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1.
a) Two advantages of TCP:
It maintains the TCP end-to-end semantics. The SH does not send any ACK itself but forwards the
ACKs from the MH. If the MH is disconnected, it avoids useless retransmissions, slow starts or
breaking connections by simply shrinking the sender‘s window to 0.Since it does not buffer data in
the SH as I-TCP does, it is not necessary to forward buffers to a new SH. Lost packets will be
automatically retransmitted to the new SH.
To get around this, we use the RTS/CTS mechanism. A now broadcasts a Request to Send message
that asks "Can I send this message?" to all nodes within distance d. If B is free, it replies with a Clear
to Send (CTS) which makes other nodes at a distance d from B enter a back off period where they
do not transmit. However, this can also cause nodes that are within a distance d of B to enter back
off periods (e.g. B′ – even if they don't directly interfere with the transmissions between B and A.
This is called the exposed terminal problem.
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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra
e) Answers of 1.a
f) What is localization?
Localization, in cellular communication, is the technique of pinpointing the exact region or
geographic position of a user. Localization is done by cellular servers by collecting the unit (or
cellular) data of a SIM through signal towers and then correcting the precise location by various
algorithms whereby error is removed by probability.
i) What is handover?
As Figure below illustrates, transmitted signals can combine with reflected ones to corrupt the
signal detected by the receiver. This is known as multipath propagation. Delay spread is the amount
of delay experienced by the reflected signals compared to the primary signal. As delay spread
increases, the signal at the receiver becomes more distorted and possibly undetectable even when
the transmitter and receiver are within close range.
Multipath propagation decreases the quality of the signal at the receiver. Multipath propagation
can be a significant problem, especially with indoor applications. Office furniture, walls, and
machinery are obstacles that can redirect parts of the transmitted signal. Wireless LAN
manufacturers compensate for the effects of multipath propagation by using special processing
techniques. As examples, equalization and antenna diversity are methods for reducing the number
of problems arising from multipath propagation.
j) What is handover?
In cellular telecommunications, the terms handover or handoff refer to the process of transferring
an ongoing call or data session from one channel connected to the core network to another
channel.
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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra
Types of Multiplexers
There are mainly two types of multiplexers, namely analog and digital. They are further divided into
FDM, WDM, and TDM.
Analog Multiplexing
Example: A traditional television transmitter, which sends a number of channels through a single cable,
uses FDM.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing is an analog technique, in which many data streams of different
wavelengths are transmitted in the light spectrum. If the wavelength increases, the frequency of the
signal decreases.
Example: Optical fibre Communications use the WDM technique, to merge different wavelengths into
a single light for the communication.
Digital Multiplexing
The term digital represents the discrete bits of information. Hence the available data is in the form of
frames or packets, which are discrete.
In TDM, the time frame is divided into slots. This technique is used to transmit a signal over a single
communication channel, with allotting one slot for each message. Of all the types of TDM, the main
ones are Synchronous and Asynchronous TDM.
Synchronous TDM
In Synchronous TDM, the input is connected to a frame. If there are ‘n’ number of connections, then
the frame is divided into ‘n’ time slots. One slot is allocated for each input line. In this technique, the
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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra
sampling rate is common to all signals and hence same clock input is given. The mux allocates the same
slot to each device at all times.
Asynchronous TDM
In Asynchronous TDM, the sampling rate is different for each of the signals and the clock signal is also
not in common. If the allotted device, for a time-slot, transmits nothing and sits idle, then that slot is
allotted to another device, unlike synchronous.
2.OR
Digital-to-Analog signals is the next conversion we will discuss in this chapter. These techniques are also
called as Digital Modulation techniques. Digital Modulation provides more information capacity, high
data security, quicker system availability with great quality communication. Hence, digital modulation
techniques have a greater demand, for their capacity to convey larger amounts of data than analog
modulation techniques. There are many types of digital modulation techniques and also their
combinations, depending upon the need. Of them all, we will discuss the prominent ones.
The amplitude of the resultant output depends upon the input data whether it should be a zero level
or a variation of positive and negative, depending upon the carrier frequency. Amplitude Shift Keying
(ASK) is a type of Amplitude Modulation which represents the binary data in the form of variations in
the amplitude of a signal. Any modulated signal has a high frequency carrier. The binary signal when
ASK modulated, gives a zero value for Low input while it gives the carrier output for High input. The
following figure represents A SK modulated waveform along with its input.
