EN6501 Municipal Solid Waste Management Question Bank

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY QUESTION BANK
SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

VIRUDHUNAGAR
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
QUESTION WITH ANSWERS
DEPARTMENT: CIVIL –IV

SEM:VII SUB.CODE/ NAME: EN6501 /Municipal Solid Waste Management.
UNIT 1- SOURCES AND TYPES PART - A (2marks)
1. What is meant by solid waste?

Solid wastes are the organic and inorganic waste materials such as product
packaging, grass clippings, furniture, clothing, bottles, kitchen refuse,
paper, appliances, paint cans, batteries, etc., produced in a society, which
do not generally carry any value to the first user(s).
2. Examples of residential and commercial solid wastes.

Residential: This refers to wastes from dwellings, apartments, etc.
and consists of leftover food, vegetable peels, plastic, clothes, ashes, etc.
Commercial: This refers to wastes consisting of leftover food, glasses,
metals, ashes, etc generated from stores, restaurants, markets, hotels,
motels, auto-repair shops, medical facilities, etc.
Institutional: Consisting of schools and colleges (paper,
plastics, glasses,etc.).
Municipal: Consisting of wastes from demolition and construction activities
(dust, building debris, etc.).
3. What is called Waste generation?
Wastes are generated at the start of any process, and thereafter, at every
stage as raw materials are converted into goods for consumption. For
example,wastes are generated from households, commercial areas,
industries, institutions, street cleaning and other municipal services. The
most important aspect of this part of the SWM system is the identification of
waste.
4. List out the Biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes:
Biodegradable wastes mainly refer to substances consisting of organic matter
such as leftover food, vegetable and fruit peels, paper, textile, wood, etc.,
generated from various household and industrial activities. Because of
the action of micro-organisms, these wastes are degraded from
complex to simpler compounds.
Non-biodegradable wastes consist of inorganic and recyclable materials such
as plastic, glass, cans, metals,
5. What is called Hazardous wastes?

Hazardous wastes are those defined as wastes of industrial, institutional or
consumer origin that are potentially dangerous either immediately or over a
period of time to human beings and the environment. This is due to their
PREPARED BY K.KALAIPANDIAN AP/CIVIL MSW/QB/UNIT I Page 1
physical, chemical and biological or radioactive characteristics like ignitability,

corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity.
6. What is called Solid waste management (SWM).
Solid waste management (SWM) is associated with the control of waste
generation, its storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing and
disposal in a manner that is in accordance with the best principles of public
health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics, public attitude and
other environmental considerations.
7. List out the MSWM prinviples.
Protection of environmental health.
Promotion of environmental quality.
Supporting the efficiency and productivity of the economy.
Generation of employment and income.
8. What is called legislation?

This refers to the existence of local and state regulations concerning the use
and disposal of specific materials and is an important factor that influences
the composition and generation of certain types of wastes. The Indian
legislation dealing with packing and beverage container materials is an
example.In short elements that relate to waste generation include land use
characteristics, population in age distribution, legislation, socio economic
conditions, household and approximate number.
9. Draw Hierarchy of municipal solid waste management.


VIRUDHUNAGAR
DEPARTMENT: CIVIL –IV SEM:VII SUB.CODE/

NAME: EN6501 /Municipal Solid Waste Management.
UNIT 1- SOURCES AND TYPES
PART - B (16 marks)
1.Explain the sources and types of solid wastes.
Source-based classification
Historically, the sources of solid wastes have been consistent, dependent on sectors
and activities (Tchobanoglous, et al., 1977), and these include the following:
(i) Residential: This refers to wastes from dwellings, apartments, etc., and consists of
leftover food, vegetable peels, plastic, clothes, ashes, etc.
(ii) Commercial: This refers to wastes consisting of leftover food, glasses, metals,
ashes, etc., generated from stores, restaurants, markets, hotels, motels, auto-repair
shops, medical facilities, etc.
Management of Municipal Solid Waste 4
(iii) Institutional: This mainly consists of paper, plastic, glasses, etc., generated from
educational, administrative and public buildings such as schools, colleges, offices, prisons, etc.
(iv) Municipal: This includes dust, leafy matter, building debris, treatment plant residual sludge, etc.,
generated from various municipal activities like construction and demolition, street cleaning,
landscaping, etc. (Note, however, in India municipal can typically subsume items at (i) to (iii) above).
(v) Industrial: This mainly consists of process wastes, ashes, demolition and construction wastes,
hazardous wastes, etc., due to industrial activities.
(vi) Agricultural: This mainly consists of spoiled food grains and vegetables, agricultural remains,
litter, etc., generated from fields, orchards, vineyards, farms, etc.
(vii) Open areas: this includes wastes from areas such as Streets, alleys, parks, vacant lots,
playgrounds, beaches, highways, recreational areas, etc.
It is important to define the various types of solid wastes that are generated from various sources.
1. Biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes:
Biodegradable wastes mainly refer to substances consisting of organic matter such as
leftover food, vegetable and fruit peels, paper, textile, wood, etc., generated from
various household and industrial activities. Because of the action of micro-organisms,
these wastes are degraded from complex to simpler compounds.
Non-biodegradable wastes consist of inorganic and recyclable materials such as

plastic, glass, cans, metals,
Type-based classification
Classification of wastes based on types, i.e., physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of
wastes, is as follows (Phelps, et al., 1995):
(i) Garbage: This refers to animal and vegetable wastes resulting from the handling, sale, storage,
preparation, cooking and serving of food. Garbage comprising these wastes contains putrescible
(rotting) organic matter, which produces an obnoxious odour and attracts rats and other vermin. It,
therefore, requires special attention in storage, handling and disposal.

(ii) Ashes and residues: These are substances remaining from the burning of wood, coal, charcoal,
coke and other combustible materials for cooking and heating in houses, institutions and small
industrial establishments.
when produced in large quantities, as in power-generation plants and factories, these are classified as
industrial wastes. Ashes consist of fine powdery residue, cinders and clinker often mixed with small
pieces of metal and glass. Since ashes and residues are almost entirely inorganic, they are valuable in
landfills. (iii) Combustible and non-combustible wastes: These consist of wastes generated from
households, institutions, commercial activities, etc., excluding food wastes and other highly putrescible
material. Typically, while combustible material consists of paper, cardboard, textile, rubber, garden
trimmings, etc., non-combustible material consists of such items as glass, crockery, tin and aluminium
cans, ferrous and non-ferrous material and dirt.
(iv) Bulky wastes: These include large household appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines,
furniture, crates, vehicle parts, tyres, wood, trees and branches. Since these household wastes cannot be
accommodated in normal storage containers, they require a special collection mechanism.
(v) Street wastes: These refer to wastes that are collected from streets, walkways, alleys, parks and
vacant plots, and include paper, cardboard, plastics, dirt, leaves and other vegetable matter. Littering in
public places is indeed a widespread and acute problem in many countries including India, and a solid
waste management system must address this menace appropriately.
(vi) Biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes: Biodegradable wastes mainly refer to substances
consisting of organic matter such as leftover food, vegetable and fruit peels, paper, textile, wood, etc.,
generated from various household and industrial activities. Because of the action of micro-organisms,
these wastes are degraded from complex to simpler compounds. Non-biodegradable wastes consist of
inorganic and recyclable materials such as plastic, glass, cans, metals, etc. Table 1.1 below shows a
comparison of biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes with their degeneration time, i.e., the time
required to break from a complex to a simple biological form
(vii) Dead animals: With regard to municipal wastes, dead animals are those that die naturally or are
accidentally killed on the road. Note that this category does not include carcasses and animal parts from
slaughter-houses, which are regarded as industrial wastes. Dead animals are divided into two groups –
large and small. Among the large animals are horses, cows, goats, sheep, pigs, etc., and among the small
ones are dogs, cats, rabbits, rats, etc. The reason for this differentiation is that large animals require special
equipment for lifting and handling when they are removed. If not collected promptly, dead animals pose a
threat to public health since they attract flies and other vermin as they decay. Their presence in public
places is particularly offensive from the aesthetic point of view as well.
(viii) Abandoned vehicles: This category includes automobiles, trucks and trailers that are abandoned
on streets and other public places. However, abandoned vehicles have significant scrap value for their
metal, and their value to collectors is highly variable.
(ix) Construction and demolition wastes: These are wastes generated as a result of construction,
refurbishment, repair and demolition of houses, commercial buildings and other structures. They consist
mainly of earth, stones, concrete, bricks, lumber, roofing and plumbing materials, heating systems and
electrical wires and parts of the general municipal waste stream.
(x) Farm wastes: These wastes result from diverse agricultural activities such as planting, harvesting,
production of milk, rearing of animals for slaughter and the operation of feedlots. In many areas, the
disposal of animal waste has become a critical problem, especially from feedlots, poultry farms and
dairies.

(xi) Hazardous wastes: Hazardous wastes are those defined as wastes of industrial, institutional or
consumer origin that are potentially dangerous either immediately or over a period of time to human
beings and the environment. This is due to their physical, chemical and biological or radioactive
characteristics like ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity. Note that in some cases, the active
agents may be liquid or gaseous hazardous wastes. These are, nevertheless, classified as solid wastes as
they are confined in solid containers. Typical examples of hazardous wastes are empty containers
of solvents, paints and pesticides, which are frequently mixed with municipal wastes and become part
of the urban waste stream. Certain hazardous wastes may cause explosions in incinerators and fires at
landfill sites. Others such as pathological wastes from hospitals and radioactive wastes also require special
handling. Effective management practices should ensure that hazardous wastes are stored, collected,
transported and disposed of separately, preferably after suitable treatment to render them harmless.
xii) Sewage wastes: The solid by-products of sewage treatment are classified as sewage wastes. They
are mostly organic and derived from the treatment of organic sludge separated from both raw and
treated sewages. The inorganic fraction of raw sewage such as grit and eggshells is separated
at the preliminary stage of treatment, as it may entrain putrescible organic matter with pathogens and
must be buried without delay. The bulk of treated, dewatered sludge is useful as a soil conditioner but is
invariably uneconomical. Solid sludge, therefore, enters the stream of municipal wastes, unless special
arrangements are made for its disposal.


2.Explain the SOLID WASTE CHARACTERISTICS.

SOLID WASTE CHARACTERISTICS
In order to identify the exact characteristics of municipal wastes, it is necessary that we
analyse them using physical and chemical parameters (Phelps, et al., 1995), which we will
discuss in Subsections 2.3.1 and 2.3.2, respectively.
2.3.1 Physical characteristics Information and data on the physical characteristics of

solid wastes are important for the selection and operation of equipment and for the
analysis and design of disposal facilities. The required information and data include the
following:
(i) Density: Density of waste, i.e., its mass per unit volume (kg/m3), is a critical factor in
the design of a SWM system, e.g., the design of sanitary landfills, storage, types of collection
and transport vehicles, etc. To explain, an efficient operation of a landfill demands
compaction of wastes to optimum density. Any normal compaction equipment can achieve
reduction in volume of wastes by 75%, which increases an initial density of
100 kg/m3 to 400 kg/m3. In other words, a waste collection vehicle can haul four times the
weight of waste in its compacted state than when it is uncompacted. A high initial density
of waste precludes the achievement of a high compaction ratio and the compaction ratio
achieved is no greater than 1.5:1. Significant changes in density occur spontaneously as the
waste moves from source to disposal, due to scavenging, handling, wetting and drying by
the weather, vibration in the collection vehicle and decomposition. Note that:
the effect of increasing the moisture content of the waste is detrimental in the
sense that dry density decreases at higher moisture levels;
soil-cover plays an important role in containing the waste;
there is an upper limit to the density, and the conservative estimate of in-place
density for waste in a sanitary landfill is about 600 kg/m3.
(ii) Moisture content: Moisture content is defined as the ratio of the weight of water (wet
weight - dry weight) to the total weight of the wet waste. Moisture increases the weight of
solid wastes, and thereby, the cost of collection and transport. In addition, moisture
content is a critical determinant in the economic feasibility of waste treatment by
incineration, because wet waste consumes energy for evaporation of water and in raising
the temperature of water vapour. In the main, wastes should be insulated from rainfall or
other extraneous water. We can calculate the moisture percentage, using the formula given
below:
Moisture content (%) = Wet weight - Dry weight X 100
Wet weight
A typical range of moisture content is 20 to 40%, representing the extremes of wastes in an
arid climate and in the wet season of a region of high precipitation. However, values greater
than 40% are not uncommon.
(iii) Size: Measurement of size distribution of particles in waste stream is important

because of its significance in the design of mechanical separators and shredders.

Generally, the results of size distribution analysis are expressed in the manner used for soil
particle analysis. That is to say, they are expressed as a plot of particle size (mm) against
percentage, less than a given value. The physical properties that are essential to analyse
wastes disposed at landfills are:
I. Field capacity: The field capacity of MSW is the total amount of moisture which
can be retained in a waste sample subject to gravitational pull. It is a critical measure
because water in excess of field capacity will form leachate, and leachate can be a major
problem in landfills. Field capacity varies with the degree of applied pressure and the state
of decomposition of the wastes.
II. Permeability of compacted wastes: The hydraulic conductivity of compacted

wastes is an important physical property because it governs the movement of liquids
and gases in a landfill. Permeability depends on the other properties of the solid
material include pore size distribution, surface area and porosity.
Porosity: It represents the amount of voids per unit overall volume of material. The
porosity of MSW varies typically from 0.40 to 0.67 depending on the compaction and
composition of the waste.
Porosity of solid waste n= e/ (1+e) ,
Where e is void ratio of solid waste
III. Compressibility of MSW: Degree of physical changes of the suspended

solids or filter cake when subjected to pressure.
ΔHT =ΔHi +ΔHc +ΔHα [ΔHT=

total settlement;
ΔHi=immediate settlement;
ΔHc = consolidation settlement;
ΔHα = secondary compression or creep.]
C’α = ΔH/ [H0 X (Log (t2/t1))] = Cα/ (1+e0)
[Cα, C’α = Secondary compression index and Modified secondary Compression index;
and t1, t2= Starting and ending time of secondary settlement respectively.]
3.Explain the Public health effects in MSWM.

