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Facial attractiveness
Randy Thornhill and Steven W. Gangestad
Humans in societies around the world discriminate between potential mates on the
basis of attractiveness in ways that can dramatically affect their lives. From an
evolutionary perspective, a reasonable working hypothesis is that the psychological
mechanisms underlying attractiveness judgments are adaptations that have evolved in
the service of choosing a mate so as to increase gene propagation throughout
evolutionary history. The main hypothesis that has directed evolutionary psychology
research into facial attractiveness is that these judgments reflect information about
what can be broadly defined as an individual’s health. This has been investigated by
examining whether attractiveness judgments show special design for detecting cues
that allow us to make assessments of overall phenotypic condition. This review
examines the three major lines of research that have been pursued in order to answer
the question of whether attractiveness reflects non-obvious indicators of phenotypic
condition. These are studies that have examined facial symmetry, averageness, and
secondary sex characteristics as hormone markers.
1364-6613/99/$ – see front matter © 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S1364-6613(99)01403-5
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Thornhill and Gangestad – Facial attractiveness Review
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Trends in Cognitive Sciences – Vol. 3, No. 12, December 1999
Review Thornhill and Gangestad – Facial attractiveness
Facial symmetry
Fluctuating asymmetry (FA) is a departure from symmetry in
traits that are symmetrical at the population level. It is thought
to result from developmental instability (the inability to per-
fectly express developmental design) and, therefore, reflects
maladaptation31,32. The primary causes of FA include mu-
tations, pathogens and toxins. The evolution of humans with
their co-evolving antagonists, such as pathogens and toxins in
dietary plants, together with other coevolutionary antagonisms
(e.g. conflicting interests between the sexes) and spontaneous
mutations, accounts for genetic variation underlying devel-
opmental stability33,34. Fluctuating asymmetry therefore partly
reflects the phenotypic and genetic condition of individuals.
In Mayan men in Belize, FA is associated with incidence of
serious disease35. The hypothesis that attractiveness assessments
are sensitive to facial symmetry has been tested in a number
of studies.
One approach involves monozygotic co-twin compar-
isons. Mealey et al.36 compared the relative symmetry and
attractiveness of faces of monozygotic (identical), young adult
twins. Co-twins are genetically, but not developmentally,
identical. The image of the face of each individual of a twin
pair was split vertically down the midline, and each hemi-face
duplicated, yielding left–left and right–right mirror-image
facial depictions (‘chimaera’). Faces were rated by two groups
of observers. One group scored the similarity of mirror-image
depictions of each twin while the other group were asked to
judge which twin in each pair was the more attractive, using
the unaltered images. For both sexes, the twins with higher
similarity scores for their chimaera (i.e. those with more
symmetrical faces) than their co-twins were also rated as the
more attractive.
The approach of Mealey et al. was correlational, an im-
portant feature as the results might be particularly ecologically
valid because attractiveness ratings were made only on experi-
mentally unaltered faces. However, because symmetry was not
manipulated in the faces that were judged for attractiveness,
its effects could be due to covariation with other features.
Early experimental studies found that natural, unaltered faces
were typically preferred over computerized symmetrical faces
Fig. 1. Manipulations of facial symmetry. Symmetrical faces were created by averaging made from them. However, more recent studies suggest that
more than 200 corresponding facial locations on the two sides of the face, and then remap-
these effects are due to the nature of the manipulation used
ping the original face to render it symmetrical. With this procedure, left–right asymmetries
in face color or texture remain in the symmetrical image, giving it ecological validity. First to generate symmetrical faces (see Box 1).
row: original faces. Second row: symmetrical faces made from techniques in Perrett et al. (in Two recent experimental studies have used improved
press). Third row: chimaeric faces made by combining the left side of the original face with methodology. Perrett et al.37 used pairs of facial images com-
its mirror reflection. Fourth row: same as third row except right side of original face was
used (see text for explanation). (Reproduced, with permission, from Ref. 37.)
