List of mathematical symbols - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_symbols

List of mathematical symbols

This is a list of symbols used in all branches of mathematics to express a formula or to represent a constant.

A mathematical concept is independent of the symbol chosen to represent it. For many of the symbols below, the symbol is usually synonymous with the corresponding concept (ultimately an arbitrary
choice made as a result of the cumulative history of mathematics), but in some situations, a different convention may be used. For example, depending on context, the triple bar "≡" may represent
congruence or a definition. However, in mathematical logic, numerical equality is sometimes represented by "≡" instead of "=", with the latter representing equality of well-formed formulas. In short,
convention dictates the meaning.

Each symbol is shown both in HTML, whose display depends on the browser's access to an appropriate font installed on the particular device, and typeset as an image using TeX.

Contents
Guide
Basic symbols
Symbols based on equality
Symbols that point left or right
Brackets
Other non-letter symbols
Letter-based symbols
Letter modifiers
Symbols based on Latin letters
Symbols based on Hebrew or Greek letters
Variations
See also
References
External links

Guide
This list is organized by symbol type and is intended to facilitate finding an unfamiliar symbol by its visual appearance. For a related list organized by mathematical topic, see List of mathematical
symbols by subject. That list also includes LaTeX and HTML markup, and Unicode code points for each symbol (note that this article doesn't have the latter two, but they could certainly be added).

There is a Wikibooks guide for using maths in LaTeX,[1] and a comprehensive LaTeX symbol list.[2] It is also possible to check to see if a Unicode code point is available as a LaTeX command, or vice
versa.[3] Also note that where there is no LaTeX command natively available for a particular symbol (although there may be options that require adding packages), the symbol could be added via other
options, such as setting the document up to support Unicode,[4] and entering the character in a variety of ways (e.g. copying and pasting, keyboard shortcuts, the \unicode{<insertcodepoint>}
command[5]) as well as other options[6] and extensive additional information.[7][8]

Basic symbols: Symbols widely used in mathematics, roughly through first-year calculus. More advanced meanings are included with some symbols listed here.
Symbols based on equality "=": Symbols derived from or similar to the equal sign, including double-headed arrows. Not surprisingly these symbols are often associated with an equivalence
relation.
Symbols that point left or right: Symbols, such as < and >, that appear to point to one side or another.
Brackets: Symbols that are placed on either side of a variable or expression, such as | |.
Other non-letter symbols: Symbols that do not fall in any of the other categories.
Letter-based symbols: Many mathematical symbols are based on, or closely resemble, a letter in some alphabet. This section includes such symbols, including symbols that resemble upside-
down letters. Many letters have conventional meanings in various branches of mathematics and physics. These are not listed here. The See also section, below, has several lists of such usages.

Letter modifiers: Symbols that can be placed on or next to any letter to modify the letter's meaning.
Symbols based on Latin letters, including those symbols that resemble or contain an X
Symbols based on Hebrew or Greek letters e.g. ‫א‬, ‫ב‬, δ, Δ, π, Π, σ, Σ, Φ. symbols resembling Λ are grouped with "V" under Latin letters.
Variations: Usage in languages written right-to-left

Basic symbols

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Name
Symbol Symbol
Read as Explanation Examples
in HTML in TeX
Category
addition
plus;
add
2 + 7 means the sum of 2 and 7. 2+7=9
arithmetic
+ disjoint union
the disjoint = {3, 4, 5, 6} ∧ 2 = {7, 8, 9, 10} ⇒
+ 1
union of ... and 1 2 means the disjoint union of sets 1 and 2. + 2 = {(3, 1), (4, 1), (5, 1), (6, 1), (7, 2), (8, 2), (9, 2), (10, 2)}
... 1
set theory
subtraction
minus;
take; 36 − 11 means the subtraction of 11 from 36. 36 − 11 = 25
subtract
arithmetic
negative sign
negative;
− minus; −3 means the additive inverse of the number 3. −(−5) = 5
the opposite of
arithmetic
set-theoretic − means the set that contains all the elements of
complement that are not in .
minus; {1, 2, 4} − {1, 3, 4} = {2}
without (∖
set theory )
plus-minus
plus or minus 6 ± 3 means both 6 + 3 and 6 − 3. The equation = 5 ± √4 , has two solutions, = 7 and = 3.
arithmetic
± \pm plus-minus
10 ± 2 or equivalently 10 ± 20% means the range from
plus or minus If = 100 ± 1 mm, then ≥ 99 mm and ≤ 101 mm.
10 − 2 to 10 + 2.
measurement
minus-plus
∓ \mp
minus or plus 6 ± (3 ∓ 5) means 6 + (3 − 5) and 6 − (3 + 5). cos( ± ) = cos( ) cos( ) ∓ sin( ) sin( ).
arithmetic
multiplication
times;
multiplied by
3 × 4 or 3 ⋅ 4 means the multiplication of 3 by 4. 7 ⋅ 8 = 56
arithmetic
dot product
scalar product
× dot u ⋅ v means the dot product of vectors u and v (1, 2, 5) ⋅ (3, 4, −1) = 6
linear algebra
\times vector algebra
⋅ cross product
\cdot vector product i j k
· cross u × v means the cross product of vectors u and v (1, 2, 5) × (3, 4, −1) = 1 2 5 = (−22, 16, −2)
linear algebra 3 4 −1
vector algebra
placeholder
A · means a placeholder for an argument of a function.
(silent)
Indicates the functional nature of an expression without |·|
functional assigning a specific symbol for an argument.
analysis
division
(Obelus) 2 ÷ 4 = 0.5
divided by; 6 ÷ 3 or 6 ∕ 3 means the division of 6 by 3.
over 12 ∕ 4 = 3
÷ \div
arithmetic
quotient group
/ means the quotient of group modulo its subgroup
mod {0, , 2 , , + , + 2 } / {0, } = {{0, }, { , + }, {2 , + 2 }}
∕ group theory
.