Public health effect The volume of waste is increasing rapidly as a result of increasing
population and improving economic conditions in various localities. This increased volume
of wastes is posing serious problems due to insufficient workforce and other constraints in
disposing of it properly. What are the consequences of improper management and
handling of wastes? Consider the following:
(i) Disease vectors and pathways: Wastes dumped indiscriminately provide the food
and environment for thriving populations of vermin, which are the agents of various
diseases. The pathways of pathogen transmission from
wastes to humans are mostly indirect through insects – flies, mosquitoes and roaches and
animals – rodents and pigs. Diseases become a public health problem when they are

present in the human and animal population of surrounding communities, or if a carrier

transmits the etiological agent from host to receptor.
(ii) Flies: Most common in this category is the housefly, which transmits typhoid,
salmonellosis, gastro-enteritis and dysentery. Flies have a flight range of about 10 km, and
therefore, they are able to spread their influence over a relatively wide area. The four
stages in their life-cycle are egg, larva, pupa and adult. Eggs are deposited in the warm,
moist environment of decomposing food wastes. When they hatch, the larvae
feed on the organic material, until certain maturity is reached, at which time they migrate
from the waste to the soil of other dry loose material before being transformed into pupae.
The pupae are inactive until the adult-fly emerges. The migration of larvae within
4 to 10 days provides the clue to an effective control measure, necessitating the removal of
waste before migration of larvae. Consequently, in warm weather, municipal waste should
be collected twice weekly for effective control. In addition, the quality of household and
commercial storage containers is very significant. The guiding principle here is to restrict
access to flies. Clearly, the use of suitable storage containers and general cleanliness at
their location, as well as frequent collection of wastes, greatly reduces the population of
flies. Control is also necessary at transfer stations, composting facilities and disposal sites
to prevent them from becoming breeding
grounds for flies. Covering solid wastes with a layer of earth at landfill sites at the end of
every day arrests the problem of fly breeding at the final stage.
(iii) Mosquitoes: They transmit diseases such as malaria, filaria and dengue fever. Since
they breed in stagnant water, control measures should centre on the elimination of
breeding places such as tins, cans, tyres, etc. Proper sanitary practices and general
cleanliness in the community help eliminate the mosquito problems caused by the
mismanagement of solid waste.
68
(iv) Roaches: These cause infection by physical contact and can transmit typhoid, cholera
and amoebiasis. The problems of roaches are associated with the poor storage of solid
waste.
(v) Rodents: Rodents (rats) proliferate in uncontrolled deposits of solid wastes, which
provide a source of food as well as shelter. They are responsible for the spread of diseases
such as plague, murine typhus, leptospirosis, histoplasmosis, rat bite fever, dalmonelosis,
trichinosis, etc. The fleas, which rats carry, also cause many diseases. This problem is
associated not only with open dumping but also poor sanitation.
(vi) Occupational hazards: Workers handling wastes are at risk of accidents related to
the nature of material and lack of safety precautions. The sharp edges of glass and metal
and poorly constructed storage containers may inflict injuries to workers. It is, therefore,
necessary for waste handlers to wear gloves, masks and be vaccinated. The infections
associated with waste handling, include:
skin and blood infections resulting from direct contact with waste and from
infected wounds;
eye and respiratory infections resulting from exposure to infected dust, especially
during landfill operations;
diseases that result from the bites of animals feeding on the waste;

intestinal infections that are transmitted by flies feeding on the waste;

chronic respiratory diseases, including cancers resulting from exposure to dust
and hazardous compounds.
In addition, the accidents associated with waste handling include:
bone and muscle disorders resulting from the handling of heavy containers and the
loading heights of vehicles;
infecting wounds resulting from contact with sharp objects;
reduced visibility, due to dust along the access routes, creates greater risk of
accidents;
poisoning and chemical burns resulting from contact with small amounts of
hazardous chemical wastes mixed with general wastes such as pesticides, cleaning
solutions and solvents in households and commercial establishments;
burns and other injuries resulting from occupational accidents at waste disposal
sites or from methane gas explosion at landfill sites;
serious health hazards, particularly for children, due to careless dumping of lead-
acid, nickel-cadmium and mercuric oxide batteries.
(vii) Animals: Apart from rodents, some animals (e.g., dogs, cats, pigs, etc.) also act as
carriers of disease. For example, pigs are involved in the spread of diseases like trichinosis,
cysticerosis and toxoplasmosis, which are transmitted through infected pork, eaten either
in raw state or improperly cooked. Solid wastes, when fed to pigs, should
be properly treated (cooked at 100C for at least 50 minutes with suitable equipment).
4.Explain the CASE STUDY: STATUS OF WASTE GENERATION IN ANY INDIAN CITY
CASE STUDY: STATUS OF WASTE GENERATION IN BANGALORE
SWM in urban areas has interface with all aspects of life and government administration
(Areivala, 1971). And, through this case study, we intend to share with you some practical
aspects of SWM, from the disposal of building debris to
organic, putrescible, and bio-medical wastes and their possible recycling potential. For
details, see http://stratema.sigis.net/cupum/pdf/E1.pdf. Bangalore, also known as the
Garden City, is one of the fastest growing metropolitan cities in South India. It is the state
capital of Karnataka and the sixth largest city in India. Topographically, Bangalore is
located in the south deccan and physically, has grown on watershed running through the
middle of the Mysore Plateau from west to east which serves as the main water parting of
the state at an average elevation of 900 meters above sea level. The city gets moderate
rainfall of around 900 mm largely between June and October. On account of its elevation,
Bangalore is bestowed with salubrious and equable climate comparable to those of
temperate regions. The city covers the local planning area of 500 sq. kms. Out of this,
226.16 sq. kms are developed at present. In 1991, its population was 4.16
million and has grown over 6 million, as per recent projected population estimates.
Besides, the city has a floating population of over 0.5 million. It is a fast growing city
beset with the usual problems of inadequate waste management, due to constraints such
as lack of finance and other resources, deficiencies in equipment and workforce and
paucity of space (for waste disposal). The Bangalore Mahanagara Palike (BMP), the

erstwhile Bangalore City Corporation (BCC), is concerned with the prime areas of public
health, solid waste management including health care waste and sanitation, education,
horticulture, etc. Working with non-governmental and voluntary organisations of all
stakeholders in a participatory approach, BMP is striving to implement suggestions
towards an improved SWM. SWM is a vital function of the Health Department,
supported by the Engineering Department of BMP and the health officer heads the SWM
wing. In the present context, SWM in BMP essentially means the cleaning of streets,
emptying dustbins, transportation of wastes to city outskirts and burning them in open
areas for their disposal (Attarwalla, 1993, Gotoh, 1989, Development, 1998, Ogawa, 1989,
and Vagale, 1997).
74
The waste generation and composition details of Bangalore are as follows: (i) Waste
generation: Bangalore produces over 2500 tonnes of solid waste per day and the
Municipal Corporation has miserably inadequate infrastructure in managing the disposal of
solid wastes generated. It is estimated that the per capita generation of solid waste works
out to 0.59 kg/day. The sources of waste generation and the amount generated
at each source are given in Table 2.6.
Table 2.6 Different Sources of Solid Waste Generation in Bangalore

Sl No. Source Quantity (in
1 Households MT/day)
2 Shops, Establishments, Institutions, etc. 600
1000
3 Markets 600
4 Others 300
5 TOTAL 2500
Source: Department of SWM, Bangalore Mahanagara Palike, Bangalore
(ii) Waste composition: The composition of wastes in Bangalore has wide variations in
the proportion of contents. It varies from area to area, depending upon the socioeconomic
conditions and the population density. The composition of the total wastes generated in
Bangalore city is given in Table 2.7.
Table 2.7 Composition of Solid Waste in Bangalore

Sl No. Type of Waste Composition (in percentage)
1 75.2
2 Dust and ash 12
3 Textiles 3.1
4 Paper 1.5
5 Plastic, leather and rubber 0.9
6 Glass 0.2
7 Metals 0.1
8 Earth and building debris and others 0.7

Source: Department of SWM, Bangalore Mahanagara Palike, Bangalore In Bangalore, there

are 401 slum pockets identified which come under the jurisdiction of three different
authorities, viz., Bangalore City Corporation - 64 slums, Bangalore Development Authority –
64 slums, and Karnataka Slum Clearance Board – 273 slums. Fifteen
percent of the city’s population lives in these slums (Comprehensive Development Plan
(Revised) Bangalore Report, 1995, p. 25). The slum locations are generally found to be
least desirable from the point of view of habitation – being low lying areas, tank beds,
quarry pits, near railway lines and cemeteries. The authorities have been unable to clear
the garbage from most of the slums mainly due to the slum dwellers’ practice of throwing
their wastes into drains, and only part of the waste generated is available for collection.
There are 12 large vegetable and fruit markets other than a number of small groups of
pavement vegetable vendors. Approximately, these markets are producing
more than 150 tonnes of wastes daily. In addition to this, large quantities of wastes get
generated from slaughterhouses, food packing industries and cold storage facilities.
5.Explain the Improper handling of wastes.
Improper handling of wastes

Some of the adverse health and environmental effects, due to the improper handling of
wastes are:
(i) Health effects: Wastes dumped indiscriminately provide the food and environment
for breeding of various vectors, e.g., flies (salmonellosis, dysentry, etc.), mosquitoes and
roaches (malaria, dengue fever, typhoid, cholera, amoebiasis, etc.) and animals, e.g.,
rodents and pigs (trichinosis, cysticerosis, etc.).
(ii) Environmental effects: Inadequate and improper waste management has serious
environmental effects. These include air, water, land, visual, noise and odour pollution,
and explosion hazards.
I reside in ward no. 89 of Bangalore, Karnataka, India where sufficient precaution is not
practised, while handling municipal solid wastes. Based on a general observation, the four
effects are the following:
Due to open dumping, mosquitoes thrive in our locality, which may cause
diseases like malaria or dengue fever.
Rodents, notably rats proliferate in uncontrolled deposits of solid waste, which
provide them with a convenient source of food and shelter.
There is a risk of injury during handling of wastes, as workers are not provided
with safety materials, e.g., gloves.
The aesthetic sensibility (i.e., visual pollution) of concerned residents is offended by
the unsightliness of piles of wastes.
6. Explain the Principle of solid waste management.
Principle of solid waste management

A SWM system refers to a combination of various functional elements associated with the
management of solid wastes. The system, when put in place, facilitates the collection and
disposal of solid wastes in the community at minimal costs,
while preserving public health and ensuring little or minimal adverse impact on the
environment. The functional elements that constitute the system are:
(i) Waste generation: Wastes are generated at the start of any process, and thereafter, at
every stage as raw materials are converted into goods for consumption. The source
of waste generation, as we touched upon earlier in Section 1.1, determines quantity,
composition and waste characteristics (see Unit 2 for details). For example, wastes are
generated from households, commercial areas, industries, institutions, street cleaning and
other municipal services. The most important aspect of this part of the SWM system is the
identification of waste.
(ii) Waste storage: Storage is a key functional element because collection of wastes never
takes place at the source or at the time of their generation. The heterogeneous wastes
generated in residential areas must be removed within 8 days due to shortage of storage
space and presence of biodegradable material. Onsite storage is of primary importance due
to aesthetic consideration, public health and economics involved. Some of the options for
storage are plastic containers, conventional dustbins (of households), used oil drums, large
storage bins (for institutions and commercial areas or servicing depots), etc. Obviously,
these vary greatly in size, form and material. We shall discuss waste storage in detail in Unit
3.
(iii) Waste collection: This includes gathering of wastes and hauling them to the location,
where the collection vehicle is emptied, which may be a transfer station (i.e., intermediate
station where wastes from smaller vehicles are transferred to larger ones and also
segregated), a processing plant or a disposal site. Collection depends on the number of
containers, frequency of collection, types of collection services and routes. Typically,
collection is provided under various management arrangements, ranging from municipal
services to franchised services, and under various forms of contracts.
Note that the solution to the problem of hauling is complicated. For instance, vehicles
used for long distance hauling may not be suitable or particularly economic for house-
to-house collection. Every SWM system, therefore, requires
an individual solution to its waste collection problem, and we will explain this in Unit 3.
(iv) Transfer and transport: This functional element involves:
the transfer of wastes from smaller collection vehicles, where necessary to
overcome the problem of narrow access lanes, to larger ones at transfer stations;
the subsequent transport of the wastes, usually over long distances, to disposal
sites.
The factors that contribute to the designing of a transfer station include the type of
transfer operation, capacity, equipment, accessories and environmental requirements.
We will discuss these in Unit 3.
(v) Processing: Processing is required to alter the physical and chemical
characteristics of wastes for energy and resource recovery and recycling. The important
processing techniques include compaction, thermal volume reduction, manual separation

of waste components, incineration and composting. We will discuss the various functions
involved in waste processing in detail in Unit 5.
(vi) Recovery and recycling: This includes various techniques, equipment and facilities
used to improve both the efficiency of disposal system and recovery of usable material and
energy. Recovery involves the separation of valuable resources from the mixed
solid wastes, delivered at transfer stations or processing plants. It also involves size
reduction and density separation by air classifier, magnetic device for iron and screens for
glass. The selection of any recovery process is a function of economics, i.e., costs of
separation versus the recovered-material products. Certain recovered materials like glass,
plastics, paper, etc., can be recycled as they have economic value. We will discuss the
various aspects of recovery and recycling, respectively, in Units 6 and 7.
(vii) Waste disposal: Disposal is the ultimate fate of all solid wastes, be they residential
wastes, semi-solid wastes from municipal and industrial treatment
plants, incinerator residues, composts or other substances that have no further use to the
society. Thus, land use planning becomes a primary determinant in the selection, design
and operation of landfill operations. A modern sanitary landfill is a method of disposing
solid waste without creating a nuisance and hazard to public health. Generally,
engineering principles are followed to confine the wastes to the smallest possible area,
reduce them to the lowest particle volume by compaction at the site and cover them after
each day’s operation to reduce exposure to vermin. One of the most important functional
elements of SWM, therefore, relates to the final use of the reclaimed land.
In Figure 1.1 below, we show you a typical SWM system with its functional elements
and linkages:

Integrated Solid Waste Management

7.Explain the PUBLIC EDUCATION AND INVOLVEMENT In
MSWM.
PUBLIC EDUCATION AND INVOLVEMENT

Developing integrated solutions for waste management problems requires public
involvement. To operate a waste management programme economically and efficiently,
significant cooperation is expected from waste generators, regardless of the strategies
chosen – buying products in bulk, separating recyclables from non-recyclables,
dropping off garden trimmings at a compost site, removing batteries from materials sent
to a waste-to-energy facility, or using designated containers for collecting materials. To
sustain a long-term programme support, the public needs to know clearly the purpose and
necessity of desired behaviours.
Involving people in the waste management requires a significant educational effort by the
community. Ineffective or half-hearted education programmes may confuse the public,
reduce public confidence or elicit hostility towards the programme. Successful education
programmes must be consistent and ongoing. Public education stimulates interest in how
waste management decisions are made, and when citizens become interested in their
community's waste management programmes, they frequently demand to be involved in
the decision-making process. Communities should anticipate such interest and develop
procedures for involving the public. When the public is involved in programme design, it
helps ensure the smooth running of the programmes (EPA, 1989 and 1995).
We now discuss some aspects of public education and involvement in Subsections 10.1
8. Planning a public education programme