prising an original face (Fig. 1, first row) and a more symmet-
rical version of the original (Fig. 1, second row). Symmetrical
faces were rated as more attractive. In a second experiment,
As we have seen, some attractive features clearly connote normal faces were also compared with the symmetrical faces
health. These include clear eyes and smooth skin, as well as from which they derived, but all faces contained the same
non-facial features such as average body mass index28. The facial color. With texture and color symmetry thereby held
fact that people attribute greater health to attractive indi- constant, symmetrical faces were once again preferred. A third
viduals19,29,30 is consistent with attractiveness being the result experiment presented all faces in a haphazard order rather
of design that certifies health. But, as noted above, health is than in pairs to reduce the chances of raters’ awareness that
a broad notion in this context. Evolutionary psychologists have symmetry was being manipulated. Again, the result that
attempted to address the adaptationist question of whether symmetrical faces were preferred was replicated.
attractiveness reflects less-obvious indicators of phenotypic Because faces are not actually perfectly symmetrical, raters
condition in three main contexts: the impact on ratings in these studies could have preferred symmetry as a result of
of attractiveness of (1) symmetry, (2) averageness and (3) a preference for novelty rather than for symmetry per se. To
non-average sexually dimorphic features. address this possibility, Rhodes et al.38 created symmetrical
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Trends in Cognitive Sciences – Vol. 3, No. 12, December 1999
Thornhill and Gangestad – Facial attractiveness Review
faces by combining mirror images and original face textures mate or provide genetic diversity in defense against parasites.
but, unlike Swaddle and Cuthill39 (and see Box 1), removed the In fact, studies indicate that average faces are attractive but can
artifact of double blemishes by retouching the images. A ques- be improved upon by specific non-average features (Box 2).
tion of particular interest was whether people can detect subtle
differences in facial asymmetry, which then influence attrac- The handicap principle
tiveness ratings. Four versions of each face were created: a The perpetual ‘beauty contests’ of human evolutionary history
normal face, a perfectly symmetrical face, a high-symmetry would be expected to have selected signal-receiving adaptations
face (made by reducing the difference between the perfectly as well as adaptations in the outgoing signals. Evolutionary
symmetrical face and the normal face by 50%) and a low- psychology addresses both the immediate workings of psycho-
symmetry face (made by increasing the difference by 50%). logical adaptations responsible for physical attractiveness
Raters assessed faces for attractiveness and for appeal as a long- judgments, as well as adaptations that function to create,
term mate. The degree of symmetry affected both judgments during development, the physical features that are judged.
for both sexes. Moreover, attractiveness covaried with the de- The most prominent evolutionary theory of social signals,
gree of symmetry, a finding that cannot be explained by a pref- including sexual signals, is the handicap principle proposed by
erence for novelty. There were no sex differences in the attrac- Amotz Zahavi in 1975 (Ref. 46). It explains the evolution
tiveness-rating of symmetry, but symmetry had greater effects of extravagant, and thus costly, display traits as honest signals
on men’s preferences for long-term mates than on women’s. of the ability to deal with environmental problems throughout
Whereas these experiments demonstrate the direct effects evolutionary history. A handicap is honest in the sense that
of symmetry on attractiveness, other research suggests that only high-quality individuals can afford it. It ‘costs’ high-quality
symmetry can be associated with facial attractiveness for rea- peacocks less to produce and carry around an extra inch of tail
sons other than direct effects of symmetry per se. In one study, than it ‘costs’ low-quality peacocks. Coevolution of the signal-
Scheib et al.40 asked women to rate for attractiveness either full ing trait and signal reception results in a situation in which it
male faces or half-faces (the other half was not shown). Half- pays high-quality, but not low-quality, individuals to develop
faces contain little symmetry information, yet half-face attrac- fully the costly trait (paid for by the preferences of others,
tiveness covaried with measured facial symmetry just as highly e.g. mate preferences47). Handicap traits usually signal both the
as full-face attractiveness. Facial symmetry covaried with a phenotypic and genotypic quality of the bearer: condition
composite of men’s lower face length and cheekbone promi- almost always shows genetic variation among individuals
nence (with symmetrical men possessing longer lower faces (i.e. is heritable) and handicaps necessarily capture the genetic
relative to total face length and greater cheekbone promi- variance in condition48.
