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INSTRUMENT COMMUNICATIONS
INSTRUMENT COMMUNICATIONS (ID-017)
REVISI0N HISTORY
Revision Number Date Comments

Rev: 0 03-11-04
TTE Scotland Review
Rev. 1 24-02-05 Signed Off by Iain Adamson 28-02-05
ISSUE 1
Amended by Frank Hanson
Rev: 2 10-08-09
ISSUE 2
Rev: 3 06-07-10 Revised by Norman Hanley
REV 3: Instrument Communications (ID-017) Page 2 of 70

TOPICS COVERED INCLUDE
 Protocols; e.g. ModBus, Ethernet
 Baud Rate
 Multiplexing
 HART
 Network Topologies
 RS232 / RS485 interfacing

CONTENTS
1. WHAT IS DIGITAL DATA COMMUNICATION?
1.1. DIGITAL DATA REPRESENTATION
1.1.1. PARALLEL TRANSMISSION
1.1.2. SERIAL TRANSMISSION
1.2. BITS & BYTES, NUMBERING SYSTEMS
1.2.1. OCTAL NUMBERING SYSTEM
1.2.2. HEXADECIMAL NUMBERING SYSTEM
1.3. COMMUNICATION INTERFACE &TRANSMISSION PROTOCOLS
1.3.1. COMMUNICATION INTERFACE
1.3.2. TRANSMISSION PROTCOLS
1.4. CABLING TECHNOLOGY
1.4.1. TWISTED PAIR CABLE
1.4.2. COAX CABLES
1.4.3. FIBRE OPTIC CABLES
1.4.4. MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION AND WAVEGUIDE
2. TRANSMISSION & COMMUNICATION
2.1. BIT RATE
2.2. BAUD RATE
3. SERIAL TRANSMISSION METHODS
3.1. SIMPLEX TRANSMISSION
3.2. HALF DUPLEX TRANSMISSION
3.3. FULL DUPLEX TRANSMISSION
4. MULTIPLEXING

4.1. FREQUENCY-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (FDM)
4.2. TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (TDM)
5. HART PROTOCOL
5.1. DIGITISING ANALOGUE SIGNALS
5.2. FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING
5.3. FLEXIBLE APPLICATION
6. NETWORKING
6.1. NETWORK COMPONENTS
6.2. FORMS OF NETWORK
6.3. NETWORKING TERMINOLOGY
6.4. TOPOLOGY
6.4.1. ARCHITECTURE
6.4.2. MEDIUM
6.4.3. NODE
6.4.4. STATION / WORKSTATION
6.4.5. GATEWAY
6.4.6. BRIDGE
6.4.7. ROUTERS
6.4.8. TYPES OF NETWORK
6.4.9. MASTER/SLAVE NETWORKS
6.4.10. COMMUNCATIONS NETWORK LOGICAL DIAGRAM – ONSHORE &

OFFSHORE
6.4.11. ONSHORE
6.4.12. ONSHORE/OFFSHORE INTERFACE
6.4.13. OFFSHORE
6.5. PIPELINES
6.5.1. WESTERN PIPELINE ROUTE

6.5.2. TERRESTRIAL MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION LINKS
6.5.3. SATELLITE MICROWAVE
6.5.4. THE GROUND STATION
6.5.5. VSAT (VERY SMALL APERTURE TERMINAL) SATELLITE

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
6.5.6. KU BAND- FIXED SATELLITE SERVICE (FSS)
6.5.7. KU BAND - BROADCASTING SATELLITE SERVICE (BSS)
7. GLOSSARY OF TERMS

1. WHAT IS DIGITAL DATA COMMUNICATION?
Digital Data communications is the process of communicating information

in binary form between two or more points.
The information interchanged today is primarily between:
 computer to computer
 computer and terminal
 computer and peripherals
Terminal can be a VDU/keyboard or instrument interface.
Peripheral can be a printer, storage/memory device, drawing plotter.
Basic elements of Digital Data communications systems are:
Sender to send a message or instruction
Receiver to accept the message or instruction
Transmission to carry the message or instruction medium

Protocol communication co-operation between sender and
receiver
Receipt check has the transmission of the message been error free
has the message been successfully received
Advances in semiconductor technology have led to faster and more complex

computer and peripheral devices. Various multimedia applications have
evolved, enabling the transmission of information such as:

 Process data
 Video
 Facsimile images of documents
 Voice
Advances in transmission medium with wire-cable technologies and the

introduction of optical fibre cables, have led to a rapid expansion in the ability
to pass vast amounts of data at very high speeds between one location and
another.
Messages or instructions sent are simply binary numbers, 1 or 0. Can be

thought of as a change of state or level. A change from one state to another;
high level to low level, low level to high level, +voltage level to 0volt, 0 volt to
+volt, -volt to +volt, +volt to –volt. The binary data can be gathered into
characters represented by the keys on a keyboard (ASCII code) or, a binary
group representing another value or computer control command.
1.1. DIGITAL DATA REPRESENTATION
Digital data uses binary numbering system – 0 and 1 – to form the basis of all
digital information handled by computers and computer related equipment,
called peripherals.
The data can be sent one digit – 0 state or 1 state – at a time, one digit (BIT)
after another. This is called SERIAL transmission. Several digits (BITS) of
data sent in a group at the same time is called PARALLEL transmission.
Serial and Parallel transmission is shown in Figures 3 and 4, see below. Here
the letter K is shown in a code format called ASCII; American Standard Code
for Information Interchange, see table 1 below.

1.1.1. PARALLEL TRANSMISSION
Figures1 and 3 show an 8 wire, parallel arrangement, which provides 8

voltage signals to represent the letter K (capital) in ASCII format. The change
in voltage levels on each wire can be set up to represent all the letters of the
alphabet and numerals 0 to 9. Included with the 8 wires would be some
computer control wires to allow the computer to know the condition of the
terminal or peripheral.
Parallel Data Lines
D0
D1
D2
D3
Device A D4 Device B
D5
D6
D7
CLK
Figure 1
To communicate this parallel information a computer will have a multi-pin

socket into which a multi-pin plug from a communications cable is inserted. At
the other end of the communications cable is an identical multi-pin plug,
which is inserted into a multi-pin socket in a terminal or peripheral device.
Parallel communications cable is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2
Parallel connection is often referred to as “Centronics”.

Wire 1 BIT 1 = 1
2 BIT 2 = 1
3 BIT 3 = 0
4 BIT 4 = 1
5 BIT 5 = 0
6 BIT 6 = 0
7 BIT 7 = 1
8 BIT 8 = 0
Timing Clock
a – Parallel Transfer of ASCII “K”, Even Parity
Figure 3
The information is “clocked” through to the receiving device. A pulse timing is

developed by raising the voltage level to represent a “1” and using a clock
pulse to time the transmission from computer to receiving device. Deciding
which wires, lines, are set to “1” or left at “0”, is determined by the ASCII
code; refer to Table 1 for examples of lower case letter coding

Dec
Hex Oct Bin Dec Hex Oct Bin Dec Hex Oct Bin Dec Hex Oct Bin
0 0 000 00000000 16 10 020 00010000 32 20 040 00100000 48 30 060 00110000