Successful public education plans are the result of careful planning. By developing a
realistic education plan, you can assess the situation and know where best to direct
their efforts and resources. This will benefit from taking advantage of all opportunities to
work with the community. The process of Planning a public education programme is
explained below.
Planning a public education programme:
Awareness
At the awareness stage, people encounter a new idea or a new way of doing things. At this
stage, they do not possess enough information to decide whether a change in behaviour is a
good idea or whether they should be concerned. The goal of the awareness stage is to let
people know that a different way of handling waste may be preferable to the historical way
and that good reasons for considering a change in their waste management practices do
exist. A variety of methods can increase awareness, in which low-cost methods include
news articles and public service announcements, or shows on radio and television and high
cost efforts include television commercials or billboards. Over the long term, education in
schools is the best way of raising awareness; the school curriculum must include the
concepts of source reduction, recycling composting and other waste management
techniques. Besides educating the next generation of citizens, school programmes
indirectly help make parents aware of waste issues because children frequently take home
information they have learned and discuss it with their parents.
Interest
In the second stage, individuals who are now aware of waste management issues seek
additional information. They may seek one-to-one exchanges with waste management
professionals, educators, and so on or they may seek information about how they are
involved in implementing a waste management initiative or an effective public policy.
Making changes in required local waste management practices, such as mandatory
recycling or garden trimmings disposal bans, will clearly stimulate interest (sometimes
even in the form of political opposition!). At this stage, programme developers may need a
variety of methods to explain the programme. Making public speeches, offering tours
of waste management facilities, creating exhibits for fairs and preparing written material
such as newsletters can help stimulate public interest in the programme.
Evaluation
At the evaluation stage, individuals decide whether to go along with the programme. Even
if the law requires specific behaviour, achieving voluntary compliance is easier
administratively and politically than strong enforcement. An easily understandable and
convenient programme will have the best chance of success. Research has shown that for
even well promoted programmes, initial participation is about 50%. Initial high
participation rates, therefore, should not be expected. Even for mandatory programmes,
convenience is a major factor in determining participation. For example, the
convenience of curbside pickup normally makes participation in waste management
programmes higher than for drop-off programmes. As a result, some communities only
provide drop-off service for garden trimmings, so that it becomes more convenient not to
collect grass clippings or home compost. A combined curbside and drop-off
programme may be the most convenient. To make this happen, education should stress the
role of individuals in the programme, their contribution to its success and the most
convenient level of participation. Municipal Solid Waste Management 466
Trial
By the fourth stage, individuals would have decided to participate in the new activity. This
is a crucial step for every programme. For example, if individuals try garden composting
or a volume-based system and encounter difficulty, they may choose not to adopt the
desired conduct, and the programme could lose political and public support. By this stage
in the educational programme, therefore, everyone should have the information,
describing exactly what they are expected to do. The community programme must then
provide the promised service in a highly reliable fashion. At the
trial stage of a volunteer programme, a pilot project can also help stimulate participation.
Programme organisers should assure citizens that the pilot project‟ s goal is to
evaluate various strategies, respond to public feedback and make any changes required to
improve programme efficiency and reliability. Citizens may be more willing to try a project,
if they know whether the project is short-term and that any concerns they may have will be
taken into account in developing a long-term effort. During the trial stage, public hearings
may be helpful by giving citizens an opportunity to voice their opinions about the project.
Adoption
If the education programme has been well planned and implemented, public support
and participation should grow. Educational efforts at this fifth stage focus on providing
citizens with positive feedback concerning programme effectiveness. A newsletter or
other regular informational mailing can help inform citizens about the programme‟ s
progress and any programme changes. Community meetings can serve to reward and
reinforce good behaviour and answer questions. Local officials should be informed of
programme participation rates to generate political support for programme budgets and
personnel needs.
Maintenance
At the sixth stage, the programme progresses smoothly. The use of a variety of intrinsic
and extrinsic incentives will maintain and increase participation. Intrinsic incentives are
largely information in nature, designed to induce citizens to perform the desired conduct
and to provide a personal sense of well-being and satisfaction. Some studies, for example,
have shown that the ideals of frugality, resource conservation and environmental
protection over the long run were strong intrinsic motivators for those participating in
recycling and reuse programmes. Extrinsic incentives are tangible and direct rewards for
performing the desired conduct, such as reduced fees or monetary payments. For example,
the smaller the waste volume generated, the lesser the generator (of wastes) must pay for
waste management. A maintenance programme
may employ both the types of incentives, while continuing with basic education.
10.2 Planning public involvement

Participation of local residents should begin at the very early stage of the programme
development. For example, it should begin even at the stage of making decisions regarding
the overall waste management strategy that best meets the community‟ s economic and
environmental needs. The strategy should consider source reduction and
other options in addition to the facility being proposed. The public must also accept
responsibility for its role in implementing sound and cost effective waste management
solutions.
Developing a written plan for seeking public involvement is important. Written procedures
help insure the inclusion of all important interests and legal requirements. The plan will
show involved citizens and groups at which points in the process they can express
opinions and how to be most effective in communicating their views. In fact, a written,
publicly available plan lends credibility to the programme. The “issue evolution-
educational intervention” (IEEI) model provides public involvement throughout the
decision-making process (EPA, 1989 and 1995). This model comprises an eight-stage
process for developing and implementing public policy. The IEEI process ensures that the
public will have a meaningful voice in deciding how best to manage solid waste. The
process is not simple, and requires a commitment from the community for time and
resources. Each of these stages is described below
(i) Concern: In the first stage, an event puts waste management on the public agenda. The
public begins to ask questions. At this stage, a procedure for providing accurate and
reliable information to the public is important. Eliminating misconceptions and
establishing a firm educational base for public discussion is the key. Educational
institutions, offices, governmental associations and regulatory agencies can provide
information. Education programmes should target local officials, as well as the public.
Showing concern and a willingness to take proper action is most important. A focus group
can help define important public issues, and a community service organisation can
provide a forum for discussion.
(ii) Involvement: As discussion of the issue begins, regulatory officials, persons from
neighbouring communities, local waste management experts, environmental and business
groups and others should be encouraged to participate. Bringing representatives of
interest groups together and providing a forum for communication is a valuable activity.
Cultural diversity is another consideration when seeking input from the broadest possible
spectrum of the community.
(iii) Issue resolution: Interest groups should make clear their points of agreement and
disagreement. The various groups should then attempt to understand and resolve points
of conflict. Determining what people can agree on is also important. All parties need to
understand the motivation and circumstances of the other community interests in the
process.
(iv) Alternatives: The participants should develop a list of available alternatives and
each alternative should have a list of potential sites for facilities. At this stage,
participants should use the same criteria to analyse comparative economics,
environmental impacts and other aspects of each alternative. Each interest group
should scrutinise carefully the analyses prepared by others. Results of analyses of various
alternatives should be communicated to local officials and input sought from the
public and others. Unit 10: Integrated Waste Management (IWM) 469
(v) Consequences: At this stage, involved parties should determine and compare the
economic and environmental effects of each alternative. They should also evaluate
consequences in light of community resources and goals, and the public must understand
the results of choosing one alternative over another. All involved interest groups should
acknowledge the benefits and costs associated with each alternative.
(vi) Choice: The deciding body must decide, at this stage, an alternative or a combination
of alternatives chosen for implementation. In addition to publicising the chosen
alternative or alternatives, decision-makers should clearly communicate the reasons
behind each choice by explaining the necessary trade-offs, the efforts made to consider the
interests of each affected group and the anticipated impact of the chosen alternative or
alternatives on the community. This will help develop a broad community consensus,
enabling the community to better withstand legal and political challenges. (We should not,
however, expect a 100% support from all the interest groups involved to the chosen
alternative or alternatives!)
(vii) Implementation: At this stage, the decision-makers should describe the steps
necessary to implement the chosen strategy. They should also try to mitigate potential
adverse impacts, which the chosen alternative or alternatives may have on relevant
interest groups.
(viii) Evaluation: The community should continually evaluate the model and solicit input
from affected groups. The impact of decisions should be communicated routinely to the
public and to the local officials. Ongoing evaluation helps provide an information base
for making future waste management decisions, and the existing programmes will
continually improve, if they respond to changing conditions and public input.
After learning ISWM and role of LCA in ISWM let us now consider policy on IMSW
management by Government of Karnataka state as a final section of the unit.
10.4 Policy on Integrated municipal solid waste management Karnataka

The policy of IMSW by the Government of Karnataka aimed at catalysing modernisation of
MSW management services uniformly in the state and includes
Specific plans to improve seven components including
Segregation Storage
at source Primary
collection Secondary
storage Secondary
transport Treatment
Landfill
Minimisation of human contact with waste and increase in its mechanical handling.
Specific normative standards are followed. Standard tool kits for build-operate-transfer
(BOT) and operation & maintenance (O&M) practices are followed; for all type and size
of local bodies manuals on specifications of equipments, vehicles, guidelines on
treatment and landfill of wastes are issued. This manual as well includes approach for
information, communication and education.
Specifications for type of vehicles that can be used for primary collection such as auto
tippers, tricycle and push cart are mentioned. And for secondary storage such as variable
capacity metal containers and others advisable are highlighted.
Recommendations for class I and non class I cities are mentioned for secondary
transport using hydraulically operated systems. For example for class I twin container
and dumper placer can be used and for non class I single container and tractor placer can
be used.
Recommendations on treatment and disposal facilities for various types of towns are also
given based on MSW Rules 2000. Suggestions given for class I cities are to have both
treatment and sanitary landfill where as for Non class I to have only engineering landfills.

VIRUDHUNAGAR
DEPT:CIVIL–IV SEM:VII
SUB.CODE/NAME:EN6501/Municipal Solid Waste Management.
UNIT2-On-site Storage & Processing.

PART-A (2marks)
1.Write about On-site handling methods.
On-site handling methods
On-site handling methods and principles involve public attitude and individual belief,
and ultimately affect the public health. It is an activity associated with the handling of solid
waste until it is placed in the containers used for its storage before collection.
2.What is the Importance of on-site handling of solid waste?

Importance of on-site handling of solid waste:
- reduce volume of waste generated
- alter physical form
- recover usable materials
3.List out the On- site handling methods

On- site handling methods:
- sorting
- shredding
- grinding
- composting
4.Write about On- Site Storage method.

On- Site Storage
The first phase to manage solid waste is at home level. It requires temporary storage of
refuse on the premises. The individual householder or businessman has responsibility for
onsite storage of solid waste. For individual homes, industries, and other commercial
centers, proper on-site storage of solid waste is the beginning of disposal, because
simple dumps are sources of nuisance, flies, smells and other hazard.
5.Write about Storage containers

Storage containers
Garbage and refuse generated in kitchens and other work areas should be collected
and stored in properly designed and constructed water-proof garbage cans (waste
bins). The censor receptacles can be constructed from galvanized iron sheet or plastic
materials. They should have tightly fitting covers.
6.List out the Storage containers size in MSWM.
container size for:-
- ash: up to 80 to 128 liters
- mixed refuse: should not exceed 120 to 128 liters
- rubbish up to 200 liters
- kitchen waste is 40 liters
- garbage is 48 to 80 liters
7.What are the Collection process involved in MSWM.

Collection process
Involves five different phases.
Phase 1 - House to dustbin
Phase 2 - Dustbin to truck
Phase 3 - Truck from house to house
Phase 4 - Truck to transfer station
Phase 5 - Truck to disposal
8.What are the types of collection services?

There are four types of collection services:
I. Curb (curb side): The home owner is responsible for placing and returning the empty
container. Never entirely satisfactory.
II. Set-out (block collection): Owner is responsible for returning the container. The full
containers are brought or set at the collection site by the crew. Bins are not left out on
the street for long periods.
III. Backyard carrying service (door to door collection):
Collection crews that go along with the collection vehicle are responsible for bringing
out stored solid waste from the dwelling units. It is the only satisfactory system in which
the householder does not get involved.
IV. Alleys: a narrow street or path between buildings in at own. That is difficult to get
the container and also to the vehicle that will collect the waste.
9.What are the Method of loading the solid waste on the vehicle?
Method of loading the solid waste on the vehicle:
a. directly lifting and carrying of container.
b. rolling of loaded containers on their rims.
c. use of small lifts for rolling the containers to the collection vehicle.
d. use of large containers into which wastes from small containers are emptied.
10.What are the Routing system of collection?

Routing system of collection
1. Micro-routing is:
- the routing of a vehicle within its assigned collection zone.
- concerned with how to route a truck through a series of one or two way streets so
that the total distance traveled is minimized.
- very difficult to design and execute.
2. Macro-routing is:
- large scale routing to the disposal site and the establishment of the individual route
boundaries.
11.Write the Modes of operation in solid waste collection?
1. Hauled container system- The containers used for the storage of wastes are
hauled to the disposal site, emptied and returned.
2. Stationary container system - The containers used for the storage of waste
remain at the point of generation except for occasional short trips to the collection
vehicles.
12. What is called Resource recovery?