The frequency of the output signal will be either high or low, depending upon the input data applied.
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is the digital modulation technique in which the frequency of the carrier
signal varies according to the digital signal changes. FSK is a scheme of frequency modulation.
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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra
The output of a FSK modulated wave is high in frequency for a binary High input and is low in frequency
for a binary Low input. The binary 1s and 0s are called Mark and Space frequencies. The following image
is the diagrammatic representation of FSK modulated waveform along with its input.
The phase of the output signal gets shifted depending upon the input. These are mainly of two types,
namely Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) and Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK), according to the
number of phase shifts. The other one is Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK) which changes the phase
according to the previous value. Phase Shift Keying (PSK) is the digital modulation technique in which
the phase of the carrier signal is changed by varying the sine and cosine inputs at a particular time. PSK
technique is widely used for wireless LANs, bio-metric, contactless operations, along with RFID and
Bluetooth communications. PSK is of two types, depending upon the phases the signal gets shifted.
They are −
This is also called as 2-phase PSK or Phase Reversal Keying. In this technique, the sine wave carrier takes
two phase reversals such as 0° and 180°. BPSK is basically a Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier
(DSBSC) modulation scheme, for message being the digital information.
This is the phase shift keying technique, in which the sine wave carrier takes four phase reversals such
as 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°. If this kind of techniques are further extended, PSK can be done by eight or
sixteen values also, depending upon the requirement.
BPSK Modulator
The block diagram of Binary Phase Shift Keying consists of the balance modulator which has the carrier
sine wave as one input and the binary sequence as the other input. Following is the diagrammatic
representation.
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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra
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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra
(MSC) per standard GSM, and data is sent to a new device called the SGSN via the PCU over a Frame
Relay interface.
The process that takes place in the application looks like a normal IP sub-network for the users both
inside and outside the network. The vital thing that needs attention is, the application communicates
via standard IP, that is carried through the GPRS network and out through the gateway GPRS. The
packets that are mobile between the GGSN and the SGSN use the GPRS tunnelling protocol, this way
the IP addresses located on the external side of the GPRS network do not have deal with the internal
backbone. UDP and IP are run by GTP.
Sub-Network Dependent Convergence Protocol (SNDCP) and Logical Link Control (LLC) combination
used in between the SGSN and the MS. The SNDCP flattens data to reduce the load on the radio channel.
A safe logical link by encrypting packets is provided by LLC and the same LLC link is used as long as a
mobile is under a single SGSN.
In case, the mobile moves to a new routing area that lies under a different SGSN; then, the old LLC link
is removed and a new link is established with the new Serving GSN X.25. Services are provided by
running X.25 on top of TCP/IP in the internal backbone.
3.OR
What is MANET? What are its various applications? Explain the destination sequence distance vector
routing mechanism.
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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra
Applications of MANETs:
There are many applications of MANETs. The domain of applications for MANETs is diverse, ranging
from small, static networks that are constrained by power sources to large-scale, mobile, highly
dynamic networks. Significant examples include establishing survivable, efficient, dynamic
communication for: network-centric military/battlefield environments, emergency/rescue operations,
disaster relief operations, intelligent transportation systems, conferences, fault-tolerant mobile sensor
grids, smart homes, patient monitoring, environment control, and other security sensitive applications.
Most of these applications demand a specific security guarantees and reliable communication Some
well-known applications are:
• Military Tactical Operations: For fast and possibly short-term establishment of military
communications and troop deployments in hostile and/or unknown environments.
• Search and Rescue Operations: For communication in areas with little or no wireless
infrastructure support.
• Disaster Relief Operations: For communication in environments where the existing
infrastructure is destroyed or left inoperable.
• Law Enforcement: For secure and fast communication during law enforcement operations.
• Commercial Use: For enabling communications in exhibitions, conferences and large
gatherings. For some business scenarios, the need for collaborative computing might be more
important outside office environments than inside a building. After all, it is often the case
where people do need to have outside meetings to cooperate and exchange information on a
given project.
DESTINATION-SEQUENCED DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING (DSDV)
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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra
• Full dump: This type of update packet contains all the routing information available at a node.
