n. '7• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.0 12.0 (, .
M o.'1. 0.5 0.5 N/o 4 e m ~ . ',~

er. % . . o 3.0 M-v o / tI 31 .;.

CI'I1 Q / 11 JI <ti.
II G '1 !l
0.2% Ollxt Yield Sll"eflgth . pSI . . . . 59.900 68.400 A ..... OYING e4lf.MBNT- ~1t'T. PII~a:Nr
U ;U m ~lc Tr cu¡)C' S U~g {, h, 1>" , 105.400 100.900
I!.k"'¡yulon, '70 26.0 Uto Fil!:. 4 - NiclMl. molybdilnum llnd chn>mlum eUoct OQ

R ~u ctiOl'l in An;;¡ , '70 " " " . " " " " " " 31.5 16.0 tlmllil. tlfOperti$ll oí CtI.t lluatM\ltk . . &l:eol.
IJn nell Hlltrllleas . . . 207 CI&lIt ... ot1oll in. dl4r"et« ttnt b6nt., MI> t lUId ••t ';'l
-------------------- 2'18
qU01\C!u.d 'roro 2000 F (reI{MeOOR 8).
,
<
.;
 m
duce a moderare irnpro vemeru In yiel d strengrh.
The aut hors' i n v ~ ti ga ti o na on both 12 and 6 per
cen t msngan cse a usren itic steels with incre asing .ili·
co n conte nt a u p lo 2 per cen t confinn Avery 's dala. Ir
'l. was a lso no red that rhe h lgher sili con con tents ten ded
lo rhrow car bon OUl ol solu tlon in the au sten ite by
p recipirat ing th c ca rbó n e irher as rather massi ve caro
bides or as pearl ite . This effect ol silicon was observed
bor h in as-casi sree ls and in the same steels aírer
var ious rhe rrnal treatmems, This apparent incom­
paubilny of car bó n a nd silicon in solution in the
austenite has also been observed in other high carbón
rypes of steel ami in the whire irons,
Presumably, whcre a high carbón coment in solu­
rion in au st enite is required Ior good wear resistance,
th e d lec l of higher th an no rm al si licon conten ta
wouJd be harmful. T hís has oc-en con íirrned by the
a ui ho rs' wear tests, and by service resulta 011 ball mili
liners reponed by Mussgn ug. I O
Pbosphorus
Because uf its gc nera ll y harmíul cííecr on rhe me­
ch anica l pr o pcr u es o f ausrenític m ang an ese stee l, it
is necc 5:lary to co n siuer phosphorus as o ne o[ the
im porta nI va riables in com pos ili on. Phosph orus is
pro bab ly p an icu !arly ha rrnfu l in hcavy seclion east­
ings, du e 10 segreg atio n effeclS.
T he A,S,T.M. Specification A128·33 for m anga·
nese 5leel cast ing; lim Íls p hosphorus tú a maxlmum
of 0.10 per ceOl . AveryG has reponed lh at aoove
ahau l 0.10 rer cen! phos pho rus. lhe room t~mpera.
lure du ctilit y alld te nsile slrenglh drop ol[ rapidly.
Thesc resu l15 wer e p ro bab ly [rom tensile bars cut
[ ro m lighl scelion caslÍ ngs. Also . Avery's work. indio
cal cd lh al over 0.06 per cem ph mphorus reduces hOl
slr eng lh an d du ct ility whieh may resull in ho l lears
in lhe casl ings . W cld de posit s o[ austen itic m an ga·
ncse slt cls appea r lO be panicularl)' sensiliv e to p hos­
phorus co menu ove r abo u l 0.02 pe r ccm, as re poned
by Avery an d Cha p in 8 and by De!.,Qng. Lutcs and
Rei d . l l
, T h e aUlh ors' inves tigal io m on m anganese·molyb<!e.
J. n um austenit ic steel s cast in 2 in . th ick-k-eel block
5eClions ind ic.'\le lha l easlings co n tai n ing 0.077 10
0.080 rer cen t p hospho r us had d efinilely in ferior ten·
sile pro pen ies lO ¡hose having similar corn po siti ons
j and II"Calments Wilh 0.05 per ce m o r less ph os phorus.
' !-- . This is illus tr aled by data in T a ble 2. Conseq ue nt ly.
.1 TAlll.I!. 2 - PHOSPHORUS INFLURNCII ON
AUSTENlTIC M ANOANRSE STEEL MKCHAN!CAL
PHOPERTHtS
(Di'p"niú n !I zr d c n«.\ b y Pcorli l irl ng a l 1100 F
anel AU' lcnitizin g a l 1800 f)
Hca l S522
C.ulx>n . % ~ -- ­
\ 1;¡f1g.Il= . % 11.9
5i licon . '70 . .. . . . •. . 0.51
!\fol ylx.lcn um. '70 . 2.0
Ph ospholU'. '70 0.019
V,c1d SU<."n g,h. psi " . . . . 65. 000
U lt i m . \( Te",i'" Str en glh . psi . 117 .500
Uo n ~lIoil , % . . .. . 29.2
Rnl ucli on in I\r.,.• . '10 . 28.0
Rrill<."ll H ordrofil . . . . . . . • . . , 217
'¡
'1
'1
lilphosphcrus comen! of nor over 0.06 per cent, and oto( •
pr eferably un d er 0.05 per cenr, b n ow speciíled on all
01' the austenitic uee l casiings uliot<l in the rniníng and ','....
~ ',
I
m ill ing opera tions a l the aethore' compan}'. /o. "
. .., ,
T!ffiRMAL TREATMENT MODIYICATION
EIl'FECT
Dispersion HMdanin~ Heat Trentmtmt Dovc!opment
The desíred obj ec tive oí producing fine carbide
d ispe rsions in th e regular H adíield eype or spe cially
alloycd austenitlc manganese steels does not appear
lo be Iea sible with th e convenrional solution trcat ­
ment, which involves hearing ro 1900·2000 F, ícllowed
by a water q uen ch . However, a considera tion of the
ph ase di agrama for h igh carbó n stee ls conta ining in
i:
excess oí 1.5 per CCIlt molybdenuui indicated th at t
there should be a good possibility of produ cin g the ,.
l . " •
des ired carbide d ispersions in austenir ic manS:lIlL-sJ:
ste els by combining a 2 per cen t mol ybden um ad ­
dition with mod ifica ti ons in th ermal treatmcnt. It
appca red p ro bable th at H such an o bjective cou ld
be a ria ined , im pro vemerus in both we ar resísta nce
and mcchan ical propcrties would be ob ta ined .
In a n in vesl igalion o f these po ssibililies. it was
l1elennined lh al fine earbide d ispcl'sions co u ld be t.."
produce<! and re uined in 2 per cem mo! ybd enum l' ..
aUSlenili c mallgan cse SlCe\S b y a speci:¡ 1 h eal trc al menl
wh ich in vol ved [irSI a tran sfoffilat io n o[ pan oC the
a usteni te to pe arl iLe. [olIowed b y a tt:mper.llure
conlrolle<l re-au 51enil izin g tre atmen t. T h is d is.soived
mosl o [ lh e glo bular ear b ide s a nd p a n o[ lhe ear'
bides in th c pearlile, so th e rcma in d er o [ the carbidcs
formed a fine d ispers ion oC sp hcroi d ized ca rbides
in lh e auslen ite.
T o prod uce pea rl ite in a us tc n ilic m anganese slee l,
il was fuun d th a l a n isot h ennal su bentieal ann ea!
al 1100 F was mos t effecti ve. !n a 12 to !4 per cen l
man ganese com po sili on. il was [ound that t he atl&­
leni te lO pcarl ite reaclion would proceed [airly ra pi d.
Iy d uring lhe [irsl [ew h ou rs a l 1100 F. an d wou ld
then slow d own l O an ap pa re n! equilibrium co nc il io n
afler aboul 12 hr. leaving aoou t 35 to 50 per ccnt
of th e a ustenite untransfonned.
The conl ro lle d re·austeniti zing lreatmem whidl [o¡.
lows lhe pea rlí lilin g tr eal ment has been done al
lemperalurcs ran gin g [rom 1600 ·1900 F. As would be
ex pected , an a uslen ilil ing temperatu re o C 1600 F
leav es greater a mo u m s o[ sph ero id ized carbides in
lhc slruclUrc lh an an aU5lenilizing temperalure o{
1900 F. .r •. •
l. ' ;
MicrOlJtruciure ComplJril!On
~"
Fig ure 5 shows lypical m icro st ru ctures produce<! by
lh e var iou s a uste nidzing tempera lu rcs. and also
1.22 sho ws for com parison th e pe arlilizccl slruetures oC t he
10.9 sam e sleel s. Ir m ay be sec n from a comparison of
1).60 lhese slruclure ~ lha l tlJe fine carbide d isperuon in
2.0
0 .077
lhe final slru clUrcs e xist5 principally in the ¡ne as
which were pe a l'litic a fler lhe llOO F lreatment. In ad ·
&1,000
95.600 ~i.l i on lo producing the carbide d ispersion. th e pear!·
18.0 ltl Zetl a rcas also produce a gr a in re fi{lem elll in Ihe ,
,.
22.0
final ur ucture. 11 is believccl Ihat lhis grain re fine·
228 menl pl ays an im po rt a n! pan in co lllrolling th~
\ .
 2 0/0 M olybdenum 0010 Mol y bd . n UIn

00

','

,
' (
,.

•.(0
\>•.

~ ;, x 1 00()
;;.­ Xl OO

~ ; /f

~" ,

l.. ­
FiR· 5 ­ AUi,,,nniJllnl: t .. mpers tu rs tl il~ on enero­ .r
~ :
,tru CIurOt oi dte per aion hardll1\'lod 12..1.1, p01'" cent rnen ­
~u nus.e lItf)(Jla .

".::

.,
st.
1-
'1 ~

·1

¡ -,
t¡. :

I!
 r~~\
,_: ', 1'
-: ,'J.' ~
.~."-' : .
m ,"

ductility and p<»sibly rhe tensile urength of the final, T"BUt 3-Pri/Ol?!.mT'.118 010' 2 L'l:. ~ m.ocm;
!J~"TIONI!l
"dispersion hardened" muctllres: .
Figure 6 gives typical rnechanical pT9perue4 of 1.1
to 1.2 per cent carbono dispersion hardened comp<r
sitions with propenl cs corresponding to the structures Re~r l>~?~ fi)~~
1000F, Wster
in Fig. 5. The 1600 F austenidzing temperat~rc pro­ QllCllChcd 55.000 ll!\,l)OO iO 50 175
duce! the highest yicJd strength oí the senes, but !lOO F + UlOO F.
also produces the lowest elongation. Consequemly, it Water Quenched 55.000 lIS.l!OO ~5 ~5 176
is beiievt"ll that the l&íNr-F-l-roatment would ~ luit· U-2 hl!lIY
able only íor casrings used in relative!y low impact 2000~'. Wau:r
l'·
Q uen ched (hom
service, Wirh the h igher auetenitizíng temperatures },verrO ) 64.000 1!lO.oo<J 42 r •
of ) 700 to 1900 F. me ductility ia greatly ímproved 1100 F + reoe F, , fI
W"[CT Quenched 69,000 150.000
~:~>
with IIOme lower íng in yield strength. SO 2S 212
·Rdet~l% 6. 001 1 In. tt!ll han.
~ ..- ' . ,

-~ :,'t:'"
~­ ~~: ' .,!
data in Table 4, wh ich shows the tensíle propertie.s
and hardness val úes oí soecimcas cut from 6,000-10
cone crusher m anrles which had sections originally
about 4 in . thick, In these heavy sections, the 2 per
cent molybdenum steels, in addition to having higher !.
yield and tensile strengths, also exhibir beuer duc­ ,'::'Jrif;
tility than the plain manganese steels.. Servia: results
1

.¡~
~
on these liners a t the authors' rompany provid e con­
firmatíon of me greater duculity oí me 2 per ceru
rnolybdenum stcels, since they have chown less tcil~­
ency 10 premature íaílure by cracking than the pl;....i n
manganese steel Iiners.