Resource recovery is a partial solid waste disposal and reclamation process. It
can be expected to achieve about 60% reductions in future landfill volume
requirements. Resource recovery must recognize what is worth recovering and the
environmental benefits.
13. List out the levels of recycling.

a) primary recycling—when the original waste material is made back into
the same material (newspaper
b) secondary recycling—when the original waste material is made into
some other product
c) tertiary recycling—breaking material down to components that
composed the original product; often through depolymerization
VIRUDHUNAGAR

SUB.CODE/NAME:CE2039/MunicipalSolid Waste Management.
UNIT2-On-site Storage & Processing
Part B-16 marks.
1.Explain the On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste.
Introduction
Aesthetics, land use, health, water pollution, air pollution, and economic considerations
make proper solid waste storage,collection and disposal of solid wastes (municipal
andindividual) functions that must be taken seriously.Indiscriminate dumping of solid
waste and failure of thecollection system in a populated community would soon cause
many health problems. Odors, flies, rats, roaches, crickets,wandering dogs and cats, and
fires would dispel anyremaining doubts of the importance of proper solid wastestorage,
collection and disposal.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of
Solid Waste.
A. On-Site Handling
On-site handling methods and principles involve publicattitude and individual belief,
and ultimately affects the publichealth. It is an activity associated with the handling of
solidwaste until it is placed in the containers used for its storage before collection. This
may take place at any time before,during or after storage.
Importance of on-site handling of solid waste:

- reduce volume of waste generated
- alter physical form
- recover usable materials
On- site handling methods:
- sorting
- shredding
- grinding
- composting
Factors that should be considered in evaluation of on siteprocessing include capabilities,
reliability, environmentaleffects, ease of operation, etc.
B. On- Site Storage
The first phase to manage solid waste is at home level. Itrequires temporary storage of
refuse on the premises. Theindividual householder or businessman has responsibility
foronsite storage of solid waste.
For individual homes, industries, and other commercial centers, proper on-site storage of
solid waste is the beginning of disposal, because unkept or simple dumps are sources of
nuisance, flies, smells and other hazards. There are four factors that should be considered
in the onsite storage of solid waste. These are the type of container to be used, the
location where the containers are to be kept, public health, and the collection method and
time.
1. Storage containers
Garbage and refuse generated in kitchens and other work areas should be collected and
stored in properly designed and constructed water-proof garbage cans (waste bins).
The cans or receptacles can be constructed from galvanized iron sheet or plastic materials.
They should have tightly fitting covers.
They must be of such size that, when full, they can be lifted easily by one man. They should
be located in a cool place on platforms at least 30 centimeters above ground level. After
putting in garbage, they should be kept covered. The bins must be emptied at least daily
and maintained in clean conditions. A typical example of garbage can, constructed from
galvanized iron sheet, dimensions: diameter 45 cm and height 75 cm, is shown in figure
1 below. An adequate number of suitable containers should be provided with proper
platforms with receptacles stand. The number may depend on the amount, type and
establishments where the need arises. Suitable containers should be watertight,rust-
resistant, with tight-fitting covers, fire-resistant,adequate in size, light in weight, with side
handles and washable.
Figure 1. Typical Garbage Can with Tightly Fitting Cover

Source: Gabre-Emanuel Teka (1997): Solid Waste Disposal From Food
2. Container Size (capacity)
Consideration should be given for the size of the loaded container that must be hauled to
the collection vehicle or to the disposal site.
Therefore, container size for:-
- ash: up to 80 to 128 liters
- mixed refuse: should not exceed 120 to 128 liters
- rubbish up to 200 liters
- kitchen waste is 40 liters
- garbage is 48 to 80 liters
Plastic liners for cans and wrapping for garbage reduce the need for cleaning of cans and
bulk containers, and keep down odors, rat and fly breeding.
Galvanized metal is preferable for garbage storage because it is resistant to corrosion.
Plastic cans are light in weight but are easily gnawed by rats. Bulk containers are
recommended where large volumes of refuse are generated, such as at hotels, restaurants,
apartment houses, and shopping centers. A concrete platform provided with a drain to
an approved sewer with a water faucet at the site facilitates cleaning.
On- site processing

Importance of on-site processing:
- reduces volume of waste generated
- alters physical form
- recovers usable materials
Factors that should be considered in evaluating on-site processing are capabilities,
reliability, environmental effects, ease of operation, etc.
2.Write about Collection of Solid Waste in MSWM.
This is the removal of refuse from collection points to final disposal site. It is the most
expensive as compared with other operation and management procedures, because it
demands special vehicles, experienced people to manage, more manpower, hand
tools, and more funds for fuel, salary, maintenance, gathering or picking up of solid waste
from the various sources, taking the collected wastes to the location where it is emptied,
and unloading of the collection vehicle.
Collection cost has been estimated to represent about 50% of the total cost of
collection when a sanitary landfill is used as means of disposal, and 60% when
incineration is used.
Home collection of solid waste generally is done by a private collector or a local

government-owned and financed operation.
Private collectors usually charge a fee to each individual homeowner, or a government

contract will pay the fees. The government contract enables solid waste collection in a
uniform, sanitary manner. Without such a contract, some individuals may be reluctant to
pay the collector for the service and the refuse may go uncollected.
1. Collection process Involves

five different phases. Phase 1 -
House to dustbin Phase 2 -
Dustbin to truck
Phase 3 - Truck from house to house
Phase 4 - Truck to transfer station
Phase 5 - Truck to disposal
2. Collection services
People must understand that a good refuse-collection service requires citizen cooperation
in the provision and use of proper receptacles in order to keep the community clean and
essentially free of rats, flies, and other vermin.
There are four types of collection services:
I. Curb (curb side): The home owner is responsible for placing and returning the
empty container. Never entirely satisfactory.
II. Set-out (block collection): Owner is responsible for returning the container. The full
containers are brought or set at the collection site by the crew. Bins are not left out
on the street for long periods.
III. Backyard carrying service (door to door collection):
Collection crews that go along with the collection vehicle are responsible for bringing
out stored solid waste from the dwelling units. It is the only satisfactory system in which
the householder does not get involved.
IV. Alleys: a narrow street or path between buildings in a town. That is difficult to get
the container and also to the vehicle that will collect the waste.
Method of loading the solid waste on the vehicle:
a. directly lifting and carrying of container.
b. rolling of loaded containers on their rims.
c. use of small lifts for rolling the containers to the collection vehicle.
d. use of large containers into which wastes from small containers are emptied.
3. Write about Planning of Solid Waste Collection Program.
Routing system of collection

1. Micro-routing is:
- the routing of a vehicle within its assigned collection zone.
- concerned with how to route a truck through a series of one or two way streets so that
the total distance traveled is minimized.
- very difficult to design and execute.
2. Macro-routing is:
- large scale routing to the disposal site and the establishment of the individual route
boundaries.
Modes of operation in solid waste collection
1. Hauled container system- The containers used for the storage of wastes are
hauled to the disposal site, emptied and returned.
2. Stationary container system - The containers used for the storage of waste remain at
the point of generation except for occasional short trips to the collection vehicles.
Unit operations
1. Pick-up - refers to the time spent driving to the next container after an empty
container has been deposited.
2. Haul - represents the time required to reach the disposal site starting after a
container whose contents are to be emptied has been loaded on the truck plus the time
spent after leaving the disposal site until the truck arrives at the location where the empty
container is to be deposited.
3. At-site- refers to the time spent at the disposal site and includes the time spent
waiting to unload as well as the time spent in loading.
4. Off-site - includes the time spent on activities that are non-productive from the point of
view of the overall collection system.
3. Frequency of solid waste collection

The frequency of collection depends on the quantity of solid waste, time of year,
socioeconomic status of the area served, and municipal or contractor responsibility. In
business districts, refuse, including garbage from hotels and restaurants, should be
collected daily except on Sundays. In residential areas, twice-a-week for refuse collection
during warm months of the year and once a week at other times should be the
maximum permissible interval. Slum areas usually require at least twice-a-week collection.
The receptacle should be either emptied directly into the garbage truck or carted away
and replaced with a clean container.
Refuse transferred from can tocan will cause spilling, which results in pollution of the
ground and attraction of flies. If other than curb pickup is provided, the cost of
collection will be high. Some property owners are willing to pay for this extra service.
Bulky wastes should be collected every 3 months.
Garbage - should be collected at least two times weekly in residential sections in summer
and winter. However, most commercial establishments should be accorded daily collection
service throughout the year.
Rubbish - is generally collected weekly in residential areas and daily in business sections.
Mixed refuse - should be collected twice daily from most commercial concerns. The
provision of frequent collection services is important in the prevention of fly breeding in
garbage, because irregular collections can contribute to the nuisances and hazards which
result under poor storage conditions and in chances the amount greater than the expected
requirement from households.
4.What role played Collection equipment in MSWM.
Mechanical collection systems have been developed to reduce collection cost. The system
requires use of a special container, truck container pick-up equipment, and replacement of
the container. From an economic point of view, such equipment are most unlikely to be
applied in Ethiopian situation.
Collection equipment that simplifies the collection of refuse and practically eliminates
cause for legitimate complaint isavailable. The tight-body open truck with a canvas or
metal cover has been replaced in most instances by the automatic loading truck with
packer to compact refuse dumped in the truck during collection, except for the
collection of bulky items.
Compaction-type bodies have twice the capacity of open trucks and a convenient
loading height. Low-level closed-body trailers to eliminate the strain of lifting cans are also
available. The number and size of the collection vehicles and the number of pickups in
residential and business areas for communities of different population will vary with
location, affluence, and other factors. The average refuse truck holds
6,000 to 8,000 kilograms.The solid waste collection vehicle should be covered and able to
compact the refuse collected. It may load from the rear, side, or top. The storage areas in
these vehicles should be kept relatively clean and water-tight.
5.Write about Organization of solid waste collection program.

Many cities and towns require homeowners to use certain types of receptacles.
Collectors usually pick up at the curb in front of the dwelling. In some neighborhoods
the collectors pick up the receptacles in the backyard, as the people who live there
consider receptacles too bulky to handle and unsightly in front of their dwellings. Haul
distance to the disposal facility must be taken into consideration in making a cost
analysis. In some highly urbanized areas it is economical to reduce haul distance by
providing large, specially designed trailers at transfer stations. In suburban and rural
areas, container stations can be established at central locations. These stations may
include a stationary compactor for ordinary refuse and a bin for tires and bulky items.
Separate bins for paper, glass, and aluminum may also be provided.
Labor requirements for the collection of solid waste depend on both the type of service
provided and the collection system used:
1. For hauled container system: one person, two for safety, and a driver to drive the
vehicle load and unload containers and empty the container at the disposal site.
2. For stationary container system the labor requirement for mechanically loaded ones
are essentially the same with hauled container system. Occasionally, a driver and two
helpers are used. For manually loaded systems, the number of collectors may vary
from one to three, depending on the type of service and the type of collection
equipment, Curb collection needs less persons than backyard collection, which may
require a multiperson crew.
6.Write about MSW Transfer and Transport.

Transfer stations are used to collect the refuse at a central location and to reload the
wastes into a vehicle where the cost per kilogram-kilometer ton-mile will be less for the
movement of the ultimate waste to the disposal site. Transfer stations are employed when
the disposal site is situated at significant distance from the point of collection.
A transfer station can reduce the cost of transporting refuse by reducing manpower
requirement and total kilometers. When a collection vehicle goes directly to the
disposal site, the entire crew, driver plus laborers, are idle. For a transfer vehicle, only one
driver is needed. As the distance from the centers of solid waste generation increases, the
cost of direct haul to a site increases. Ideally, the transfer station should be located at the
center of the collection service area. A transfer station may include stationary compactors,
recycling bins, material recovery facility, transfer containers
and trailers, transfer packer trailers, or mobile equipment.
A transfer station should be located and designed with drainage of paved areas and
adequate water hydrants for maintenance of cleanliness and fire control and other
concerns like land scaling, weight scales, traffic, odor, dust, litter, and noise control.
Transporting vehicles could be a modern packer truck (trailer), motor-tricycles, animal
carts (appropriate for developing countries), hand carts and tractors.
Transfer and transport station should provide welfare facilities for workers (lockers,
toilets, showers); small stores for brooms, shovels, cleaning materials, lubricants, parking
facilities for hand trucks, sweepers, refuse collectors, and office and telephone for the
district inspector.
7.Resource Recovery and Processing of MSWM.
Resource recovery is a partial solid waste disposal and reclamation process. It can be
expected to achieve about 60% reductions in future landfill volume requirements.
Resource recovery must recognize what is worth recovering and the environmental
benefits.
Resource recovery and processing is a complex, economical and technical system with
social and political implications, all of which require critical analysis and evaluation before
a commitment is made. They demand capital cost, operating cost, market value of
reclaimed materials and material quality, potential minimum reliable energy sales,
assured quantity of solid wastes, continued need for a sanitary landfill for the disposal of
excess and remaining unwanted materials and incinerator residue, a site location close to
the center of the generators of solid wastes.
Products That Can Be Recycled
1. Plastic
Plastic is not a natural material. It is synthesized from petrochemicals to create a long,
complicated chain of atoms called polymers. Bacteria and fungi that would usually live on
the decaying waste of natural food, fauna, and flora cannot digest these recovery
polymers.
Instead, toxic cadmium and lead compounds used as binders can leach out of plastics and
ooze into groundwater and surface water in unlined or failed landfills.
Unfortunately, plastic is one of the most common non-biodegradable wastes deposited in
landfills. There are a number of plastic items that create great decomposition problems.
Among them are diapers, grocery bags and balloons. Today only 3% of all plastic
containers are recycled.
Plastic threatens the lives of millions of marine animals who get entangled in plastic
netting. Autopsied marine animals have revealed that their intestines were full of
nonbiodegradable plastic. Marine mammals and birds have suffocated, strangled, and
been poisoned by the plastic waste such as can rings or balloons that have been
expelled into the oceans and into the air. Fishermen currently dump around 175,000
tons of plastic into the oceans each year. It is thought that as many as a million sea
birds and 100,000 marine mammals in the Northern Pacific Ocean die each year from
eating or becoming entangled in plastic waste. Many more marine lives are poisoned in the
Atlantic Ocean by raw sewage, chemical waste, and pesticide waste flowing from rivers
into these water bodies.
2. Tires
Discarded tires pose two particular vector health threats to a community: rats and
mosquitoes. Tires create an excellent breeding place for rats and mosquitoes, which in
turn carry diseases to humans.
An automobile tire contains about 10 liters of oil, which has the potential to produce
enough electricity to serve a small town. Unfortunately, when tires burn in an
uncontrolled environment, they are extremely difficult to contain or
extinguish. There are actually some tire graveyards that have been burning for years.
Although 15 million old tires are recycled each year, the number of recycled tires is
actually going down each year as new blends of rubber and steel-belted tires cannot use
recycled tires.
3. Paper
Paper is the single most frequently seen item in most landfills, taking up more land space.
It accounts for more than 40% of a landfill's contents. Newspapers alone may take up as
much as 13 to 30% of the space in landfills. It is not enough to just change from paper
grocery bags to recyclable cloth bags.
Garbage archeologists from the University of Arizona have discovered that most materials
buried deep in a landfill change very little. Newspapers from the 1950s could still be read
in 1992. Paper in landfills does not biodegrade; it mummifies.
Paper may be one of the most recyclable waste products. To establish a newsprint
recycling mill, it takes three to five years and costs from $300 to $500 million to build. Can
the capital investment be recouped if there is no community plan to market the recycled
paper? If economic incentives were given to creative entrepreneurs, more products could
easily be developed.
Obstacles to resource recovery
• heterogeneity of the waste
• putrescibility of the waste
• location of the waste
• low value of product
• uncertainty of supply
• unproven technology
Techniques involved in resource recovery
1. compaction, which mechanically reduces the volume of solid waste
2. chemical volume reduction by incineration
3. mechanical size reduction by shredding, grinding and milling
4. component separation by hand-sorting, air separation, magnetic separation and
screening.
8.EXPLAIN WASTE MINIMISATION IN
MSWM. waste minimization
Key methods for waste minimization
Reduce
– Purchase only what you need
Reuse
– Reuse empty containers to collect waste
– Discarded material could be used in another projects
Recycle
– Some waste oils and paints can be recycled
– Remember that Paper, Metals and some Plastics can be recycle
WASTE MINIMISATION
Prevention of waste being created is known as waste reduction which is an

important method of waste management.
The modern concepts based on the three ‘R’s are: Reduce, Reuse and Recycle.
Methods of avoidance include reuse of second hand products, designing

products to be refillable or reusable, repairing broken items instead of
buying new etc.
HIERARCHY OF WASTE MINIMIZATION