As a consequence, it may require several Network Protocol Data Units (NPDUs) to be
transferred if the routing table is large. Full dump packets are transmitted infrequently if the
node only experiences occasional movement.
• Incremental: This type of update packet contains only the information that has changed since
the latest full dump was sent out by the node. Hence, incremental packets only consume a
fraction of the network resources compared to a full dump.
4. Explain: Indirect TCP and Mobile TCP
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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra
Advantages of I-TCP
• No changes in the fixed network necessary, no changes for the hosts (TCP protocol) necessary, all
current optimizations to TCP still work Simple to control, mobile TCP is used only for one hop between,
e.g., a foreign agent and mobile host 1. transmission errors on the wireless link do not propagate into
the fixed network 2. therefore, a very fast retransmission of packets is possible, the short delay on the
mobile hop s known
• It is always dangerous to introduce new mechanisms in a huge network without knowing exactly how
they behave.
• New optimizations can be tested at the last hop, without jeopardizing the stability of the Internet.
It is easy to use different protocols for wired and wireless networks.
Disadvantages of I-TCP
• Loss of end-to-end semantics: - an acknowledgement to a sender no longer means that a receiver really
has received a packet, foreign agents might crash.
• Higher latency possible: - due to buffering of data within the foreign agent and forwarding to a new
foreign agent.
• Security issue: - The foreign agent must be a trusted entity
Mobile TCP
Both I-TCP and Snooping TCP does not help much, if a mobile host gets disconnected. The M-TCP
(mobile TCP) approach has the same goals as I-TCP and snooping TCP: to prevent the sender window
from shrinking if bit errors or disconnection but not congestion cause current problems. M-TCP wants
to improve overall throughput, to lower the delay, to maintain end-to-end semantics of TCP, and to
provide a more efficient handover. Additionally, M-TCP is especially adapted to the problems arising
from lengthy or frequent disconnections. M-TCP splits the TCP connection into two parts as I-TCP does.
An unmodified TCP is used on the standard host-supervisory host (SH) connection, while an optimized
TCP is used on the SH-MH connection. The SH monitors all packets sent to the MH and ACKs returned
from the MH. If the SH does not receive an ACK for some time, it assumes that the MH is disconnected.
It then chokes the sender by setting the sender’s window size to 0. Setting the window size to 0 forces
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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra
the sender to go into persistent mode, i.e., the state of the sender will not change no matter how long
the receiver is disconnected. This means that the sender will not try to retransmit data. As soon as the
SH (either the old SH or a new SH) detects connectivity again, it reopens the window of the sender to
the old value. The sender can continue sending at full speed. This mechanism does not require changes
to the sender’s TCP. The wireless side uses an adapted TCP that can recover from packet loss much
faster. This modified TCP does not use slow start; thus, M-TCP needs a bandwidth manager to
implement fair sharing over the wireless link.
Advantages of M-TCP:
• It maintains the TCP end-to-end semantics. The SH does not send any ACK itself but forwards the
ACKs from the MH.
• If the MH is disconnected, it avoids useless retransmissions, slow starts or breaking connections by
simply shrinking the sender’s window to 0.
• As no buffering is done as in I-TCP, there is no need to forward buffers to a new SH. Lost packets
will be automatically retransmitted to the SH.
Disadvantages of M-TCP:
• As the SH does not act as proxy as in I-TCP, packet loss on the wireless link due to bit errors is
propagated to the sender. M-TCP assumes low bit error rates, which is not always a valid
assumption.
• A modified TCP on the wireless link not only requires modifications to the MH protocol software
but also new network elements like the bandwidth manager.
4.OR
Explain: Handover, Authentication and Security in GSM.
Handovers are a core element in planning and deploying cellular networks. It allows users to create
data sessions or connect phone calls on the move. This process keeps the calls and data sessions
connected even if a user moves from one cell site to another.
GSM is the most secured cellular telecommunications system available today. GSM has its security
methods standardized. GSM maintains end-to-end security by retaining the confidentiality of calls and
anonymity of the GSM subscriber.
Temporary identification numbers are assigned to the subscriber’s number to maintain the privacy of
the user. The privacy of the communication is maintained by applying encryption algorithms and
frequency hopping that can be enabled using digital systems and signalling.
This chapter gives an outline of the security measures implemented for GSM subscribers.