M(J.!1!1W1C36 Inilucnco in Dispor eion H erderesd

.AuBterJte
Fil!. 6 - Au~ tQ " it i " i n~ tcmperature effect en tenall.. Manganese contents of less than 12 to 14 p"-T cent
properties of eustenitic ot"'wl ("ft<.r Pfri'J'litUifli el 1100
F) . 1.1 - 1.2 par cent e, 12.0·14.0 pe; eent Mn.
were invcstigated for dispersión hardened 1.2 per cent
carbón compositions, with and without 2 per cent roo­
lybdenum. This was investigated since it 111:15 índícated
that lower manganese contenta would permit a greater
Since the Iseo F rreatment dissolves most oí the
degree of pearlitization during L!-¡e 1100 F holding
carbide dispenion. jt was fdt tha! the be3t compro­
mise aU5tcnitiúng t ~:JIIperatllrc for heavy duty ~t. ,,
in gs, such as crmher linen, would be in a range of , . '1...
TABLR 4 ­ PROP¡'Lf(TmS OF SPECrM1l:NS CU'l' ~'UOM
1700 lO 1800 F. For the dispenion harqened con(
cn13her Iiners amI slusher scrapers ured in the au­
WORN CRUSlffiR MAN'rI..ES ~-:~ ;~ '.~~
ilion' rompany's oper" tions, an aUSlenitizing tempero O.2%Olhet
Ylcld Tcmdle
Elong., Red. In llrlncll
ature of 1800 1; ha~ been use<! on practically al! . of Str., p.i Str .. pal
Amo, % }urdncn
%
lhe castin~ wom out to date, Regular Mangan"lle
Sleel
f"lolybdól1um IniiuUlce on Diilpert¡ion HardatU~ 1900 F. Water f ' . ".,
The ¡x~ibility th at plain 12 pe:r cent mangaoC!oC Q.uenth<'<! 59,000 68 ,~ 6.5 9.3 J87
60,.500 76.{()() 8.5 11.3 187 ro, ;"~ 'I ".
!!toel compo.itiom rnight rtspond to the dhpersion 12-2 A!ley 1: ; ' .'
hardening tre;mn ent has been investigated. The mi. 2QOO F, Water !" . ~
: ~,.f
crostructures in Fig. :; ind icate thu the p1ain manga. Quenchod ~,500 88.000 U .O Ill.6 1'Y7
D el<: slec! ", ¡II d evd op $Cme carbide dispersion wllen
68,600 91.500 15.5 Z7.2 217 r·
1100 F + 1800 f, '. ~.
re-;¡ustenitiztd al 1600 F. but thi3 is almoal completely Watt:r QUl:ncbed 61,500 106,0::0
diWllved ",hen the re-:wstenitizing temperature is 22.5 2l.2 217 ¡ ' ; :. ,;;~
rai~ed 10 17(){) F or higher. The dhpenion hardening
69.700 12~ .100
119,"¡Oll
25.0 22.2 ro L··t:;~ ! ~
26.0 :<2.4 Zi!3

trcaffilent ¡¡.ppears. ü¡¡:rcfore. to be relatively indft(:. lill,500 IOO,7<Xl 15,0 a.7 1117

tivc in lhe pI",;n m ;.¡ nganese ncel. ~' . :. ," ~

Thia ia {unher confirme<! by the data in Tablc: S,
in which is pn.'$emeJ. a comparison between the pIain
¡¡nd 2 ~T cenl rnolyb d<Cllum-manganese aleela both
In the convcmion¡ally \ n: al ({1 ilnd disperslon hard.
ene<! condilions.
Toe efkcu 01 mol ybdenum ami dispersion hard.
ening on heavy secti on castings ate indicated by the
).~, "
¡ '~"I'
... . :. ,
period and, thin in tum, would pernlit !he deve1op­
roem of a. more complete or uniform w&penion oí
carbides, togethcr with more graio refinement when
me steels were re-l1lJgtcnitilOO ¡md quenche-rl hum J(.:(X).
1800 F. There was a lso the possibility that me lower
manganese contenu would provide ~tter W':IU re-
 .utance due parrly to the beuer carblde dispenlon
ind partly to the Ie&ll stable austenite in the lowcr
manganese steels.
The average rensile properties and hardness values
obtained írorn this ínvcstíga rio n are gíven in Table 5.
Thc expecred increaee in carbide dlspersion wlth (he
lower mangan eee co n ten ta was obtained. The etruc­
iures were accompanied , however, by lower mechan­
leal prcperues a nd toughneas. In the intercale of ob­
.aining improved wear resistance, the lower manga­
nese jteels with their lower toughness should be us­
able in many ap plica tiorn. However, Ior large cone
crusher liners, experience has índicated that a high
degree of toughness i& necessary to avoid premature
íailure by breaking or crack-ing. Consequently. none
of the Jower rnan gan ese sreels have yet been tried in
cene CTU5her liners at the aur.hors' company .
it was found that íncreaeing carbón oont.er¡u In­
creased the arnount oí pearlite produced duri ng the
1100 F pearlitj¡ing sreaunen e. Thia, in turn, ueed
more grain refinemenr when the Jteelt W~ re-au...
tenirized and quenched, It j, believed that thie gr,,¡ín
reflnemeru ii largcl y rcsponsible tor che superior ten­
sile uren grhe an d ducti Jitie:t, shown in Table O. íor
the oearlitized and re-auetenirized $teela when como
pa red to the same composuions in their :M-Q~l a rsd ~.. r ..
re-aust enirized condition, In addition, the íu ñ ucnce
of carbón in increasing yield strength and hardrsess iI
ev ídent (mm the data in Table 6.
TABLR 6 -INCRRMJINO CARBON M'tfD DJltlPtW:6l0N
HARDENlfI:O lWFl!(.'T ON AU STUNIT!C MANGA!'T .~
MOLYBDENtP.A sr um, W.2:C&Unc.Ir.L PROr'U~fJ

I
0.2 "'/.oald
Th=1 Yl dd T<mile li.<d. lo>
1 C/U'oon Iniluonce in Dispersion Herdeaed Austwtite C. Mn . SI, ).fo , Tra ll,),~lJt. SU ,, Str . , IJQU&., A:"'C4.
'% 'f. " ~ P L\j.j ,.....J '.lo "h Uh.u
~ !ncreasing ca rb ón co u teru is gcnerally one of the C.crlw:a ~&'1.l1a
1 I. ZZ 11.9 O .~ 2 .0 P + I BW 65 .ú!Wl 1!7.!OO 29 .2 ~a.o 2 17
most effcctive m eans oí improving wear resisrance,
1n the straight 12 po;::\' cent manganeso steel, increasing
¡> + 1000
....C + 1IlOO
ti'. I!Wl
61 .900
1000 ..'><lO
63 ,350
5U
14.6
31 A
24 .7 =
ro
1­
{
caroon ef íect ively im p ro ves yield strength and pre· 1.32 11.9 o.e 2.1 1' +1IlOO
P + 19W
69.000
ea.sso
131.llOU
Il ó '>1~
n.o
32,j)
S!.4
H .:I
m
2:til
sumably improves wear resistance. However, carbón AC-t 1S1Xl (;(\.500 1 0 ~ ,7~O 1);i..~ ~-2 Z4 1
o .~ P -t- 1000
1I tevels over about 1.25 per cent may cause trouble in '.7 12.0 2.0
l' + IIXla
'/2.1 50
/i9. 7C<1
1f.\ .7(l.)
1 1 8 ~ !Wl
:n.O
!lO.O
21-7
~ .2
ZH
:C1;l
heal treatmem or foundry handling,9 and may even AC -'- I800 d9.5 !Wl Sg.3~ O 15.>l 17.2 ~~

lead to erratic service life; consequently, the carbon l?·illct.. l:.n-Iao

1.2' 1203 0.9 2.1 P -1- IllOO 69.fOIl 118.9'JO :!Y.8 n4 223
1­ 1'+ 1900 u .soo n s ,\ OO !IO.!\ 27.5 m
! .; ~
content is nonnaJly limited to aoout 1.20 per cenl.
The favorable infl ue nc e of molybdenum in suppress· 1.28 11.8 1.3
AC+! aro
2.0 1' +1 IlOO
&l;lSO
71~
9'v,l!OO
I n .roo
2 l.2
27.5
2M
24"';
m
~'¡I
...
~.' u' .
j ., 1'+ 19')3 65.HO 107.1 W
Illg cont inu ous grain boundary carbides indicated lhe +- 1(1<;0
25 .0 Zb.,l 241
:j ~
pos.sibility of usin g hi gher carbon contents wilhout
AC
Valuo rcprncnt aven.¡e ot du plica{t
65. Hll ~~ !S .e 19.6
l ~ts. P ~ n.J L ca te:l thar l.amp\a w t:".~
21:1
"
en coumering th is hritdeness. pcHliúuJ by bohl il"" i l 1100 f lo( 11 11( . " d . Ir wo lb " 10 """" lrol '
1 peUILlrc prior 10 atu-h..·'1¡,. J lÍJ:i ll ~ trnt01 ~nt ibdlG:Le.1. AC iDd..lolte¡ t il.U
In the heat tr ea uucnt of the 12 per cem manganese· ~mpln \¡ 'CfC' in the ,U·GU( OO'_ldi t iOIl p riOl'" te .a.utl=-alt f:rina'. AH ~ p k:::J
,",C'TC w;¡lt:r q u(.-nchc J f~ r;u'}lcnllU h'lC ttmpcnt ll\"'C "fter ¡-.~ l 'lD< h r
': ~ peT ccm molybdenum dispen¡jon hardened 8teeh. al lemp<tnturc.
.1 ~

..
¡
.­ TABLE .5 - M AN G ANII S E INl?LUltNCU. ON
~.

'1i mSPE R SI01>1 HARDSCN'ED AUST:J:NITE The ~trength. hardness and ductility of the h ighcr
"-,- . M1tCH ÁN'IC.'ú- PROPERTlES carbon 12·2 alloys, togcthcr with !'he possibilitics fur
J A\l lt~n- 0.2 %

ímprovL"<.! \Vear resistance, were suffidently good to

':L
it a in a
Trt:~t·
O fb<:l
Vield Te",Ue
Red . Bhn,

In Av.

justify theír comider.Hion for rone crushcr Iinen al

the a Ulhors' company. ConsequcntJy, 5eVt:r.tl Unen
e. Mn . Mo . rot'lt. Su.. SU'., Elong.. Art'a, (!lOOO
.]:" -, '70 % '7. f pai pai % '70 kg)
with Cltbon content s of 1.4 to 1.5 per cen¡ have been
'.­
I 14
purchased amI are now in service. lt is \Vorth while
8.3 16 00 !'>4,600 84.100 7.8 10.6 202
1700 5O,éiOO 119.850 16..'1 19.6 lB? to note that no d ifficulties were experienced in pro­
1800 ~I,OOO 86,600 15,0 17.7 187 tluction lO these Iiners at the foundry.
116 8.1 2 .1 11>00 72 ,900 119,-100 8.5 11.5 Tl'J The higher caroon composition$ have combirwtions
1700 63 ,550 IiVlOO g .O 17.0 241 of yield strength and ductility which may airo m ak.e f ·'
..
18 ~iJ 59,350 \X.850 12.2 18.6 223 ~ ..
them attractive for heavy duty castings il1 stTuctural
I I~ 10.1 1600 57,600 \X.600 11.0 17.6 210 application5. such as in logging or anchor cl-.ain.
1100 55.7ÜO 117,000 21.0 50.2 187
1 ~:JO M.O!>O \I0,wo 27.!> "'.8 lB' Sílicon lnllucnce
1.19 10.0 2.2 lGGO 69,550 110,700 12.8 1M 241
Table 6 shows lhe inf!uence of increasing siliron
1700 68.!>50 12!1.MO 21.5 22.S 228
IBGü 63.900 \15,350 22.5 2M :.tOO on the mechanical propertíes 01' the 12 per cent man o
1.19 12.0 lIMf,O 19.5 20.!> 206
ganese·2 per cent molybdenum awtenitic steeb. A
lGOO 61.200
1700 57,000 1I 9.9~ 28.0 21.8 170 mi!d increasc: in yíeld strength and hó\fdnCi-\, wiL!-}
1800 55,150 115,250 37.2 54.3 17O probably sorne loss in ductility, i.s indicated. The ..
'.:
1.20 11.5 2.0 1600 72.850 106.100 9.8 10.4 241 microstructum 01 th~ higher siliw n sttel~ in boot..i
1700 69 ..~ OO 121.850 22.0 21.1 212 the as<ast and dispersion h:uden-ed condition. indi·
l SCIU 68,8!íO ISO.4.'JO !lO.O 25.8 20fi
cate that increasing siJicon conl.ents tend to ¡ ~21:;e
AH valuc. rep r~ent ~v trn HC of duplicalc tata. Spedmeru WCI1: the quantity af undis.solvro carbide¡ in lbe Stnletutes.
IoO\utlun llUl tM l t I ~Cú~' (2 hr) und wattr c¡uench<'d: then
The!e carbides w<:re rel atively coane, and were dís­
" '1
peUli lltcct el 1100 F pr ior to the llue=ittling tn:"Uoent .hown.
tributetl principa!!y al L~e grain bouoo::rics. From i
¡he speclmeru wert: "ilter qucllched alter the final auslenltlzing l ·.
lretl.t::rt1e11t . ob$Crvatiom of b-ot.h mechaniol properti~ and ~1'U(.