PROCESSES CARRIED OUT DURING THE SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Integrated solid waste managementthrough the following processes can provide

abetter reliable solution for the problem of municipal solid waste generation.
WASTE COLLECTION
SEGREGATION
RECYCLING
SHREDDING OR PULVERIZING
COMPOSTING
WASTE COLLECTION
From individual houses, wastes can be collected in person with the help of
vehicle.
To minimize the time and cost involved in collecting waste through
vehicles, public can be given instruction to dump their house wastes in
one place (nearby their street).
SEGREGATION
Segregation of wastes into degradable and non-degradable wastes is to be

done to recover or divert non-degradable wastes (electric items, plastics,
tyres etc.) and degradable items (wood, textiles etc.) to its recycling plant
and if possible, it can be reused.
It is a tedious process which therefore needs labour. Magnets can also be
used to segregate ferrous metals.
This process will help in reducing the amounts of waste going for
composting and also earns money (through selling wastes to recycling
plant.
RECYCLING
The non-degradable and degradable wastes can be recycled very

economically in the recycling plants.
Apart from sending wastes to recycling plant, recycling of some organic

waste is possible.
Some of the waste recycling techniques are: Fly ash, Organic wastes, Slag
and scrap, Industrial gases, Waste waters, Recovery of silver from
photographic films.
SHREDDING OR PULVERIZING
This process involves in size reduction of organic wastes before it goes

for composting.
This process reduces the overall volume by 40%.
ADVANTAGES:
It will increase surface area availability for bacterial activity

(decomposition).
Facilitates easy handling of moisture content and aeration.
COMPOSTING
Aerobic composting is one of the cheapest and easiest methods that are
being available for MSW.
Generally, composting can be carried out in three techniques. They are
i) windrow composting
ii) Aerated static pile
method iii) In vessel
method
9.Explain the source reduction process.
source reduction (waste prevention)— also called ― pre cycling

1) definition— the reduction of the amount and/or toxicity of waste at or before the
point of generation
a) reduction of waste
b) conservation of resources
2) examples
a) making packaging lighter, using less materials
b) use email rather than paper mail
c) keep records and store them electronically
d) donation of unwanted items to charities and thrift stores
e) selling unwanted items online
f) photocopying two-sided documents
g) product maintenance and repair rather than disposal
h) buy items with less bulky packaging
i) mulching and backyard composting of yard waste
3) benefits
a) saves natural resources
b) reduces toxicity of waste
c) reduces costs to communities, businesses, schools and consumers
d) prevents emissions of many GHG (Greenhouse gases)
e) saves energy
f) reduces the need for new landfills and combustors
4) source reduction and reuse facts
a) ―More than 55 million tons of MSW were source reduced in the U.S. in
2000, the latest year for which these figures are available.
b) Containers and packaging represented approximately 28 percent of the
materials source reduced in 2000, in addition to nondurable goods (e.g.,
newspapers, clothing) at 17 percent, durable goods (e.g., appliances,
furniture, tires) at 10 percent, and other MSW (e.g., yard trimmings, food
scraps) at 45 percent.
10.Explain Recycling process.

recycling solution
basic terminology.
a)reduce—decreased production of waste
b) reuse—finding another use for the object or substance without any
transformation
c) recycle—use of the material as a source raw material, involves physical
transformation
d) recovery—process to recover useful material from mixed waste
e) raw materials: crude or processed materials that can be converted by
manufacture, processing, or combination into a new and useful product
2) levels of recycling
a) primary recycling—when the original waste material is made back into
the same material
b) secondary recycling—when the original waste material is made into
some other product
c) tertiary recycling—breaking material down to components that
composed the original product; often through depolymerization
3) municipal recycling
a) different cities have different guidelines for pickup etc.
b) characteristics of a successful recycling program
PAYT charges
mandatory, with fines for violators
curbside pickup with free bins
a community effort—business and residential
organized and clear-cut guidelines and goals
recycling of paper and paper products

a) plain paper, envelopes, newspaper, magazines, phone books, cardboard…
b) post-consumer waste—paper recycled by consumers
-consumer waste on the label

c) pre-consumer waste—scrap paper at the processing plant, not ever
Sent out as a product
d) demand for recycled paper fluctuates; some forest-poor countries pay
for used paper
e) recycled paper is made into new newsprint, boxes and office paper, paper
towels, tissue products, insulation, cereal boxes, molded packaging,
hydro-mulch, gypsum wallboard, even compost and cat litter
f) info and stats
recycling of glass
a) food and beverage containers; clear/green/brown
b) some characteristics of glass
tain or fade
100% recyclable
closed-loop system, creating no additional waste
or by-products
Glass containers can go from recycling bin to store shelf in as little as
30 days.
c) basic glass vocabulary
VIRUDHUNAGAR

DEPT: CIVIL –IV SEM:VII
SUB.CODE/ NAME: EN 6501/Municipal Solid Waste Management.
UNIT 3- COLLECTION & TRANSFER.
PART - A (2 marks)
1.What is meant by Collection points?
Collection points: These affect such collection system components as crew size and
storage, which ultimately control the cost of collection. Note that the collection points
depend on locality and may be residential, commercial or industrial.
2.What is meant by Collection frequency?

Collection frequency: Climatic conditions and requirements of a locality as well as
containers and costs determine the collection frequency. In hot and humid climates, for
example, solid wastes must be collected at least twice a week, as the decomposing solid
wastes produce bad odour and leachate.
3. What is meant by Storage containers?
Storage containers: Proper container selection can save collection energy, increase the
speed of collection and reduce crew size. Most importantly, containers should be functional
for the amount and type of materials and collection vehicles used. Containers should also
be durable, easy to handle, and economical, as well as resistant to corrosion, weather and
animals. In residential areas, where refuse is collected manually, standardized metal or
plastic containers are typically required for waste storage.
4.Whatis meant by Collection route?

Collection route: The collection programme must consider the route that is efficient for
collection. An efficient routing of collection vehicles helps decrease costs by reducing the
labour expended for collection. Proper planning of collection route also helps conserve
energy and minimise working hours and vehicle fuel consumption.
5.Whatis meant by Transfer station?

Transfer station :A transfer station is an intermediate station between final disposal
option and collection point in order to increase the efficiency of the system, as collection
vehicles and crew remain closer to routes. If the disposal site is far from the collection
area, it is justifiable to have a transfer station, where smaller collection vehicles transfer
their loads to larger vehicles, which then haul the waste long distances. In some instances,
the transfer station serves as a pre-processing point, where wastes are dewatered,
scooped or compressed.
6.Whatis meant by Containers/storage bins?
Containers/storage bins
The design of an efficient waste collection system requires careful consideration of the
type, size and location of containers at the point of generation for storage of wastes until
they are collected. While single-family households generally use small containers,
residential units, commercial units, institutions and industries require large containers.
Smaller containers are usually handled manually.
7.What is meant by Collection crew?

Collection crew: The optimum crew size for a community depends on labour and
equipment costs, collection methods and route characteristics. The size of the collection
crew also depends on the size and type of collection vehicle used, space between the
houses, waste generation rate and collection frequency.
VIRUDHUNAGAR

SUB.CODE/ NAME: CE 2039 /Municipal Solid Waste Management.
UNIT 3- COLLECTION & TRANSFER.
Part B-(16 marks).
1.Explain the collection of solid wastes.

OVERVIEW
For the final disposal of the wastes generated (see Unit 2), it is imperative that we put in
place an effective waste collection system, we will build on this description and discuss in
detail the various aspects of collection system. Accordingly, we will first explain the
components of waste collection such as storage, collection crew, route, transfer station, etc.
We will then discuss each of these components. We will also discuss the design, operation
and implementation of waste collection.
COLLECTION COMPONENTS
As described, waste collection does not mean merely the gathering of wastes, and the
process includes, as well, the transporting of wastes to transfer stations and/or disposal
sites. To elaborate, the factors that influence the waste collection system include the
following (EPA, 1989 and Ali, et al., 1999):
(i) Collection points: These affect such collection system components as crew size and
storage, which ultimately control the cost of collection. Note that the collection points
depend on locality and may be residential, commercial or industrial.
(ii) Collection frequency: Climatic conditions and requirements of a locality as well as
containers and costs determine the collection frequency. In hot and humid climates, for
example, solid wastes must be collected at least twice a week, as the decomposing solid
wastes produce bad odour and leachate.
compatibility, i.e., the containers must be compatible with collection equipment.
public health and safety, i.e., the containers should be securely covered and
stored.
ownership, i.e., the municipal ownership must guarantee compatibility with

collection equipment.
(iv) Collection crew (see also Subsection 3.3.1): The optimum crew size for a
community depends on labour and equipment costs, collection methods and route
characteristics. The size of the collection crew also depends on the size and type of
collection vehicle used, space between the houses, waste generation rate and collection
frequency. For example, increase in waste generation rate and quantity of wastes
collected per stop due to less frequent collection result in a bigger crew size.
Note also that the collection vehicle could be a motorised vehicle, a pushcart or a trailer
towed by a suitable prime mover (tractor, etc.). It is possible to adjust the ratio of collectors
to collection vehicles such that the crew idle time is minimised. However, it is not easy to
implement this measure, as it may result in an overlap in the crew collection and truck idle
time. An effective collection crew size and proper workforce management can influence the
productivity of the collection system. The crew size, in essence, can have a great effect on
overall collection costs. However, with increase in collection costs, the trend in recent
years is towards:
decrease in the frequency of collection;
increase in the dependence on residents to sort waste materials;
increase in the degree of automation used in collection.
This trend has, in fact, contributed to smaller crews in municipalities.

(v) Collection route (see also Subsection 3.3.2): The collection programme must
consider the route that is efficient for collection. An efficient routing of Unit 3: Waste
Collect ion, Storage and Transport 91 collection vehicles helps decrease costs by
reducing the labour expended for collection. Proper planning of collection route also
helps conserve energy and minimise working hours and vehicle fuel consumption. It is
necessary therefore to develop detailed route configurations and collection schedules
for the selected collection system. The size of each route, however, depends on the
amount of waste collected per stop, distance between stops, loading time and traffic
conditions. Barriers, such as railroad, embankments, rivers and roads with heavy
traffic, can be considered to divide route territories. Routing (network) analyses and
planning can:
increase the likelihood of all streets being serviced equally and consistently;
help supervisors locate or track crews quickly;
provide optimal routes that can be tested against driver judgement and
experience.
(vi) Transfer station (see also Section 3.4): A transfer station is an intermediate station
between final disposal option and collection point in order to increase the efficiency of the
system, as collection vehicles and crew remain closer to routes. If the disposal site
is far from the collection area, it is justifiable to have a transfer station, where smaller
collection vehicles transfer their loads to larger vehicles, which then haul the waste long
distances. In some instances, the transfer station serves as a pre-processing point, where
wastes are dewatered, scooped or compressed. A centralised sorting and recovery of
recyclable materials are also carried out at transfer stations (EPA, 1989). The unit cost of
hauling solid wastes from a collection area to a transfer station and then to a disposal site
decreases, as the size of the collection vehicle increases.
This is due to various reasons such as the following:
labour costs remain constant;
the ratio of payload to vehicle load increases with vehicle size;

the waiting time, unloading time, idle time at traffic lights and driver rest period
are constant, regardless of the collection vehicle size.
Efficiency: Do the services help minimise the cost per household?
Effectiveness: Do the services satisfy the community needs?
Equity: Do the services address equally the concerns of all social and demographic
groups?
Reliability: Do the services ensure consistency?
Safety and environmental impact: Do the services ensure safety of workers, public
health and protection of the environment?
Note also that various management arrangements, ranging from municipal services to
franchised services and under various forms of contracts are, typically, in vogue for waste
collection. One of the critical decisions to be made at the planning stage, therefore, is as to
who – the public or private agencies – operates the collection system, though the final
decision depends on the existing conditions and options for the local decision-makers
(EPA, 1989).
2.Explain the storage of solid wastes.
STORAGE: CONTAINERS/COLLECTION VEHICLES

As mentioned in Unit 1, waste storage is an important component of a waste management
system. Waste storage encompasses proper containers to store wastes and efficient
transport of wastes without any spillage to transfer stations/disposal sites. We will
analyse these two aspects of waste storage in Subsections 3.2.1 and 3.2.2.
3.2.1 Containers/storage bins
The design of an efficient waste collection system requires careful consideration of the
type, size and location of containers at the point of generation for storage of wastes until
they are collected. While single-family households generally use small containers,
residential units, commercial units, institutions and industries require large containers.
Smaller containers are usually handled manually whereas the larger, heavier ones require
mechanical handling. The containers may fall under either of the following two categories:
(i) Stationary containers: These are used for contents to be transferred to collection
vehicles at the site of storage.
(ii) Hauled containers: These are used for contents to be directly transferred to a
processing plant, transfer station or disposal site for emptying before being returned to
the storage site.
The desirable characteristics of a well-designed container are low cost, size, weight,
shape, resistance to corrosion, water tightness, strength and durability (Phelps, et al.,
1995). For example, a container for manual handling by one person should not weigh
more than 20 kg, lest it may lead to occupational health hazards such as muscular strain,
etc. Containers that weigh more than 20 kg, when full, require two or more crew
members to manually load and unload the wastes, and which result in low collection
efficiency.
Containers should not have rough or sharp edges, and preferably have a handle and a
wheel to facilitate mobility. They should be covered to prevent rainwater from entering
(which increases the weight and rate of decomposition of organic materials) into the solid
wastes. The container body must be strong enough to resist and discourage stray animals
and scavengers from ripping it as well as withstand rough handling by the collection crew
and mechanical loading equipment. Containers should be provided with a lifting bar,
compatible with the hoisting mechanism of the vehicle. The material used should be light,
recyclable, easily moulded and the surface must be smooth and resistant to corrosion. On
the one hand, steel and ferrous containers are heavy and subject to corrosion; the rust
peels off exposing sharp edges, which could be hazardous to the collection crew. On the
other, wooden containers (e.g., bamboo, rattan and wooden baskets) readily absorb and
retain moisture and their surfaces are generally rough, irregular and difficult to clean.
3.Explain the Components of refuse collection.