1 1 001 00000001 17 11 021 00010001 33 21 041 00100001 49 31 061 00110001
2 2 002 00000010 18 12 022 00010010 34 22 042 00100010 50 32 062 00110010
3 3 003 00000011 19 13 023 00010011 35 23 043 00100011 51 33 063 00110011
4 4 004 00000100 20 14 024 00010100 36 24 044 00100100 52 34 064 00110100
5 5 005 00000101 21 15 025 00010101 37 25 045 00100101 53 35 065 00110101
6 6 006 00000110 22 16 026 00010110 38 26 046 00100110 54 36 066 00110110
7 7 007 00000111 23 17 027 00010111 39 27 047 00100111 55 37 067 00110111
8 8 010 00001000 24 18 030 00011000 40 28 050 00101000 56 38 070 00111000
9 9 011 00001001 25 19 031 00011001 41 29 051 00101001 57 39 071 00111001
10 A 012 00001010 26 1A 032 00011010 42 2A 052 00101010 58 3A 072 00111010
11 B 013 00001011 27 1B 033 00011011 43 2B 053 00101011 59 3B 073 00111011
12 C 014 00001100 28 1C 034 00011100 44 2C 054 00101100 60 3C 074 00111100
13 D 015 00001101 29 1D 035 00011101 45 2D 055 00101101 61 3D 075 00111101
14 E 016 00001110 30 1E 036 00011110 46 2E 056 00101110 62 3E 076 00111110
15 F 017 00001111 31 1F 037 00011111 47 2F 057 00101111 63 3F 077 00111111
Dec Hex Oct Bin Dec Hex Oct Bin Dec Hex Oct Bin Dec Hex Oct Bin
64 40 100 01000000 80 50 120 01010000 96 60 140 01100000 112 70 160 01110000

65 41 101 01000001 81 51 121 01010001 97 61 141 01100001 113 71 161 01110001
66 42 102 01000010 82 52 122 01010010 98 62 142 01100010 114 72 162 01110010
67 43 103 01000011 83 53 123 01010011 99 63 143 01100011 115 73 163 01110011
68 44 104 01000100 84 54 124 01010100 100 64 144 01100100 116 74 164 01110100
69 45 105 01000101 85 55 125 01010101 101 65 145 01100101 117 75 165 01110101
70 46 106 01000110 86 56 126 01010110 102 66 146 01100110 118 76 166 01110110
71 47 107 01000111 87 57 127 01010111 103 67 147 01100111 119 77 167 01110111
72 48 110 01001000 88 58 130 01011000 104 68 150 01101000 120 78 170 01111000
73 49 111 01001001 89 59 131 01011001 105 69 151 01101001 121 79 171 01111001
74 4A 112 01001010 90 5A 132 01011010 106 6A 152 01101010 122 7A 172 01111010
75 4B 113 01001011 91 5B 133 01011011 107 6B 153 01101011 123 7B 173 01111011
76 4C 114 01001100 92 5C 134 01011100 108 6C 154 01101100 124 7C 174 01111100
77 4D 115 01001101 93 5D 135 01011101 109 6D 155 01101101 125 7D 175 01111101
78 4E 116 01001110 94 5E 136 01011110 110 6E 156 01101110 126 7E 176 01111110
79 4F 117 01001111 95 5F 137 01011111 111 6F 157 01101111 127 7F 177 01111111
Table 1 - ASCII Code (lower case part)

128 80 200 10000000 144 90 220 10010000 160 A0 240 10100000 176 B0 260 10110000
129 81 201 10000001 145 91 221 10010001 161 A1 241 10100001 177 B1 261 10110001
130 82 202 10000010 146 92 222 10010010 162 A2 242 10100010 178 B2 262 10110010
131 83 203 10000011 147 93 223 10010011 163 A3 243 10100011 179 B3 263 10110011
132 84 204 10000100 148 94 224 10010100 164 A4 244 10100100 180 B4 264 10110100
133 85 205 10000101 149 95 225 10010101 165 A5 245 10100101 181 B5 265 10110101
134 86 206 10000110 150 96 226 10010110 166 A6 246 10100110 182 B6 266 10110110
135 87 207 10000111 151 97 227 10010111 167 A7 247 10100111 183 B7 267 10110111
136 88 210 10001000 152 98 230 10011000 168 A8 250 10101000 184 B8 270 10111000
137 89 211 10001001 153 99 231 10011001 169 A9 251 10101001 185 B9 271 10111001
138 8A 212 10001010 154 9A 232 10011010 170 AA 252 10101010 186 BA 272 10111010
139 8B 213 10001011 155 9B 233 10011011 171 AB 253 10101011 187 BB 273 10111011
140 8C 214 10001100 156 9C 234 10011100 172 AC 254 10101100 188 BC 274 10111100
141 8D 215 10001101 157 9D 235 10011101 173 AD 255 10101101 189 BD 275 10111101
142 8E 216 10001110 158 9E 236 10011110 174 AE 256 10101110 190 BE 276 10111110
143 8F 217 10001111 159 9F 237 10011111 175 AF 257 10101111 191 BF 277 10111111
192 C0 300 11000000 208 D0 320 11010000 224 E0 340 11100000 240 F0 360 11110000
193 C1 301 11000001 209 D1 321 11010001 225 E1 341 11100001 241 F1 361 11110001
194 C2 302 11000010 210 D2 322 11010010 226 E2 342 11100010 242 F2 362 11110010
195 C3 303 11000011 211 D3 323 11010011 227 E3 343 11100011 243 F3 363 11110011
196 C4 304 11000100 212 D4 324 11010100 228 E4 344 11100100 244 F4 364 11110100
197 C5 305 11000101 213 D5 325 11010101 229 E5 345 11100101 245 F5 365 11110101
198 C6 306 11000110 214 D6 326 11010110 230 E6 346 11100110 246 F6 366 11110110
199 C7 307 11000111 215 D7 327 11010111 231 E7 347 11100111 247 F7 367 11110111
200 C8 310 11001000 216 D8 330 11011000 232 E8 350 11101000 248 F8 370 11111000
201 C9 311 11001001 217 D9 331 11011001 233 E9 351 11101001 249 F9 371 11111001
202 CA 312 11001010 218 DA 332 11011010 234 EA 352 11101010 250 FA 372 11111010
203 CB 313 11001011 219 DB 333 11011011 235 EB 353 11101011 251 FB 373 11111011
204 CC 314 11001100 220 DC 334 11011100 236 EC 354 11101100 252 FC 374 11111100
205 CD 315 11001101 221 DD 335 11011101 237 ED 355 11101101 253 FD 375 11111101
206 CE 316 11001110 222 DE 336 11011110 238 EE 356 11101110 254 FE 376 11111110
207 CF 317 11001111 223 DF 337 11011111 239 EF 357 11101111 255 FF 377 11111111
1.1.2. SERIAL TRANSMISSION
Serial communication is basically the transmission or reception of data one bit

at a time.
Serial transmission is used for transmission over long distances, which

require repeater equipment to compensate for signal loss along the
transmission cable.
To save on cable size and cost, a serial communications interface was

designed in the early days of computer technology development. This uses a
4-wire, 2-twisted pair, cabling instead of 8-wire + control wire cable.

Mark Start Stop
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
Space
b – Serial Transfer of ASCII “K”, Even Parity
Figure 4
The ASCII information is sequentially transmitted as shown in Figure 3. The series of

“1” and “0” data are framed with START and STOP markers to indicate to the
receiving device an ASCII character has been sent. Changing the data signal levels
between the STOP and START markers allows different letters, numbers or symbols,
as laid out in the full ASCII code, to be sent from the computer to the receiving
device.
1.2. BITS & BYTES, NUMBERING SYSTEMS
Each timed level change in the data sent is called a BIT; “0” bit, “1” bit.
A collection of 4 bits is called a NIBBLE.
A collection of 8 bits is called a BYTE.
A collection of 16 bits is called a WORD.
When dealing with binary numbers, especially 16 bit and 32 bit numbers, the
amount of the “1” and “0”’s is large and can be difficult to read. To overcome
this problem, computer programmers and engineers use other number
systems called octal and hexadecimal.
The normal numbering system is 0 to 9, called decimal, which is to a base of

ten digits.
Binary numbering system is based on 0 and 1, two states. Can be

represented by 20 and 21.

