CHAPTER 1

1.- Mention three important figures in the history of translation and

explain their corresponding relevance.

Cicero (106-43 BCE) would write about the need to translate not 'word for
word', but 'sense for sense'. Consequently, the present concept of
transferring messages and not isolated words is not a new one. In Roman
times, translations were already used to enrich the people's own cultural,
linguistic and literary systems.
After Cicero, Saint Jerome's (347-419) made one of the clearest
distinctions between word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation. To
Jerome, translations of sacred texts must be literal, word for word, but he
defended that translations of other types of texts should be done sense for
sense (more freely).
in the 15th century Martin Luther (1483-1546), who translated the Bible and
the New Testament into German, contributed to translation theory caring
about the reader's perception of the translated text. He explained how
translations should be written using correct forms that sound natural in the
TL, and he emphasised the social dimension of language personalising and
humanising translation.

2.- Briefly define the concepts of source language, source text, target
language and target text.

Source language (SL) refers to the original language in which a text that
needs to be translated is written in.
Source text (ST) refers to the original written text (written in a source
language), that needs to be translated.
Target Language (TL) refers to the language used for the translation of a
particular text.
Target text (TT) refers to the resulting written text in a translation, that
is, the textual outcome of translating an original text.

3.- Mention the types of translation according to Jakobson.

Intralingual translation: interpretation of verbal signs by means of different

verbal signs of the same language; also known as rewording.
Interlingual translation: interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of
some other language; also known as translation proper.
Intersemiotic translation: interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs
of non-verbal systems; also known as transmutation.
4.- Define why translation is considered both a science and an art.

Translation is a mix of both science and art. It is an art because translators

should have to be skilled enough to master both SL and TL. Translators must
be creative people to understand both cultures and have the ability to
translate not only words, but ideas beyond the language. It is also a science
because translators need to have knowledge of translation theories and
master grammatical, semantic, syntactical and pragmatically rules.

5.- Explain the relevance of Translation Studies for the history of

translation.

The relevance of the different approaches to translation in the 20th century

increasingly pointed towards the need for the discipline to have a scientific
status of its own. TS is presently considered an interdisciplinary and
transversal science that involves several other disciplines. Today, TS can be
said to constitute a consolidated (inter)discipline, the deep-rooted academic
influence and expansion of which is evident in the numerous relevant authors,
research papers and conferences dealing with matters related to translation,
as well as in the growing number of higher education programmes and
professional associations centred around this subject.

CHAPTER 2

1.- Define the concept of Translatology.

Translatology is a term used to refer to the study of translation as a

discipline, in the same way we use the term Translation Studies; some
theorists and practitioners tend to use one more than the other, but both
refer to the discipline of translation.

2.- Explain the concept of lexical cohesion and its relevance to

translation.

Lexical cohesion can be described as the selection of vocabulary made to

organize chains of relations referring to a previously mentioned entity within
a text. The network of relations provides the necessary links between the
various parts of a text, helping to make it a complete whole.
3.- How would you explain the relevance of pragmatics in translation?

Pragmatics is understood to be the study of aspects of meaning and language

use that depend on the context of the utterance, as well as on the speaker
and the addressee; it analyses language in use within a particular
communicative situation. Pragmatics deals with verbal and non-verbal aspect
of language. The translation process requires great knowledge of both ST
and TT language and culture because translators must analyse the context
where the communicative act occurs. A translation usually fails if it does not
fulfil the expectations raised by the readers/hearers, many of which are
framed around the pragmatic layer.

4.- Explain the concept of implicature and its relevance to translation.

Implicature refers to how readers/hearers can grasp more than what is said
in a given text, since speakers/writers can express something literally that
in fact means something else.
Implicatures are very important in the translation process. The translator
has to be able to identify the implicatures in the original text and to transfer
them to the translated text so that what is implied by the writer/speaker is
also understood in the translation. Without them, the message will not be
fully delivered and thus the translated text will lack resemblance to the
original one.

5.- Explain the concept of grammatical equivalence and its relevance to

translation.

Grammar is often understood as the set of rules which governs the way in
which words and phrases are put together in a particular language, so the
main grammar-related categories of morphology and syntax need to be
considered. Also, the concepts of number, gender, person, tense, aspect and
voice may cause translation problems if the grammar systems of both
languages are not completely understood.