Components of refuse collection
A refuse collection service requires vehicles and labour. In order to deploy the vehicles
and workers efficiently, a clear understanding of the three main components of refuse
collection is necessary:
1. travel to and from the collection area;
2. the collection process (transfer of the wastes from storage to collection vehicles, and
travel between successive collection points); and
3. the delivery process (transport of the contents of the vehicle to the processing or the
disposal site).
During non-working hours, collection vehicles should be kept in a garage with enclosed
parking space. The distance between the garage and the collection area should be kept to a
minimum because time spent travelling to and from the collection area is not productive.
In the case of motor vehicles, this requirement may have to be balanced against the need to
centralise facilities for maintenance and fuel supplies, and to centralise the allocation and
control of drivers and vehicles.
The slow speed of animal carts and handcarts requires the provision of closely spaced
district depots. District depots also are efficient tools for the control of the collectors. The
many methods of transferring wastes from storage to the collection vehicle fall into the
following three main categories:
1. Direct emptying of a portable storage container into the vehicle, normally used when
the vehicle can be positioned close to the containers.
2. Emptying of a portable storage container into a transfer container (usually a larger
container or basket), which is then emptied into the storage compartment of the vehicle;
the large container is normally used when the location of the storage container is a long
distance from the route of the vehicle in order to avoid non-productive time.
3. Transfer of loose wastes stored on the ground, which usually requires that the wastes be
raked or shovelled into the vehicle.
These three categories have been presented in descending order of level of effort required.
Thus, the first is the most efficient in terms of labour and vehicle productivity; it is also the
method that maintains human contact with the wastes to a minimum.
Travel time between successive collection points depends, first of all, upon the distance
between them. When collection points are located some distance apart (as is the case with
large communal storage sites), travel by motor vehicle will be at normal road speed and
the collectors will ride on the vehicle. This is an efficient method of transporting the
workers between sites.
However, when collection is from house to house, the collectors generally walk the short
distances between containers and the collection vehicle correspondingly moves slowly and
at intervals. For this element of travel, the motor vehicle is not used efficiently. The vehicle
incurs heavy wear on the clutch and transmission, as well as high fuel consumption.
Handcarts and animal carts are much more efficient in this situation, because they can
operate at their optimum speeds and no energy is used while they
are stationary.
For collectors walking from house to house, the distance to be walked is proportional to
the number of people in a team. A single individual walks from one house to the next. In a
three person team, each person collects from every third house; thus, labour productivity
declines as team size increases. On the other hand, vehicle productivity increases with
team size since the vehicle is loaded more quickly.
In the delivery process, a full vehicle usually travels at normal road speed from the last
collection point to the processing or disposal site. This represents maximum productivity
for the vehicle, but lost time for the collectors if they accompany it. Handcarts and
animal carts are inefficient for this operation because of their slow speeds and limited
capacities.
The following conclusions can be drawn:
• Minimum physical infrastructure for waste collection includes a central garage, with
parking space for motor vehicles, and district depots for assembling and controlling
collectors, handcarts, and animal carts. The locations of the depots should minimise
travel time between depot and working area.
• Systems that provide for the direct emptying of portable storage containers into a
vehicle offer the highest productivity and the lowest health risk to workers.
• Large teams yield low labour productivity and high vehicle productivity in the direct
collection of wastes from residences.
• Handcarts and animal carts may be more efficient than motor vehicles for the house- to-
house collection activities.
• Motor vehicles are usually the most efficient means of transport of full (large) loads
from the last collection point on a collection route to the processing or disposal site.
4.Explain the TRANSFER operations and plant layout.
TRANSFER operations and plant layout

The operation of a transfer station can be divided into the following phases: unloading,
loading, transport, and discharge. The design concepts for transfer systems are described
under each of the main phases.
1. Unloading
This phase involves the unloading of collection vehicles and, if necessary, temporary
storage of wastes. The following two basic alternatives can be utilised for the unloading
phase:
Collection vehicles can either unload directly into containers, or into a storage area or
pit. The wastes can then be loaded from the storage area into transfer vehicles, as
described below.
1.1 Direct unloading
A system that uses direct unloading involves the discharge of the wastes from the collection
vehicles directly into transfer vehicles or the vehicle loading systems (e.g., compactors), i.e.,
the design does not incorporate a waste storage area as part of the system. Direct
unloading requires a two-level arrangement. In this arrangement, the collection vehicles
drive up a ramp to the upper level in order to discharge their contents through a chute into
either a transfer vehicle or a loading system installed on the lower level, as shown in Figure
IV-19. As an alternative to gravity loading, a direct loading system can also employ a
wheeled loader to push the wastes directly into the transfer vehicles.
One of the basic requirements of the direct unloading system is that either the transfer
vehicles in operation must keep pace with the frequency of arrival of collection vehicles at
the transfer station, or extra transfer vehicles must be purchased for use as temporary
storage. These operational alternatives support the efficient coordination of incoming and
outgoing wastes and, thereby, avoid delays in the unloading of collection vehicles and the
resultant delays in the
collection operations. Such logistical coordination is difficult to achieve in a large-scale
system (i.e., large processing capacity) where there is a steady flow of collection vehicles
entering the transfer station and periods of high frequencies of unloading of delivered
waste. Therefore, the direct unloading system generally is implemented only as a small-
scale system, such as a neighbourhood transfer station in a small city, or a rural transfer
station. In these situations, the quantity of waste handled at the transfer stations would
be on the order of 200 to 300 Mg/day. If the transfer station is one of large processing
capacity (i.e., greater than 200 to 300 Mg/day), provision should be made for a sufficient
number of spare transfer vehicles to ensure that the delivering collection vehicles are not
delayed unduly due to the inability of the transfer facility to load out the waste in a timely
manner.
One of the main advantages of the direct unloading system is that it involves a small
capital investment in terms of civil works. Since a pit to store the wastes is excluded in the
direct loading system, in order to result in a simple facility and to save expense, the size of
the building can be small. Furthermore, investment in specialised systems to control doors
and insects under suchconditions can usually also be small, since substantial doors and
prevalence of insects generally are associated with storage of waste.
TRANSFER operations and plant layout.
The types of structures used to house a waste transfer operation range from none at all
(open-air) to large, enclosed concrete and metal buildings. Open-air transfer stations work
well in rural areas with dry climates. Rural areas with wet weather can utilise a small
shelter over the unloading area, loading area, or both.
Most transfer station buildings in developing countries are fabricated of sheet metal,
concrete, or brick. The specific type of design and landscaping is a function of location, i.e.,
locally available materials, available financial resources, and local preferences. Transfer
station buildings typically are equipped with water sprays and/or systems for controlling
air emissions such as dust, motor vehicle exhaust, and doors. The building should include
offices
and facilities for the workers, e.g., restrooms, showers, etc. Designs of transfer stations in
the United States incorporate viewing areas so that public education and public relations’
campaigns can be conducted from those areas.
The station should also be equipped with at least one truck scale for weighing inbound
and outbound wastes. An inbound weigh scale is important for managing the operation
and for levying disposal fees. Large, modern transfer stations also incorporate truck scales
in the locations where the long-haul transfer vehicles are loaded. This design permits
loading of the vehicles to their maximum allowable payloads, thus optimising the cost of
transport of waste to the disposal site.
VIRUDHUNAGAR

UNIT4-Off-site Processing.
PART-A(2marks)
1. What is called Composting?

Composting is an effective method of solid waste disposal. In composting,
biodegradable materials break down through natural processes and produce humus.
The metabolism of micro-organisms breaks down the waste aerobically or an
aerobically.
2.What are the reasons for modern compost systems are aerobic rather than
Anaerobic compost systems?
Most modern compost systems are aerobic rather than anaerobic for several reasons:
1. Aerobic processes are not accompanied by the foul stench present at an unsealed
anaerobic composting operation.
2. In crop production industries, composting is safer because temperatures do not reach
that of pasteurization temperatures which exceed the thermal death point of most
plants, animals and parasites.
3. Aerobic composting is more rapid than anaerobic composting.
3. Write down the carbon: nitrogen ratio favorable for decomposition?

An aerobic compost operation ideally is an optimal environment for the growth of
aerobic organisms. The material to be composted is food. Therefore the “food” should
have a carbon: nitrogen ratio favorable for decomposition. The microbes require a C: N of
25:1 to 30:1.
4. If the C: N is too low what happened in the composting.

If the C: N is too low(120:1), the ammonium compounds will volatilize into the air, causing
an unpleasant odor. Various groups of organisms have different optimum temperatures
(some prefer 25 0c,some 37 0c, and others 55 0c), though the optimal temperature for a
process as a whole integrates the optimums of the various microbes.
5.What are the Types of Composting?
Types of Composting
The three main types of composting are: windrow, static pile, and in-vessel.
1. Windrow: A sludge/refuse mixture configured in long rows (windrows) that are
aerated by convection air movement and diffusion, or by turning periodically through
mechanical means to expose the organic matter to ambient oxygen.
2. Static pile: A stationary mixture is aerated by a forced aeration system installed
under the pile.
3. In-vessel composting: Composting takes place in enclosed containers in which
environmental conditions can be controlled. The waste decomposes into a harmless
organic material that can be used as a soil conditioner and enhancer for agricultural
applications.
6.Which Factors in Composting Operation?

The most important factors in composting operations are:
1. segregation of refuse and salvage
2. grinding or shredding of the material
3. carbon-nitrogen ratio
4. blending or proportioning of wastes
5. moisture content
7.What are the most important purposes for composting organic

Wastes?
The two most important purposes for composting organic wastes are:
a. reclamation or conservation of the nutrient and fertilizer values of the waste, b.
sanitary treatment and disposal to prevent the spread of disease.
8.What is called humus?

Compost is a brown material, the main constituents of which are humus. It has the
following physical properties when applied to the soil:
• the lightening of heavy soil
• improvement of the texture of light sandy soil
• increased water retention
• enlarging root systems of plants.
9.What are the Character and Value of the Compost?

Character and Value of the Compost
Compost material is stable. It may undergo little or no further decomposition. It has a
slightly musty or earthy odor. Color wise, it must be grayish or blackish. Its value is to
serve as soil conditioner, lightness to the soil, promotes aeration and helps retain
moisture by adding humus.
10.What is called composting pit?
Compost Pit
It can be designed for individual houses or institutions. It is the easiest method of
solid waste management system, if it is well managed. It is the most ideal
method of dealing with wastes in homes and institutions like schools.
Waste is normally deposited in the pit and covered within 24
hours with a thin layer of earth.
11.What is called incineration?

Incineration
Incineration is a process of burning the combustible components of garbage and refuse.
Disposal of solid waste by incineration can be effectively carried out on a small scale in
food service establishments as well as in institutions such as hospitals, schools etc.
12.What is called on-site incineration?

On-site Incineration
This term applies to incineration of refuse at home, office, apartment house, commercial
building, hospital or industrial site. Refuse collection and disposal could be reduced
satisfactorily by using on-site incineration. Generally, air pollution can be expected.
13.Give the Advantages of an incinerator?

Advantages of an incinerator
1. Less land is required for landfills
2. A central location is possible, allowing short hauling for the collection service.
3. Ash and other residue produced are free of organic matter, nuisance- free, and
acceptable as fill material.
4. Many kinds of refuse can be burned. Even noncombustible materials will be reduced in
bulk.
5. Climate or unusual weather does not affect it.
14.Give the disadvantages of an incinerator?

Disadvantages of an incinerator
1. Initial cost is high during construction.
2. Operating cost is relatively high.
3. Skilled employees are required for operation and maintenance.
4. There may be difficulty in getting a site.
15.Define Pyrolysis.
Pyrolysis is a thermo chemical decomposition of organic material at elevated
temperatures in the absence of oxygen (or any halogen). It involves the
simultaneous change of chemical composition and physical phase, and is
irreversible. The word is coined from the Greek-derived elementspyro "fire"
and lysis "separating".
Pyrolysis is a type of thermolysis, and is most commonly observed in organic
materials exposed to high temperatures. It is one of the processes involved in
charring wood, starting at 200–300 °C (390–570 °F)
VIRUDHUNAGAR

UNIT4-Off-site Processing
Part B-(16 marks)

1.Explain the Composting process.
Composting
Composting is an effective method of solid waste disposal. In composting,
biodegradable materials break down through natural processes and produce
humus. The metabolism of micro-organisms breaks down the waste aerobically or
anaerobically.
Materials that are non- biodegradable must be separated from
the degradable materials and disposed of in some other manner.
Some common non biodegradable materials are glass, plastics, rubber products, and
metals. Once nonbiodegradable materials have been removed and only
biodegradable waste has been established, it is brought to a grinder. Grinding
increases the surface area of the waste and enhances biological degradation.
Most modern compost systems are aerobic rather than
anaerobic for several reasons:
1. Aerobic processes are not accompanied by the

foul stench present at an unsealed anaerobic
composting operation
2. In crop production industries, composting is safer
because temperatures do not reach that of pasteurization
temperatures which exceed the thermal death point of
most plants, animals and parasites.
3. Aerobic composting is more rapid than
anaerobic composting.
An aerobic compost operation ideally is an optimal environment for the growth of
aerobic organisms. The material to be composted is food. Therefore the “food” should
have a carbon:nitrogen ratio favorable for decomposition. The microbes require a C: N of
25:1 to 30:1. If the C: N is too low (120:1), the ammonium compounds will volatilize into
the air, causing an unpleasant odor. Various groups of organisms have different optimum
temperatures (some prefer 25 0c, some 37 0c, and others 55 0c), though the optimal
temperature for a process as a whole integrates the optimums of the various microbes.
The pH of aerobic composting varies depending on the organisms’ need for oxygen.
Aeration is important and is provided by turning the compost mechanically to expose it to
oxygen to speed decomposition. Microbes must have moisture, and such is the case in
composting. The amount of moisture needed varies with the composition of the material
being composted. The moisture content should be approximately 45% to 50%. If the
moisture is too low, microbial activity slows, and biological activity ceases at a moisture
content of about 12%. If the moisture content is too high, it reduces the
amount of free oxygen present and slows the process so that it may become anaerobic.
Many times, sludge is added to waste for composting to provide microbial food and
trace elements.
2.Explain the types of composting and operation steps in composting? A.
Types of Composting
The three main types of composting are: windrow, static pile, and in-vessel.
1. Windrow: A sludge/refuse mixture configured in long rows (windrows) that are
aerated by convection air movement and diffusion, or by turning periodically through
mechanical means to expose the organic matter to ambient oxygen.
2. Static pile: A stationary mixture is aerated by a forced aeration system installed
under the pile.
3. In-vessel composting: Composting takes place in enclosed containers in which
environmental conditions can be controlled. The waste decomposes into a harmless
organic material that can be used as a soil conditioner and enhancer for agricultural
applications.
B. Operation Steps in Composting
1. Removal of non-compostable wastes, (i.e. cans, glasses).
2. Grinding and shredding