1.2.1. OCTAL NUMBERING SYSTEM
Octal numbering system is based on 3 binary digits. This combination gives 23

value states, 8 in total. Examples of Octal numbering is given in Table 1 (Please refer to
1.2.2. HEXADECIMAL NUMBERING SYSTEM
Hexadecimal numbering system is based on 4 binary digits. This combination gives

24 value states, 16 in total. With sixteen digits in each unit of the numbering system, it
is practice to use letters from decimal 10 to decimal 15, number decimal 16 become
hexadecimal 20. Examples of Hexadecimal numbering is given in Table 1 (Please refer
to Table 1 - ASCII Code (lower case part)

1.3. COMMUNICATION INTERFACE &TRANSMISSION PROTOCOLS
Communication Interface is hardware connections and circuits, which route

the information signals between devices. Standards are written to enable
manufacturers to design and manufacture equipment that conform to those
Standards and equipment can connect and communicate.
Transmission Protocol is the name given to the software rules and

procedures for making sure transmission between two devices happens and
errors are detected.
1.3.1. COMMUNICATION INTERFACE
Most common communication interface is RS232 written by the Electronics

Industry Association (EIA). Limitations with RS232 resulted in the Standard
being changed to accommodate multiple device serial communication on a
single cable network. RS422 and RS485 were written, but RS485 is more
used in the Process Industry. Later, another communications standard was
developed called Ethernet. This interface hardware allowed faster
communication with added control features.

RS232
RS-232 stands for “Recommend Standard number 232”, and “C” is the latest
revision of the standard. The RS232 specification governs the physical and
electrical characteristics of serial communications.
The full RS-232C standard specifies a 25-pin "D" connector of which 22 pins
are used. Refer to figure 5.
Figure 5
The serial ports on most computers use a subset of the RS-232C standard.
Most of these pins are not needed for normal PC communications. Most new
PCs are equipped with male D type connectors having only 9 pins, refer to
Figure 6.
Figure 6 - RS-232/V.24 pin out on a DB-9 pin used for Asynchronous Data
Figure 7 shows the pin layout for a 9-pin RS232 connection. Data is
transmitted through connection to terminals 3 and 5 and data received
through connection to terminals 2 and 5.

Figure 7
In figure 7 it is seen that there are several other connections, which allow
communications control to prevent information being transmitted when the
terminal or instrument receiving data is not ready.
Computer can request to send and waits on a response data terminal

ready and clear to send. Those signals will be binary changes in signal level,
which will be a predefined timed change, forming a digital pulse. When the
computer or receiving device sees the change, a rise in voltage level, there is
a short delay before acting on the input signal.
There are operational limitations to RS232 Standard. The circuits designed to

deliver the transmission signal only operate over short lengths of cable and
the rate of transmission is slow. There is also a electrical noise problem with
cable and electronic technology used. Refer to Figure 8.

Figure 8
To overcome these limitations other Standards were produced. See table 4

below.

Specifications RS232 RS423 RS422 RS485
Mode of SINGLE SINGLE
DIFFERENTIAL DIFFERENTIAL
Operation ENDED ENDED
Total Number of
Drivers and
1 DRIVER 1 DRIVER 1 DRIVER 32 DRIVERS
Receivers on
One Line (One
1 10 10 32
driver active at a
RECEIVER RECEIVERS RECEIVERS RECEIVERS
time for RS485
networks)
Maximum Cable
15M 1,200 M 1,200M 1,200M
Length
Maximum Data
Rate (40ft. – 10Mb/s- 10Mb/s-
20kb/s 100kb/s
4000ft. for 100Kb/s 100Kb/s
RS422/RS485)
Maximum Driver
+/-25V +/-6V -0.25V to +6V -7V to +12V
Output Voltage
Driver Output
+/-5V to +/-
Signal Level +/-3.6V +/-2.0V +/-1.5V
15V
(Loaded Min.)
Driver Output
Signal Level +/-25V +/-6V +/-6V +/-6V
(Unloaded Max)
Table 2
RS485
The other most common communication standard used in the Process

Industry is RS485. Some of the electrical parameters are listed in Figure 4.
The Standard also allows for multiple devices to be NETWORKED with the
computer. This is not possible with RS232, which is a single communication
loop configuration. Refer to Figure 8.

RS485 is a network, multi-drop Standard with differential signal lines, which is
not how RS232 is operated. RS 485 signal lines are separately driven, which
allows for signal noise rejection at input of the receiving equipment. Noise
current induced in one wire will cancel the identical noise induced in the other
wire of a twisted pair cable.
Figure 9
Figure 10 illustrates the multi-drop network connection of several devices,

which need to communicate with each other or a mainframe computer
system.

Figure 10
Ethernet
Xerox Corporation developed the original Ethernet Standard as an

experimental coaxial cable network in the 1970s. The Standard was intended
for use with occasionally busy communication requirements. Success with
that project attracted early attention and led, in1980, to a joint development of
Ethernet Version 1.0 specification by three American companies: Digital
Equipment Corporation, Intel Corporation, and Xerox Corporation. The
International Standard now used is IEEE 802.3 standard, which is very similar
to Ethernet Version 1.0 specification.
Segment lengths were limited to 500 meters, and up to 100 devices could be
connected to a single network. Individual segments could be interconnected
with repeaters. Basically, amplifiers used to match cable specifications. As
long as multiple paths did not exist between any two stations on the network
and the number of devices did not exceed 1024 the network arrangement
operated. Refer to Figure 11.

Figure 11
Figure 11 illustrates a BUS network where the devices are “daisy chained”
with the cable used to transmit the data signals. Figure 12 illustrates another
network arrangement called star-connected.
Figure 12
Although new networks are no longer connected in a bus configuration, some

older bus-connected networks do still exist and are still useful. Since the early
1990s, the network configuration of choice has been the STAR-CONNECTED
network shown in Figure 12. The central network device is a multi-port
repeater, also known as a HUB. All connections in a star network are point-to-
point links implemented with twisted-pair cable (screened or unscreened),
coax cable (screened) or optical fibre cable.

1.3.2. TRANSMISSION PROTOCOLS
Protocols are procedures, which allow computer equipment to communicate

with each other in a “common language”. People use the same language to
communicate, such as Azeri, Russian, German, French, English. If two
people talk different languages they cannot communicate. This also applies
to computers.
Most Interface methods, already discussed, have some protocol already built
into their use. With RS232 we saw some additional signals that helped the
control of data between computer and peripheral device. This simple form of
protocol is called “handshaking” as the equipment will talk and agree to send
and receive when they are each in turn ready to communicate.
As connecting computers and peripherals has become more complex,

protocols have developed complex programming to allow for error checking
and correction, addressing of devices on common serial networks, providing
protection from unwanted access to equipment and information.
In industry the common protocol systems are:
 MODBUS
 PROFIBUS
 TCP/IP
During communications on a network, the protocol determines how;
Each controlling device will know its device address,
Recognise a message addressed to it,
Decide the kind of action to be taken from the message,
Extract any data or other information contained in the message

Modbus
Modbus was developed by Modicon to allow Programmable Logic Controllers

(PLC) to communicate with computers. PLC devices were produced to use
electronic and microprocessor technology to control the sequencing of
electrical equipment. Stand-alone relays and timers once did this sequencing.
Programmable Controllers (PLC) can now communicate with each other and
with other devices over a variety of network configurations. Networks are
accessed using built-in circuits in the controllers and network adapters.
Modbus protocol defines a message structure that controllers will recognize

and use, regardless of the type of networks over which they communicate. It
describes the process a controller uses;
 To request access to another device,
 How it will respond to requests from the other devices,
 How errors will be detected and reported
 It establishes a common format for the layout and contents of

message fields.
Modbus is mainly used to transfer digital actions. It was then extended to read
and transmit analogue values. Each digital and analogue function has an
address within the Modbus protocol. Not to be confused with the network
address of the communicating devices. Those Modbus addresses are
MAPPED into tables of digital and analogue functions. Identical tables are
stored in both communicating devices. The table format must be in the exact
same sequence, including addressing fields, in the sending and receiving
devices.