6.- How would you explain the relevance of thematic-structure and

information flow in translation.

One of the best-known distinctions regarding information flow is Halliday’s

approach to the analysis of a clause as a message made up of two parts: the
theme (what the clause is about) and the rheme (what the speaker says about
the theme). The rheme represents the information the speaker or writer
wants to convey to the hearer or reader. It is the most relevant element in
the clause structure. In the sentence ‘This book deals with translation’, ‘this
book’ is the theme and ‘deals with translation’ is the rheme. Theme and rheme
most typically coincide with the well-known subject/predicate distinction.
Although some thematic structures may be perfectly preserved when
translating, others need to be changed to make the text natural and fluent
in the TL. Since thematic structure is paramount for good writing,
translators need to deal with it very carefully to produce an accurate and
readable TT.

7.- Explain the concept of coherence and its relevance to translation.

Coherence is the connection between the addressee’s knowledge and the

contents of a given discourse. It is what holds the text together. Those
concepts that are expressed in a text and that make it meaningful in some
sense to the reader or recipient of the message. The reader will use the
knowledge of the text and his own knowledge of the world to make a text
coherent to him/her. Since coherence is what really makes the text easy to
understand by any reader, translators should always bear in mind this
concept paying attention to maintaining the linear connection of senses within
a text for the purpose of continuity.

8.- Explain the concept of background knowledge and its relevance to

translation.

Depending on the circumstances the translator may find him/herself in the

position of having to reassess what may or may not be available to the target
readers. By doing this he/she will make sure that implicatures can be worked
out and the text will be understood. It is not just about increasing reader’s
knowledge but also about meeting reader’s expectations, for example, the
organization of language can affect the coherence of a text and to avoid
unwanted implicatures. So, the translator may decide, when he/she
anticipates a serious clash between assumed and actual background
knowledge of the reader, to include more information in the body of the text
as means to aid the understanding of the text.

9.- How would you explain the role of register in translation?

Register is a variety of language that a language user considers appropriate

to a specific situation. Register variation arises from variations in: field,
tenor and mode. Field refers to what is happening, to what is relevant to the
speaker’s choice of linguistics items. Tenor refers to the relationships
between the people taking part in the discourse and their role in the
conversation (e.g.: mother/child, doctor/patient, etc.). And mode refers to
the specific role that the language is playing (e.g.: didactic, persuasive) and
to the medium of transmission (e.g.: written, spoken).

10.- How would you explain the concepts of collocational rage and
collocational markedness?

Collocational range refers to the set of words (or collocates) that are
typically associated with a particular word. The more general and polysemous
a word is, the wider its range.
Collocational markedness refers to how common the collocation is. A
collocation that features an unusual combination of words is often described
as marked.

11.- Explain the notion of textual equivalence in terms of cohesion and

its relevance.

Cohesion is the network of relations (lexical, grammatical, etc.) which provide

the necessary links between the various parts of a text, helping to make it a
complete whole. These relations organize and, to some extent create a text,
for instance by requiring the reader to interpret words and expressions by
reference to other words and expressions in the surrounding sentences and
paragraphs. For a text to have cohesion, it needs to have objective surface
cues that the reader can easily follow, paying attention to the relations
created by means of the cohesive devices (e.g.: reference, substitution,
ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion).

12.- Explain the different types of lexical meaning according to Baker.

Propositional meaning: the relation between the word and what it refers to
or describes. This type of meaning can be described as true or false (e.g.:
‘ballet’ refers to a type of dance and not to a type of meal).
Expressive meaning: it relates to the speaker’s feelings or attitude rather
than to what words and utterances refer to (e.g.: skinny, mate).
Presupposed meaning: it arises from restrictions on what other words or
expressions we expect to see before or after a particular lexical unit (e.g.:
strong winds/strong coffee).
Evoked meaning: it relates to dialectal (geographical, temporal or social) and
register (field, tenor and mode) variation.