nence), two features thought to be affected by male hormones Although some traits impose purely physiological costs
(see below). These features also predicted men’s attractiveness. (e.g. the energy costs of growing an extravagant peacock tail),
In summary, the amount of variance in facial attractiveness some handicap traits have socially mediated costs. For exam-
accounted for by the direct effects of symmetry is not currently ple, a male who throws himself into the fray of competition
known, but current evidence suggests that it could be small. against other males can suffer fitness costs for doing so. Those
Enquist and Arak41 and Johnstone42 offered an alternative males who are in best condition and who, therefore, are best
to the ‘symmetry reflects condition’ account, arguing that sym- equipped to win intrasexual competitions, suffer fewer costs,
metry is more readily perceived by the visual system. Thus, the which renders willingness to engage in such competitions an
preference for symmetry is not the result of special-purpose honest signal of condition. In the Harris sparrow, males who
design of the preference itself, but is merely a by-product of the possess a larger chest badge enjoy a mating advantage. A large
design of the perceptual system. Perhaps the clearest evidence badge itself might not be particularly costly to produce, except
against this view is that women also prefer the scent of sym- for the fact that males who possess one are the targets of other
metrical men43–45. The symmetry measured in these studies males’ aggression; in a sense, a large badge expresses a ‘will-
was body, not facial, symmetry; however, this is irrelevant in ingness’ to engage in intrasexual competitions. Hence, a large
the present context because, if symmetry were preferred as a badge pays only for males who are intrasexually competitive,
by-product of the visual processing system, there would be no as it honestly signals condition49.
reason to expect an olfactory preference for symmetrical males.
However, preference for correlated condition cues (e.g. scent) Male facial sex-hormone markers
would not be surprising if symmetry were a cue for condition. In many species, including humans, testosterone production
and metabolism mobilizes resources for the efforts of males to
Facial averageness attract and compete for mates49,50. It results in increased muscu-
Symons13 hypothesized that facial averageness is attractive be- lature and energy utilization through muscular activity51 and,
cause averageness is associated with above-average performance accordingly, draws resources away from other activities, such as
in tasks such as chewing and breathing. In other words, natural immune function52. In men, testosterone levels increase after
selection has a stabilizing effect on facial features (i.e. favors competitive success, suggesting that its production is sensitive to
the mean) and, therefore, averageness is associated with good cues about ability to compete with other males53. Testosterone
phenotypic condition. Thornhill and Gangestad2 suggested metabolism might be less costly for males who are better able
that preference for average trait values in some facial features to win intrasexual competitions and, therefore, testosterone
(not the secondary sex traits) could have evolved because, on and its phenotypic effects could be honest signals of condition.
continuously distributed, heritable traits the average denotes Testosterone affects a number of male facial features. In
genetic heterozygosity. Heterozygosity could signal an outbred pubertal males, facilitated by a high testosterone-to-estrogen
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Review Thornhill and Gangestad – Facial attractiveness
used a computerized caricature generator to vary overall facial a Langlois, J.H. and Roggman, L.A. (1990) Attractive faces are only
average Psychol. Sci. 1, 115–121
averageness independent of other features caused by compositing
b Langlois, J.H., Roggman, L.A. and Musselman, L. (1994) What is
a face, and also found average faces to be attractive. Caricaturing
average and what is not average about attractive faces? Psychol.
can exaggerate facial asymmetries, however, and thus Rhodes and
Sci. 5, 214–219
Tremewan’s result could be due to asymmetry covarying with c Alley, T.R. and Cunningham, M.R. (1991) Averaged faces are
non-averageness. Rhodes et al. (Ref. e) eliminated the potential attractive, but very attractive faces are not average Psychol. Sci. 2,
confound by independently manipulating averageness and symmetry 123–125
and found effects for both; averageness affects attractiveness even d Rhodes, G. and Tremewan, T. (1996) Averageness, exaggeration,
in perfectly symmetrical faces. Grammer and Thornhill (Ref. f) and and facial attractiveness Psychol. Sci. 7, 105–110
Jones (Ref. g) found that measured facial averageness covaries e Rhodes, G., Sumich, A. and Byatt, G. (1999) Are average facial
with attractiveness. The strongest effects in Jones’s cross-cultural configurations only attractive because of their symmetry? Psychol.