Query Message From Master
Device Address
Device Address
Function Code
Function Code
Eight Bit
Eight Bit Data Bytes
Data Bytes
Error Check
Error Check
Response Message From Slave
Figure
Serial strings of data containing commands and data can be formed to

address groups of digital functions. That is, moving control instruction out of a
computer or PLC to another PLC, that is connected to electrical devices ready
to switch ON or OFF. The instruction command structure starts with a range
of MAP addresses, including receiving device address, into which a sequence
of digital data is to be delivered. The receiving controlling device stores the
data in the correct MAP locations, which are then used to operate the
electrical devices to be switched ON or OFF. Modbus is a master to slave
protocol where the Master always starts communication.
PROFIBUS
PROFIBUS is a form of a Process Instrument Network standard called

FIELDBUS.
PROFIBUS is a non-commercial User Organisation founded in 1989, set up

by several manufacturers and users. They all try to promote the use of
PROFIBUS in the Process Industry.
Fieldbus is an all-digital, serial, two-way communications system that

interconnects measurement and control equipment such as sensors,
actuators and controllers.

At the lowest level in Process Plant networks, it serves as a Local Area
Network (LAN) for instruments used in process control and automation
processes. It has a built-in capability to distribute control applications across
the FIELDBUS network. Refer to Figure 13.
Figure 13
PROFIBUS uses a master to slave communications hierarchy.
HART Protocol
Maintained by an independent organisation, the HART Communication

Foundation, the HART protocol is an industry standard developed to define
the communications protocol between an intelligent field device and a control
system.
HART is principally a master/slave protocol, which means that a field (slave)

device speaks only when spoken to by a master. Two masters (primary and
secondary) can communicate with slave devices in a HART network.
Secondary masters, such as handheld communicators, can be connected
almost anywhere on the network and communicate with field devices without

disturbing communication with the primary master. A primary master is
typically a DCS, PLC, or computer based central control or monitoring
system. A typical installation with two masters is shown in Figure 14.
Figure 14
The HART protocol uses 1200 baud Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) to
superimpose digital information on the conventional four to 2OmA analogue
signal.
See section 5 later in this document for a fuller description.
TCP/IP
TCP and IP Protocols were developed by an American Department of

Defence (DOD) research project to connect a number of different networks,
designed by different manufacturers, into a network of networks. This network
became known as "The Internet".
It was initially successful because it delivered a few basic services that

everyone needed; file transfer, electronic mail, and remote logon. Several
computers in a small department can use TCP/IP on a single Local Area
Network (LAN).
The IP component provides routing from the department to the company

network, then to regional networks, and finally to the global Internet. On a
daily basis communication networks will sustain damage.

The DOD designed TCP/IP to be robust and automatically recover from any
network failure. This design allows the construction of very large networks
with less central management. However, because of the automatic recovery,
network problems can go undiagnosed and not corrected for long periods of
time.
As with all other communications protocol, TCP/IP is composed of layers:
 IP - is responsible for moving packets of data from node to

node in a network.
Figure 15
IP forwards each packet based on a four byte destination

address - the IP number; e.g.
AAAA : BBBB : CCCC : DDDD
The Internet authorities assign ranges of numbers to different

organizations. The organizations assign groups of their
numbers to departments. IP operates on “gateway machines”
that move data from department to organization to region and
then around the world.

 TCP - is responsible for verifying the correct delivery of data
from client to server (sender to receiver). Data can be lost in
the intermediate network. TCP adds support to detect errors
or lost data and to trigger retransmission until the data is
correctly and completely received.
 Sockets - is a name given to the package of subroutine

programs that provide access to TCP/IP on most systems.
1.4. CABLING TECHNOLOGY
In section 1.3.1 discussion of the hardware standards mentions wire cables,

coax cables and fibre optic cables. These types of cables are chosen for
special operational reasons. Generally, the main need is for cost control and
simple wiring installation. With the increase in the volume, and speed, of
transmission coax and fibre optic cables were needed. For a decade now,
coax used in Ethernet applications has been replaced with special twisted
pair cables designed to operate on modern computer networks.
1.4.1. TWISTED PAIR CABLE
 Most economical solution for data transmission in the field
 375kBit/s up to 300m and 31.25kBit/s up to 1500m
 Shielded version provides greater immunity to

electromagnetic interference

Figure 16
A single wire can carry a signal from a source to a destination but it can also
act as an antenna and be subjected to external electromagnetic
interference (EMI).
Most wires are shielded or braided and some wires are also twisted at 90-
degree angle. The twists are not spaced regularly apart.
The twists additionally suppress EMI.
The size of the wire used varies from 16 AWG (American Wire Gauge) -
diameter of 1.3mm to 26 AWG with a diameter of 0.4 mm.
(The smaller the AWG, the thicker the wire.)
The most common gauge used for networking is 22 and 24 AWG
In modern cables, each wire is insulated with a polyethylene or polyvinyl

chloride (PVC) jacket.
Wires have a problem of attenuating signals (reducing signal strength).
The attenuation of twisted wire pairs rises rapidly with increasing frequency.
The maximum usable frequency of wire pairs in cables is around 1 MHz

without special treatment.
The number of twisted pairs per group can range from 2 to 3000.
Many Local Area Networks (LANs) use 25 pairs. Some LANs use the
inexpensive unshielded twisted pair for telephones.

 Limited range
 Sensitive to electrical interference
The new 10baseT standard permits transmission speeds of up to 10Mbps

over twisted pair cables.
1.4.2. COAX CABLES
 More expensive than twisted pair
 Used for carrier or broadband transmission
 5MBS over 1000m (carrier) or 10MBS over several km

(broadband)
Some significant and interesting effects occur in the vicinity of a wire carrying
an alternative current signal. One of these effects is that both an electric field
and a magnetic field are created around the conductor. The magnetic field
can induce the signal it is carrying into adjacent conductors.
(In communications, the induced and unwanted signal is called cross-talk).
If one conductor of the pair is the ground side of the circuit and is made to
surround the other conductor, both the radiated electric field and the magnetic
field can be confined, within the tube formed by the outer conductor, as
illustrated below.
Figure 17 - Structure of Ethernet Coaxial Cable

This medium is called a coaxial cable, because the two conductors have a
common axis.
The self-shielding works well at frequencies above about 100 kHz, but at
lower frequencies, the shielding becomes ineffective.
The resistive loss of coaxial cable increases in proportion to the square root
of the frequency, making coaxial cable generally usable at frequencies of up
to 2000 MHz, although some types can be used up to 10,000 MHz.
1.4.3. FIBRE OPTIC CABLES
Fibre Optic Fibre uses “emitted light” signals to transmit digital data.
Figure 18
 More than 5 times the capacity of coaxial cables
 Simple to lay and connect
 High data rates (Gigabits/s)
 Immune to electromagnetic interference
 Intrinsically safe – No spark potential

The capacity of a transmission system is a direct function of the highest
frequency it can carry. Progress in transmission technology has therefore
been measured by the bandwidth of the media available to carry signals.

Recent developments in the use of glass fibres to carry binary signals have
shown these systems to be extremely well suited to high-data-rate
applications, see Figure 19, light source and terminated cables.
Figure 19
Fibre-optic systems are attractive for several reasons:
 The low transmission loss, as compared with wire pairs or

coaxial cable, allows much greater separation between
repeaters.
 Because the optical fibres carry light rays, the frequency of

operation is that of light. The transmission wavelength used
for current single-mode fibres is 1.2 micrometers, equivalent
to a frequency of around 800 tetra hertz (800 trillion Hz).
Such frequencies allow data transmission rates of 20,000
Mbps over short distances.
 Optical-fibre cables do not radiate energy do not conduct

electricity and are non-inductive. They are essentially free

from crosstalk and the efforts of lightening induced
interference, and they present no security problem from an
inductively coupled “wire tap”.
 Because optical-fibre cables transport light energy, they can

be routed through most hazardous areas, such as oil
refineries and similar locations where the use of cables
carrying electricity are either forbidden or represent a
potential danger.
 Optical-fibre cables are smaller, lighter and cheaper than

metallic cables of the same capacity.
1.4.4. MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION AND WAVEGUIDE
If the frequency of transmission is high enough, the electric and magnetic

components of a signal can travel through free space, requiring no solid
conductor.
The frequency of operation is at the microwave region of the electromagnetic

frequency spectrum. Microwave frequencies lie between those used for very
high radio frequency and infra-red light.
Microwave technology uses special devices to provide a carrier signal to carry

the digital information to be transmitted. Devices like klystrons and Gunn
diode oscillators provide the carrier signal, which is passed through a
waveguide tube system to an antenna to transmit the signal into the
atmosphere. Sketch of an experiment shown in Figure 20 shows a simple
arrangement.