- Helps to speed up bacterial action.
- Raw refuse is shredded before placed in piles, bins and digested before
decomposition.
3. Blenching or proportioning of materials

- This is also to speed up the bacterial action.
- The optimum carbon nitrogen has to be 30 - 35:1
- Generally blending is considered to be unnecessary if the ratio is 25 - 30:1
- The optimum moisture content for aerobic composting is 40 - 60% depending on the
character of the material.
4. Placement for composting - It can be placed on ground as open piles or windrows in a

shallow pit. Height of windrows or piles should not be greater than 1.5 meter to 1.8 meter
and not less than 1.07 meter to 1.2 meter. Width at the bottom of the windrow is
2.44 meter to 3.6 meters.
5. Turning - An aerobic condition is maintained by frequent turning. If the moisture

content is high, it requires turning every 2 -3 days.
6. Temperature - It is an important factor and should range 50-70 0 C; usually 600C is

satisfactory. Temperature will be the highest in the middle of pile or windrow. Excessive
temperature (710C) is injurious to bacterial action. Excessive temperature is controlled by
lowering the height of piles or windrows. If the area is cool, raise the height in order to
maintain optimum temperature. If temperatures drop, the condition will be anaerobic.
3.Explain the Factors in Composting Operation. A.
Factors in Composting Operation
The most important factors in composting operations are:
1. segregation of refuse and salvage
2. grinding or shredding of the material
3. carbon-nitrogen ratio
4. blending or proportioning of wastes
5. moisture content
6. placement of materials in the composting pit
7. maintain temperature level to obtain rapid, nuisance-free decomposition
8. aeration to reduce high moisture content in composting materials
9. organisms involved
10. use of inoculate
11. physical or chemical reaction
12. climatic conditions (temperature, wind, rainfall)
13. destruction of pathogenic organisms
14. time required for composting
15. fly control
16. reclamation of nitrogen and other nutrients
17. testing and judging the condition of compost
18. quality of composts, which depends on nature of the material being composted
19. economic aspects of composting ,The final product of composting is compost - a
mixture composed mainly of decayed organic matter, used as a fertilizer.
4.Explain the Uses and Constraints of composting.

Uses and Constraints
Compost improves soil moisture retention. It is a good soil conditioner. Compost,
depending on the waste source and its composition, may be used as a soil amendment for
agricultural soil and landscaping in municipal parks.
The two most important purposes for composting organic wastes are:
a. reclamation or conservation of the nutrient and fertilizer
values of the waste
b. sanitary treatment and disposal to prevent the spread of
disease.
Compost is a brown material, the main constituents of which are humus. It has the
following physical properties when applied to the soil:
• the lightening of heavy soil
• improvement of the texture of light sandy soil
• increased water retention
• enlarging root systems of plants
Compost may also be used as a landfill cover, land reclamation, animal litter, and
possibly animal feed. It may also be used as an additive to fertilizer as fuel, or in
building materials.
The presence of toxic levels of pesticides, heavy metals, and pathogens should be
determined and evaluated to ensure that the levels are compatible to the intended use of
the compost.
The total composting time is determined by the material, process used, and exposure to the
elements. Two weeks to as much as 18 months may be required for complete stabilization.
For pathogen reduction purposes, the temperature of the mixture must be not less than 55
0C for at least 3 consecutive days.
5.Write shortly about Moisture Content of the Compost, Character and Value of
the Compost.
Health Importance and Compost Pit.
A. Moisture Content of the Compost
• Moisture content is a critical factor in aerobic composting.
• If water content falls below 40% the speed of the process declines.
• If it falls below about 20% decomposition ceases.
• If it exceeds 55% water begins to fill the interstices between the particles of wastes,
reducing interstitial oxygen and causing anaerobic conditions. This results in a rapid fall in
temperature and the production of offensive odors.
B. Character and Value of the Compost
Compost material is stable. It may undergo little or no further decomposition. It has a
slightly musty or earthy odor. Colorwise, it must be grayish or blackish. Its value is to
serve as soil conditioner, lightness to the soil, promotes aeration and helps retain
moisture by adding humus.
C. Health Importance
• Compost presents no health hazards.
• The heat produced will kill pathogenic bacteria and eggs
of parasites.
• When composting is processed, fly breeding can be
expected due to the mere fact it is done in a slightly open
condition.
D. Compost Pit
It can be designed for individual houses or institutions. It is
the easiest method of solid waste management system, if it is
well managed. It is the most ideal method of dealing with
wastes in homes and institutions like schools.
Waste is normally deposited in the pit and covered within 24
hours with a thin layer of earth. When it is full, it is left for
bacteria to act upon it, which decomposes leaving humus that
can be used as soil conditioner in farms. To be economical operating a twin pit is the
best, as when one fills the other one is used as a component of the first humus.
6.Explain the incineration process.
Incineration
Incineration is a process of burning the combustible components
of garbage and refuse. Disposal of solid waste by incineration
can be effectively carried out on a small scale in food service
establishments as well as in institutions such as hospitals,
schools etc.
The disadvantage of this method is that only combustible

materials are incinerated, hence there is a need for separation
of the waste into combustible and non-combustible. The noncombustible
waste needs separate disposal. Generally there are two types of incinerators, the open and
the closed systems.
In the open system the refuse is incinerated in a chamber open to the air; while the
closed system contains a special chamber designed with various parts to facilitate
incineration.
It requires a chimney of appropriate height to provide a good flow of air through the
combustion chamber. There are varieties of designs for small scale incinerators. A
typical example of design is shown in Figure 4. The size can be varied depending on the
volume of the refuse to be incinerated.
- The combustion chamber is laid with iron grids, at the

bottom of which are air inlets in front and at the back.
- The front and back walls are with provision for installing a
chimney.
- The feeding door has a baffle wall to facilitate refuse
feeding.
- The base below the combustion chamber is for collecting.
On-site Incineration
This term applies to incineration of refuse at home, office, apartment house, commercial
building, hospital or industrial site. Refuse collection and disposal could be reduced
satisfactorily by using on-site incineration. Generally, airpollution can be expected.
Advantages of an incinerator
1. Less land is required for landfills
2. A central location is possible, allowing short hauling for the collection service.
3. Ash and other residue produced are free of organic matter, nuisance- free, and
acceptable as fill material.
4. Many kinds of refuse can be burned. Even noncombustible materials will be reduced in
bulk.
5. Climate or unusual weather does not affect it.
6. Flexibility is possible - no restriction for its operation.
7. Getting income through the sale of waste heat for steam or
power is possible.
Disadvantages of an incinerator
1. Initial cost is high during construction.
2. Operating cost is relatively high.
3. Skilled employees are required for operation and maintenance.
An example of this type is commonly seen in some institutions in Ethiopia. A typical

design consists of the following dimensions: width = 110 cm; length =110cm; height in
front = 135cm; height at back =150cm. Concrete base (chamber)= 60cm by 75cm by
10cm; top fueling door = 60cm by 60cm square, with thickness 5cm. With proper
management and little fuel the incinerator can effectively burn dry as well as wet
materials.
7.Explain Pyrolysis process.
Pyrolysis is a process in which oxygen is excluded from the reactor, which is
heated externally to produce the elevated temperature environment that causes the
organic solids (waste input) to breakdown via physical and chemical processes into
three products;
solid char,
pyrolysis oil and
pyrolysis gas,
with the proportions of each being governed by the operating temperature within the
pyrolysis reactor.
There is a certain amount of misunderstanding concerning the differences between
pyrolysis and gasification with some people believing that they are the same. True
pyrolysis is a low temperature thermal conversion technology that operates with an air
free environment and produces a primary liquid product as well as gas and solid phase
products. If pyrolysis is operated at high temperature (>800oC) then the primary product
becomes syngas but the process will also produce liquid and solid phase products in lesser
amounts.
By increasing the operating temperature the thermodynamics governing the reactions

taking places cause a greater production of pyrolysis gas (syngas) at the expense of
pyrolysis oil. The quantity of char produced at low and high temperatures does not vary
greatly.
For biomass processing the lower temperature pyrolysis processes have been used
with the objective of maximising the production of pyrolysis oil, referred to as bio-oil,
which was seen as a pre-cursor to the production of many other chemicals in a bio-
refinery context.
In a waste processing context the higher temperature pyrolysis processes have been
developed in order to maximise the production of syngas, which is more easily converted
to electricity. It is these processes that we will consider in this report and we will refer to
them henceforth as gasification as the sole objective is to produce syngas like gasification.
VIRUDHUNAGAR

SUB.CODE/ NAME: EN6501 /Municipal Solid Waste Management.
UNIT 5 - Disposal.
PART - A (2 marks)
1.What is called municipal solid waste landfill (MFWLF)?
definition: depositing waste on the ground and burying it with at least six inches of
dirt.
municipal solid waste landfill (MFWLF) ―receives household wastes but can also
receive non-hazardous sludge, industrial solid waste, construction and
demolition debris.
2.Define LEACHATE.
LEACHATE = a liquid that has passed through or emerged from solid waste and
contains soluble, suspended, or miscible materials removed from such waste.
3.What are the Landfill types?

a) bioreactor landfills (bioreactors)
air to enhance microbial processes‖

b) construction and demolition debris (C & D) landfills
shingles, metals, and some types of plastics

standards than municipal
solid waste landfills due to the relatively inert nature of C&D debris
materials‖
3.What are the Advantages of landfills?

Advantages of landfills.
a) no burning needed
b) air pollution minimal
c) constant burying of the layers—vermin (rats, etc.) are kept to a minimum
4.What type of Problems with landfills in disposal.
• Landfills require space
• Produce methane gas (can be used for energy, or can cause climate change)
• Leachate must be collected and treated
• Potential for water pollution
• NOT a long-term remedy.
5.What is called Secure landfills.
Land filling of hazardous solid or containerized waste is regulated more stringently than
land filling of municipal solid waste. Hazardous wastes must be deposited in so-
called secure landfills, which provide at least 3 metres (10 feet) of separation between
the bottom of the landfill and the underlying bedrock or groundwater table.
6.Write about leachate collection system.
A secure hazardous-waste landfill must have two impermeable liners

and leachate collection systems. The double leachate collection system consists of a
network of perforated pipes placed above each liner. The upper system prevents the
accumulation of leachate trapped in the fill, and the lower serves as a backup.
Collected leachate is pumped to a treatment plant. In order to reduce the amount of

leachate in the fill and minimize the potential for environmental damage, an
impermeable cap or cover is placed over a finished landfill.
7.What is meant by Leachate recirculation?
Leachate recirculation: It is one of the simplest forms of treatment. Recirculation of

leachate reduces the hazardous nature of leachate and helps wet the waste, increasing its
potential for biological degradation.
8.What is meant by Natural liners?
Natural liners: These refer to compacted clay or shale, bitumen or soil sealants, etc., and
are generally less permeable, resistant to chemical attack and have good sorption
properties. They generally do not act as true containment barriers, because sometimes
leachate migrates through them.
9. What is meant by Synthetic (geo-membrane) liners?

Synthetic (geo-membrane) liners: These are typically made up of high or medium
density polyethylene and are generally less permeable, easy to install, relatively strong
and have good deformation characteristics. They sometimes expand or shrink according
to temperature and age.
10.What are the minimum requirements you need to consider for a sanitary
landfill?
The four minimum requirements you need to consider for a sanitary landfill are:
(i) full or partial hydrological isolation;
(ii) formal engineering preparation;
(iii) permanent control;
(iv) planned waste emplacement and covering.
VIRUDHUNAGAR

SUB.CODE/ NAME: EN6501 /Municipal Solid Waste Management.
UNIT 5 - Disposal.
Part B-(16 marks)
1.Explain the Remedial action for disposal of MSW.
Disposal of hazardous waste in unlined pits, ponds, or lagoons poses a threat to human
health and environmental quality. Many such uncontrolled disposal sites were used in the
past and have been abandoned.
Depending on a determination of the level of risk, it may be necessary to remediate those

sites. In some cases, the risk may require emergency action. In other instances,
engineering studies may be required to assess the situation thoroughly before remedial
action is undertaken.
problems
a) leachate generation
leachate—water tainted with pollutants
can have heavy metals, battery acid, cleaning fluid, pesticides, POPs…
Gas released, as a result of degradation or volatilisation of waste components, causes

odour, flammability, health problems and damage of the vegetation (due to oxygen
depletion in the root zone). The measures to control this include liners, soil covers,
passive venting or active extraction of gas for treatment before discharge into the
atmosphere.
Polluted leachate appears shortly after disposal of the waste. This may cause
groundwater pollution and pollution of streams through sub-surface migration. Liners,
drainage collection, treatment of leachate, and groundwater and downstream water
quality monitoring are necessary to control this problem.
b) methane production
anaerobic bacterial action
biogas is produced (2/3 CH4, the rest H2 and CO2)
biogas seeping underground can poison root systems of plants
biogas can seep upward into homes and may cause explosions
LFG = landfill gases
c) incomplete decomposition
w down decomposition of
biodegradable materials buried in a landfill
toxicity of the
leachate
d) settling
a level surface
e) land values and land use
improving landfills
a) landfill siting – an example process
characteristics of landfill siting: high ground, significant distance above the water table
e-feasibility report
main parts of a landfill
oured floor
combustion (burning) of waste