Sci. 10, 52–58
study came from the Ache, a hunter-gatherer group.
f Grammer, K. and Thornhill, R. (1994) Human (Homo sapiens) facial
Penton-Voak et al. (Ref. h) noted that self-similarity is con-
attractiveness and sexual selection: the role of symmetry and
founded with averageness because the facial average is more
averageness J. Comp. Psychol. 108, 233–242
similar to a person’s own face than is a randomly chosen face. g Jones, D. (1996) Physical Attractiveness and the Theory of Sexual
Participants manipulated an opposite-sex facial image along a Selection: Results From Five Populations, Museum of
continuum from a self-similar image (computer generated oppo- Anthropology, University of Michigan
site sex ‘sibling’), through an average face shape, to a face with h Penton-Voak, I.S., Perrett, D.I. and Peirce, J.W. Computer graphic
opposite facial traits. No preference for self-similar or opposite studies of the role of facial similarity in judgments of
faces was found. attractiveness Curr. Psychol. (in press)
Although average faces are attractive, many attractive features i Cunningham, M.R. (1986) Measuring the physical in physical
attractiveness: quasi-experiments on the sociobiology of female
are non-average. In addition to the secondary sex traits that we
facial beauty J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 50, 925–935
discuss as hormone markers (see main article), large eyes and
j Cunningham, M.R., Barbee, A.P. and Pike, C.L. (1990) What do women
small noses are preferred in women (Refs g,i). These traits are not
want? Facialmetric assessment of multiple motives in the perception
secondary sex traits. Large eyes might advertise health, as large of male physical attractiveness J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 59, 61–72
clear whites-of-eyes can reflect an absence of infection. Studies k Johnston, V.S. and Oliver-Rodriguez, J.C. (1997) Facial beauty and
yield mixed results concerning men’s eye size (Refs j,k). Johnston the late positive component of event-related potentials J. Sex Res.
and Oliver-Rodriguez (Ref. k) suggest that large eyes might be 34, 188–198
ratio, the cheekbones, mandibles and chin grow laterally, the The ‘multiple fitness model’ suggested by Cunningham
bones of the eyebrow ridges and central face grow forward, et al.7,59 proposes that attractiveness varies across multiple di-
and the lower facial bones lengthen4,34. Large size of these male mensions, rather than a single dimension, with each feature
sexually dimorphic facial traits is hypothesized to be an honest promising a different aspect of mate value. For example, some
signal of ability to engage in intrasexual confrontation2,34, and promise dominance, others promise willingness to invest in a
they also contribute to men’s perceived facial dominance54. relationship. The multiple fitness model captures the notion
Testosterone levels in teenage boys (13 and 15 year olds) that different attractive features connote different fitness bene-
correlate positively with ratings of dominance based purely fits, but does not specify the evolutionary and developmental
on post-adolescence facial photographs55. However, any asso- processes whereby different traits honestly express different
ciations between adult circulating levels of testosterone itself, aspects of mate value. We suggest that masculine facial features
or its metabolites, and facial features remain unknown. provide an honest signal of phenotypic and genetic quality as
a result of the imposed costs of those features, some of which
Trade-offs in facial traits are socially mediated. Men who are successful at attracting
Studies examining the associations between attractiveness and mates because they bear honest signals of good condition,
masculine features yield mixed findings. Some show preference however, could actually be less likely to invest time and other
for masculine facial features56, whereas others find preference resources in offspring, and less likely to exhibit fidelity. Men
for near-average or feminized facial features57–59. Given the sig- with high symmetry (and developmental stability) do appear
naling theory just presented, what could be the reason for this? to invest less in romantic relationships than less symmetrical
Although masculine features might honestly signal male intra- men, a difference thought to underlie the trade-off faced by
sexual competitive ability, they do not honestly signal all traits women in preferring such men; the same might be true of men
valued in a male mate. Women rate men with slightly feminized with masculine features57,59,61–64. For this reason, women might
faces as more cooperative and honest, and as good parents57. not prefer men who possess honest signals of good condition
Indeed, evidence suggests that these attributions are valid60 and under all mating conditions, but only under those conditions
if all else is equal, these traits will be attractive to women61. in which the benefits of choosing such men outweigh the
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Thornhill and Gangestad – Facial attractiveness Review
costs of that choice. Thus, a feminized lower face on a man These results suggest that symmetry and honest signals
might honestly signal an individual who is willing to invest of quality associated with androgens could tap common traits.