Figure 20
Antenna Coupler waveguide Gunn diode oscillator source
Figure 20a
Waveguides are commonly used at frequencies from 2000 MHz up to

100,000 MHz to connect microwave transmitters and receivers to their
antennas. Waveguides are pressurised with dry air or nitrogen to drive out
moisture from inside the waveguide because moisture will attenuate the
microwave signal.

2. TRANSMISSION & COMMUNICATION
When digital information is passed down a cable or network of cables, the

speed of transmission of data is important. Cable parameters such as
resistance, capacitance and inductance will affect the shape of each pulse of
data.
Matching the speed of transmission to the cable performance is important.

Two speeds are used in communications:
 Bits per Second
 Baud
2.1. BIT RATE
BPS represents the number of BITS per Second that will pass a point in a
cable every second. This is the data rate of transmission.
This measurement does not look at the size of pulse that makes up the digital
BIT of information, which is basically a pulse of voltage change.
The time between the rising edge and the falling edge of the pulse can vary.
The size of voltage height of the pulse is not important.
The time between pulses is important, as this space is time related. More
space between the pulses will give a lower BPS value than less space
between the pulses, which gives a higher BPS value.
BIT
Pulse
Width Space
Figure 21

2.2. BAUD RATE
When a network device sends some information it produces a sequence of

BITS that are grouped to form an instruction, letter character, or number
value. The rate at which the instruction, letter or number is transmitted is the
signalling rate, which is called the BAUD rate.
One or more BITS can represent each part of the instruction, letter or number
transmitted.
When each part of the instruction, letter or number is defined as one BIT, the
BPS rate is equal to the BAUD rate.
In serial communications, there are several BAUD rate figures used for
different types of equipment. Standard values are used to ensure sending
equipment and receiving equipment interfaces operate at the same
information exchange rate.
 110 baud
 300 baud
 600 baud
 1200 baud
 2400 baud
 4800 baud
 9600 baud

3. SERIAL TRANSMISSION METHODS
When computers and devices communicate information or instruction in a

serial manner they must send one at a time down a 2-wire (single twisted
pair) cable. To send and receive at the same time will require a 4-wire (2 pair)
cable. Three methods of transmission are available:
 Simplex
 Half Duplex
 Full Duplex
3.1. SIMPLEX TRANSMISSION
Data signal is transmitted in one direction only. No response signal from

receiving device.
Requires a cable with 2 wires covered with a foil shield inside the cable
sheath. (Called a single twisted pair cable)
3.2. HALF DUPLEX TRANSMISSION
With Half Duplex transmission, a device cannot send and receive at the same
time.
Half duplex serial communication needs two wires, which are twisted and
shielded with foil inside the cable sheath and usually have a earth ground
wire.
 One wire is signal ground
 The second wire is the data line wire
 The third un-insulated wire if supplied is an earth ground

which is only grounded on one safe end.

3.3. FULL DUPLEX TRANSMISSION
A device can receive and transmit data at the same time.
Full duplex serial communication needs a cable with 2, twisted pair wires,
each covered with a foil shield inside the cable sheath and usually they have
a single earth ground wire.
 signal ground
 transmit data line
 receive data line
The un-insulated wire if supplied is an earth ground which is only

grounded on one safe end.

4. MULTIPLEXING
Multiplexing is sending multiple signals or streams of information on a carrier

at the same time in the form of a single, complex signal and then recovering
the separate signals at the receiving end.
In analog transmission, signals are commonly multiplexed using frequency-

division multiplexing (FDM), in which the carrier bandwidth is divided into
subchannels of different frequency widths, each carrying a signal at the same
time in parallel.
Channel 1
Channel 2
Multiplex Demultiple
Channel 3
or (MUX) xor
Channel 4 (Demux)
Channel 5
Figure 22 - FDM – Frequency Division Multiplexing
4.1. FREQUENCY-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (FDM)
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is a scheme in which numerous

signals are combined for transmission on a single communications line or
channel. Each signal is assigned a different frequency (subchannel) within the
main channel.
A typical analog Internet connection via a twisted pair telephone line requires
approximately three kilohertz (3 kHz) of bandwidth for accurate and reliable
data transfer.

Suppose a long-distance cable is available with a bandwidth allotment of
three megahertz (3 MHz). This is 3,000 kHz, so in theory, it is possible to
place 1,000 signals, each 3 kHz wide, into the long-distance channel.
The circuit that does this is known as a multiplexer.
It accepts the input from each individual end user, and generates a signal on
a different frequency for each of the inputs. This results in a high-bandwidth,
complex signal containing data from all the end users. At the other end of the
long-distance cable, the individual signals are separated out by means of a
circuit called a demultiplexer, and routed to the proper end users.
A two-way communications circuit requires a multiplexer/demultiplexer at

each end of the long-distance, high-bandwidth cable.
When FDM is used in a communications network, each input signal is sent

and received at maximum speed at all times. This is its chief asset. However,
if many signals must be sent along a single long-distance line, the necessary
bandwidth is large, and careful engineering is required to ensure that the
system will perform properly. In some systems, a different scheme, known as
time-division multiplexing, is used instead.
4.2. TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (TDM)
In digital transmission, signals are commonly multiplexed using time-division

multiplexing (TDM).
Multiple signals are carried over the same channel in alternating time slots. In
some optical fibre networks, multiple signals are carried together as separate
wavelengths of light in a multiplexed signal using dense wavelength division
multiplexing(DWDM).

Multiplex 1 2 3 4 5 Demultiple
or (MUX) xor
(Demux)
Figure 23
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method of putting multiple data streams
in a single signal by separating the signal into many segments, each having a
very short duration. Each individual data stream is reassembled at the
receiving end based on the timing.
The circuit that combines signals at the source (transmitting) end of a

communications link is known as a multiplexer. It accepts the input from each
individual end user, breaks each signal into segments, and assigns the
segments to the composite signal in a rotating, repeating sequence. The
composite signal thus contains data from multiple senders. At the other end of
the long-distance cable, the individual signals are separated out by means of
a circuit called a demultiplexer, and routed to the proper end users. A two-
way communications circuit requires a multiplexer/demultiplexer at each end
of the long-distance, high-bandwidth cable.
If many signals must be sent along a single long-distance line, careful

engineering is required to ensure that the system will perform properly. An
asset of TDM is its flexibility. The scheme allows for variation in the number of
signals being sent along the line, and constantly adjusts the time intervals to
make optimum use of the available bandwidth.
The Internet is a classic example of a communications network in which the

volume of traffic can change drastically from hour to hour. In some systems, a
different scheme, known as frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), is
preferred.