The GSM network authenticates the identity of the subscriber through the use of a challenge-response
mechanism. A 128-bit Random Number (RAND) is sent to the MS. The MS computes the 32-bit Signed
Response (SRES) based on the encryption of the RAND with the authentication algorithm (A3) using the
individual subscriber authentication key (Ki). Upon receiving the SRES from the subscriber, the GSM
network repeats the calculation to verify the identity of the subscriber. The individual subscriber
authentication key (Ki) is never transmitted over the radio channel, as it is present in the subscriber's
SIM, as well as the AUC, HLR, and VLR databases. If the received SRES agrees with the calculated value,
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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra
the MS has been successfully authenticated and may continue. If the values do not match, the
connection is terminated and an authentication failure is indicated to the MS. The calculation of the
signed response is processed within the SIM. It provides enhanced security, as confidential subscriber
information such as the IMSI or the individual subscriber authentication key (Ki) is never released from
the SIM during the authentication process.
The SIM contains the ciphering key generating algorithm (A8) that is used to produce the 64-bit
ciphering key (Kc). This key is computed by applying the same random number (RAND) used in the
authentication process to ciphering key generating algorithm (A8) with the individual subscriber
authentication key (Ki). GSM provides an additional level of security by having a way to change the
ciphering key, making the system more resistant to eavesdropping. The ciphering key may be changed
at regular intervals as required. As in case of the authentication process, the computation of the
ciphering key (Kc) takes place internally within the SIM. Therefore, sensitive information such as the
individual subscriber authentication key (Ki) is never revealed by the SIM. Encrypted voice and data
communications between the MS and the network is accomplished by using the ciphering algorithm
A5. Encrypted communication is initiated by a ciphering mode request command from the GSM
network. Upon receipt of this command, the mobile station begins encryption and decryption of data
using the ciphering algorithm (A5) and the ciphering key (Kc).
To ensure subscriber identity confidentiality, the Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) is used.
Once the authentication and encryption procedures are done, the TMSI is sent to the mobile station.
After the receipt, the mobile station responds. The TMSI is valid in the location area in which it was
issued. For communications outside the location area, the Location Area Identification (LAI) is necessary
in addition to the TMSI.
5. Explain the system architecture and protocol architecture of IEEE 802.11 system.
IEEE 802.11:
IEEE 802.11 is a set of media access control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY) specifications for
implementing wireless local area network (WLAN) computer communication in the 900 MHz and 2.4,
3.6, 5, and 60 GHz frequency bands. The IEEE developed an international standard for WLANs. The
802.11 standard focuses on the bottom two layers of the OSI model, the physical layer (PHY) and data
link layer (DLL). The objective of the IEEE 802.11 standard was to define a medium access control (MAC)
sublayer, MAC management protocols and services, and three PHYs for wireless connectivity of fixed,
portable, and moving devices within a local area. The three physical layers are an IR baseband PHY, an
FHSS radio in the 2.4 GHz band, and a DSSS radio in the 2.4 GHz.
802.11 Features:
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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra
The architecture of the IEEE 802.11 WLAN is designed to support a network where most decision making
is distributed to mobile stations. Two network architectures are defined in the IEEE 802.11 standard:
• Infrastructure network: An
infrastructure network is the network
architecture for providing
communication between wireless
clients and wired network resources.
The transition of data from the
wireless to wired medium occurs via
an AP. An AP and its associated
wireless clients define the coverage
area. Together all the devices form a
basic service set (see Figure 21.5).
• At the physical layer, IEEE 802.11 defines three physical characteristics for WLANs:
• Diffused infrared (baseband), DSSS, and FHSS. All three support a 1 to 2 Mbps data rate. Both
DSSS and FHSS use the 2.4 GHz ISM band (2.4–2.4835 GHz). The physical layer provides three
levels of functionality.
• These include: (1) frame exchange between the MAC and PHY under the control of the physical
layer convergence procedure (PLCP) sublayer; (2) use of signal carrier and spread spectrum
(SS) modulation to transmit data frames over the media under the control of the physical
medium dependent (PMD) sublayer; and (3) providing a carrier sense indication back to the
MAC to verify activity on the media (see Figure 2).
DSSS PHY:
• In the DSSS PHY, data
transmission over the
media is controlled by
the PMD sublayer as
directed by the PLCP
sublayer.