rure, there appeared ro be Hllle advantage, and poS­
si!:>ly sorne disadvantage. írom the use of higher rhan
normal silicon contenta.
RESISTANCE ro WEAR
Ll_ Goo¡jifí; Ábr/MÍon
Hadfidd rnllnganese steel is best sulted for appli­
cations involving heavy impact and gouging ahrasion,
Severa] yellu of experience have preved lhal the 12
per ceo! manganesc-Z per (cm molybdenum rnodifi­
calion gh'<.'S bcst performance under similar condi­
rions . Solution treated 12 per cent manganese-z per
cent molvbdenum steel uaually shows sorne ~Ileflts
over Hadfield mangancse sreel and me 2 per cent
'"
chromium lypc. panicularly where Iarge secrions or
heavy impact is involved,
For instance, In cone crusher liners at the authors'
company, converuionally treated 12 per cent manga·
nese-z per cent molybdenum steel had a normal serv­
ice liíe only slightly aboye that of the straíght 12 per
cent mang2ne~ steel. However, the 2 per cent molyb­
- , denum mandes were IcS3 ~u~eptible te cracking ¡md
' :~ cor.se<¡uent premalure failure when wom thin. Abo,
J the 2 per cent n:Jolybdenum bowl linen mowed np­
crackillg around ~upponing hooks, ~ freq~ent charac·
ttriHk of piain mangi1ne~ bow1 hnen In Ihe same
~ u i pillen t.
In ctrtain cases, the 12 per cem manganese-2 per
cent lllolyhdenum ~leel has also been advantageous
whcre ,traigh! wear n:shr.ance is the key factor, as in
lhe c~ 01 a cru!..her for roofing granules where the
2 per cen! chromiurn type gave alife of 494 lo 505 hr,
as cOlllpare<! to 665 hr for lhe 2 per celll molybdenum
'tecl with a cOllventional lrcaunent. The m(»l
significan! improvcllltnt, however. ha3 come when
the 12 per cCOI mangane~'2 per cent lT\olyl>denum
m:c1 has been dispenion hardcned. Conclusive evi­
dcnce Of lhe su~riorilY of the 12·2 alloy, dispenion
hardencd. i, gil/en in Fig. 7, by rrequency charts ol
lhe Iife oblained on cone crushcr linen al the aUlhon'
eompany.
The 12 ~r eem manganese-2 ¡>er cent rnolybdenum
compo.ilion hu beco used in a nUlllhcr of olhcr ap­
. or complicatcd shapes are ¡nvolved.
lJh}L'llRJiflIj IWilmtlo
II :ii: .... "'~
o
~
i
,.
PI.. 7 - JtrotqW>nCY chQrt oi IOTVlc. Iil. al 1a1ld4u-d
dure developed al the aUlhors' company.':: ¡md by furo
ClOne c:rwh« 1 lit autbon' company
lhcr wear tem on material! fa r gr ind ing mili lincrs. 2
19~9,
r l' !
d(
plícatíons, includlng hammers Ior Impaet p'lI'1erizen,
stationary jaw crushers, grizzly screen se..'"tÍona Ul>d
blades on Iolding-type scrapers, On the whole, L~I':
dispersion hardened 12 pcr cent mang;.tneae-2 pe!" ceru
molybdenum steel IUI demonstraied a longer Iife than
Hadfield manganese ucel- rangíng up to ro per cent
beuer - and greater resistance 10 flow. In ieolated
CiI.$CS, as that of a slag-cruahing unit, more ¡pectacular
improvemenLl in lífe, up to three tima longer than
that of me straight manganese seeel, have beco
reponed.
Hj~ Stre8B Abrc,¡¡jon .f •
In condíuons involving high stress abraaion,= euch
as in gríudíng' mili liners, best wear resísrance hall been
obtained when the carbón in steel cornpoaitioru was
kept in solution, rather than having il presem as
carbides íri the structures, It was not surpri>ing, mere­
Iore, to Iind that the solution treated !2 per oent l ' .... ~ :l
manganese. or 12 pcr cent manganese-z per cent mo­
lybdenum austenitic steels had beuer wear resístanoe l.,
in ball mili service at the authors' rompany than the
same compositiom in the dispersion b,..sckned roedi·
lion. The 1055 in wear resiSlanc.e, 3$ 2 remlt oí the
dispersion hardening lrealmcnt mnountM to about
, ,
5 pcr cen! when comparisom were made by me wear
~f. proccdure. 2
The wear te3t re~ults for the 12 per cent Jn<lnganC3e ,I '~. 't
steeb in grinding mili service at me authofS'
m­
pany are oC aC."ldcmic intere¡l only, since !he rdative!y
~' . ' ."-"';
, .
high wcar rales <ln al! oC thcse ~tcel! m..l.~ mero
... ~ ..
economica!ly unsuhed for hall mm Hna ~rv¡ce in l.
the mill~. i. ~. ­
DltVEl..oPJ:vffiN1' OY SmEI..s WITH
IMPROVED WEA...~ RESISTANCE AND
MOD:ERATE TOUGHNESS
Some abrasi<ln resistan! paTU requiring moderare
loughness, such as certain grinding mill linen, hall
mil! lOCOOp lip$, 5Creen bars, discharge grates, roIl
shdh, impaet pulverizer Hnen and bammers, Ilwry
r .' ~
pipe and certain eanhmoving pam, need better abra.
sion resist:mce lhan lha! oC HadCield mangane¡¡e !lcel,
yet the full ductility and lOughness oC t.'lis st~1 is no!
necessary. While certain of the manensitie !leds ha'/e
good wcar resistance. (hey may present serious found·
ry and heal lrealment problcms when heavy secuoru
;.' .
In th~ cases, high residual st~ may be set up
~ ," ,
that, becal,ue oC the high yield strengt.~ and relau'O'eiy
low ductility, cannal be relieved al Úle lo",", tempero
ing temperatures [hat mUSI be used for go..'X! wear
resistarace. On rhe other hand, an auslenitic aBoy
eT>:llL
WGuld not present lh=: diHiculties. and n.~dU2!
st~'IeS would be comparatively lo\'\' in view of the
low yield mengá This cltplains the intt'tt3t in an
austenitic ma~etial combining mooerale ductiHty with
goo<l abrnsian r-esistance _ ;t.:"
" :'"/
I
A possible c1ue to suÍlablc ausloenitic compooitions
which would h¡;¡ve b'OOd wear resi31ltn!;e Was prc vidcd
by wear tesIS 01'1 gyinding halh, using :t tes~ prr....-e­
"
1955 •
In al! o{ thes.e test:: il was nOled. tllIn when high alr­
~,
(,," .~ ..
 . L~
l1!! r ,.
JO
295
p,;r;
J..~ TABJJIt 7 - RESULTa FROM PRItUMINARY 8ER1.!W OY LEAN ALLOY AU8ntNIT!C BTEEUlI

uem Olln!,DtIi1lon. % Micro· H~rrtncq. 0.2% Yicld Tc... ilc I'Jallfl'!' It~,,(~ian AlrruÍ(>n
-;0, e Mn e- Mo NI Cu ItruclUre 2 Bhn Str. poi Str , pni tlon.% t>l Arc;¡. "lo l'uun1'
I.~ 12.0 0.5 A 207 5!J.SOO 105.400 W..o ~1.5 1:;,>

r 1.37 6.0 0.5 A 217 .'i6.800 85.700 2'5.1 l!4

~:: ':;~'
15.0
1.34 3.0 O .~ A 201 Y·hlock cracked on qucn<:hlng bMe
4 l.~ 12.0 3,0 0.5 A,C 2'28 68.4CO l os.soc 18.0 16.0 1m !":¡,
,~ U5 5 .9 M 0.5 A.e 2'ltl rIÓ. 100 87,[.00 10.0 10.0 brok.e ~ . -Ji ..
6 1.33 S.O 3.1 0.& sr.rco r\+, ~.
, A.e.Dgb 2·11 ~2,600 ~.5 ~ .9 brolr..,
.d 7 1.!l6 l. !í ~ .O 0 2\ A.e.Dgb 248 y -block cra ckcd on quenchíng bw1L., ti
8
9
1.S4
l.~
1.5
1.5
3.1
3.0
0.5
0.5
10.0
5.1
x,c 211 58.700 84.000 95 11.3 127
~ . -:
. '

A.e 228 59.900 67,00:) 4..0 5.0 bro-lu: ¡,

'?

r , · ..·

10 1.S4 1.5 3.0 0.5 2.6 A,e 201 59.900 72.:lOO ~.o 5.5 brolu: . ... .1 :.,'
11 !J 3 1.5 3.0 0.5 3.0 A.C,Dgb ::28 63,000 72.700 2..5 3.1 brou I \.
12 1.35 :!.1 3.0 0.5 S.O ss: 24! 58,300 72.700 5.0 11.' bro~ ~ ;. '" ~
, lo: ..
13 1.35 2.4 0.5 6.3 A.D¡:b 223 !>6.000 70.400 3.0 9.\ brf>~
14 1.% 1.5 3.0 0.5 6.2 A,C.Dgb 255 62.000 75,800 3.5 2.ll broke ·:l

id
15

16
U5
1.3~
1.5
1.5
5.0
3.0
1.0
2.0
A,e
A,e
235
241
y -bloc k cracked on quenchíng
Y-block cracked on quencnlng
bro!¡ooC
broke [;·;f/
1) AlI gyoup' soturion tr eared by a water quench from 2000 F. L'{-' ,,'. •
2) Microolruclur,,'3 observed:

A - Auate rrite

e - Ca r bide ph ase

DlIb - Dark-erch ing g ra in boundaries (probably carbide envelopes)

~) Abrasi on factor i. rare uf wear relatjve lo a (.c'or of 100 for a !.O% carbono 0.11% man ganese. 6.1% cnromium . I·()O/o Ci>ol ybdenum
marrensu ic ~tC'd ai .. quenched Irorn 1900 F.

bon 10'1.\' alloy sree ls had structures which were par·
ua lly, or in sorne cases fully austeniric, they had out­
standing abrasion res isrance wh ich, in m any insrances,
was evcn better than rhae of the rnartensitie sreels
and martensitic whire irons.
Wirh the Iact well -esrablished that lean alloy, high
carbo n austcnit ic steels were capable of providing
good wcur rcs israuce, rhe next ta sk was to develop
co m posi t io ns oC t his lype which would also have
adcqllale tDl.I¡(hncs. [o, cormnercia! use in a wide
varicty of wearing parts. It was funher indieated by
~ ,
.. lhe prior tcsts 2 tba t LO have adequate lOughlless.
lhe auslcnitic steels should have -M s temperatures well
below norm al room or atmospherie temperatures, to
The Yvblocks from all of th e composurons in Ta­
ble 7 a ppe a red to lla ve a fuIly austcniric matrix, as
was indicared by their m ícrostruzrure, hardness and
rnagnetic tests. In spire of this, only iterns \, 2 and
B exhíblted satisfactorv toughncss in the 1l!t.in. diarn­
eter balls tested, The 12 per cent manganeso-S ¡:>er
cent ehromium steel (it em 1. T'able 7) also survived
bo th the wear-in a nd wear test. Howevcr, circurn­
Iereruial cracks dcvetoped in rhe balls oí t!lis g/'o,"?
so that they prubably woukl have broken alter Iur
ther service, The breakagc 011 lhe rcmailling gro-ups
occurred mainly uuring lhe 172·lIr wear·in period , k¡; '
and only groups 1, 2. 4 and 8 survived thrcuzh lhe
subsequeOl 150·hr wear test.
jo;
.' . "1'~ _ ,

prevelll transformation and resultan! embrittlement It was condueled. (rom the obs<:rved micro,;trllc, ,\ 0;:.. •. .~
I _ .
in service. The desired objeetives could best be al· tures and the resu\ts in Table 7. thal f.he 3 per cent '"

lained by confini ng the investigat.ion to those high chromium addition, with its resultant produetion oC ~ ,,' .

carbon lean a!!oy stee! compositions whieh were capa· unc!issolved and grain boundary carbides in the a us·
ble of retaining fully au~tenitic struetures under aH tenile. was largdy rcsponsible for the breakage which " ." f ·

conditions of service. occurred on the tesl bal!s in this series. Sorne oC the
composi[iom, su eh as items 3, 7, 15 and 16, aIro pro!>­
COM POSITIONS INVESTIGATED ably had an insuffieient amoullt oC ,lUstcl1itc: ~ t ab i li l '
For a prdíminary evaluation, a l'ather broad range ing elcmcnts O€ relain a flll!y ílustenitic mucture in
of austcn itie compositions was invcstigated. A ffiolyb. wncs oC alloy s('gregation. StH:h ;;'5 '::::!1 cx i~ t ne;lr t~e
J enum aú d itio n of 0.5 per ccm or more was made center oC lite balls. Ma gnetic tests on th-e rc-eoVercti { ...\
.- , ,., to cach of these to a!l!li!l in mppressing pearlile and sectiom from the broken balls in dicated ¡he p resenl~
l .
l:mbrittling lyp~s (JI carbidc3 in their structurt:. F.aeh o[ non ·au.:¡tcnitie ph¡w:s ne:¡r the <;enter oC many oí r -J

wrn¡x»itiun w:u ~ and cast and heat treatcd both a,
Y.block.. [or ten.il;, le.t ~pecilllCns and as 1V~·in. di·
amtter ball. which were tesred in a 9 ft dlaméter pri.
mary hall mili at th e authol'!' company in "wear·in"
and wear tests aceording to the procedure outlined
in a refcrence. 2 Table 7 lisu lhe composíliol'U, mi·
el'O:ltruetures, hardness. tensile propenies and abra·
sion factún (relative wear rat~) obtaint,'Ú from tltis
serit1.
lhe broken balls.
Thc gooo abra:don factor and relinively goo<l duc·
tililY a nd toughnes,s of itcm 2 guggested that a simple
composition, dependent only on a suitable 1xllance
ol carbono manganes.e and mo!yb<lenum, could be
USt:d to pmdUt..~ a commercia!!y useful lean alloy au :­ ; " . J'"
}~, ~,~ '~~
tenitic type of . t ee L lt appean..-d that the cauhrm ron. ., ,
teOl shoult! he near the max!mum amOl:nt wl1ir.h
could be held in solution, the manganese ahould be

: . 't
'.f ~.
~~ : ,.,-.