13.- Explain the concept of equivalence at word level and its relevance.
The word is the smallest unit in translation analysis and it can convey meaning
in isolation or combined with other linguistic units. Meaning is rarely stable,
given that polysemy and homonymy happen very frequently. When we
contrast the meaning a word has in one language with its meaning in another,
the different types of lexical meaning (propositional, expressive,
presupposed and evoked) need to be considered; since we translate messages
and ideas which usually go gar beyond the word as an isolated unit.

14.- Difficulties/strategies when translating collocations, idioms or fixed

expressions.

Collocations:
- Common pitfalls:
 the engrossing effect of source text patterning (‘take a
shower’-*tomar una ducha).
 Misinterpreting the meaning of a SL collocation (‘make a room’-
*hacer la habitación).
 Tension between accuracy and naturalness (‘he got the sack’- as
le despidieron).
 Culture specific collocations (‘break a leg’- mucha mierda).
 Marked collocations in the ST.
Idioms and fixed expressions:
 Misinterpreting the meanings

Strategies used:
 Similar meaning, similar phrase form
 Similar meaning, different phrase form
 Translation by paraphrase
 Translation by omission of the idiomaticity
 Borrowing SL phrase
 Complete omission of the idiom

15.- Strategies used to minimise linear dislocation.

 Voice change: Passive to active, or use of the pasiva refleja, e.g.: Books
are sold in the street= Se venden libros en la calle.
  Change of verb: verbs with similar meanings that can change the word
order of the sentence without altering the message, e.g.: Can I pay? =
¿Me cobras?
 Nominalisation: Changing a verb to a noun or noun to verb means that
the theme changes but the message may stay the same, e.g.: A study
was made of the syntax in this sentence =Se ha estudiado el sintaxis
de esta frase.
 Extraposition: using cleft and pseudo-cleft sentences or changing the
word order, e.g.: It was my cousin who called you= Fue mi primo quien
te llamó.

CHAPTER 3

1.- Among the different translation strategies studied in this course,

what are in your opinion the most useful ones in literary translation?

Translation is a discipline that faces multiple challenges, among which the

cultural values associated to a given text may be one of the most complicated
elements to deal with. A text must be understood in all its dimensions, and
we should never forget the fact that different cultural and social referents
may render a TT alien and incomprehensible. In my opinion the most useful
strategies in literary translation are foreignization and domestication. These
two strategies may be considered somewhat extreme if they are strictly
followed, since domestication may change the original too much while
foreignization may only be accessible for cultivated readers. Intermediate
points, as different degrees of cultural transfer, are often preferred.

2.- Briefly describe Nord’s concept of translation as a purposeful task.

Translation has to be understood as an act of communication where the

interlocutors, especially the potential addressees, play a key role. In Nord’s
model of Translation as a Purposeful Activity, apart from emphasizing the
importance of the purpose as a key element in the translation process, the
TT needs to show fidelity towards both the ST author and the TT
recipient(s). This author specifies three aspects of functionalism that are
relevant in translation training: the importance of the translation brief, the
role of source-text analysis, and the classification and hierarchisation of
translation problems.
3.- How can we deal with cultural references when we translate
humanistic texts?

If we try to adapt the ST to a target culture, the TT may distance itself too
much from the original and if the TT tries to follow the source culture too
closely, the result may sound unnatural in the TL. When translators have to
deal with cultural references of any sort, they need to decide on the best
way of transferring it according to the field, tenor and mode of the text,
paying special attention to the purpose of the translation task and the
background knowledge of the potential addressees.

4.- Briefly describe the process of domestication.

Domestication is a change or substitution of the ST cultural values by those

belonging to the TL, so that they are totally intelligible for the TT recipients.
It is a common option used for dubbing in sitcoms when humour is involved.

5.- Briefly describe the process of foreignization.

Foreignization is a strategy that involves leaving exotic and foreign terms in

the TT as a way of allowing the readers to experience the unfamiliarity and
strangeness of the SL culture. It keeps the flavour of the foreign text, but
it may end up destroying the expectations of the TT readers.

6.- Briefly describe connotative meaning within translation.

Connotative meaning refers to the association which are made above the
denotative meaning of a word or expression that contribute to its overall
meaning. This type of meaning is socially and culturally determined, so some
degree of translation loss typically takes place.