5. HART PROTOCOL
For many years, the field communication standard used by process

automation equipment has been a milli ampere (mA) analogue current signal.
In most applications the milli ampere signal varies within the range 4-20 mA in
proportion to the process variable being represented.
HART Field Communications Protocol extends the 4-20 mA standard to

enhance communication with intelligent measurement and control
instrumentation.
The HART protocol enables two-way digital communication with smart

instruments without disturbing the 4-20 mA analog signal.
Primary variable and control signal information is carried by the 4-20mA (if
desired), while additional measurements, process parameters, device
configuration, calibration, and diagnostics information is accessible through
the HART protocol over the same wires at the same time.
The HART protocol makes use of the Bell 202 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
standard to superimpose digital communication signals at a low level on top
of the 4-20 mA.
Since the digital FSK signal is phase continuous, it does not interfere with the
4-20 mA signal.
A logical 1 is represented by a frequency of 1200 Hz and a logical 0 is

represented by a frequency of 2200 Hz.
The HART FSK signalling enables two-way digital communication and makes
it possible for additional information beyond just the normal process variable
to be communicated to or from a smart field instrument.
The HART protocol communicates at 1200 bits per second without

interrupting the 4-20 mA signal and allows a host application (master) to get
two or more digital updates per second from a field device.

5.1. DIGITISING ANALOGUE SIGNALS
In order to encode digital data with the information we wish to communicate
we must first encode the source signal into a digital format using one of the
following techniques:
 Amplitude shift keying
 Frequency shift keying
 Phase shift keying
We will focus on Frequency shift keying or FSK as this is the basis for the
HART communication protocol used with the field mounted instrumentation
devices.
5.2. FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING
Two different frequencies represent the binary values 1 and 0.
V+_______ ______ _______

0 1 1 0 1 0 DIGITAL DATA
0 ____________ ______ ______________
Figure24
Modems can pass information in both directions at once (duplex mode) using
four different frequencies. Two frequencies are used to send data and two
frequencies are used to receive data.

Modem: Modulator/Demodulator converts digital signals into analogue signals
and vice versa.
HART® (Highway Addressable Remote Transducer ) Field Communications

Protocol is widely recognized as the industry standard for digitally enhanced
4-20 mA smart instrument communication.
Today virtually all major global instrumentation suppliers offer products with
HART communication.
The HART protocol provides both 4-20 mA analog and digital communication
signals simultaneously on the same wiring.
Figure 25 – HART uses Frequency Shift Keying to encode digital information on top of the
4-20 mA analog signal

Figure 26 – HART digital communication signal superimposed on the 4-20 mA analog
signal
HART provides many benefits promised by fieldbus, while retaining the

compatibility and familiarity of existing 4-20 mA systems.
5.3. FLEXIBLE APPLICATION
HART is principally a master/slave protocol which means that a field (slave)

device speaks only when spoken to by a master.
Two masters (primary and secondary) can communicate with slave devices in
a HART network.
Secondary masters, such as handheld communicators, can be connected

almost anywhere on the network and communicate with field devices without
disturbing communication with the primary master.
A primary master is typically a DCS, PLC, or computer based central control

or monitoring system.
The 4-20 mA analog signal is continuous and can still carry the primary
variable for control.

Burst Mode
“Burst” is an optional communication mode which allows a single slave device
to continuously broadcast a standard HART reply message.
This mode frees the master from having to send repeated command requests
to get updated process variable information.
The same HART reply Message (PV or other) is continuously broadcast by

the slave until the master instructs the slave to do otherwise.
Data update rates of 3-4 per second are typical with “burst” mode
communication and will vary with the chosen command. Burst mode should
be used in single slave device networks.
The HART protocol also has the capability to connect multiple field devices on
the same pair of wires in a multi drop network configuration.
Figure 27
Multidrop transmitters refers to the connection of several transmitters to a
single communications transmission line.
In multi drop applications, communication is limited to master/slave digital

only. The current through each slave device is fixed at a minimum value to
power the device (typically 4 mA) and no longer has any meaning relative to
the process.

Communication between the host and the transmitters take place digitally with
the output of the transmitters deactivated (set to 4 mA). Many of the
Rosemount SMART FAMILY ® transmitters support multidrop
communication. With the HART ® smart communications protocol, up to 15
transmitters can be connected to a single twisted pair of wires.
The application of a multidrop installation requires consideration of the update

rate necessary from each transmitter, the combination of transmitter models,
and the length of the transmission line.
Multidrop installations are not recommended where Intrinsic Safety is a

requirement.
Communication with the transmitters can be accomplished with commercially

available Bell 202 modems and a host implementing the HART protocol.
Each transmitter is identified by a unique address (1-15) and responds to the

commands defined in the HART protocol.

6. NETWORKING
Networking is a method of arranging physical connections between

communication devices.
It allows a sharing of resources between two or more devices.
Communication can be as simple as sending start and stop signals, or as

complex as transferring files.
There are many different types of networks and some of the more common
ones are discussed below.
6.1. NETWORK COMPONENTS
A network consists of a group of two or more computer systems linked

together.
Devices are attached to the network via nodes.
A typical network incorporates the components shown below
Figure 28 - Components of a Network

6.2. FORMS OF NETWORK
The more common forms of network include:
 Local Area Networks (LAN)
 Wide Area Networks (WAN)
 Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN)
The most common form in industrial control is the LAN.
6.3. NETWORKING TERMINOLOGY
The terminology used in networking includes:
 Topology
 Protocol
 Architecture
 Medium
 Node
 (Work) Station
 Gateway
 Bridge
 Router

6.4. TOPOLOGY
The geometric arrangement of a computer system. Topologies include:
Star
Bus
Ring
Mesh
Figure 29 - Network Topologies

6.4.1. ARCHITECTURE
The architecture defines the basic communication strategy and includes:
 Master – Slave or Client – Server
 Peer – to – Peer
6.4.2. MEDIUM
The physical form of communication link usually a type of cable connecting

nodes together e.g. fibre optic cable, unshielded twisted pair
6.4.3. NODE
An individual process location on a network.
 Station
 Unit
or several modules forming a control entity
6.4.4. STATION / WORKSTATION
A processor connected on a node on the network that performs user tasks.
Typical stations include:
 Controllers
 Supervisory Computers
 File Servers
 Gateways

6.4.5. GATEWAY
A device on a node that interconnects two or more networks of different

types.
An example would be:
 Ethernet to RS485
Gateways enabled personal computers on selected LANs to access a

corporate mainframe computer.
The corporate mainframe acted as a central repository for large databases

and intensive computing programs that are not suitable for execution on
personal computers.
Although personal computer users can access the linear programming results
produced on the mainframe via gateways, the execution of this type of
program on a personal computer might require 10 to 20 hours, whereas the
execution might take 15 minutes when performed on a mainframe.
6.4.6. BRIDGE
A device on a node that converts data from one physical layer to another.
Bridges enable data to be transmitted between two LANs, allowing electronic

messages, data files and programs to be sent between users on different
networks.
A bridge examines the destination address of data flowing on a LAN to

determine whether its destination is on the LAN. If it is, the bridge simply
functions as a transparent device and allows the data to continue to flow on
the LAN to its destination. If the data destination is a different LAN, the bridge
then transmits the data via a communications facility to a distant LAN, where
another bridge functions in a similar manner.

6.4.7. ROUTERS
The development of routers, which examine data destination addresses and

route data over different circuits on those addresses, enabled a small number
of lines to be used for interconnecting many LANs.
In this example, a pair of bridges interconnects two sales office LANs, and a
router is used to provide a link from one LAN to many warehouse LANs. The
gateway provides a mechanism that enables LAN users to access the
mainframe computer. In fact, when sophisticated hardware and software are
used, it might be possible for a PC user attached to the LAN to be “bridged” to
the second LAN and provided, via the gateway, access to the mainframe – a
key goal of internet working.
Figure 30 - General Network Structure

6.4.8. TYPES OF NETWORK
The type of network is dependent on the architecture, which defines the basic
communication strategy. Networks include:
 Master – Slave
 Peer – to – Peer
6.4.9. MASTER/SLAVE NETWORKS
There are two forms of Master – Slave network:
 Permanent Single Master
 Rotating Mastership
Permanent Single Master
These consist of a:
 Controlling Node (The Master)
 Other Nodes (The Slaves)
All communication must take place through the master, and direct slave to
slave communication is not possible. A typical Master – Slave network is
shown in Figure 31.