• The PMD sublayer
takes the binary
information bits from
the PLCP protocol data
unit (PPDU) and
converts them into RF
signals by using modulation and DSSS techniques (see Figure 2).
• In the PPDU frame, which consists of a PLCP preamble, PLCP header, and MAC protocol data
unit (MPDU). The PLCP preamble and PLCP header are always transmitted at 1 Mbps, and the
MPDU can be sent at 1 or 2 Mbps.
• The start of frame delimiter (SFD) contains information that marks the start of the PPDU frame.
The SFD specified is common for all IEEE 802.11 DSSS radios.
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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra
• The signal field indicates which modulation scheme should be used to receive the incoming
MPDU. The binary value in this field is equal to the data rate multiplied by 100 kbps.
• The service field is reserved for future use. The length field indicates the number of
microseconds necessary to transmit the MPDU. The MAC layer uses this field to determine the
end of a PPDU frame.
• The CRC field contains the results of a calculated frame check sequence from the sending
station.
FHSS PHY:
• In FHSS PHY, data transmission over media is controlled by the FHSS PMD sublayer as directed
by the FHSS PLCP sublayer. The FHSS PMD takes the binary information bits from the whitened
PSDU and converts them into RF signals by using carrier modulation and FHSS techniques.
• The format of the PPDU is shown in Figure 3. It is consisting of the PLCP preamble, PLCP header,
and PLCP service data unit (PSDU). The PLCP preamble is used to acquire the incoming signal
and synchronize the receiver’s demodulator.
• The PLCP header contains information about PSDU from the sending physical layer. The PLCP
preamble and header are transmitted at 1 Mbps.
• The sync field contains a string of alternating 0s and 1s pattern and is used by the receiver to
synchronize the receiver’s packet timing and correct for frequency offsets.
• The SFD field contains information marking the start of a PSDU frame.
• FHSS radios use a 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 bit pattern. The leftmost bit is transmitted first.
• The PLCP length word (PLW) field specifies the length of the PSDU in octets and is used by the
MAC layer to detect the end of a PPDU frame.
• The PLCP signaling field (PSF) identifies the data rate of the whitened PSDU ranging from 1 to
4.5 Mbps in increments of 0.5 Mbps.
• The header error check field contains the results of a calculated frame check sequence from
the sending station.
• Data whitening is used for the PSDU before transmission to minimize DC bias on the data if
long strings of 1s or 0s are contained in the PSDU. The PHY stuffs a special symbol every 4
octets of the PDSU in a PPDU frame.
5.OR. Explain the protocol architecture of GSM with signalling protocols and interferences.
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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra
Based on the interface, the GSM signalling protocol is assembled into three general layers:
Layer 1: The physical layer. It uses the channel structures over the air interface.
Layer 2: The data-link layer. Across the Um interface, the data-link layer is a modified version of the
Link access protocol for the D channel (LAP-D) protocol used in ISDN, called Link access protocol on the
Dm channel (LAP-Dm). Across the A interface, the Message Transfer Part (MTP), Layer 2 of SS7 is used.
Layer 3: GSM signalling protocol’s third layer is divided into three sublayers:
MS to BTS Protocols
The RR layer is the lower layer that manages a link, both radio and fixed, between the MS and the MSC.
For this formation, the main components involved are the MS, BSS, and MSC. The responsibility of the
RR layer is to manage the RR-session, the time when a mobile is in a dedicated mode, and the radio
channels including the allocation of dedicated channels. The MM layer is stacked above the RR layer. It
handles the functions that arise from the mobility of the subscriber, as well as the authentication and
security aspects. Location management is concerned with the procedures that enable the system to
know the current location of a powered-on MS so that incoming call routing can be completed. The CM
layer is the topmost layer of the GSM protocol stack. This layer is responsible for Call Control,
Supplementary Service Management, and Short Message Service Management. Each of these services
are treated as individual layer within the CM layer. Other functions of the CC sublayer include call
establishment, selection of the type of service (including alternating between services during a call),
and call release.