r, ".f
 296

neur ihe mimmum pcrruissible Ior [ull retcnuon oí
austen íte and sufíit.:itnl arnounts of molybdenum
should be used lO su p p reu rhe Cormation oC ernbrit­
rllng-rype carbides and/or pearlite, particularly in
heavy secrion castings.
Carbon cnd M Wl~(UI~ Content
Figure 1 suggesls that with carhon contents in the
desirable range of 1.2 10 1.5 per cent, it would prob­
ably require a mínimum of about 4.5 per cent manga­
nC$C 10 retain a fully austenitíc structute, under al!
service condir ions, in solution treared lighr section
casrings, In hc avíer v.:ction caarings, íI. sornewhac
higher manganese content would probably be neces­
~ry beca use of aHoy segregatlon eí fects.
To Iurther explore the properties of lean alloy
auste nires based on the use of carbón, manganese
and molybdenum, and at the same time study the ef­
Iects of corper and silieon addirions, a second series
oí cornposirions was cast as Y-blocks and as 4y:!·in.
balls, The balls from this series were worn-in, then
rested rogerher with the survivíng groups from the
finl series in lhe wear ICSI in one of ¡he a;>mpany's
prilllary ball mills. Table 8 lists ¡he eompositions and
carbón out o! soluuon whi;;J,. in turn, redeces t !1</:
wear reeistance oí rhe austeníte.
The results Irom itenu 7 and ~O Indicare that cop­
per additions injure the wear t~út<an~ ofilie 5Y2 pe!'
cent manganese, zustenitic ~led¡¡. I{Qw t."VeJ, Hhen rop­
per is added 10 an austenitic steel cosnpoaitíon, il
should be pcrmiasible 10 Iower tb.:: man¡;:m<;!o: con­
tent ro some exrent ami film retaín an austenitíc struc­
ture, With lowered manganese, wear rcsisrance should
improve, so that manganeee-copper combinations m..~y
be commercially íeasible,
AdditiolU Eflf?d
From the wear lests 0/1 marked balle run to date at
the authors' oompany, it bas been posaible ro (;()O.
struct Fig. 8 which eummarizes lb ;: influence o, man­
ganese, carbono molybdenum and chromium plus
molybdenum, on abrasion Iactors oí solution ueated
austeniric steels, It is evídent {roro tilla figure th:L1
best wear resistance is obtained in an austenitic
steel when the manganesc i.3 low. It is íurther indi­
cated that carb ón should be 31. me
h ig'ne31 leve!
which can safe!y be rcuined in ~Iution. A c.hromiW11 r.. '..,o,
addition lO lh~ steels improves their w~;u- resisto •· ....f : '
" .~

r~ulls obtaincd. The eomp-ositiom are lisled in this anee bUI tends to elUbrittl~ Ihcm. ro that wear ~ i · ....~ . . ,

table in their arder of deereasing wear resistance (in·
creasing abrasion [actor),
It i5 significant that aH of the Heda in Table 8,
Wilh lhe cxc.eption oC ítem 12, survived the wear·in
and wear tesl wilhout breakage, The 2.1 per cene
silicon additiOll 10 item 12 is bdit:vcd to be rcspon­
siblc for brcakage oC balls from this ateel. An eum­
ination of lheir inlerior atnlelure (from Ihcir recov­
ere<.! piecC'J) indicatcd a measurabie amOUnl of caro
bide pret:ipitation and pearlilc formation .around
[he grain lioundaries. Evidem!y the slCel had insuf·
ficem hardenability as a result of lhe 5i!icon addi·
lion.
The abrasion [¡¡etofS for ilems 5 and 6 indicate
lhal silicon additions ínjure Wf,:ar resistanct: oC lean
alloy auslenite~. Sinee silicon 18 nOI an austeníte
stabilizer. il i5 beli eved Ihat íts eHeet is 10 throw
sistunce may be more effeclively improvoo with 1el5
loss in toughness by reducing manganese th:m by atld·
ing chromium. t·,.
lt · ia illdícated in Fig, 8 th:.u mo!ybdcnu11l addi·
tions moderately improve wcar rcsí3rance. Howéver,
lhe e(onomic justiIkatlon lor molylxi~llUm in lhC'"c
slee15 comes mainly (rom ies f-OlCnl ef.kcl in sup­
prc(l.'ling embriuling typcs of c:arbide3 and FK~ar1iLe in
the austenite. rather lilan {rom its cffect on wear re·
¡istance,
A desirable composilion range (roro lean alloy <lUSo
tenilic $lee! castiog'$, with a good combination of 'wcu
rcsislance and toughne$S, is indicated by !he infor·
madon in Table 8 and Fig. 8. On [he basia oC lhis in·
Iormation. a sp.'.:dficalion for the company's "6-1 .tI·
lay" has been adopled for ball miil Hners, baH milI
grates am! cenain olher wearing parts in the mili and
" .
.. * ..:' I J

, ~.
TABLE B -. RESUL1'5 FROM SECOND sllffilRB OF LRAN ALLOY AUS11tNlTIC STtmLS1 ,
. :~\.;-.- .
Itcm C",npooillon. % Hardnea 2
0.2'70Yield Tensile Elollí:'" lled u ctioo Abrasi"",
~o. C Mn Si Mo Other -A" (Dhn) "n" (Re) SIr. pa! Str. psi lion. "lo ol Area. % F=or 8
I .S·' 6~Ó 0.5 0.5 217 48 56.800 8!.700 15 .0 :¡:'.I 111
~ 1.19
1.19
5 .6
b ..~
0.5
O..;
1.0
O~
192 ~8 M .650 n.IM 9.5 lU tI !>
187 49 52,1 !iO 71,7!iO 10.5 l~.{ 1!6
ti!) ~ .tl (),b 207 49 5O,MO 7~,WO 7.8 15.8 117
~ 1.20 ~.ll I.l
6 1.22 5.6 1.5
191 4-8 54,!ISO ?e,"oo 8.3 16.6 119
201 48 56,700 79:l5(¡ 8.8 18.9 !21
,
7 1.21 5.5 0.5 1.6 CIl 197 49 51.500
8 10M 0.5
76.500 9.11 15..ll 122
l.5 0.5 S.! Cr. 10.0 Ni 241 47 .'18,700
9
l.'" 12.0 OS 0.5 S.O Cr :m -ló 6<1.(00
M,OOO
ICii,900
9.5
1J:i.0
lU
1(5.0
In
l:-;B
r·
, ...•
I 10
11
1.22
1M
5.7
12.0
0.5
0.5 0.5
5.1 Cu
;-
192
217
47
47
58,500
59,900
80,750
IO!\.400
12.8
%.0
17.7
$¡~
I~
l~
l .
. +

\ ~f.:.

I~ 1.22 5,7 :lJ 217 {-4 00.950 85.000 6.2 1l.2 blcl;e h
1) All llTOUp" ..,Iuúon Ire;¡l",j by & waler qucnch from 2000 F. ¡: ~
2) Haroo",":
"A" (1';I1n) lA tite hud,,- o/ !he ...Iution tn:alCd Itecl prior lO any ,",orlt h'udmtng In ~tt " J ~~~
~ :'l;. ."; . , ..
"n" (11.<) l. !he .~Q8e Re hartln~ on tl\e WOnl Il,lm,e ot !he leal billll. .

5)
Ahl'ulon laClor lt Ale: ~I_wear I~latlvc 10 a faclor of 100 for llll: 1.00/0 arbon Cr.MII martm.ltk oled d-.ibcd under T . blt: 7.
---=-'fl
.c
e •~

,. ' (/
 -rushing plant. This speciíicatíon is r;civen in Table 9.
The rnolydenurn content of 0.80-1.20 per cent in
I'able 9 has been chosen largely on the bada oí its
known metallurgical effects in austenític mangancse
'40
steel castings. Experience with Hadíield manganese
sreel producuon has indicated that when the man­
¡¡:ant~ content drops beJow about \0 per cent, the
rasr ings tend to be brittle both in their as-casi and

,
UI
near rreared condition. This is mainly due to pre· r. . . ,
~\ ., lo ', ~
upitanon oí embrittling..type carbides, and in sorne 'j

cases pearlite, around grain boundaries and along

crystallographic planes.

1
Molybdenurn is effective in suppressing these em­
briuling ty~ of precipitates in both as-can and
heat rreated casrings. However, the range indicated
.f
In Table 9 is still sornewhat arbitrary, even though
it has given good resulta to date in commercial pro­
duction oí the G·I alloy. Poesibly, for !ight section I
castings with simple shapes, a range lower than 0.80 uo I
to ! .20 per ccru would be adequ ate. For heavy sec­ I

rion castings ay c<l.stin¡;s subject to weld ing, a range I

ahoye l.f¡ per ceru molybderium (such as is used in I

ihe 12·2 alloy) woulJ be advisahlc. 115 I

6-1 ALLOY II.U CR OS'I' R UC'TU RR I

Figure 9 shows a rcpresentat íve microstructure oí

I
110 I ~.

the solution treared 6-1 alloy. lt is typical of an aus­ I

renitic steel and closely resernbles regular Hadfield 1'-(.-.'(&ICe.",(:)
steel, cxcept pOi>Sibly íar its graio sile. The 6-1 alloy
wi\! normally devdop considerable pearlíte during
cooling and rcheati n g' while in its as-casi condirion. u \4
The phase Chall¡;C occurring during subsequent solu­
Fia:. 8 ---.. Relativo ebrnsicn facto:l1i at nuthon' CO'U'l"p5ny
non treatruent oí the 6-1 alloy produces grain refine­ 01 susteniric lItoela with Vl1r)'lI.a r=:;:m.,,,,, eente... ,~
ment, so that it tc nds to be Iiner grained than the
regular Hadfícld stccl, TA8U1. ') - SPECIHCJ\TION úF "()'l J\.LLQYH
. ......;C:::::;i~~1]_!\""_
,. ('_k~_,_
MítC1 UI_H !C!'~L P¡~OPE I( TmS 01" SOlVlE
1) Mclllflg Furnace: f¡;..sic·lined electric open·hearrh.
6 PER CEi'J'f 'b,,¡...\ NGA1'l"liSE STE:lÚ.s 2) Compoe tuon, '70:
01'

In Tablee 7 and 8. the tensile propertics aud hard­ Carbón .... .1.25 . tAO

M anganese . .5-'iO ·7.fXJ

ness of various rnod ifications oí the 6 per cent man­ Si licon . .0.40·0.70

ganese sreels, in rheir heat treated condition, are

presented. It should be ernphasized that [he results
Molyb-deaum .
Phosphorus .....
. .. 0.00·1.20

" .. 0.05 max,

..\.:
~) Trear.."Hent:
were obtained frmn sp~cimen~ cut from one in. ¡hiek
a) AlIow casting. to rool sJowly lo room lemr~r>.ture
Y-block! ant\ are, tht:rdore, on!.y representative of 01' al lcasl b<:low 1000 F in their sand mo!ds.
Iight section casrings. heat treated individually. Sinee b) Heal slowly lo 1000 - 2000 F.
,·, e) Waler queneh.

Fill· 9 - Micro~trv.L'tl.\r" 01 6-1 ot_l. l.J per

c-.n t el 5,6 p.i.r (.'()n t ¡>/in , 1.03 p ar r r.lbn~ !-ito l

i' ..~ .
r.I.... I....-1 lo 2(01) ¡r für ~ hr, wII¡c:r qU0nd~, ~¡;:; ~

1n n hfl , " per ""nt pler'" "teh, 100 X.

1,.,;,10­

, ~~ >
~., .1

,~
.,
o ,,",

,·l

l'~" -- 1:
;1

,.
I ~,
t" ".;
.\
"