time and other resources in a relationship, and who will As noted, provisional evidence suggests an association between
show fidelity, because the bearer has limited opportunity to symmetry and certain male facial hormone markers40; however,
attract multiple mates or a woman with high-mate value. more evidence is needed. The nature of the chemical signal
Such a man might be preferred by some women under many in male sweat in relation to developmental stability is not yet
conditions, as illustrated in the next section. understood. One possibility is that it is related to individual
variation in testosterone metabolism. Women’s reactions to
Preference changes during the menstrual cycle androgens in male sweat change during the menstrual cycle,
Women’s preferences shift during the menstrual cycle. The with more favorable reactions near mid-cycle66.
first such shift to be demonstrated involves the olfactory pref-
erence that women have for the scent of symmetrical men Individual differences in women’s preferences
(mentioned above). This preference is specific to normally The view that cues suggest multiple valued traits, which might
ovulating women (those not using the contraceptive pill) dur- be differentially valued in varying circumstances, could yield
ing the high-fertility phase of their menstrual cycle (the mid- predictions about how other factors affect attractiveness judg-
to-late follicular phase). Women do not exhibit this preference ments. For example, women vary in motivation for short-term
during the low-fertility, luteal phase or when using a contra- mating relationships. These individual differences probably
ceptive pill43–45. This pattern makes sense if the costs and reflect a conditional mating strategy, with women pursuing
benefits of sexual encounters with men of different character- alternate mating tactics (i.e. short-term mating or long-term
istics also vary during the cycle. Women might possess a psy- mating) depending on cues, because those cues, such as the
chological adaptation for pursuing mates with good genes for amount of resources possessed by men67, or the absence of the
their offspring (including by ‘extra-pair’ sex – that outside their father during upbringing68, predicted the tactics’ effectiveness
usual pair bond), particularly during the fertile phase of their in evolutionary history. Women pursuing short-term mates
cycle. However, as extra-pair sex can be costly and there is no value physical attractiveness more than those pursuing long-
opportunity for obtaining genetic benefits outside the fertile term mates64,69,70. Future research could address the hypothesis
phase, this preference would not pay during the luteal phase. that women disposed to engage in short-term relationships
Subsequent research showed a similar pattern of shift in particularly prefer honest facial signals of health and condi-
the preference for facial features. Penton-Voak et al. used com- tion, whereas women disposed to engage in long-term rela-
puter graphics to manipulate the masculinity or femininity tionships only have a particular preference for facial features
of a composite male face by exaggerating or reducing the associated with willingness to invest.
shape differences between male and female average faces, Other predictions are also possible. It might be that
thereby manipulating the sexually dimorphic features affected women who differ in their need for protection from men, who,
by testosterone and estrogen58. In one experiment in this study, by sexual coercion, might circumvent the women’s mate pref-
normally ovulating Japanese women preferred more femi- erences71, also differ in their standards of attractiveness as a
nized faces of both Caucasian and Japanese men in the low- result of adaptation that adjusts these standards. The same may
conception phases of their cycles58. By contrast, women in be true for women who differ in mate value to men (owing to
the fertile phase preferred more masculine (in actuality, near- a differential in age or attractiveness, for example)72.
average) faces. Women using the contraceptive pill did not
show this preference shift. In a second experiment, UK women Female facial sex-hormone markers
selected their most attractive male face for short-term and Estrogen could be a handicapping sex hormone for women in
long-term relationships. For a short-term mate, women a similar way that testosterone acts for men30. Estrogen signals
showed a preference shift towards greater masculinization the readiness of a woman to exert reproductive effort and is
during the high-fertility phase. For a long-term mate, women therefore a signal of fertility. Because estrogen can be expected
did not show this shift. Again, these results make sense if to draw resources away from other bodily functions (e.g.