BSC Protocols
The BSC uses a different set of protocols after receiving the data from the BTS. The Abis interface is
used between the BTS and BSC. At this level, the radio resources at the lower portion of Layer 3 are
changed from the RR to the Base Transceiver Station Management (BTSM). The BTS management layer
is a relay function at the BTS to the BSC. The RR protocols are responsible for the allocation and
reallocation of traffic channels between the MS and the BTS. These services include controlling the
initial access to the system, paging for MT calls, the handover of calls between cell sites, power control,
and call termination. The BSC still has some radio resource management in place for the frequency
coordination, frequency allocation, and the management of the overall network layer for the Layer 2
interfaces. To transit from the BSC to the MSC, the BSS mobile application part or the direct application
part is used, and SS7 protocols is applied by the relay, so that the MTP 1-3 can be used as the prime
architecture.
MSC Protocols
At the MSC, starting from the BSC, the information is mapped across the A interface to the MTP Layers
1 through 3. Here, Base Station System Management Application Part (BSS MAP) is said to be the
equivalent set of radio resources. The relay process is finished by the layers that are stacked on top of
Layer 3 protocols, they are BSS MAP/DTAP, MM, and CM. This completes the relay process. To find and
connect to the users across the network, MSCs interact using the control-signalling network. Location
registers are included in the MSC databases to assist in the role of determining how and whether
connections are to be made to roaming users. Each GSM MS user is given a HLR that in turn comprises
of the user’s location and subscribed services. VLR is a separate register that is used to track the location
of a user. When the users move out of the HLR covered area, the VLR is notified by the MS to find the
location of the user. The VLR in turn, with the help of the control network, signals the HLR of the MS’s
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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra
new location. With the help of location information contained in the user’s HLR, the MT calls can be
routed to the user.
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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra
• Code Line 17: Using request object, we are getting the session object of that particular
session, and we get the object value of that session
• Code Line 19: Using request object, we are getting locale of that particular session i.een_US
locale for that JSP.
• Code Line 21: Using request object, we are getting path info for that JSP. In this case, it is
null as there is no path for URL mentioned.
• Code Line 23: Using request object, we are getting context path, i.e., root path
• Code Line 25: Using request object, we are getting the server name.
• Code Line 27: Using request object, we are getting server port.
• Code Line 29-35: Using request object, we are getting header names which come out as
enumeration, and hence we get all header values in the header names.
6.OR. Explain pervasive web application architecture. What do you mean by device independent web
application, give Example?
The model-view-controller (MVC) pattern is a good choice when implementing Web applications.
• Standard mapping of the pattern to servlets, JSPs, and EJBs, where controller is implemented as a
servlet, the model implemented as a secure EJBs, and the views as JSPs.
• As devices are very different from each other, we can assume that one controller will fit all device
classes. In the MVC pattern the controller encapsulates the dialog flow of an application.
• This flow will be different for different classes of devices, such as WAP phone, voice-only phones,
PCs, or PDAs.
• Thus, we need different controller for different classes of devices.
• To support multiple controllers, we replace the servlet's role to that of a simple dispatcher that
invokes the appropriate controller depending on the type of device being used.
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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra
Building web applications for mobile and other non-desktop devices using established methods
often requires a tremendous development effort. One of the major challenges is to find sound
software engineering approaches enabling the cost-efficient application development for multiple
devices of varying technical characteristics. A new approach is to single author web content in a
device independent mark-up language, which gets then adapted to meet the special
characteristics of the accessing device. This paper describes our approach to single authoring,
which was developed in the course a large European research project. The project has developed
device-independent language profile based on XHTML 2.0 and implemented a compliant
rendering engine.
Adaptability is an important issue when building software of any sort. Requirements change
between the time when the customers say what they want and the time when the software is
actually delivered. The software that is being built must be adaptable in respect to:
• Extensibility (i.e., the ability to change a system’s capabilities in amount, but not in kind)
• Flexibility (i.e., the ability to change a system’s capabilities in kind)
• Fixability (i.e., the ability to fix a system without “breaking” other parts)
Adaptability is not only important because requirements change. It states that adaptation is the
key to mobile information access. For web-based applications one more adaptability issue must
also be considered: device independence. One way to achieve device independence in a web
application is by completely separating the user interface (i.e., layout) from the application logic.
The layout (or user interface) of a web application is the formatting information with which the
content is formatted for presentation (e.g., fonts, graphics, buttons, tables, etc.). The business
logic (or application logic) is the functionality that is necessary for providing the dynamic
interaction with the users.
1. 2 * 10 = 20
2. 10
3. 10
4. 10
5. 10
6. 10
Total = 70
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