·'..,
L
rh ese lighl sec t ío n cas ri n gs re rrd 10 coo l rapidly, both
aíi er cast ing and during quenching, lh.ey do not ha.ve
m uch oppo rt u ni ry 10 p recipirare ca rb ides or pearlite
in rheir strucru re.
Consequcmly. ihe strength and .dUClililY val~ es
given in T a bles 7 and 6 should be imcrprer ed with
d cli nite reserv auons. For example, reaso na b ly good
<!uclilily was shown for the 3 ¡:¡er ceru chromium modo
if ica rio n (ítem 5. T able 7) and Ior the 2 per cent
si lico n mod ificat ion (itc m l ~ . T'able ll). yel these
two sree ls bro ke whcn restcd as 4 th ·in . diarneier bal ls.
...~ The reason íor lh is is evident fro m their m icro­
stru ctures, wh ich ind ica re t he ba lls fro m these como
posltious cont ained much greater amo u l'l t~ of gra.in
bo unda ry p recip ita tcs ihan ch e correspond ing rens íle
speci mens, as shown in Fig. 10.
.{
. ,
,,-,
THERMAL TREATM'EHT MODXFlCATIONS
'j - EFFECl'
Ii .-,
In analogy with the 12 per cent manganese-z per
, cem molylxienu m co mposil ion , di scu ssed .previously,
.':. . ..
· .1
·r il was kit thal a di s\J1:rsion harden in g treatment mig ht
.·-1
be bendicí al to the 6·1 alloy. Pe a~li tjzation in the
6·1 ¡¡lIay is mu ch more com p le te lh an in (he 12·2 alloy.
Thh, in lurn . proJ u.:t:u a m qrc un iform dis pcrsion of
fin e sph e.roid h t d ca¡ b id C1 io (he I}·I alloy when Ir
w'as t1üpcr:.ion hal dellcd. Howevcr. W[len 1Y2·in. balls
[rom lhis dis~r si on harJ ened 6·1 a llo y were su bj ect ed
10 a ball mili vlcar l<:Sl. lhe reslIlts wer e d isappointing.
An aurasion factor of 121 was oblained. as como
.¡ pared lO a {actor of 115 {or lhe ~ m e com posilio?
(1.19 per ccnt e:.rl.>on) in me ~ 1 11 1 1O n lr eal ed coudl'
¡ion . Also. lWO of lhe [our di spenion h ardeneJ balb
l ~ b ro ke in lel l.
1 lh e 6 -1 a\loy. when uS(.'{\ in the coOlpa ra li'w'e ly he avy
'., It is obvious fro m lh is p reliminary slud y oí d isper.
sion ha rdc llil1G of \e::l n alloy a uslen iles. that the lreal·
ment will nOl im pTOve res isl an.ce lO hl gh slress abra·
sion in g-.-inding mili s. T h is con fi rms a siruila r
study made on lh e 12·2 all oy {or grinding mili servo
ice. Apparenlly. wh .:n lhe gri nJ ii1g type of abrasion
l ~ is in vo lved. jI is desj ra ble lO keep as much ca rbo n
I as possible in sDlu tion In I.he au stenite and d ~plelion
¡ of ilS va ri ous moo ¡fiq lions. h eXlens ively u s~ in such
o[ caroon in y.)lut ion LO procluce a carbide di spersion
tenas 10 in j urc wear re.islanee. A sim il ar result h as
al ~ been oL~~ :rved in lh e lo w al !oy martens ilic stccls .
¡ Und cr co mEl iom u f 6,:ug illg . a nd ;J!S(l in :.cr "lching
¡­
(lOIV stre:ts). a brasion whe re un d issolved ca rbi de3 in
a structure llave bttn {ound 10 imprcve wea r-resist.
¡mct':. ¡he di 'rers¡o n h:u-d.:nL-d lean al lo y au sten ites
may Sli!l rncril cGn~iJela t ion . H owever, it a p pea rs
th at lhe compo,il ion oí 11.<: He e1 ~ ho uld he adju' lc d
lO provid e suln (i .:nt Lar iJon ;:nd ma ng:Jnese for bo lh
lhe au.nenhic matrix and the undissolved. carbides in
!he stecl. Pro bably lhe ca roon shoul d be in creased lo
¡u least U¡ pn c~nt ;¡nd the m aag:mese lo aboul 8 per
cem in a rd er to oo ta in íldee¡U01.tc lOughneu Crom a
d u pe rs íon h:uuent:<l, !ca n all oy aU ~l en ite. Sorne data
on 8 per (em ma ll[;ant3e. clispe r.ion hardened steels
are given in T ao lc 5.
6-1 ALLOY .s:anVIClt PERr"O!'2M.A.NCE
HiSh 5tV8!;1l ( Grir:di,,:,!) Ab n.wion
The ch ar acle d >tics oC me 6-) all oy. which inelude
com paralivdy good a braaio n faclon . moderalely good
(\ '.:
ul
ducl.ilil Y and ready ad aptab llity (O .econom ica l com o
mercia l p roduction, are such thar II arr.e-:~ ~ be:
well -su ited ro use in most ball and rod mill liners,
as well as in ball mili di scharge Grat.ea. To evalua te
this m aterial in these applications, severa! seu oí hall
milI shell Iinc rs, end linera aud di scbnrge gr:l wa h ave
,
..
been purchased an d are on test in ihe company's pri­ '.
mary ball mills . I .
".:' :'
In (he di scharg e gra te•. performance oí rhe 6-1 alloy
lo dale has b ecn o utsta nd ing . \'Vcar m c..eu rcme rus ./ ,-
indicar e the grates will have a life oC 23 ~ 26 mon rhs
as comp ared to a me: of I 1 ro ! 2 m o n th s m th e l>.1~e
serv ice for t he 0.5 ro 0.6 per ccnt carb ón, pearliric
chrom lurn-mo íybd enum cast 5teel . gra res (25?-.SC-O
Brinell) norru ally used in th cse m ilis. In a ddt ~:~n.
the 6-1 a Uoy gr a ,cs sho w beuer pe eníng duracteru~I Cs :.-, .~ ;~
00 thei r wea ring Cace. which is helpful in preventang ., . ..
plut;ging of the grale ope~ings by ~orn steel ~l~ .
In the ball mill shell liners, which are oí th in
shiplap" de sign o wear rneasurerncnts indicare the
6-1 alloy Slee! liners will have a life of appl"Oximalel y
4200 opera ting hr. A nonnal life is WOO to 3300 hr
for 0.60 to Q.90 pcr (Cn! C:lrbCln p t :.lrlilic d ll·o~.n jlltll ·
molyWcnum slecl (350-400 Br ille!!) a nd 1HOO . t.o
'800 hr fo r O,li5 ro 0.75 per cent C' rbvl\, ui"rlcOSll J
chromium.moly!>dcllum steel lin crs of ¡he same de ·
sign in the same serv ÍCe.
Thc improvemcnl in liCe [r om use o f the 6·1 a llay
is somcwhal gr ea ter lhan woultl be indic:l.\etl by
ahrasion factors Obl:l ¡ne<! fmm lar ge di amtter tC$(
balls madc from lh e 6-1 a lloy and from lhe 1\V0 ly p es
oC chromium·molybdenum steel. lt is bdievcd ¡ha t
lhe in heren tly gO<Xi d eplh h a, d cnin¡:; ch ametcrislic of
liner castings. is an im po rta n t fa clor co nl.rib uti ng to
ilS gO<Xi perfonnanee. .<
'. '.
Gou¡iinA Abrasion
In a p plical io ns in vo lvin g gouging ab ras io n , fa ir!y
severe impacl is ohen inv ol vea. Consequcnlly. alls­ ¡..'.
tenilic m.anganese sleel o{ lhe Hadfic!d t)'Pc. or on e
a pp lica l iollS. For many oC lhese app licaliol1s, howevcr,
lh e lean a lloy au ste nitcs shou !d have ad eq lt,., c to u gh ·
ness. so lh eir \Vea .' r <::< i,tanL'C· u n d cr (QIluition~ o f
goug ing ab ra sion is of inten.:st. To cva lll:ll e lh is, lh e
6-1 alloy is being ,eslro in gr il.zly ~cr.-:-e n sectio ns.
i n jaw crusher lin crs ana in ba ll m il! ~coop !¡ps .
In caeh oC lhese applica lio lls. we:1r is bd ievcd lo occu r
p rincipall y by gou ging ab ra . io n.
In lhc gri aly scrccns ano jaw cr us he n . ¡he 6-1 allo y
appea rs 10 be giving ~ tisfactory and pOS$ibly supe­
ri or servi ce, alt Qo ugh no comparali ve wear Tates are
yel av ail able. In I.he scoop lip applicalion. one sel oC
Iips has been wom OUl and gólve 9 weeu sel'"vice.
comparéd to a ra nge of ~ to 7 weeks íor rt.'g u lar
Hadfield mangaoe$C stee l lips in the ~me service.
Fig u re I ! shows a p iclure oC onl' oC !he wom 6-1
alloy Iips. The dents in lhe leading edge oC lllis
Iíp are bdicvcd tO be due to imp;4cts Crom 3 in. diam . (1 ". :\ . :
eler gr in d ing ha lh whic h wc:n: fed daily illto the ¡i /--¿
seoop bo l' . It is signiCicant thal no hn:aka ge occu r. <!d
on lhc::>e !ips, even a ll er they were wom to a !hin
melltl scctiol\.
 ~ -. o ~, v

J
. ~

1
"1! ~ , 1

¡..•. •
'1 ... .•
:j ~

1
1 -
, . t 'Il. '.
~'
... ¡¡
~ -4

;,r
\
.'".
(~
1- ~
' .
.,
1.::-..

,;ob la , ,¡Al
!IJ
'¡
.\ 'fli j , .

-j
- í;
.f' .. . 'i
t ·,
I
' ~
J . '. ~
....
~.$

-.J!9

·1 '- . "" .¡; .... ~

(!;b1'
A.
i
1 --
(jj ) .,.¡' ." *t J ~
Il'
" ~
*
"., .. Jo , J

;t
.i
1
­ ~,
' . ~.
"
,1 ­ I" J

~: !

., ­

,
\' : ~"
l.' \
~ .. o~' ~

l ~.
j ,.. .
lO. .
o

i: - fi~.
;:. "

!­
. '::1

1­i
1, '.

.,',1

1
;j ­ ';
" , .­
;1 ('
" ­
"1, ­ f, .
} ~¡

, r
.

1,.:
"0',1
/',

"

1..0"" SUesa r S cretcrung ) Abr61sJOn proOlmnK In suc h apph cauons that an eva lua u o n
.\ .. ~ IPn", ' rn an ~ n e.le ste e l no rrna ll v ha. relallveh 01 u s rel auve resrsrance [ t I « :r::>t('hJOSI: or erosrve rvpes
;"."" ' '' ' I 't a nc~ lO scr atch in g or Iow stress types 01 0 1 abrasron appeaT> 10 be warranr ed
.tlras l')n h UI 1\ used under cert a m co ndiuons lo r
vur h apph ca uons A.n examplt 15 slur!') pipe lor back SUM'MARY AN D CONCLUSIONS
f dlrn~ rrun e \t o pes wh e re cccasio ria l bcnd in g srresses As p ar l 0 1 .. pro¡¡;r:.m {O Impr'Ove rh e wea r res rsr
'., rr)u gh han d li n g rru ght cau se breakage oí less du r an ce oi austen i t n manganese steel . two b.i!\I( "p"
, 'li e marcr iars Thc 1}. I allay appea rs lo be suff icierulv proache s have been used In one . carbi de d lSjX"l>.Jons
'.":1 ........

..
L ~~ ¡ .
::

1
"