masculinization is an honest signal of condition, albeit a sign immune function or repair mechanisms), it could affect mor-
of less willingness to invest. Thus, selection could have de- tality. The signal value of estrogen as a fertility cue could
signed preferences to shift when the relative costs and benefits therefore result in the evolution of estrogen displays and the
of mating with a male of best condition varied, particularly capacity to produce it beyond its fertility value.
in short-term, extra-pair relationships. A high estrogen-to-testosterone ratio in pubertal females
In a related electrophysiological study, Oliver-Rodriguez appears to cap the growth of the bony structures that are rela-
et al.65 found that the size of the P300 response of the evoked tively large in typical male faces, just as it caps the growth of the
potential (a positive potential around 300 ms following pre- long bones of the body. It also results in enlargement of the lips
sentation of a stimulus, which covaries with the emotional and upper cheek area by fat deposition, similar to the estrogen-
salience of the stimulus) of women in the fertile phase of their mediated fat deposition in the thighs, buttocks and breasts30. A
cycle correlated with their rating of male facial attractiveness, variety of experimental methods have consistently shown that
but not their ratings of female beauty. During the infertile the most attractive female faces are associated with smallness in
phase, women’s responses were undifferentiated and covaried the bony features of the lower face, a flat middle face, large lips,
with both male and female attractiveness. This therefore and width and height in the cheeks (see Box 3). These features
provides additional evidence that women’s responses to male appear to be estrogen-dependent, although more evidence on
faces change during the menstrual cycle. precisely how they covary with estrogen levels is needed.
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Review Thornhill and Gangestad – Facial attractiveness
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Thornhill and Gangestad – Facial attractiveness Review
but rather shifts with women’s cycle-based fertility and that, Outstanding questions
generally, slightly feminine male faces are actually preferred).
Charles Darwin’s and similar hypotheses for the evolution • EEA-focused research is needed to clarify the relationships between
of mate choice – that human sexual attraction is fully ex- facial attractiveness and health. Is individual variation in facial
asymmetry, facial averageness and putative hormone markers related to
plained as a means of obtaining a mate that will result in off-
measures of immunocompetence and overall condition, as predicted by
spring with a mating advantage because of their physical at- the hypothesis that beauty is a health certificate?
tractiveness alone – are difficult to sustain in light of the • How do measures of symmetry, averageness and hormone markers relate
evidence accumulated in these areas of research. Likewise, the to one another, and how do olfactory preferences relate to visual
hypotheses that human facial preferences: (1) are incidental preferences? If they tap somewhat different aspects of condition, how
do these aspects differ?
effects of sensory biases arising from psychological adaptation
• How do specific facial features covary with behavioral traits (e.g. feminine
for general object perception41,42 or another task79, (2) arise facial features with willingness to invest), adult hormone levels and/or
from adaptations that function to limit mating to conspecifics metabolism?
(but not high-mate-value ones) and thereby prevent mal- • Which specific sexually dimorphic male features do women prefer
adaptive matings with heterospecific hominids and other differentially during the menstrual cycle? Do women’s preferences change
during the cycle in other ways?
apes80, or (3) function to secure a mate that is unambiguously
• How do individual differences or life history variations affect attractiveness
of the opposite sex81, appear unable to account for the data. judgments, and can these variations be understood from an adaptationist
Although many questions remain unresolved, the path to perspective?
truthful answers could yet follow the adaptationist perspective, • What are the details of the information processes that underlie facial
which views the psychological features responsible for attrac- attractiveness judgments, including how composite facial images are
constructed to track averageness4, relative processing of different facial
tiveness judgments as special-purpose adaptations designed
features (e.g. hormone markers versus other features), and additive versus
to discriminate the mate value of individuals throughout non-additive combining of information to produce a global impression48?
human evolutionary history.
16 Zebrowitz, L.A., Olson, K. and Hoffman, K. (1992) Stability of babyfaceness
Acknowledgements
and attractiveness across the lifespan J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 64, 453–466
For helpful comments on the paper, we thank V. Johnston, I. Penton-Voak
17 Eagly, A.H. et al. (1991) What is beautiful is good, but…: a meta-
and the anonymous referees.
analysis review of research on the physical attractiveness stereotype
Psychol. Bull. 110, 109–128
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