Figure 31 - Master – Slave Network
Advantages
 Easy to implement
 Good Control over Communications
Disadvantages
 Network Fails if Master Fails
 Master always involved in Communication Path
6.4.10. COMMUNCATIONS NETWORK LOGICAL DIAGRAM – ONSHORE & OFFSHORE
Refer to ABB Document No.PACS26A-C0030-01 (Figure 32).
The above drawing provides an overview of the communications

infrastructure between Sangachal terminal and the offshore assets CWP/DQ
and East and West Azeri.
A fibre optic backbone is used to back up existing microwave

telecommunications for ACG and Shah Deniz offshore exploration and
production facilities and the two onshore pipelines.
The optical fibre connecting the various assets is a multi gigabyte capacity
fibre capable of carrying voice, data, and fax and internet traffic.

Figure 32
6.4.11. ONSHORE
 TCP/IP Protocol - 34MBIT network link to all assets via fibre

optic cable
 Masterbus300 Protocol - linking work stations to controllers

and plant inputs/outputs
 Modbus Protocol
 Firewall with access to internet
6.4.12. ONSHORE/OFFSHORE INTERFACE
 A SDH (Synchronous digital hierarchy) backbone is used to

interface the on and offshore assets
 Microwave line of sight links are backed up by fibre optic links

between onshore and offshore assets (not shown in
document)

6.4.13. OFFSHORE
 TCP/IP 34MBIT network link to all assets via fibre optic cable
 Masterbus300 Protocol - linking work stations to controllers

and plant inputs/outputs
6.5. PIPELINES
6.5.1. WESTERN PIPELINE ROUTE
Due to the geographical terrain along the length of the pipeline between the
Caspian Sea and the Black Sea communications consist of a Ku band and
VSAT mesh network for data and voice.
The network consists of ten VSAT stations, each interfacing with the control
system equipment to relay SCADA data back to the master station at the
main hub located at Sangachal Terminal.
The VSAT network also provides a dual LAN(local area network) link for the
control systems between the two pipeline terminals at Sangachal and Supsa.
Outside of the VSAT network, other facilities such as Inmarsat, VHF marine
band radios and a loading officer VHF shutdown system are used.

RUSSIA
Novorossiysk
Northern Route
Ca
spi
an
Black Sea
Se
Supsa GEORGIA
a
Tbilisi
Western Route AR
M AZERBAIJAN
EN Baku
IA
Erzerum
T U R K E Y
Ceyhan
I R AQ IRAN
SYRIA
Figure 33 - Fibre Optic Routes along Pipelines (On and Offshore)

Terrestrial Microwave Communication Links
6.5.2. TERRESTRIAL MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION LINKS
The most common type of microwave antenna is the parabolic dish typically
3metres in diameter.
The antenna is fixed rigidly and focuses a narrow beam to achieve line of
sight transmission to the receiving antenna.
Microwave antennas are usually positioned high above ground level in order
to transmit above intervening obstacles.
Microwave can support high data rates over long distances.
Microwave links require fewer amplifiers or repeaters than coaxial cable for
the same distance.

Figure 34 – Microwave Link – Sangachal Terminal - BAKU
The pictures above show the microwave antenna positioned at Sangachal

Terminal (left) and BAKU City (right).
6.5.3. SATELLITE MICROWAVE
A communication satellite is in effect a relay of information tool.
Satellite communications are used to link one or more ground based

microwave transmitter/receivers known as ground stations. The satellite
receives signals on one frequency via the uplink channel. It then amplifies the
signal if using analogue transmission or repeats the signal if using digital
transmission and transmits it on another frequency via the downlink.
A single orbiting satellite will operate on a number of different frequency

bands called transponders.
For a satellite to communicate effectively it must remain stationery with

respect to its position over earth to retain line of sight communication. Thus
the satellite must rotate in synchronism with the earth. This happens at an
altitude of 35,784km.

Satellites are spaced apart from one another by 3-4degrees to avoid cross
talk.
The satellite itself is known as the space segment and is composed of three
elements
 fuel system
 telemetry controls
 transponder
The transponder includes the receiving antenna to pick-up signals from the
ground station via the uplink.
A broad band receiver, an input multiplexer, and a frequency converter is

used to reroute the received signals through a high powered amplifier for
downlink.
Satellite in Orbit
Uplink Downlink
Figure 35 – Satellite Point to Point Communication

6.5.4. THE GROUND STATION
The ground station is known as the earth segment. The ground station's job is
two-fold.
In the case of an uplink, or transmitting station, terrestrial data in the form of

baseband signals, is passed through
 a baseband processor
 an up converter
 a high powered amplifier
 a parabolic dish antenna up to an orbiting satellite.
In the case of a downlink, or receiving station, works in the reverse fashion as

the uplink, ultimately converting signals received through the parabolic
antenna to base band signal.

6.5.5. VSAT (VERY SMALL APERTURE TERMINAL) SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS
Remote data access is via a central hub dish.
VSATs are also suitable for point to point and mesh networks.
A typical star network comprise 100 small remote VSAT antennas (1.2m
diameter) located on customer offices scattered over Europe providing data
communications via a large central 11m hub antenna.
A landline optic fibre data link connects the hub antenna to the customer head
office.
The hub antenna and the VSATs are owned, operated and maintained by a
VSAT service provider who provides a communication service to the
customer company.
The VSAT service provider leases satellite capacity from a satellite operator.
The VSAT service provider will normally have a number of customers, thus
sharing the hub costs (capital expense and staff costs) and satellite lease
costs. One hub antenna might thus serve several thousand VSAT antennas.
Capacity is not a problem with both very small to very large networks all
viable.
VSAT systems provide a both data and, if required, voice services.
Voice or data services with the possibility of communication between all sites
(i.e. in mesh mode connection) requires slightly larger antennas and/or
transmitter power amplifiers.
VSAT systems are attractive where the coverage area is large, where quick
installation is required and where terrestrial alternatives are difficult to
organise.

6.5.6. KU BAND- FIXED SATELLITE SERVICE (FSS)
Key Features
 Ku Band (11.7 - 12.2 GHz)
 Spaced as close as two degrees apart in space
 Carry from 12 to 24 transponders
 Operate at a wide range of powers from 20 to 120 watts each.
 Typical receive antennas are three to six feet in diameter.
 More than 20 FSS Ku-Band satellites are in operation over

North America today, including several "hybrid" satellites
which carry both C-Band and Ku-Band transponders.
6.5.7. KU BAND - BROADCASTING SATELLITE SERVICE (BSS)
Key Features
 Ku-Band (12.2 - 12.7 GHz)
 Spaced nine degrees apart in space
 Carry 16 transponders
 Operate at powers in excess of 100 watts.
 Typical receive antennas are 18 inches in diameter.

7. GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Bit, Byte
The basic units of computer information. A bit (from binary digit) is equivalent
to the result of a choice between two alternatives (1 or 0, yes or no, on or off).
A byte is a group of adjacent binary digits that a computer processes as a
unit; the size of a byte in practically all modern systems is eight bits.
Kilo-, Mega-, Giga-, Tera-
SI prefixes often attached to bits and bytes, but usually with the
understanding that they refer to a power of two that approximates a nearby
power of ten. For example, 1 kilobyte means 2^10 bytes, or 1024 bytes; it
does not mean 10^3 or 1000 bytes.
Baud, bits per second (BPS)
The two most corrupted terms in telecommunications. My current

understanding of these terms is given here (corrections from knowledgeable
communications engineers are welcome). Baud is the number of signal level
changes per second in a line, regardless of the information content of those
signals. Bits per second is the rate of transfer of information bits. The ratio of
BPS to baud depends on the information coding scheme that you are using.
For example, each character in asynchronous RS-232 coding includes a start
and stop bit that are not counted as information bits, so the BPS rate is
actually less than the baud rate. Present-day modems, on the other hand, use
a set of discrete amplitude and phase values to encode multiple bits with
each signal change. This technique, along with compression schemes and
other tricks, allows BPS rates of 14,400 and higher on lines that support
relatively low signal change rates (about 2400 baud for phone lines).