7.- Explain the concept of Cultural Transposition.

Cultural transposition refers to a scale of possible solutions that translators

may give to a particular cultural reference that appears in the ST, with
options such as exoticism, cultural borrowing, calque, communicative
translation or cultural transplantation.
8.- Explain the concept of translation loss.

Translation loss refers to the fact that the so-called principle of “the
equivalent effect” in the translation of humanistic texts is nearly impossible
to achieve through all the layers that make up a TT. Translation loss usually
occurs when cultural references are at stake, but also at word or grammar
level. Although we must accept a certain amount of loss in translation, we can
also minimise it and look for corresponding gains the TT by making
compromises. Sometimes the compromise you need to make results in
unacceptable loss, so compensation has to be made.

CHAPTER 4

1.- Briefly explain the difference between strategies and techniques.

Strategies are the general procedures used by the translator to solve

specific problems that come up when they are working in a TT, and the
solutions found are to be materialised by the use of a specific translation
technique.

2.- Explain the concept of translation strategy and provide a brief

description of the most significant strategies that are used in literary
translation.

Strategies are considered to be the general procedures through which

translators solve specific problems that come up when they are working on a
TT, and the solution found is to be materialised by the use of a specific
translation technique. Strategies can be ST oriented (foreignization) or TT
oriented (domestication). The use of a particular strategy determines the
use of different techniques.

3.- Explain Source Text Oriented strategies and techniques.

The most relevant strategy used is foreignization with the techniques of:
 Literal translation: word for word, phrase for phrase, or clause for
clause.
 Equivalence: unmodified terms (e.g.: proper names).
 Borrowing: loan words from the SL (e.g.: lobby).
 Calque: literal translation of a SL linguistic item (e.g.: homeless-los sin
techo).
4.- Explain Target Text Oriented strategies and techniques.

 Domestication
 Adaptation: with the techniques of: cultural substitution,
paraphrasing, omission, appropriation, lexical recreation and variation.
 Compensation: with the techniques of: addition, expansion and
omission.
 Modulation: with the techniques of: change of concept, change of point
of view and reformulation.
 Neutralisation: with the techniques of: simplification, omission,
linguistic compression, contraction.
 Specification: with the techniques of: explicitation, addition.
 Substitution: with the techniques of: paraphrasing, description,
reduction, cultural substitution, generalisation.
 Transposition: with the techniques of: recategorization,
nominalisation, change of number, restructuring.
 Footnotes and glossaries

5.- Mention the main strategies and techniques available to deal with
the translation of humour.

The main strategies are:

 Leave the humorous element unchanged
 Replace the humorous element with a different instance of humour in
the TL
 Replace the humorous element with an idiomatic expression in the Tl
 Omit the humorous element
The techniques are:
 Pun to pun: the ST pun is translated by a TL pun
 Pun to non-pun: the pun is transferred either as a non-punning phrase,
or a paraphrase or combination of both
 Pun to related rhetorical device: the pun is rendered through a
rhetorical device (repetition, alliteration, rhyme, etc.), which tries to
recreate the effect of the ST pun.
 Pun to zero: the pun is omitted.
 St pun copied as a TT pun: the pun is kept equivalent, not translated.
 Non-pun to pun: a new pun is introduced.
 Editorial techniques: explanatory footnotes or endnotes, etc.
6.- Briefly define types of errors in translation.

 Errors in comprehension of the ST, such as unnecessary omissions or

additions, false senses, etc.
 Errors in use of the TL, such as grammar, punctuation, spelling, lexical
problems, etc.
 Pragmatic errors, such as mismatching the purpose of the translation.

CHAPTER 5

1.- Where does the difficulty of literary translation lie?

In literary translation a translator finds himself facing an individual reality

created by the writer’s imagination, so he needs to get fully immersed in that
reality, find the writer’s way to focus on it, and transfer it into a different
cultural and linguistic environment. It is like entering someone else’s
imaginative world, but a world that has been shaped by experience in a
completely different environment both linguistically and culturally. Being an
outsider himself, the translator is responsible for fully grasping the meaning
of the source text and to re-create it as near as possible to the original in
content and style and, then reproduce a coherent text for the target text
readers.