1) advantages
a) reduction of the weight and volume of trash
b) reduction of toxic substances into two types of ash
fly ash (collected from fumes)
bottom ash (collects at the bottom of the boiler)
c) trash picked up as usual, just to a different destination
d) electricity can be produced in waste-to-energy (WTE) facilities
resource recovery—separating materials before and after combustion
2.Draw the Landfill design.
LANDFILL DESIGN
3.Explain the priniciple and layout of sanitary landfill.
SANITARY LANDFILL
The term landfill generally refers to an engineered deposit of wastes either in
pits/trenches or on the surface. And, a sanitary landfill is essentially a landfill, where
proper mechanisms are available to control the environmental risks associated with the
disposal of wastes and to make available the land, subsequent to disposal, for other
purposes.
However, you must note that a landfill need not necessarily be an engineered
site, when the waste is largely inert at final disposal, as in rural areas, where wastes
contain a large proportion of soil and dirt.
This practice is generally designated as non-engineered disposal method. When
compared to uncontrolled dumping, engineered landfills are more likely to have pre-
planned installations, environmental monitoring, and organised and trained workforce.
Sanitary landfill implementation, therefore, requires careful site selection, preparation
and management.
The four minimum requirements you need to consider for a sanitary landfill are:
(i) full or partial hydrological isolation;
(ii) formal engineering preparation;
(iii) permanent control;
(iv) planned waste emplacement and covering.
Principle
The purpose of land filling is to bury or alter the chemical composition of the wastes so
that they do not pose any threat to the environment or public health. Landfills are not
homogeneous and are usually made up of cells in which a discrete volume of waste is kept
isolated from adjacent waste cells by a suitable barrier. The barriers between cells
generally consist of a layer of natural soil (i.e., clay), which restricts downward or lateral
escape of the waste constituents or leachate.
Land filling relies on containment rather than treatment (for control) of wastes. If properly
executed, it is a safer and cheaper method than incineration . An environmentally sound
sanitary landfill comprises appropriate liners for protection of the groundwater (from
contaminated leachate), run-off controls, leachate collection and treatment, monitoring
wells and appropriate final cover design (Phelps, 1995). Figure below gives a schematic
layout of sanitary landfill along with its various components:
Schematic Layout of Sanitary Landfill
4.Explain the life cycle of a landfill.
let us touch upon the phases in the life cycle of a landfill, and these are:
Planning phase: This typically involves preliminary hydro-geological and geo-technical

site investigations as a basis for actual design.
Construction phase: This involves earthworks, road and facility construction and
preparation (liners and drains) of the fill area.
Operation phase (5 – 20 years): This phase has a high intensity of traffic, work at the
front of the fill, operation of environmental installations and completion of finished
sections.
Completed phase (20 – 100 years): This phase involves the termination of the actual
filling to the time when the environmental installations need no longer be operated. The
emissions may have by then decreased to a level where they do not need any further
treatment and can be discharged freely into the surroundings.
Final storage phase: In this phase, the landfill is integrated into the surroundings for
other purposes, and no longer needs special attention.
Landfill processes
The feasibility of land disposal of solid wastes depends on factors such as the type,
quantity and characteristics of wastes, the prevailing laws and regulations, and soil and
site characteristics. Let us now explain some of these processes.
(i) Site selection process and considerations: This requires the development of a
working plan – a plan, or a series of plans, outlining the development and descriptions of
site location, operation, engineering and site restoration. Considerations for site include
public opinion, traffic patterns and congestion, climate, zoning requirements, availability
of cover material and liner as well, high trees or buffer in the site perimeter, historic
buildings, and endangered species, wetlands, and site land environmental factors, speed
limits, underpass limitations, load limits on roadways, bridge capacities, and proximity of
major roadways, haul distance, hydrology and detours.
(ii) Settling process: The waste body of a landfill undergoes different stages of settling or
deformation. Figure below illustrates these stages:
The three stages shown in the figure above are described below:
Primary consolidation: During this stage, a substantial amount of settling occurs. This
settlement is caused by the weight of the waste layers. The movement of trucks, bulldozers
or mechanical compactors will also enhance this process. After this primary consolidation,
or short-term deformation stage, aerobic degradation processes occur.
Secondary compression: During this stage, the rate of settling is much lower than that in
the primary consolidation stage, as the settling occurs through compression, which cannot
be enhanced.
Decomposition: During the degradation processes, organic material is converted into

gas and leachate. The settling rate during this stage increases compared to the secondary
compression stage, and continues until all decomposable organic matter is degraded. The
settling rate, however, gradually decreases with the passage of time.
To appropriately design protective liners, and gas and leachate collection systems, it is,
therefore, necessary to have a proper knowledge of the settling process of wastes.
(iii) Microbial degradation process: The microbial degradation process is the most
important biological process occurring in a landfill. These processes induce changes in the
chemical and physical environment within the waste body, which determine the quality of
leachate and both the quality and quantity of landfill gas (see Subsection
4.3.2). Assuming that landfills mostly receive organic wastes, microbial processes will
dominate the stabilisation of the waste and therefore govern landfill gas generation and
leachate composition. Soon after disposal, the predominant part of the wastes becomes
anaerobic, and the bacteria will start degrading the solid organic carbon, eventually to
produce carbon dioxide and methane. The anaerobic degradation process undergoes the
following stages:
Solid and complex dissolved organic compounds are hydrolysed and fermented by the
fermenters primarily to volatile fatty acids, alcohols, hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
An acidogenic group of bacteria converts the products of the first stage to acetic acid,
hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
Methanogenic bacteria convert acetic acid to methane and carbon dioxide and
hydrogenophilic bacteria convert hydrogen and carbon dioxide to methane.
The biotic factors that affect methane formation in the landfill are pH, alkalinity,
nutrients, temperature, oxygen and moisture content.
Enhancement of degradation
Enhancement of the degradation processes in landfills will result in a faster stabilisation of
the waste in the landfill, which enhances gas production, and we can achieve this by:
Adding partly composted waste: As the readily degradable organic matter has already
been decomposed aerobically, the rapid acid production phase is overcome, and the
balance of acid and methane production bacteria can develop earlier and the consequent
dilution effect lowers the organic acid concentration.
Recirculating leachate: This may have positive effects since a slow increase in moisture
will cause a long period of gas production. During warmer periods, recirculated leachate
will evaporate, resulting in lower amounts of excess leachate.
5.Explain the leachate collection and treatment.
LEACHATE FORMATION
Leachate can pollute both groundwater and surface water supplies. The degree of
pollution will depend on local geology and hydrogeology, nature of waste and the
proximity of susceptible receptors. Once groundwater is contaminated, it is very costly to
clean it up. Landfills, therefore, undergo siting, design and construction procedures that
control leachate migration.
Composition and properties
Leachate comprises soluble components of waste and its degradation products enter
water, as it percolates through the landfill. The amount of leachate generated depends on:
water availability;
landfill surface condition;
refuse state;
condition of surrounding strata.
The major factor, i.e., water availability, is affected by precipitation, surface runoff, waste
decomposition and liquid waste disposal. The water balance equation for landfill requires
negative or zero (“Lo”) so that no excess leachate is produced. This is calculated using the
following formula:
Lo = I – E – aW
i.e. I – E < aW
where, Lo = free leachate retained at site (equivalent to leachate production minus
leachate leaving the site); I = total liquid input;
E = evapotranspiration losses; a = absorption capacity of waste; W
= weight of waste disposed.
Common toxic components in leachate are ammonia and heavy metals, which can be
hazardous even at low levels, if they accumulate in the food chain. The presence of
ammoniacal nitrogen means that leachate often has to be treated off-site before being
discharged to a sewer, since there is no natural bio-chemical path for its removal (Ali, et al.,
1995). Leachate composition varies with time and location. Table 4.2 shows a
typical leachate properties and composition at various stages of waste decomposition.
Table.
Properties and Composition of Leachate at Various Stages of Decomposition
(mg/l except pH)
Leachate migration
It is generally difficult to predict the movement of escaped leachate accurately. The
main controlling factors are the surrounding geology and hydrogeology. Escape to
surface water may be relatively easy to control, but if it escapes to groundwater
sources, it can be very difficult both to control and clean up. The degree of groundwater
contamination is affected by physical, chemical and biological actions. The relative
importance of each process may change, however, if the leachate moves from the landfill to
the sub-surface region.
Control
The best way to control leachate is through prevention, which should be integral to the
site design. In most cases, it is necessary to control liquid access, collection and
treatment, all of which can be done using the following landfill liners:
Natural liners: These refer to compacted clay or shale, bitumen or soil sealants, etc., and
are generally less permeable, resistant to chemical attack and have good sorption
properties. They generally do not act as true containment barriers, because sometimes
leachate migrates through them.
Synthetic (geo-membrane) liners: These are typically made up of high or medium

density polyethylene and are generally less permeable, easy to install, relatively strong
and have good deformation characteristics. They sometimes expand or shrink according
to temperature and age.
Note that natural and geo-membrane liners are often combined to enhance the overall
efficiency of the containment system. Some of the leachate collection systems include
impermeable liner, granular material, collection piping, leachate storage tank; leachate is
trucked to a wastewater treatment facility.
Treatment
Concentrations of various substances occurring in leachate are too high to be discharged
to surface water or into a sewer system. These concentrations, therefore, have to be
reduced by removal, treatment or both. The various treatments of leachate include:
Leachate recirculation: It is one of the simplest forms of treatment. Recirculation of
leachate reduces the hazardous nature of leachate and helps wet the waste, increasing its
potential for biological degradation.
Biological treatment: This removes BOD, ammonia and suspended solids. Leachate from
land filled waste can be readily degraded by biological means, due to high content of
volatile fatty acids (VFAs). The common methods are aerated lagoons (i.e., special devices
which enhance the aerobic processes of
degradation of organic substances over the entire depth of the tank) and activated sludge
process, which differs from aerated lagoons in that discharged sludge is recirculated and is
often used for BOD and ammonia removal. While under conditions of low COD, rotating
biological contactors (i.e., biomass is brought into contact with
circular blades fixed to a common axle which is rotated) are very effective in removing
ammonia. In an anaerobic treatment system, complex organic molecules are fermented in
filter. The common types are anaerobic filters, anaerobic lagoon and digesters.
Physicochemical treatment: After biological degradation, effluents still contain significant

concentrations of different substances. Physicochemical treatment processes could be
installed to improve the leachate effluent quality. Some of these processes are flocculation-
precipitation. (Note that addition of chemicals to the water attracts the metal by floc
formation). Separation of the floc from water takes place by sedimentation, adsorption and
reverse osmosis.
6. Explain the ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF LANDFILL.
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF LANDFILL
The environmental effects of a landfill include wind-blown litter and dust, noise,
obnoxious odour, vermin and insects attracted by the waste, surface runoff and
inaesthetic conditions. Gas and leachate problems also arise during the operation phase
and require significant environmental controls. In what follows, we will describe some
of the major environmental effects below:
(i) Wind-blown litter and dust are continuous problems of the ongoing landfill operation
and a nuisance to the neighbourhood. Covering the waste cells with soil and spraying
water on dirt roads and waste in dry periods, in combination with fencing and movable
screens, may minimise the problem of wind-blown litter and dust. However, note that
the problem will remain at the tipping front of the landfill.
(ii) Movement of waste collection vehicles, emptying of wastes from them, compactors,
earthmoving equipment, etc., produce noise. Improving the technical capability of the
equipment, surrounding the fill area with soil embankments and plantations, limiting the
working hours and appropriately training the workforce will help minimise noise
pollution.
(iii) Birds (e.g., scavengers), vermin, insects and animals are attracted to the landfill for
feeding and breeding. Since many of these may act as disease vectors, their presence is a
potential health problem.
(iv) Surface run-off, which has been in contact with the land filled waste, may be a
problem in areas of intense rainfall. If not controlled, heavily polluted run-off may enter
directly into creeks and streams. Careful design and maintenance of surface drains and
ditches, together with a final soil cover on completed landfill sections, can help eliminate
this problem.
(v) An operating landfill, where equipment and waste are exposed, appears inaesthetic.
This problem may be reduced by careful design of screening soil embankments, plantings,
rapid covering and re-vegetation of filled sections.
(vi) Gas released, as a result of degradation or volatilisation of waste components,
causes odour, flammability, health problems and damage of the vegetation (due to
oxygen depletion in the root zone). The measures to control this include liners, soil
covers, passive venting or active extraction of gas for treatment before discharge into
the atmosphere.
(vii) Polluted leachate appears shortly after disposal of the waste. This may cause
groundwater pollution and pollution of streams through sub-surface migration. Liners,
drainage collection, treatment of leachate, and groundwater and downstream water
quality monitoring are necessary to control this problem.

EN6501 Municipal Solid Waste Management Question Bank

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SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY QUESTION BANK

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

QUESTION WITH ANSWERS

DEPARTMENT: CIVIL –IV

1. What is meant by solid waste?

2. Examples of residential and commercial solid wastes.

5. What is called Hazardous wastes?

physical, chemical and biological or radioactive characteristics like ignitability,

8. What is called legislation?

9. Draw Hierarchy of municipal solid waste management.

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SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT: CIVIL –IV SEM:VII SUB.CODE/

Non-biodegradable wastes consist of inorganic and recyclable materials such as

therefore, requires special attention in storage, handling and disposal.

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2.Explain the SOLID WASTE CHARACTERISTICS.

2.3.1 Physical characteristics Information and data on the physical characteristics of

(iii) Size: Measurement of size distribution of particles in waste stream is important

because of its significance in the design of mechanical separators and shredders.

II. Permeability of compacted wastes: The hydraulic conductivity of compacted

III. Compressibility of MSW: Degree of physical changes of the suspended

ΔHT =ΔHi +ΔHc +ΔHα [ΔHT=

3.Explain the Public health effects in MSWM.

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present in the human and animal population of surrounding communities, or if a carrier

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intestinal infections that are transmitted by flies feeding on the waste;

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Table 2.6 Different Sources of Solid Waste Generation in Bangalore

Source: Department of SWM, Bangalore Mahanagara Palike, Bangalore

Table 2.7 Composition of Solid Waste in Bangalore

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Source: Department of SWM, Bangalore Mahanagara Palike, Bangalore In Bangalore, there

5.Explain the Improper handling of wastes.

Improper handling of wastes

6. Explain the Principle of solid waste management.

Principle of solid waste management

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PUBLIC EDUCATION AND INVOLVEMENT

8. Planning a public education programme

Planning a public education programme:

10.2 Planning public involvement

10.4 Policy on Integrated municipal solid waste management Karnataka

PREPARED BY K.KALAIPANDIAN AP/CIVIL MSW/QB/UNIT I Page 20

QUESTION WITH ANSWERS

UNIT2-On-site Storage & Processing.

2.What is the Importance of on-site handling of solid waste?

3.List out the On- site handling methods

4.Write about On- Site Storage method.

5.Write about Storage containers

7.What are the Collection process involved in MSWM.

8.What are the types of collection services?

10.What are the Routing system of collection?

12. What is called Resource recovery?

13. List out the levels of recycling.

QUESTION WITH ANSWERS

1.Explain the On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste.

Importance of on-site handling of solid waste: