2017 IEEE Integrated STEM Conference (ISEC)
Reforming Abstract Geometrical Ideas through 3D
Printing: a Proposal for Experiential e-Making
Technology in Creative Education
Sylvia Stavridi
Bibliotheca Alexandrina, Sylvia.stavridi@bibalex.org
Abstract - Abstract art is a powerful medium of
expression but simultaneously a very poor means of
visual communication. In an effort to physically
experiment with symbolic yet innovative thoughts or
ideas in geometric, abstraction art, the researcher
investigates the potential, value, and uses of building
simple three-dimensional (3D) objective interpretations
of reality available to touch.
This paper describes the primary objectives of a one
semester project-based learning proposal involving
Alexandrian middle-school students or young learners.
The project integrates 3D modeling/printing into creative
activities so middle-school students or young learners can
learn the functional aspects of abstract geometric forms
and compositions and how to design and print 3D
models.
Drawing on the literature that explores the true
potential of the technology that transfers 3D digital
modeling to tactile solid objects by building them up in
layers, the paper discusses the need for future research
to develop artistic understanding of 3D printing and how
it affects the physical reality of the explored forms and
materials.
Given the feasibility of 3D printing technologies and
how these developments continue to expand, the
researcher notes that the use of 3D printing geometric
art models can be a powerful supplement for creating
abstract geometrical design with touch input. 3D printers
are adding new flexible materials that engage the
imagination of middle-school students or young learners
and allows them to create or interact with visual
representations of concepts and turn them into a tangible
reality where ‘seeing’ and ‘making’ intersect, and where
possibility becomes reality.
Index Terms - 3D Printing, Abstract Geometrics, Creative
Education, Middle-School Students or Young Learners.
INTRODUCTION
Abstract art is a powerful medium of expression but at the
same time a very poor motor of visual communication. This
means, going from concrete to abstract can be more
recognizable but not necessarily as simplified nor as
comprehensible. [1] argues that teaching abstract concepts in
geometry increases cognitive consignment but reduces
978-1-5090-5379-7/17/$31.00 (c) 2017 IEEE
visual communication. The physical 3D representation of a
geometric abstract shape allows for visual communication of
abstract ideas, it conveys information or stands for
symbolizing thoughts or ideas, and provides many ways for
visualizing an idea [2]; [3]. Architecture uses the extensive
circle of visibility and intimate circle of touch-ability [4]. In
a combined digital and physical learning environment, the
abstract becomes more concrete and is easier to perceive and
apprehend.
The data under study is adopted from Piet Mondrian’s
(1872–1944) geometrical abstract concepts. Mondrian is the
main creator of geometric abstract language. He
expressively simplified the characteristics of abstract
geometric art into their fundamental basic vertical and
horizontal elements and reduced his shapes to lines and
rectangles.
Abstract geometric art offers new directions in
encouraging creative development of the logically-
mathematically-oriented middle-school students or young
learners. Through geometric abstract language, they read
meaning, or rather a form of perception based on context or
an image relationship to other elements, its relative size,
placement, or importance. Middle-school students or young
learners at the age of 11 enjoy forming concepts, looking for
relationships, and extending their knowledge beyond
concept models in more effective ways as they begin to
think abstractly and are capable of deductive and logical
reasoning [5].
3D modeling and printing tools change the way today's
learners learn, create and play. In their everyday practices,
they meet three-dimensional tools: some may express
familiarity in 3D learning while others may seek more action
to actively engage. Obviously, it is now possible to simulate
physically realistic environments where this 3D technique is
taking shape by capturing imagination with technology.
Given the feasibility of the 3D printing potential in school
settings, middle-school students or young learners will be
motivated to freely experiment, translate their abstract ideas
into visual images, and re-create them into tangible forms.
Art educators can incorporate 3D printing into their
creative design processes to reconnect the physical and
digital worlds. In this system, 3D printing technologies may
transform traditional classroom activities into more vital
classroom engagement for communicating, generating the
awareness of children in supporting the spatial conceptual
10

visualization processes and in learning expressive abstract
geometry.
Such an innovative approach draws attention to this paper’s
research question: In what ways, can educational technology
be developed in order to understand abstract spatial
construction, scale, and proportions in both virtual and real
environments. Through this project-based learning approach,
middle-school students or young learners will be engaged in
digital modeling and 3D printing activities to physically
transfer the 2D well-known Mondrian’s compositions that
can be described geometrically in terms of linear
compositions to 3D.