¡\
1
ti:J~ .A. . . .. _.... , , .
In ,he austenite ""en dcvelópM h.} l7le3rn {)f 'p«i;,l
.¡ ..lltry ad4litít)iU aoo r.~ilíüiltÍfm~ in h<;ilt tR"lmcm.
\ lo lhe oeher, 1t::;A ~bk and more uear·r<.3í~tam ly~
j ­ fA .,u~~,míle werc developed by the U~ (;el lean alloy.
¡ hi~¡ll (..1Ir~}(>'iI ({I1llJ,I) ~Í1j(m".
!
Au-~id(. utth /uv¡ng a cosnbinauon of gorx1. me­
,!1;;,nit..ó21 prop.~tí,¡:y, ;md irnproved r<;l¡~!...nce ro ;;Otig·
mr¡ abT ~ i ul\ , ;.; ~ in crra« crusher finen. are p.oouced
wht11 (.~r\;i¡!~ dhpa\iooi are develo pcd in rhe 12 per
U!nt m:¡m¡¡;''lll'C:>IC h í¡:;h carbon IY~ o/ aus tenír« sreel.
The Ülrhí,le d i~ ¡>.:, ~ j " ,,\, tj)/,4t:ther ",i¡h grain refine­
meru, are ob taincd by wmbin¡il~ a 2 p:r cent molyb­
dcnurn ;l(f.j jl ioll ~-¡ j (f¡ a ,pccí.<J1 di ~{'l:rsi()1l hardening
heat rreat rnent Th u disptninn haj(lc:n¡n~ heal trC<ll'
m~Y11 mv()lv<!.~ :;: p"",,,,rlitizing Irc::<ll11lle111 al 1IO(¡ F. rol ·
lowcd by a rc·ar.;.w:nililinR a[ tcrnperatures r¡mging
Ir'1fl) 171',4).1%11 f
Too': embriulin¡:¡ ly~ o/ c.arbidt3 which lend 10
lorm in h :gh c:tr bon 3U>lt:llitic !leels are eHcctívely
\uppr=u by ¡he arlditioll 01 molybrlenum in exc~
,)f ~OOUI 15 f'tl cem. Molybdenum ¡¡ddilions lO the,¡e
s:eeh pennit lhe prouliol UlIC of hi¡;her c2roon con·
lcnu. in 21 r;'Il~~e o/ "b.nut 1.3 lo 1.5 per cenl ¡md
p<J.,ibly hí;;her W¡¡h th~ high.er carl)(>n conten~.
il is reaJ;<Jll"h!e 10 opcel funher improvemcnu in
we~r rCll.¡ st:in ce .
Ser"jee eXI>t r il'IKc Wilh di'l"l<':níún h.. rJencd. 12 per
(enl m~1ni;¡¡r; ::c ·Z per een! molybd'::llum aU\[Cnilic
<lee! ...,jl lt ;¡ C.. rlWll r""~e 01 1.1 .'> lo 1.3S per ((:m. in·
diGHl:S lh¡¡t Ibis Iype 01 Mee) has betler wear resistance
lllóm lh~ H ... d fld d or 2 fY.:r ecnl rhfGmium lypes of
a'J~Ic"ni[J( man g"'·''';;'¡: ~ltel, when used in condiLions
invnlving ¡¡¡ol!¡.;ín¡¡; ;¡brasion, such as in cone crusher
liner•. Thc (.1j ~¡><:f,¡on har<!ened 12 ~r ccm man~a.
ne~·2 per (enl rJjlJlybdenum ~tec! ha~ exhibi¡ed im ·
provcd mechanica) pwptrtit:s in heavy secljon casto
m¡¡B.
The ffil:rklllllAJ propcrlies ,HuI H~$ulh 01 we~r le$!$
on varinu& kan ;¡lloy Iype~ o( ¡1U~lcni!íf Mct:l.~ are
pn:.<:lllct! "ud dí:,{ m:inl. lt i~ ~hown Ih~1 JO au.m:n.
itic ltc.-=I with a ( o m ilina l ,.. n ul moderale tluetililY
and improvcd WCGlr rc,i,,(ance i~ ol;(;¡jned (rolO a como
polition cOOl::mlng abo"l 6 per {(:nl rna!l¡{ancs.e, 1
per ((:nt molybucdlHn and l.~ per (enl carhon. Thh
3leel is r.olution tfea¡cd by Water quenching from
1900·2000 F
Sel'\'icc test; in han mili Iiners, fo:ralc~, s('()()P líps
4lnd JIl jaw rru ~ ! ln Ilnl:r.~ and Win1y ~cr cens indio
Lj
¡
I
, U
,­
:1
cate ~d 6 per cenr l!U11'iF' .~t, I per cenr molvbde
num, !.3 F U¡,l c;;,rtl)i.l s(.:.::!. solution treated. h;u
W)(\d ;¡¡~> ",j.'¡on r<to;i",;:mc.e in bozh r;:.i ,wÍl'lg' ;:nd ~(.K.lr,
in~ [~}>C~ M 3Wa.'lÍ<OWI. Tbese te:tU have dWlDn~JaI~d
(fu( thi~ ;¡u.~ledüc tfc<tl is «ó:,'lf .t.:.')ia!ly 2 t O ;;¡;Ct: H : íor
U'"~ iJ, r..¡3ny t'l'~r ü!ll) fCle. Ydju!l"':~'Z a c.ombí¡u.!ion
'>t mcdcrate ducril irv and hi~ t¡e-oif resistance
ACl'n'!'Oí,n..m..'!~2~'J:rr
The ~Udwl§ are grateíul to W rnanagement 01
Clínul1 ~~o"'Wmtlm Co.. 2 Dí" oí American ~~ I~tJI
C!i ma J1, In¿' fú; F'::mJi~ion (O r}c ~ lísh thi!. F::optr
and to the mill ;mü t."-a61r,a~i1g deparuncn rs 2.[ Cli­
max. Colorado, f01 M:lUunce and cooperauon on l '" 4
~en..ice l~U . The valuable as.mUiUC CI~ !o{;m Ahrens .
Residen; ~et. at Clímax w!>.o conductcd manv 01
tbe wear (e3U and provided ooan~ helpíul ~UGl:r~:!.tioru.
i.\ W~r.eful/" "'!r.no~.lctkt·d
The fOIl'ndriel which supplied the Crot.he-i liners ,
ball mil! finen and orher wearíng p= used in rhe
developmenr prog(am are to be complirneuted !or
rhcir ccopcration in meeting ipttiíj C<ltlO . !5 a nd 10
. ~) .
maíntenance of good qll41!it"j' control. T h cir wf¡xJl"t
,,1 thi~ pr (J~,am i1 brateh..:ll~ acknowledc ~d
The authors also wísh 10 ;¡¡di.nowJelgc the a...sisclflce
(J! the pcrconnel of the Detroir Research Labora­
lory 01 rhc Clímax ~folyb(!l:n :ml CO.. spcciíically G A
T'imrnons, Vire Preso and Dir. of Rsch.. COl guidance
and advice, G. C. W00<lút.k and L '\,\'.:d!l.cr lor
metaJlo3Taphic ey..;;miIl.1!Íor¡ and W W Ring for con ·
duet o! medlaníal te1t.s .
The ;¡uthors ",isll [O expn.~ their appleciation 10
DI. J. Z. Brigr;s. Direclor cE T ecimieaJ InfonJ12.tÍon.
Clímax ~~olylxltnum Co., (ar a!óS¡st.1nce in prepara·
lion o/ this papel.
'
.lo>,:.
..
ImF¿~r:KC:;~ ,
. ,.
T E ~orm~f\. "E01ll [o S:b:t Chro:ue·!>:....l\ S:c,:l. fo r E..>ll
and Roo /.fIn L'f\<n:' E. ~. /.1. ]. 1J1Ih' 1957)
Z T E. :-;olrl'~n. ··fJ(!on lnflaL-ncir·g !lle RCl~I¡:no: oC $[ecl
f~: .'
( ....¡¡ongs lO lu~;h S.lr~ ALr.uion," AFS TUNs.....C11or,¡s, 1.-01. 66.
....,
•
.. 1
:"ti '- ' ,
p. J~7 il95il¡
~ . T E. 'arman. A. $.olcHwn and o . \' D=ne. ' ~~ artens i u c ~., . ". '
While lroB> [M Aur¡¡'¡lOn·Re.isun. C.ulin¡;•• " A."'S Tu.<sSAc, ¡;"
Tlm.s. vol . 67 1l9 59)
4. e H . Sh.o . 11 . L Averba ch and ~f Coh"", "Worlt. Han:kning
~
,'
.....
;¡~ld \§;¡rten!ti[c formauon in AUUc:nlllC ManJ=ln~~ Al!o\'"~'"
FIn.1 repon on r"",oreh p ~I'Jm spomored al ~,LI T b,
Chm.x .\!oJyh¿enllm Co. 11953)
E. ella,": E. s. Oaven¡>ort and W S. Waring , " T h e Ü¡UI
Ith,.lIm Ol'grdm al Iron ·:\!;lOlraóltlé·C.,roon AlIo"~ <.1 Com .
mcrci¿J Pu.~i(y." AJ}"I .E: Transaclior.s. /00, 218 (1952)
6. H. Sroll , Tr.nllormallonal Chr;¡cteristi~ o( lron .:.hnga .
Ile\(: AlJo~,: ' ¡f.S.M . TrQII,IMlHJf\S, 95, ~84 (1931)
J. V Ruwcll ~~(] t r :<'ltGuITC, "A Me~lIo11l'Aphlc Srudy 01
lhe l)ewm!)j)lHllon uf .... uurnitc In :\h.n8~1l ci< Sl~('a: ' A.sM
TrarllQílWu , vol . ll. IO~ 119'14)
A. ~I . ~ . "vc,~ md 11 J. ctl~l'ln . 'Au!l cnll lc Ml111!:~TI~ SlI:e1
Vddlll¡¡ Elrcl,o<lI". 'The lI'<ldll1g }ournal. }J, p . '!~9 ( l :J54)
9. f{ . S. Ave,) ~nd .\ f . 1 Da, . " Au sle n itic M.ng:més" S,,:d:
A ..\ .M Mrla/'¡ Ha"d¡'oo~. p . 528 (19,9)
/0. G :-'lu""R~U~ , " W c,lI 01 i\uslenilic M~nRr¡n= St«:1 PI",,",, In
(.emelll GIIIlc!II'K !>ldh." l.tlllcrll -:l.alh·G,f'J (C~m~nt.Lim'
"y/¡.'lJm) . vol JI . p. qBI i19',R)
I1 ncLon¡;¡. LUI/:'l .",,1 Il.~id. "Rol. al Phmph~,ru . in ....u" ~n il~
M;"'KanCSC Weld ~felal." lI'rld"'g jOlJmol p . ~ID.S (july
I%H ) •
~l. Lo<n , Jr .. "Wear Tau on GTlndir.g
12. '[ . E.. ;'J.n',:,'o a nd e
1\.11$, 1.1 2~19, A.J.M.E. Mtla" 'Ttchnology, (April ll':S)
-: .1
"
., 140 1-
~ ;i
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.101- / .... ~ / MICROSTRU CTLJRf- of 6· 1 ,dio} as water quen ched f rn n'
.... l
/ 2000 "f- shows a ful lv ausrenitu - t ru c iure ., ~'

1.- :MARTENSITICl /
i ­ / AF FROM WE¡l. R-IN
ON THIS CH ARl ou tlirung the eftect 01 manganese conreru
,, - (BROKE ON WEAR TEST)
l on the abras ion resista nce of vano LIS austenuic sreel- ihe abra
.0sL..J..- L -L-_...L .
O 2 4 b 8 10 12 14 sio n factor shows the we rgh t 105s re lative lO . 1 sta nd a rd ' he
MANG ANESE. lower the abras i ón factor rhe highc r rhe abra- roo re-rs ranc .

j :
".
. .... . ~¡

1
: :''''-l
Clímax Finds :ew Austenitic AUoy Idea
¡
j -,
r,
{ - l."
j !>!·jo"":tf
t ·,..,' ­
:.1 ­ ¡'"
;
For Ultra-A ·asive M ine-Mil A p Íications J ."

I
1; ­ r,; ~r ,
j T.E. NORMAN ea rly da ys of Cli max operations I 192 5 u d id give addiuon al incentive l l ) fino
·1 lO abo u t 1935) , th ese line rs were .1 liner ma terial wit h a be t t er corn b
,
¡
1 H~ DI v r r O P :vI E ·.... '
01 relati vely low­ nor mally rnade Irorn Hadñeld-tvpe nat ion of ro ug hness and abrasion re
j
1 - ,1110\ aust eniric manga nese stee ls has 12% Mn sreel. This was Iollowed by sistan ce . During 195 8 an d 195<) Ihl~
prepa red th e way for a trernendous the use of several standard and experi­ led to the st udv and d evelo pmcnt 01
.ncrease In the use of thcse steel com ­ mental grad es of pearl itic high-carbon the lean-atlox austenitic rnangunese
r,
¡. ;T ponents JO gou ging and grind ing abra­ cbrornium-molybdcnum and chrorn­ steels T he practica] outgrowth o f lhl' ','
1 - ' .' ' Ion a pp uc auon s. One of the se, Clima x í urn-rnolyb denu rn-n ickel sreels sim ilar st udy was t he 6· 1 allo y. which w as
1-..

;
1) -1 an iruer rned iate ra nge alloy (6 '70 to rhose now being extensively applied fírst tested In a full ser of Climax ball
x ln 1( ; \ 10) be rween t he very lean in ma n y o re-gri nd ing a nd ce rnen t­ mil! she ll Iiners d uring 19 59 Te sts o n
(.
und relanvcly brittie cornpositlons and grinding m ilis. Hardness of these ball- m ill end liners. disc harge grates
1he iough I J 10 14 % m ang anese steel s, chrom iurn-molybdenum Jiners is gen­ scoop Jips and gr izzly screens were
-u ccessfully com bines i he nec essa ry er a lly in the ran ge of 32~ lO 425 also s ta r ied a r t h e sa rne time. R e sul t s
io ug hn ess with supe rior abras ion re­ Br inell. These low-alloy chrom ium­ fro m the 1hitial leSIS were sufficierulv
sist ance !O perform well in even th e mo lybde num steels have fro m 15 to favo rable lO justify un o rde rly change­
.) ­ severes t of m ining env iron rnen ts.
T he 6- 1 alloy (U . S. Pat ent 3,1 13,­
25 % betl er wear resista nce than the
12 % man gan ese steel al Cli max. By
ove r to this 6- 1 allo!, for all replace·
ment s in eac h of the abov e cate go ries
~J _
861). lhe re sult of co opera tive effort mod ifyin g !he composition and hea t durin g 1960 and 1961 :-~. .­ /

bCIl\'cen lhe Clímax met allurgica l lab­ treatm enl . researc hers wer e ab le lo .,., '. , ,
,., oralOry. Delr oit. and lhe wear tesling prud uce ha rder liners (500 lo 600 t i "

progr am al ¡he C límax, Colo., mine, Brinell), whic h were largely ma rten­
Composition and Pro pe rt ies
\\ as ueveloped as a supe rior ma tcrial sitic in str uclure . However . these liner s Wilh ca rbon conten!s for lhe 6·1

far ball milI liners al Cl imax. In the had two disad vant ages: a lack of co n· in lh e desira ble ran ge of 1,:; to 1.S C;-c

~:-:. ,
. '
.
\Ir
.1111\
""finan l' m ;¡Il ,I~c r , AbrUllon Relil tant
1),"·lormenr. Climax ~tl lYbdcnulll Ca.•
Ih:,..,, \ . C o lo
sistency in properties and perform a nce.
and occasional breakage.
While (he problem was nOl serio us,
a mi n imum of aboul 4.5(;"( man ganese
is req uired to ret ain a full:. aus tenilic
struc tllre und er all sen'ice cond itions

86 E&Mf-Volume 166, No. 4

,
.i :':'
.
 in solution-treated light-section cast­ Table 1: Chernlcel Composition Table 11: Relative Resistance to
ings. In hcavier sections, a sornewhat
hlgher mangancsc coruent is nccessary and Mechenice] Properties of Gouging Abrasion of Various
., "'­ bec ause of a gr euter tcnclenc y Ior alloy 6-1 Alloy Materials Used in the Mining
.'>\ segrcgution in the structure. The older
J- grades of high-carbon austen ii ic man­ lndus+ry
ganese steel ha ve gencrally contained Compositlon
Wca r
¡ I IU 14% mangancse rarher than the 1.20/1.40% C
Rat<J
5 ro 6 C; { needed for an austeriitic 5.50/6.75% l\ln
l. Sim crcd tungstcn carLic!c. O
structure because the ductility and ten­ 0.40/0.70% Hi
2. 15-3 alloy and uigb-chromium
sile srrengrh increase quite subst an­ 0.05% S mux
white I-rOll .. 15
uully as t he mangunesc incrcases ovcr 0.05%Pmax
J. .1-2 -1 all"y ancl m.utcn-i, ic
this range. Abrasión resisiance and 0.90/1.10% ¡vio
nickel-chromiuru whire iron , 10 21)

resistance ro flow, however, signifi­ 0.50% el' max

-l. 6-1 alloy .. 15 2.;

t :·: : ~ ~
cantil' decrease with increasing man­ Mccbanlcal Properties" S. l\lanensiric Cr.-;·.!o Sreel
~ .; : i~¡)
ganese. The improved abrasión resist­ (l (y;, C) .. .......
20 .lO r· .",",
Yickl strcngth (0.2% offset), psi 60,000
unce of the lower rnanganese steels TCllsile strength, psi , , .. 85,000 6'; 12-2 allo« ;lnt\ a usteuit ic
r. ~

t e
lJlall[:'anese stecl ..
_J SO
when tested in grind ing abrasion is J3~lnell hardness : , 19.\
7, \Iarrell"iric alloy srcel
:ll l ' .
shown clearly in cornparative wear Eloll¡;aliún, % in 2 in , .,.'. 12
tests on marked 5-in.-dia grinding balls. Reduc tiou of arca, %' _.. ..... 20
(0.25';' e).
. 8, I'earliiic \\,hjte iron ...
25 511
25 5(1
~: '"
The econornic justificarion [01' rno­
;;":";".,<.
Dcpcnding' un scr.t ion thick ness, grélin 9. I'earl it ic Cr·\10 :'i,el'.i