Parallel, Serial
Ways of getting information from here to there. Parallel transfer is the

simultaneous transmission of the eight bit-voltages that constitute a byte. This
is a high-speed operation compared to serial transfer, but requires at least
nine separate wires (8 data lines, 1 circuit common) and usually several
control wires. Serial transfer is the sequential transmission of the eight bit-
voltages that constitute a byte. A transmitter breaks each byte into bits, then
sends the bits one after another; the receiver cooperates by reassembling the
set of bits into a single byte. In principle, serial transfer can be achieved with
only two wires (1 data line, 1 circuit common); in practice, a few additional
wires are desirable for data flow control.
Asynchronous, Synchronous
Two styles of transmitting serial data. In an asynchronous connection,

information is transferred one character at a time with no regard for the timing
between characters. The problem that arises is that every single transmitted
character carries baggage with it, in the form of start bits, parity bits, and stop
bits. In a synchronous connection, timing is everything. One of the lines in the
serial connection is used as a clock, eliminating start bits and stop bits.
Because I've never messed with synchronous connections, the material
presented here covers only asynchronous stuff.
Simplex, Half duplex, Full duplex
Terms originally referring to specific circuit designs for serial communication,

but now referring more to specific rules for data flow. A simplex circuit allows
only one-way communication from a transmitter to a receiver. A half-duplex
circuit allows two-way communication, but only in one direction at a time; that
is, the two parties to the connection must take turns transmitting and receiving
data. A full-duplex circuit allows both parties to send and receive data
simultaneously.

DTE, DCE
Acronyms originating from days of yore; they expand to Data Terminal

Equipment and Data Communication Equipment, respectively. DTE originally
meant computer terminal and DCE meant a modem, but the definitions have
been generously "expanded" (or warped) to include a huge variety of
equipment that uses serial communication. A particular device may be either
DCE or DTE, depending on its wiring, and it is possible (and sometimes
necessary) to change the "sex" of a device from DTE to DCE, or vice versa.
Handshaking
Means of data flow control. Software handshaking involves embedding

control characters in transmitted data. For example, XON/XOFF flow control
works by enclosing a transmitted message between the two control
characters XON and XOFF. Hardware handshaking uses voltages on
physical wires to control data flow. The RTS and CTS lines of the RS-232
interface are frequently used for this purpose. Most lab equipment uses
hardware handshaking.
RS-232
A standard developed by the Electronic Industries Association (EIA) and other

interested parties specifying the serial interface between a DTE and a DCE.
The RS-232 standard includes electrical signal characteristics (voltage
levels), interface mechanical characteristics (connectors), functional
description of interchange circuits (the function of each electrical signal), and
some recipes for common kinds of terminal-to-modem connections. The most
frequently encountered revision of this standard is called RS-232C. Parts of
this standard have been "adopted" (with various degrees of fidelity) for use in
serial communications between computers and printers, modems, and other
equipment.

RS-449, RS-422, RS-423
Additional EIA serial communication standards related to RS-232. RS-449

was issued in 1975 and was supposed to supersede RS-232, but few
manufacturers have embraced the new standard. RS-449 contains two
subspecifications called RS-422 and RS-423. While RS-232 modulates a
signal with respect to a common ground (called single-ended transmission),
RS-422 modulates two signals against each other (called differential
transmission). The RS-232C receiver senses whether the received signal is
sufficiently negative with respect to ground to be a logical "1," whereas the
RS-422 receiver simply senses which line is more negative than the other.
This makes RS-422 more immune to noise and interference, and more
versatile over longer distances. The Macintosh serial ports follow RS-422,
which can be converted to RS-423 by proper wiring of an external cable. RS-
423 can then communicate with most RS-232 devices over distances of 15 m
or so.
Codes
Standard interpretations (agreed in advance) between signalling elements

and characters. The key idea is standard. The codes used in data
communications systems are already defined, and the code set is built into
the equipment.
The only time the user might need to deal with codes is when interfacing two
machines (such as computers and printers) from different manufacturers.
Characters
The letters, numerals, spaces, punctuation marks and other signs and
symbols on a keyboard. (Remember that the space character is just as
important as any other, even though we tend to think of it as “nothing” or
“blank”). For example, the number “7” is a sequence of four characters.
Communications systems also use control characters that do not print, but
these characters must be coded. Some of these control characters (such as
Carriage Return or Tab) are also on a keyboard, but many are not.

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REV 3: Instrument Communications (ID-017) Page 2 of 70

 Protocols; e.g. ModBus, Ethernet

 RS232 / RS485 interfacing

REV 3: Instrument Communications (ID-017) Page 3 of 70

INSTRUMENT COMMUNICATIONS (ID-017)

1. WHAT IS DIGITAL DATA COMMUNICATION?

1.1. DIGITAL DATA REPRESENTATION

1.1.1. PARALLEL TRANSMISSION

1.1.2. SERIAL TRANSMISSION

1.2. BITS & BYTES, NUMBERING SYSTEMS

1.2.1. OCTAL NUMBERING SYSTEM

1.2.2. HEXADECIMAL NUMBERING SYSTEM

1.3. COMMUNICATION INTERFACE &TRANSMISSION PROTOCOLS

1.3.1. COMMUNICATION INTERFACE

1.3.2. TRANSMISSION PROTCOLS

1.4. CABLING TECHNOLOGY

1.4.1. TWISTED PAIR CABLE

1.4.2. COAX CABLES

1.4.3. FIBRE OPTIC CABLES

1.4.4. MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION AND WAVEGUIDE

2. TRANSMISSION & COMMUNICATION

2.1. BIT RATE

2.2. BAUD RATE

3. SERIAL TRANSMISSION METHODS

3.1. SIMPLEX TRANSMISSION

3.2. HALF DUPLEX TRANSMISSION

3.3. FULL DUPLEX TRANSMISSION

REV 3: Instrument Communications (ID-017) Page 4 of 70

4.2. TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (TDM)

5.1. DIGITISING ANALOGUE SIGNALS

5.2. FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING

5.3. FLEXIBLE APPLICATION

6.1. NETWORK COMPONENTS

6.2. FORMS OF NETWORK

6.3. NETWORKING TERMINOLOGY

6.4.4. STATION / WORKSTATION

6.4.8. TYPES OF NETWORK

6.4.9. MASTER/SLAVE NETWORKS

6.4.10. COMMUNCATIONS NETWORK LOGICAL DIAGRAM – ONSHORE &

6.4.12. ONSHORE/OFFSHORE INTERFACE

6.5.1. WESTERN PIPELINE ROUTE

REV 3: Instrument Communications (ID-017) Page 5 of 70

6.5.3. SATELLITE MICROWAVE

6.5.4. THE GROUND STATION

6.5.5. VSAT (VERY SMALL APERTURE TERMINAL) SATELLITE

6.5.6. KU BAND- FIXED SATELLITE SERVICE (FSS)

6.5.7. KU BAND - BROADCASTING SATELLITE SERVICE (BSS)

REV 3: Instrument Communications (ID-017) Page 6 of 70

1. WHAT IS DIGITAL DATA COMMUNICATION?

Digital Data communications is the process of communicating information

The information interchanged today is primarily between:

 computer and terminal

 computer and peripherals

Terminal can be a VDU/keyboard or instrument interface.

Peripheral can be a printer, storage/memory device, drawing plotter.

Basic elements of Digital Data communications systems are:

Sender to send a message or instruction

Receiver to accept the message or instruction

Transmission to carry the message or instruction medium

Advances in semiconductor technology have led to faster and more complex

REV 3: Instrument Communications (ID-017) Page 7 of 70