This paper examines the potential of learning in the
making whereas new 3D related education resources employ
tactile form-shaping not only as a process to simplifying the
visual complexity of the design but as a necessity to
maximizing the tactility analytics approach of these 3D
explorations and how the reasoning thinking of the student is
fostered by means of them.
BACKGROUND: ABSTRACT GEOMETRIC FORMS AND
CONCEPTUAL VISUALIZATION
Although Mondrian’s geometrical abstract art is associated
only with two-dimensional (2D) representation, he
experimented with architectural aspects in some of his work.
Mondrian-inspired geometrical abstract art is based on a
pure study of form, line, and color [6]. Mondrian’s pictorial
language of generic abstraction captures the underlying
structure of geometry concepts into geometric shapes, forms
and transformations, and the separation of space, color, and
form is considered the point of departure for the analysis of
geometric decompositions in building forms [7]. He
eliminated all representational components, reducing
painting to its elements: straight lines, plane surfaces,
geometric shapes, and primary bold colors (red, yellow, and
blue) combined with the three neutrals, non-colors (black,
gray, and white).
From an art education perspective, the interpretation of
the compositions of Mondrian to architecture allows for
much more informal teaching approaches and contributes to
understanding the roots of ideas and their changes. When
examined more closely, abstraction in its various forms
reflects the purity and simplicity of a generic geometric
transformation that unifies a wide range of natural and
abstract shapes. Reasoning via generic abstraction is crucial
in constructing a generic mental model [8]. For instance, the
aesthetic experience is concerned with increasing conception
awareness of line, form, design, and their dynamics; the
relationship horizontal/vertical and the spatial interplay
between the pictorial parts of an abstract composition.
[9] found that the value of combining the meaning-
making practices of architecture via their relation to
geometric forms and iconic/geometrical representations
assist as inferences to reach for ideas and capture the
meanings of concepts. As acknowledged by [4] the
processes of discovery, exploration, memorizing,
responding, and creation are commonly involved in
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2017 IEEE Integrated STEM Conference (ISEC)
architecture. For that reason, geometric interaction in space
gives an accessible transfer for middle-school students or
young learners to allow them become more focused, and to
improve and develop their skills of analyzing shape
construction of building façades into square composition.
[10] observed that experiencing in art intelligently increases
the visual perception of the student to think effectively in
terms of symbols and mathematical.
Considering the effectiveness of maximizing the
comprehensibility within representation to emerge thinking,
geometric forms as abstract ideas play an important part in
architectural design; the circle and the square are pure,
abstract, shapes that have a symbolic power to be used
independently or related to various geometries of being. [11]
have shown a link between practices in architectural design
and the ability to improve geometric reasoning and mentally
re-envision complex architectural structure of compositions.
According to the findings of the previous study [12],
middle-school students or young learners are considered an
appropriate age group for the introduction of architectural
design education that focusses on model building, as part of
the training in expression and creativity. With particular
reference to the perception of abstraction in forms and space,
the artwork activity relates to buildings and constructions.
Middle-school students or young learners will learn to
incorporate visualization with analytical reasoning to
enhance the visualizing of symbolic/abstract ideas and
convert them into representations in order to understand
them.
Recent research done at the National Institutes of Health
indicates that exercising a visual skill can make the brain's
motor map expand. Middle-school students or young
learners who are visual thinkers will often be good at
drawing, designing, construction and building things with
building blocks such as Lego's. According to this view,
teaching abstract geometry and its simplified, abstract form
makes architectural components easier to study, to inspect,
and to grasp in order to give meaning to ideas and feelings
so their designing mind can adopt towards the conditions
within which architecture is done [4]. Consequently, this
will help middle-school students or young learners
understand abstract thinking in its different forms of realism
and representation.
In accordance with interactive learning technology,
abstract reasoning in architecture can provide activities that
are exploratory and highly structured in order to enhance the
connection between ‘form’ and ‘meaning’ to solve problems
within the context of a given medium.
Characteristics of Exploratory Strategy:
• Utilizing discovery
• Dynamic and constantly changeable knowledge
• High involvement
• Active-interactive
The simple strategy of visualizing representations of
concepts in abstract design whereas, geometric ideas give

form to the design as a common need of simplifying
meaning in visual display [1], will help middle-school
students or young learners develop symbolic thought and
achieve an understanding of structural thinking: translate
knowledge into innovative compositional aspects within 2D
composition and form within 3D structure.
IMMERSIVE 3D VISUAL PERCEPTION VS TACTILE
INTERACTION
Optical images may be recognizably 3D, or abstracted,
flattened or distorted. Offering both visual and dimensional
accuracy learning, the 3D models are becoming invaluable
tools for informing lots of contents, clarifying the structure
of complex relationships, and transmitting ideas. Though the
transmission of information by means of visual aids is being
widely used for teaching resources, 3D models are needed
for the explanation of concepts. The comprehension of
complex forms through 2D drawings, even when simply
converting 2D digital images into 3D materials is relatively
limited due to size limitations of what the fingers can sense.
Therefore, creating the 3D form, instead of just a 2D shape
as a standard painting does, makes an extremely wide array
of new kinds of visualization possible.
[14] defines the tactile visualization to be the
representations of ideas generated in a person’s mind based
on a sense of touch. According to [15], the sense of touch is
implicit to provide a reliable perception of the geometric
characteristics of an object. Furthermore, [16] observes that
physically examining the construction of a ‘real object’
improves the process of memorizing the pre-objective
building blocks in a virtual object on-screen. In this sense,
learning by making offers the best kind of unconstrained
thinking.
Students with visual‑perception problems may have
some difficulty in visualizing concepts or mentally making
transformation of abstract 3D ideas in geometry. They can
gain understanding and insight by holding and manually
inspecting a 3D object made real. And so, the 3D models
with basic materials created in 3D printers will help middle-
school students or young learners experimentally learn to
physically manipulate and observe concepts and fully
understand the concept of architectural representation in
buildings. The power of geometry building in physical 3D
abstract shapes/forms is bringing materials together into
building under the influence of insight and inspiration. The
shift from 3D designing or composing abstract geometric
forms in screen-based medium to additive 3D printed objects
builds the perspectival reality of the physical world where
knowledge is validated through ‘in-touch’ practice.
Immersive 3D visualized learning spaces integrate visual-
tactual perception into informal education to construct new
knowledge in a collective setting.
A growing trend in innovative design conceptualization
suggests a future practice in art which evolves in
‘simplifying’ and expanding the ‘exploration’ space and of
bringing focus to the design thinking process. For that
reason, forward-thinking ‘edu-making’ activities are
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2017 IEEE Integrated STEM Conference (ISEC)
designed to support student-directed exploration,
metacognitive reflection and problem solving [17].
3D PRINTING: A REDISCOVERY OF THE CONCEPTUAL
CONNECTIVITY BETWEEN THE VIRTUAL AND THE REAL
Advances in technologies have greatly enriched the teaching
of STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math)
education in middle school. The rapidly developing field of
3D printing technology is viewed as an inspiring tool to
make a difference, take action, drive change, and evoke
thoughts and feelings. Living in an increasingly digital
society, incorporating such digital creative approaches has
changed limitations to the types of learning activities that are
possible. Currently, there are multiple approaches to
investigate the creative educational potential of 3D printers
and desktop manufacturing systems to revolutionize the
instructional setting of designing and making. [18] has
observed that the representation of 3D printed conceptual
models or physically forming ideas into scale is fundamental
to the architecture design process. The direct experience
with 3D printing makes students more responsive in their 3D
thinking as forms are taken beyond concepts into a reality
that can be observed and inspected.
In the context of a design project, using e-Making in
architectural design learning facilitates the design practice,
in particular, the learning experiences to better understand
what relevant sources to discern meanings and be able to
determine central ideas to venture forth beyond limited
media. 3D printing sets up a new balance between theory
and experience in which digital generations of middle-school
students or young learners exercise critical thinking,
problem solving and design skills [19].
According to Innovation, Design Engineering
Organization (IDEO) and [20] liberating students from
inexpressive academics and developing inner experiences
creates a balance between theory and practice to perform
complex tasks in a design thinking activity. Through
problem-based learning and hands-on, middle-school
students or young learners will work together and ultimately
engage in a physical activity directly associated with
concepts and processes of creating 3D-printable shapes
associated with 3D printing curriculum for STEAM
(Science, Technology, Engineering, Art, and Math)
education in middle school.
The affordance of the 3D printing technology to the
consumer market is giving educators new ways to positively
incorporate it into their art program to balance between
theory, experience, and physical experiment. The 3D
printing revolution is taking interaction with visualization
further, blurs the divide between the physical and the digital,
and makes it easy to remix and customize physical objects.
3D printing slides more easily with interactive elements into
an artistic interpretation where ‘seeing’ and ‘making’
intercross. This significant rediscovery and dynamic
exploration create active interplay between the realms of
high tech and high sensation. It links the design thinking in

computer-mediated environments and the physical world
again.
Initial materials are generated to involve overviews of
research into how the attribution of geometric abstraction
and 3D printing specialization can considerably enhance
problem solving and reasoning thinking skills which are
currently considered in education.
Introducing 3D printing into classrooms transforms
learning and changes both the way middle-school students or
young learners learn and the way educators teach,
particularly because it supports the constructionist approach
to education [19]. Learning through making, ‘edu-making’,
not just it brings 3D printing into the curriculum but it also
shows the three dimensional concepts as another creative
aspect of e-learning strategy in the classroom. In her
continuing efforts to improve children's skills in reasoning
and thinking creatively thorough art learning practices, the
researcher seeks in this project-based learning proposal to
keep up with the latest developments in the field of 3D
digital technologies that target not only adult learners but
also children and teens. In relation to a previous study [12],
the researcher proclaimed that the use of well-tempered
educational applications that aspire towards visual art in
computer-mediated environments transfer new ways of
thinking and employ the creative ability to originate new
ideas. Combining 3D technologies, as a tool to support
instruction, with a guided analytical perception of Piet
Mondrian’s geometric abstraction, middle-school students or
young learners will learn creative concepts in the basis of
design and reasoning thinking skills.
3D printing involves 3D shapes processing and
modeling forms which can be easily understood by touching
multi-level surfaces. ‘Touching More Than Viewing or
Observing’- draws in children by transducing interactive
content into tactile vision. 3D printing changes the very
nature of the exploration process, renders the relation
between ‘seeing’ and ‘knowing’ stable. When it comes to
the influence of 3D printing technologies on education
reform, the delivery of new design thinking has been
radically changed along [13]. The ‘making’ reinforces the
‘seeing’ as a means of expressing and communicating
symbolic ideas. This option helps middle-school students or
young learners re-vision. They dynamically link their ideas
and practices about abstraction and representation, move
between the visible and the invisible as an important part of
the design experiment process. Therefore, educators refocus
their attention from the virtual environment to the real
world, where 3D printed shapes can be touched.
The basic idea of this approach is to reduce design
concept to its most fundamental forms in order to translate
abstract arts concepts into concrete understanding. In
combination with smart technology, middle-school students
or young learners will manipulate geometric shapes in two-
and three-dimensional space, perform mathematical
simulations, create 3D prototypes and models built up in
layers that are abstract, take digital creations of structures,
and turn them into reality.
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2017 IEEE Integrated STEM Conference (ISEC)
Thereby, learning in such a media-based knowledge
environment helps middle-school students or young learners
get more interested in the subject at hand to mentally re-
envisioning the boundaries of the digital design-space in
relation to the physical solution-space which can then overt
action. Some of the ideas have been investigated to design
an appropriate constructivist approach to informally teach
design concept and to enhance the ability to reconstruct
reality in preparing representations within a realistic design
context. Along these lines, the researcher considers the
general research questions of how schools in developing
countries can creatively incorporate 3D design and 3D
printing into teaching for the production of custom-made
pedagogical tools.
How using the 3D printing technologies in design
education supports reasoning skills building and concept
attainment?
DESIGN THINKING CONSTRUCTIVISM IN 3D PRINTING
VISIONARY
The exploration of the 3D printing process in Alexandria
national schools which could be generalizable to other
developing regions is cost-effective. Educators cannot afford
to keeping up with such new technologies and are tingly
exploring effective design principles for creating
collaborative design/make project to bridge the space
between cyberspace and physical reality. Therefore
integrating 3D printing technologies into collaborative
projects surely helps overcome challenges in this respect and
enables the creation of knowledge-related disciplines.
The researcher was particularly interested to contribute
a project-based learning strategy as a pedagogical tool to
introduce middle-school students or young learners to the
creative side of geometric abstraction. She addresses the
potential benefits of applying the 3D printing technologies in
transforming constructivist learning into action to teaching
thinking. This technique may be successful in the case of
abstract geometry, such as in the work generated by
Mondrian in order to combine design with technical and
functional solutions for middle-school students or young
learners to gain design concepts. As art educator
programming and librarian designing activities for children
and teens, the researcher noticed that the presentation of the
visual elements of abstract art, particularly color, shape,
form, and space, alters the ability to view, think, and feel.
Adapting the design thinking constructivism approach
allows for middle-school students or young learners’
understandings and meaning making [21]. The finding of the
previous survey discussing visual art forms and creative-
related skills was sought as the basis for restructuring the
application design [18].
EXPERIMENT
As vision is a synthetic sense, touch is analytic [22], the
study emphasizes the reciprocal relationship between
touching by hand and concept development. ‘tactual-
 2017 IEEE Integrated STEM Conference (ISEC)

visuality’ allows sensing parts of the whole, further the learning to developing a level of familiarity with important
exploration and clarification of concepts and abstract ideas aspects of visual language of shape, form, space, color and
to those standard 2D images or 3D visual dynamic reference line, which in turn opens up a new range of skills including
which are difficult to describe. For these reasons, tactual- 3D spatial awareness, components visualization, and
visuality inspires middle-school students or young learners analytical reasoning.
to start ideating, rethink geometric relationships and
incorporate pieces that are a hybrid. On the other hand, using
physical models demonstrates better understanding of
important relationships between form, shapes, composition,
and function. As a result, adjusting the relationship among
the elements, they realize new ideas in order to control how
their visual read is perceived and release new perceptions
and meanings. The high-impact potential of 3D printing on
the exploration process, from design to production, opens up
new possibilities for broad learning activities. Therefore, this
creative 3D realism approach focuses on how to efficiently
produce real-time extensible manipulative exploration and
reflection.
FIGURE I
A 3D MODEL WITH A FOCUS ON MONDRIAN’S GEOMETRIC COMPOSITIONS
METHOD
Within the framework of constructionism in non-formal Going beyond the pictorial work of Mondrian to shape
context, the activities are carried out through constructivist, new understandings and explorations of materials and
reflective practices, in which teacher-centered knowledge is concepts, middle-school students or young learners first
replaced by student-centered approaches that emphasize the learn construction concepts in space to design a 3D scale-
active and constructed character of knowledge [23], we shaped block: they will use digital 3D modeling software to
attempted to run our experimental project using the design- generate 3D printable models or search for 3D models that
based thinking methodology to shaping meaning into are available for download on the web (Standard prototyping
expressive and comprehensible ideas. This paper is a part of file format).
an ongoing exploratory project that tries to perceive to what Figure 2, 3, and 4 demonstrate the project process that
extent the ability to actually make something tangible can combines the powerful benefits of the computer and the
make ideas less abstract. The instructional activities are practical applications of digital fabrication techniques. Using
designed to facilitate full integration of design thinking perceptible 3D materials as representation of abstract ideas,
which involves imaging, ideating, modeling, and link them middle-school students or young learners will work in small
with the aesthetic field of making, presenting, and teams, each team sketch and model prototypes utilizing
evaluating. children-friendly modeling software, such as Tinkercad,
SketchUp, or Autodesk Fusion360, and turn them into 3D
PARTICIPANTS printed reality to get a sense of scale and feel. The approach
remains constructionist in core, with sort of understanding
In total, forty-five participants will take part in the the structure of abstract geometric design, each team is
experiment; aged 11–14 years students from 15 private taking part in the design process. Middle-school students or
middle schools in Alexandria will be selected based on their young learners are tasked to make models, transforming
artistic skills, to collaboratively design and produce 3D their ‘thoughts into things’.
prototypes with the aid of 3D design platform applications
and 3D desktop printers. The final piece shall be a
combination of geometric forms as 3D architectural
experiment. Middle-school students or young learners are
expected to demonstrate the ability to: show a response
from direct observation, model 3D geometric relationships,
maintain a project's architectural integrities from conception
to realization, translate ideas into different touchable forms,
and to make and evaluate in a continuum.
The project will start with a pilot program in which we
will target explicitly the representation of geometric
abstracts in spatial symbols in Mondrian’s architectural
compositions to create in the mind of the student perceptions
and senses of basic concepts in architecture. Figure I FIGURE 2
illustrates in this process that the emphasis does not A SKETCHED THREE-DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRIC MODEL (LINEAR
necessarily have to be on depicting or imitating, but more on COMPOSITIONS)

14

FIGURE 3
PLANE COMPOSITION VIEW
FIGURE 4
SIDE VIEW
In their next step, they create their own hands-on
manipulatives via additive digital fabrication techniques.
Middle-school students or young learners decide what
filament types (PLA, Flexible, or wood) to use for the
production of their 3D tactile prints. Several materials can be
combined into one entity in one process. They experiment
with combining resized 3D shapes and forms while they are
building their models.
The final aspect of the project is to create a composition
with these 3D-printed scale models, formulate an assembled
model built up from the building blocks according to the
abstract rules of geometry in Piet Mondrian’s composition.
The objectives of this project are to:
• Insert STEM into architectural design education to
promote artistic thinking as well as technological know-
how
• Blend art and science technology: Middle-school
students or young learners are learning about software
modeling and also the hardware around 3D printing
• Analyze the architectonic concept of designing in the
composition of Piet Mondrian
• Introduce the most promising techniques of 3D printing
in a discipline-based art education approach
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2017 IEEE Integrated STEM Conference (ISEC)
• Extend the relationship between tactual perception and
concept
• Improve understanding and enhance reasoning thinking
skills throughout the length of the activity
• Evoke creative responses for learning the details in
geometric abstraction and the art of basic geometric
form in 3D design
• Develop a method for generating 3D forms for the
transition from the abstract to the concrete level
The goal of bringing such technology into
extracurricular activities is to demonstrate how the 3D
printing technology modifies the characterization of
‘learning-teaching’ routes in order to achieve more
coherence in the learning content.
CONCLUSION
The latest technologies of 3D printers bring tremendous
opportunities for future research, relating to using both the
devices in classrooms and the appropriate development of
applications. 3D printing has been incorporated into learning
and pedagogy in fields beyond STEM education. Currently,
much research relates primarily to the improvement of
STEM instruction however, little research has been done
related to the development of 3D printing applications in art
education and even less research regarding proper pedagogy
of using 3D specialization to improve visual-tactual
perception, geometry conceptual thinking, and architectural
design exploration. It has been noted, by the researcher, that
none but experienced art educators can only explore how to
conduct their educational activity processes that can benefit
from such recreation opportunities, matching geometric
abstraction and 3D print modeling, as a means to afford a
motivating and realistic context for problem solving and
reasoning.
It is recommended that researchers explore how the
reshaping of 3D technologies in modelling can offer
innovative perspectives for changing the traditional
approaches which educators have inherited in creating
aesthetically, meaningful simulated learning experiences.
More reflections and suggestions should be geared towards
the benefits to building a manipulative model that go beyond
a printout of a rendered image to connect informal
understanding of perceptions to concrete reality.
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Gaming, Springer, pp. 1-8. chp%3A10.1007%2F978-3-319-08234- Having blended her architectural and artistic background
9_57-1.pdf. Accessed: October 18, 2016. with librarianship, Sylvia has also worked as an art
[15] Klatzky, Roberta L and Lederman, Susan J. 1993. “Toward a programmer for the children library and the Young People
computational model of constraint-driven exploration and haptic
object identification.” Percept 22(5), pp. 597–621. Library in the BA. She conducted and participated in
[16] Gallace, Alberto and Spence, Charles. 2014. In Touch with the Future: workshops in art appreciation programs to promote children
The sense of touch from cognitive neuroscience to virtual reality, UK: and teen’s artistic skills, and ensure their proper artistic
Oxford University Press. development based on their age where she used the arts as
[17] Hooper, Simon and Rieber, Lloyd P. “Teaching with technology.” In
A. C. Ornstein (ed.), 1995, Teaching: Theory into practice. Needham learning tools for children to encourage them to appreciate,
Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon, pp. 154-170. enjoy, and participate in all artistic activities they may come
http://www.nowhereroad.com/twt/. Accessed: October 21, 2016. across.
[18] Scott, Greenhalgh. 2016. “The effects of 3D printing in design
thinking and design education.” Journal of Engineering, Design &
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