lybdcnum in ihese stccls comes rnainly sizc and ch"mí:;lry, t.lie Char py \'­ (0,7' ,. C··IOO BI1\)
.\11 (¡II
frorn jls clfcct in supprcssing embrit­ nnlc.h impact [na)' vurv rrqnl 10 'lO 10. I'carlitil' u nnlloyed st ecl
Iling car bides and pea rlue rather than o\Cer 100 ft lb. . (O.F [ ('-250 BH\). SO 7u
from i¡,> etlect on wear rcsistance. ':\vcl'iIges oblaiIlL'c1 »[1 JO hcats. 11. \>·rlJlled [[[kili", ed slt'cl Inu
Jn the <olut ion-treated condition,
t hc rnicrostr ucune 01 6-1 alloy closcl y
rcsernblex tnat 01' Hudfield rnanganese
stecl cxcept possibly in it s grain size. cc-mpilcd al the Clímax mine. The Scoop lips uscd in hall mili,
CIIIll,[X
which ¡S gener ally finer. Wit hout t he following discussion will, therefore. hé ¡In: sllbjeCled lo gouglflg ~lhr.\·
~e\'cre
rnolybdcnum addirion, carbides wüuld "[rgely confined lo the experienCé al sion aod Utlrly high srre:" bl \\ l)J'il
trnJ to prccipilale as cnvclopes around C1imax. grtnding balls and coar'e pic..:~, ," I Ilfl

the grain boundaries al' as pIates along cru.'lhed ore. whieh colleet In ¡he ,,,:oül' ~ ,~:"
crY'ilallographic pl'llles. Such carbide Gouging abrasiol1 occurs when rocks bllX. They are illso frcqllcnll~ ,ub· ~(::t<:
precipitales woulc\ embritrle the cast­ 01' other coarse abrasive materials cut jecled to im paet hy neVo halls. Vo hleh
ings und are probably largely resPon­ ¡nlo the wearing surfa<;:c wilh consider­ are charged inlO the milis d:lil~ lhrough
'>ible for service faiJures that havc able forc~ lo tear off re1alively large lhe scoops. Consequenlly, conslder·
occurred when the lllangan1:se content particles from the wearing surface, ahle 101lghness is needcd. Before lh-:
01' conventional Hadtlekl steel has ln general, 6,1' has shown go,od re­ 6-1 alloy \Vas llsed, Hadt1cld man·
droppcd below 10%. The primary sistance to gouging ahrasion' lindel' ganese steel with 2'« chromium haLl ¡r, '.
funclion al' molyhdcnum is to inhihit condjrions of medium lO low impact been the best material lor rhese ¡[P,.
Ihe forlllalion of lhese carbides 01' slow but docs llol have sufficienl tOllghness Attempts to lIse harder and presumo ~; - .
down thcir growth. for lIse under high impact and shock. ahly more wear-resislanl malcriah.
While 6-1 is being uscd in a number The 6-1 is now standard at Clímax sllch as variolls lo\\'- anu high-alloy
01' operations both in the U. S. and . for seoop lips and grizzly screens, both white irons, had failcd bec~llIse 01 in· .'¡.. ',.
Europe. 1he most comr1c1e and detailed of which are subjccl lO gOllging abra­ sutticient lO11ghness. The rC~L1II' on ¡~' . '1.'.;.
<;crvi..:e uata are tho,c thal havc been sioll with some degrce' of impacto the original pair 01' 6-1 [ip' \\erc 'L'

" ~ " .~

,
~
:; A,,;.

1;·.1 ;:,f_
,
.,~

',A
:!.--,
.. ~
-___ AW~iltl'
.t':l ~ ,
' ·1
.1-.
Ií·j ALLOY is now standard at Climax
G RIZZL y ·SCREEN scclions (1 v.. x 4 111.) ubsorb irnpflct and gOllging abra,ion from
minus 8-in. Climax ore which is faJling from a COJlveyor bell in lhe crLlshing planr
f,; .:
,
for ,eoop lips. This ane is operating on Fairly new screen seclions (/efl fvregrollllJ) show lhe approxilll'lte ori(~[n,d he¡c'hl. V
one of lhe llline~ Ilx 12"ft ball milis. Ihe other screen secl i(lns have ncarly worn Ollt. - . F'"s
~ :.' 1<
E&Mj-April 1965
 . ) e,

d /2(;le~ uD ¡,

Teble 111: Relefive Róting of Sorne ol the Most Comrnon Maleríals produce .\ l:l' lIShlll[; el,,'t l \~i\ ..~ D IIW W
irapped abrusive lhe -urtace \" ' ~ III
for Bell- end Rod-Mill Liners Under fates are relatively iow. nut the surtace ,"

Conditions of Grinding Abras ion ureas mvolved are high so the wear ,"
l "

rat e per ton oí mat erial han dk <l can ~: :

Hard ne ss o n Rel a UVC Ord cr be h igh ano of ren repr esents onc of ~;.-
Worrr Surf'a ce Wen r oí the m u je r expe nse; in o re proccssing
(Ro ck well el Ra tc · Tou gh u ess W h ile 6·1 has a hll~hcr wca r ru 1e
1.'> \ \llr)\ ( h~'¡ l t r ea t ed ) 66 88 /90 11 und e r gr ind in g a br usi on th un hlgb
.' H i¡!h ·c l1r(¡lIlll lm wh ite iro n ó4 961100 a lloy whire iron or h il;h·c :,r holl mar
, vta r i ensn i. (r Mo S reel ( i ypc 2)'· <;5 10 0 rensiu c steels. JI lH!J cerram ' lglllf¡\..I1 \·
( ) I a llov k hi l! cast) 'j<) 107 ' 10R p ra cricul udva n t..ges The-.« If\ c l llJ~
~LlIll ' Il ~ l ti \ Illl" \... c::l ~ (' hrom l u m wh ite ,rO!l
the f'act t hat ther e a re p ro b le m-, In I1b
" 'hrll ,a_' \ " 'i l OS . 11t) 1)
i.riruug Ihe desi r cd rna r te n siu ; v t r IIL
vlar t e ns n » 1 r ." In ~ t ee l (typE' 1 l · · .'i8 110 / 11 1 4
rure in large heavy-secnon parrs ( un
(, I allu y
" I' ea rl, tic C I' \10 f31ce l (O .8 " ~ e l
.l8
.19
1 11 118
IZó \ L8
,
2
<eq u e ruly. i here a re m ,1I1 \ pla ce '
u \ u s t e nir ir m a nga ne se s tee l 49 I .IR ' ¡'11 wh ere n-! is the most Il>du l choice
altho ugh the pict ure ma, chan ge dI, .
:'
" Ra nge of i wo or mo re tests o n 5· in g nlldin ¡;: balls 111 d 9x9- 1.\ ¡.:ntte- di fil·har¡(c
improvc rne rus in Iound rv operutions
" pe 0 1 p r ima " ¡(n rltl irl g mili .
•• Tv pe 1 hao 0 .60 /0 .80 % e, 1.25/7 .00'íC. Cr a u d 0 .40/0 .60'lr i\'¡" whe re a s T "pe ' h e at tr ea t m e nt a rid d e,ign be corue ~ " l -
1""
(

na- o YO '1 10 ', e

5 . 5 0 / 7 . 0 0 '?'~ Cr a nd 0 .90 /1.05 % M o . d e n! (
t, ...
T he re lative ruring L' 1 -orne 0 1 rhe
m O ~1 corn rn o n rn at er in t-, [or b ull-nu!'
t
lin cr s. wh ich l ' on e ot t lie rnc st iy p ica ' k
p ronus ing rhat C limax gradually gou ging abrasión fro rn rnmus s- in 1I , e, mv o lv m g re srstu nc e lO gr ind ing !
cbange d over 10 th is grade during C lima x ore Ialling frorn a cou vcyor ahr asio n. 1$ show n by T .Ihle 11 1. hasert
19óO. be lt iu the crushi ng pl aut . A 12 % 00 S-in. grinding h"lI ~ 1I?, l cJ dI Clima \
Mo-2 % Mo s tee l (12- 2 LCS)ope r in a Y:-; 9· f¡ gra rc-d ischa rge 1\ pe or ." '
Aver u ~~
Lifc uf lJal.!·MiIl Scoop ated in par alle! wilh regular au sten iric pr unarv gl'ind ing mili
Feeder L1ps Worn Out at CUma" mang anese sleel was cOllsistenrly belter :"e [05t ball- an J roJ ·mtll ,lppli':;\ll On,
,
"· ,1:~
~~
operatlng hours per set
with ao average sl,lpe rlo rity o f 18%
The 6- 1 al1oy, whieh was stand ardized
eH11 fo r i.l compromi se hel\\' éen ""ear
reSlstance a nd IOllghné" F N hlgh
'"
"
Hatlficld Olan gan csc sleel + 2% Cr
" !
for th is par t io 196 1, gives a bo lLt 50% Im p act m ilis 01' fol' lin e! J ¡;' lgn, re
i 1960 - ..100 seIs) 1010 looger life lhan lhe plain a usteoi tic qu iri ng som e dllCl il i l ~ II \\',Hlld pro h
h I d!loy mangnnese sleel and can be almosl dhh always be ditl\ l:\tll (O \I S~ ;,nv 0 1
( 19601 1961--1 02 sets) 1630 completely waro oul wilhou! witholll lhe composilion, repl' e\el\ted h\ ([cm,
Proof of lhe toughness of 6·1 f:¡ that prfjma ture breakage. 1 lh ro llgh [, III T..d~ 1e 111 ,1l1d h I
the seoop Iips f<l il due to wear rll,ther a l")} 0 1' lhe p earllll l' ..: hrlltl\ lum · fI)o l\ ro
¡han ea rl y br~llk ¡¡ gc , Grlnding nbrusjun occurs when IWO tlelllln1 ~ lcr; 1 ¡No :-\) wí!1 COlJ1 IL111<:' ' lJ
,..~
' ) ';-1
Grizzl y-ser cen scc Lion &, which have wc uri ng ~ur fa c (: s rub logelhcr in gri llY he ¡he lwsl ,'h"I ,'e' 1·1,¡,llk ld 111,11'
JI/.¡ ,A-in bars. absorb impact and envi ro nmenls wirh su ftic ient fo rce la ganese sleel I ,,<(l L) I , \ ; " L'[l': ~ c'(len

~. .

.'
Cr Mo
St c ul Mart ansltlc
3.0 Typ e 1 N, ·e,
195e's )
Wh ,ta Iron
...
W
l B (9 Se t .)
CIl

o: ?6 ~ 3 · 2 1 Allo y
w ~ Average (14 SeIs)
a.
o: l 4 ti- &
::>
O ] ] Average 6 : Alloy
:¡;
'¡
(38 SeIS)
20 Averase, 1j, r-]
CIl
o ,B
; H Avarage
Z
::>
o: I I
O I 6
"­
I
...
w I 4

'"
Ir
l>:
«
~ 10 }­
CIl

O OR
a:
el
06

i
. . :;
0.4
IN T RIPLE-WAVE ball mill shell líner s and discharge gr ato,
.• 6-1 a lloy prov ides lo n g J¡fe an d slIperior gnnding c~ p a ci l Y Th is
new design shell liner helps incrcase Cl ím ax grinding rale
0.2

o
WE: AR II A TES OF MA RCY BAU';·M llL FEED END L1NERS PER FO RM A N CE RECO ROS on Clima:.. ¡trin¡,,!') 1>; 11 1 míl !,
IN PRIMARY MILLS AT CLlMAX (1959 /19 61) show lhe justifica liun fQr c h~ ngj ng to Ih ~ 6 I alJoy
 I t : i I
L
sively used fo r grrnd ing-rnill liners , but
has now been la rgcl y d isplaced by
materials with better wea r resistance
as the h igh toughness of this stec! is
no r ma lly unnccessary in these m ilis.
Mili App lications
E nd liners for prim ary ball mills
are a typical appl icat íon with moderare
impact comb ined w ith grinding abra ­
sien . Severa! grades of chro rniurn­
mo lybdenurn steel s had be en used at
C1imax for mau y years but were re­
i pl accd between 19 57 and 1959 by
I marten sit ic nickc l-chromiuru w hite
i .,
iron , which gave a be tte r average l ife
an d conseq uc rul y a low er wear rate,
but which suffered fro m a lar ge sp read
in wear rates b etw cen th e be st and
poo rest sets of liners . lo turo, this
material was la rgc ly replaced b y a
3 % Ni 2 % Cr - J % M o white iron,
which sho wed a mod erate imp rove ­
meot o f about 10 % in average wea r
- L re sistance, bu t whi eh sti l1 had a rela­
tivel y largo sp read betwcen the best
and po o re st sets of liners. Finally, 6-1
alloy was adopted for a Iur ther better­
me n t in ave rage life along with con ­
siderable nu r rowing o f th e sp read .
Shell 01' br ea st lincrs for primary
gr inc.Jing m ilis ar e a ma jor co st ítem
a t Cli max . Relative ly ¡hi o liners are
l... used to gain in m ili griud ing capacity .
This io ¡u ro ten d s to p ro d uce short
liner lives and hi gh serap 10ss. Also,
- I high wave 01' a cornmooly used high
!
c1Ollble-wave design, which have ex.­
!c. te nded liner life in other mills , are
undesir ablc at Clim ax bec a use of Ihe ir
tendenc y to red u ce gr inding ra tes. A
I shi p la p designo amI more rcc ently a
!c.... "'ow triplt·wave" des ign , llave pro­
duced the best gri ndi ng ral es aud are
the preferred designs in use today.
Thc impro vem ent in shell liDer life
l.
at C1imax ' obta in ed b y c llangiog fro m
t he chrornium-m ol ybdenutrl ste els lo
Ihe 6- 1 alloy ha s av er a ged be tween
10 % and 15 % on the shiphlp design o
Th is improvemcnL is pr aeticall y iL1enti­
cal wi t h that predict ed b y the wea r
test s, whi c h w.:: re r un o n S-in. marked
bal ls in lhese Sam e milis. The 6-1
alloy is al so givin g exe elle n t serv ice
in the m or e recently adopl ed tr iple­
"" ave des ign , wh ich h as a substaotially
lon ger Jif e lh a o sh ip b p Iincrs of e q u a l
we igh i.
A n um ber of olher mill ing opera ­
Lions have been u~i og 6- 1 all oy ball­
:lnd rod-mill shell lín e rs long enough
LO judge the ir pe rfo rmance. In a
1Ox 12-ft ba ll mili gri ndi ng mi nlls 8­
m csh coppe r ore in Arizona , a sc t oE
d<,ubk-wave 6- 1 a lloy líne rs had a
life of 1.57-milli o n ta os of ore grou n <;r
co m p areJ to an ave rage liCe of 1.3­
rnillioo tons for pea rli tic chromium­
rno lybd cn um lin er s of Ih e s:i.me design
in the same service. A t H om est ake
E&M ¡ -Ap ril 1% 5
15
14
IJ
12
~ 1I ~ Pea ril¡,(
r lO ~ i: r Mo Stce l
/ I ~ <;e l\ l
u,
O q , impact condit ions in the mill. Rod
(/\
O
Z 8
.'
..~' AtJtlr"'B t:J
<;(
(/\
::>
oc
O van tage. Where th e rod m ill o pe ra res
:r
¡...
6 with a low plllp levc l, impact cOI1 Ji ·
UJ
U.
....
o
L1FE OF PRIMARY BALL·MILL
DISC HAfl G E GRATES AT CLlMAX
(19 6 011 9 6 1)
DI SC H AR G E gr ate Ji re 0 1) Marcy b al l
rnil ls was incre ased 50 % by the 6- 1 allo y.
Also, the re is less plugging of slo ts by
worn ba lls than with former steel castings
Mining Co.'s modero go!d ore m ill ing
o pe ratíon io Lead, S.D., a se r of 6- 1
double-wave ball-mill shell lioe rs in a
9x.l 1-ft ball mil i h a d (u p until April,
196 4) ground o ve r l-millioo ton s and
is expecte d to last for a t lca st 1.2-mi l­
]ion taos, which would give ii about
20% IDI1Mer life tllao (he uvel'llgc for
pearlitic c hro mi u m-m o!ybe!en ul11 stecl
liners of the sa me desigo io the sa me
0 1' pa ralle l sc rviee. Similarl y, at a lurge
c or per mining opera tion in Michigan .
a se t of 6-1 aHoy double -wave sh e!1
liners griod ing a minus S-mesh rece!
in a 12xI3-ft ball mil! had alife of
2-million tons o C o re grounu compa red
to an avera ge life of aboll t 1.2 -m iliio u
tons f or pearlilíc chrornium-mol ybJ e­
ntl m st ee l liners of th e sa me dc sign in
t!'t ese same mili s. Some of lhe im­
provem eo t d emo nstr a led b y thi s sd
o f 6- 1 lin er s m a y, how eve r, be dlle to
a cha nge io oper aling condil ion s. An
a dd it io n a l set of 6-1 liners is n ow in
servicc in the sa m e opera tion.
I n addit ion to the abo ve reslllts ,
thcrc a re a nllmber of other oall -mill
[i!ler installatíons both in ore ano ce ­
me n t gri nding where the 6-1 a l!oy
appea rs to be giví ng good se rv ic e ,
though no det aiJed compa ral ivc dala
h ave ye t b ec n o btained .
In rod-m ill liner se r vice , the 6-1 a l·
loy h as givcn gODd results in several
oí' the smaller ro J m ilis grinding uran­
illm ores. Here it h as gc ner ally been
lJ (
in co m petilio n wnh rhe Hadfíeld -t vpe
6· 1 Alloy
12% Mo stecls . Im p rove me ots in lit e
(8 Sets) of up ro 50 % over the Hadfícld-rype
rnanaanese steels hav e be co r epo n ed
fo r ~he 6·1 a lloy in ih esc rod -m i!l
liuers.
'"
QJJ
Aver age . Seleding Mat e ria ls
The choice of suitable nune rials for
rod -mill lin er s mus! be go verned LO a
large extent by ihe liner design aud
mili s, which operare with a relat iveíy
higl: pulp levcl, are ublc ro ll ~ e m a r­
tcnsitic white-iron lin er s to go od ud ­
t io n s ru a y be too se vcr e Ior th e m ar­
rensitic white irons. 00 lin er s for such
mi lis, th e aus tc nitic man ga ncse siecls
a nd pea r litic chromium- m ol ybde n u m
ste els have norm a lly beco th e pre ­
(e rred mate r ials. T he 6-1 al loy, e l' a
modified 6-1 alloy to be d isc us scd lar er .
'D OW appear to h ave promi sin g po ssibil ­
ties for the line rs in these high·im pact
rod mili s.
Selcction o f a suitable material fo r
ball -rn ill low -discharge grates h J S a l­
ways beeu so rnewha t o f a pr oblem,
wi th the actual ma teria ls used r an gin g
f rom Hadfic ld aus tc nit ic mau ga ncse
steel on o n e end of t he toughnes s sc a!e
LO m arten sitic wh ite iro ns a t the o th er
P e<Lrlitic chromium-me! yb denum steal
at 250 to 300 Brinell h as beco a pop u­
lar material fo r man y yea r s. T h is slcc l
is pu rposel y made lo a lower h ardoess
than the chromium-molybdeoum lincr
stec ls so th at it will peen Orl the we a r­
ing edges of the grate bars aod th us
h elp to prcve nt p lu gging of the s\o ts
by woro ball s. l-IadJl eld man gan ese
s te(.~ 1 tc nus [O pccn e x.<: cssivl:ly anel
c lose up the slots com plcl ely. Fo r the
Clim(lx 9-ft-dja Marc y milIs, chro­
miUm -iTj01y bclp.1111111 ste c! had bee.[1
s tan d ard in discharge gralcs far m nn y
ye ars befo re (he devcl opment oE G- l
a lloy. Ncvertheless. at limes , aod
espe c ia lly when high tonll a g t~ S o E r eJa­
tiv ely coarse ore were red to lh t: mill ,
t he pe eoee! ~ho llldcr s on th e ch rorn iu ni­
m o lyb d cn u nl stcd gr at cs wo uld WC:lr
oul 0 1' tea r off mor e rar iu ly th an ¡he y
to r m ed an d as a rc sull serio lJs p\ug­
giog wouid occ ur. The 6· 1 a l10y far
lhese gr ates has resu ltcd in su bs tan lia \
fr ced o rn ffOm plug¿; in g . togct hc r w it h
a n im p rov c m en t oE a bOll1 S O ~ó in
grate lif e.
A numbcr of other ore-m illing
opcratious are no w using th e 6- 1 ¡¡Ilo y
in ball -mill discha rge grates with re­
p o rt ed i..rnprovement~ in !ife ran gin g
[rom 20 to 50% ovcr ¡h e c hr o miu rn­
molybdcilum sle el grates p r e vio Ll ~ ly
uscd. A lesser tendency fo r pl uggi ng
oe the gra tcs has :.lI so becn observ ed
in al leasl tINO of tbe se ios taJla tio ns .
Up-to .d atc 1í·1 all o y expcri encc
shows its gr eate st eco n om ic possib iii­
89
 1 ; ~ C'
L..•
Ile\ In ab rusion-rcxivrant ca stings ex­
posed \0 grinding and gouging abra­
.-. L
sion such as mili lincr s, mili grate s,
grizzly screens, scoop lips and pos­
sihly in sorne cru shin g o r pulvcrizing
o p e ra rio ns . II has a toughncss in re r ­
medi tue bc tw c c n th c toughcr H ad üeld
manganese sreels and the less tough
pearlit ic h igh-carbon c hr ornium-molyb ­
denurn ste els, There are. of course.
cc r ta in up p hc. u io ns where th e 6· 1
allo y can be mi sappli ed . For exa m p le,
it has poor welJab ilit y ami shoulJ not
he used where worn c astings are re­
built by we ld ing or h ard facing . It
can al so he e r nh r it t lcd by prol on ged
0
heating ub o v e 600 F . lt rcnds to form
a br ittle dccarbu rized sk in on the surf­
ace of ca srings ror fo rgings), which
¡ Can mak e it unsuit nb!e for sorne ver y
thin plat cs 01' section s, On thc oih er
l.. hand, it is no i well a da p ted to use in
ver y thi c k sec tio ns foyer about S in .)
el"", lO a t cnd enc y lür Ih", slc<'1 l O cit: ­
velop inlernal cr·<.Ick s .in lhese heavy
seclion s. Jn sp ile of Ihese limital ions,
howeve r. the slecl a pp eürs lo have .\
wiJe ran ge of uscflllncss f,)r mos! o f
¡he ca stings. and pO:isibly sorn e ralled
I
or forg cd prouLlets . uscu in grinding
L. ¡¡no gOllging types of abrasion.
Current Climax investiga lio ns o n
lhe lean -aJlo y au,ten ilie man gan ese
stee ls are J illleu at the de velopmcnt
of compositions an<l ll'ealments giving
\till hetler abrasion re sÍst1l1ce along
wilh grcatcr frccdom from int ernal
cr ack s in hC i¡V Y sccliollS. This SlISCCp­
,
tih ility lo int ern al cr ;lc king is ¡nh erent,
I
L Pl' inlc'u in 1· .S .,\ .
Il. _
Table IV: Chemi cal Composition
and Treaiment of 62 I Allay
Comp osition
I I O /1 . 25 ¡;~ e mo re significant . howcver. is rhe f'act
s 25/6 .50 % l\lll
() ·10/ 0 . 70 (í'0 Si
0 .05% P ma x
50 /2.0(J'.·~ Cr
00 /1 .20';';' :-'1 0
T'rea t meri t
H ea t ca s l i,,!:., ,\ owly 10 I!)SO 2()() 1l 0 ~­
\ ir quc nc h
10 sorne e x tc n t al le a st, in all au stenitic
man gane se sieels. Jt is believcd lo be
caused by th e high th errnal gr adients
and co ns eq uen t interna! stresse s de­
vcloped in heav y-se ction castings when
they are water qucnched during hC:1I
trcatment. A solution ro this problern
m uy be lo dcvelop co m pos ltion s ihar
will rerain the ir ausrenitic struc turc
whcn q u en c h cd le ss dru sticu l ly, such
as in oil 01' air. Wilh lhis in nlind.
Clím a x investigations are cllrr~n[ly di­
rect ed lo a stud y of lean-al loy co m­
po sition s that can be nir quen chcJ lO
an illlstenitic or su bs ta ntially allslen ilie
strll clure. One composili on o f Ibis
rype Ihal has alr eauy been co rnmcr­
cially tested al Climax ami has shown
pr omi se is Clim ax 6 2 ¡ alloy .
Climax 621 , wh en nir ql1en ch ed io
4- to · S-in. secti on s, has a stru clUre
con sisting of aboLlt 95(/0 al1 stenile nnu
50/(' pear\ite. T en sile specirnen s cut
from tbese hcavy sccliollS hall ¡;!ong,l­
lion s of 3.5 [O 5% , whí ch are low cr
Uo
rhun those on re gular 6-1 alloy but
still above [he I lo J % norrnally ex­
pcct cd on high-carbon pearlhic chro­
rnium-molybdenum ste cls. What is
lh al neme 01' (he heavy-scction airo
qucn chcd casriugs showcd any evi­
d e ncc o f intern al c rac ks either 00 labo­
rut or y cxamin ar ion or wu cn w orn OUI
in se rv ic e al C lím a x .
Th is 621 a lloy has now been testeo
al C lim ax in grizz ly scr ee ns . b u ll-rnill
seoo p l ip s, weJge bars in a ball-rni ll
low-dischur gc grnte as se mbly ano in
a partia! set o f ba ll-rnill she ll liner s.
AII eastings ga ve good scr vice In me
sh el l Iiners, it W :l S fa unJ ih a : the 6~ \
all oy had 7 % betrer wea r re sis rance
i han {he regul ar 6 - 1 allov ins tul led an J
worn out in (he sarne se! in the 9..fl­
día grure-di sc hnrge Marcy mili The
re s u h s are enc ouruging. so a full se t
01' 62 J alloy shel l l iner s ha s no w br en
p ur ch a scd an d is in se rvicc :ll C lirn:lx
The lIse o f : 111 " ir ql l(; l1l:h in pl a~ e
01' {he conventionai wat er qllcnch for
lea n-alloy allsleni:ic stc cls o pens up a
wide ran ge of po ssibililies ror val'io Lls
a lla y combinal ions. Ve¡, y pro ba bl y. ¡h e
ma ng:lnese canten t can be lo\\' crc d
slill furlhcr lO oblain ~Id u i l io n a l irn­
p rOV<: J11 ents in abr :lsion resi;;tclncc ~ind
grea le r use l1I ay be made 01' m ullipl e­
a lloy cOlllbina liol1s 10 o htain lhe de­
sire u slru cture ami prop cnies. T hc
markeu b",11 test on S-in.-dia ba \ls.
as lIsed at Clim:l\. will be a ven
lIsd ll! Illol in prl'l in1il1:l I'Y C' v a l ll ~ ll ill l~
of Ihes e cx rl~rj ll1c ll t al cOlliposit ions.