2.- Which are the main elements to bear in mind when you approach the
translation of a poem?

The main elements to bear in mind are the word and the line. The way each
word relates to the form and structure of the poem is paramount to decide
how to translate it to the TT. Also, figurative use of language through
rhetorical devices such as metaphor or simile is an essential part of poetry.

The line and the stanza, together with the style, tone, rhythm, metre,
musicality, etc., are fundamental units to cause the expected effect on the
audience.

3.- Describe the basic approaches that can be applied to the translation
of poems.

 Phonemic translation: it imitates the ST sounds while paraphrasing the

sense.
 Literal translation: it often affects the sense and the effect of the
original by disregarding the figurative use of language.
  Metrical translation: it focuses on the imitation of the ST metre, so
content, form, style, etc. may suffer
 Prose translation: it tries to render the sense as accurately and
naturally as possible, but the poetic aspects may be lost
 Rhymed translation: by focusing on imitating the rhyme of the original,
the sense and the style will be affected
 Blank/Free verse translation: the structure and the sense are kept,
but the rhyme and the metre are lost.
 Interpretation: a complete change of form through an imitation that
produces a new poem with the same title and point of departure

4.- Describe the challenges/strategies when translating prose.

Among the main challenges are: which are the main translation units and their
main function, the relevance of the source culture in the text as a whole, the
specific moral intention of the author, the translation of proper names and
of the author’s idiolect, the role of specific dialects, the distinction between
the author’s personal style, the literary conventions followed, etc.

The strategies used are:

 The ST must be considered as an integral unit, and its formal
structure must always be borne in mind.
 The various levels of equivalence need to be considered at all times
and consistently transferred in the context of the TL and culture.
 The intention of the message is a key element.
 Translators should try to avoid embellishing the original.

5.- Briefly describe the main challenges involved in the translation of

drama.

 The specific nature of the theatrical language

 The inherent characteristics of each dramatic genre
 The performance of the TT
 The particular theatrical transposition

6.- Briefly describe the textual levels to be considered in drama

translation according to Merino Alvarez.

 Macro level: it refers to the specific structure of the text that

consists of dialogue and frame, and is divided into utterances, scenes
and acts.
  Micro level: it contains the specific language included in the ST and it
affects different planes.
 Intersystemic level: it includes the analysis of previous translations
of the play, the performance, the reactions of the audience, etc.

7.- Explain how we can deal with non-standard language in literary

translation.

To deal with this kind of language, translators will make sure to understand
as fully as possible the ST dialect. Then, and bearing in mind the extremely
difficulty of the task, three options will be evaluated to be applied in each
circumstance: to select a non-standard variety in the TL which could convey
an intention similar to the one of the original version’s author; to use the
standard language and add some comments to indicate that the characters
are speaking with certain accent or in a regional or social dialect, and finally,
to ignore the dialectal utterances and simply stick to the standard language
in the TT.

8.- Briefly describe the strategies to deal with dialect in translation.

Dealing with dialect in translation often represents an important challenge.

The translator may opt for a series of general strategies as: dialect
translation, choose some form of non-standard variety in the TL to parallel
the ST characterisation. Dialect explanation opt for making reference to the
present dialect but uses standard language only. Standardization ignores the
nonstandard language in the TT. Dialect compilation, turning the SL dialect
into a mixture of TL dialect. Pseudo-dialect translation, creation of an
invented dialect. Dialect localisation, dialects, names and setting are adapted
to TL.

CHAPTER 6

1.- Briefly provide your own definition of subtitling.

Subtitling is the written transmission of an audio-visual message in a certain

language, usually through the insertion of written text at the bottom of an
image. The addition of such texts should be synchronized with the image and
soundtrack so that both channels (visual and auditory), get to the viewers at
the same time. Subtitling can be Interlingual, Intralingual and Multilingual.
2.- What is the current tendency in subtitling when it comes to
reproducing offensive and taboo language?

Translating this type of language is no easy task, especially due to its impact
on the final viewer that will see it written. For decades, translators have
tended to bring down the tone of such language, or even omit it. With time,
translators have been able to treat this language more naturally, so that the
viewers can be exposed to it the same way viewers of the original product
perceive it.