quotient set
~ ⇔ − ∈ ℤ, then
If we define ~ by
mod /~ means the set of all ~ equivalence classes in .
ℝ/~ = { + : ∈ ℤ, ∈ [0,1)}.
set theory
square root
(radical
symbol)
the (principal)
√ means the nonnegative number whose square is . √4 = 2
square root of
\surd real numbers
√ complex
\sqrt{x} square root
the (complex) If = exp( ) is represented in polar coordinates with
square root of − <
√−1 =
≤ , then √ = √ exp( /2).
complex
numbers
summation
sum over ...
∑ \sum from ... to ... of
means .

calculus
indefinite
integral or
antiderivative ( ) means a function whose derivative is .
\int

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indefinite
integral of
- OR -
the
antiderivative of
calculus
definite integral
integral from ... 3 3
to ... of ... with ( ) means the signed area between the -axis and 2 = −
respect to the graph of the function between = and = . 3
calculus

line integral means the integral of along the curve ,

line/ path/
curve/ integral (r( )) | r'( ) | , where r is a parametrization of . (If
of ... along ...
the curve is closed, the symbol ∮ may be used instead, as
calculus described below.)

Similar to the integral, but used to denote a single

integration over a closed curve or loop. It is sometimes
used in physics texts involving equations regarding Gauss's
Law, and while these formulas involve a closed surface
integral, the representations describe only the first
integration of the volume over the enclosing surface.
Instances where the latter requires simultaneous double
Contour
integral; integration, the symbol ∯ would be more appropriate. A
closed line third related symbol is the closed volume integral, denoted
integral by the symbol ∰ . 1
is a Jordan curve about 0, then ∮ =2 .
∮
If
\oint contour integral The contour integral can also frequently be found with a
of
calculus subscript capital letter C, ∮ , denoting that a closed loop
integral is, in fact, around a contour , or sometimes dually
appropriately, a circle . In representations of Gauss's Law,

a subscript capital S, ∮ , is used to denote that the

integration is over a closed surface.

…
\ldots

⋯
\cdots
ellipsis
⋮ and so forth Indicates omitted values from a pattern. 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + ⋯ = 1
everywhere
\vdots
⋰

⋱
\ddots

therefore
therefore;
∴ \therefore so; Sometimes used in proofs before logical consequences. All humans are mortal. Socrates is a human. ∴ Socrates is mortal.
hence
everywhere
because

∵ \because
because;
since
Sometimes used in proofs before reasoning. 11 is prime ∵ it has no positive integer factors other than itself and one.
everywhere
factorial
factorial means the product .
combinatorics
The statement ! is true if and only if is false.
! logical negation A slash placed through another operator is the same as "!"
not placed in front. !(! ) ⇔
propositional ≠ ⇔ !( = )
logic ( !
¬
)

The statement ¬ is true if and only if is false.

¬ logical negation A slash placed through another operator is the same as "¬"
\neg not placed in front. ¬(¬ ) ⇔
propositional ≠ ⇔ ¬( = )
˜ logic ( ~ ¬
!
)
proportionality
is proportional
∝ \propto
to; ∝ means that = for some constant . if = 2 , then ∝ .
varies as
everywhere
infinity
∞ is an element of the extended number line that is greater
∞ \infty infinity
than all real numbers; it often occurs in limits.
numbers
end of proof
■ \blacksquare QED; Used to mark the end of a proof.
tombstone;
( Q.E.D.)
□ \Box
Halmos finality
symbol

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∎
everywhere
▮ \blacktriangleright

Symbols based on equality

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Name
Symbol Symbol
Read as Explanation Examples
in HTML in TeX
Category
equality
is equal to;
= equals
means and represent the same thing or value.

everywhere
inequality means that and do not represent the same thing or value.
is not equal to;
≠ \ne does not equal ( !=, /= <>
everywhere )
approximately equal
≈ means is approximately equal to .
is approximately equal
π ≈ 3.14159
to
≃, ≅, ~, (Libra Symbol), ≒.
everywhere
≈ \approx
≈ means that group is isomorphic (structurally identical) to
isomorphism
group .
is isomorphic to Q8 / C2 ≈ V
group theory (≅ )
probability distribution
~ (0,1), the standard normal
has distribution , means the random variable has the probability distribution .
distribution
statistics
row equivalence
~ means that can be generated by using a series of elementary
is row equivalent to
row operations on
matrix theory
same order of
magnitude ~ means the quantities and have the same order of 2~5
magnitude, or general size.
roughly similar;
8 × 9 ~ 100
poorly approximates;
( ~ ≈
is on the order of
.) but π2 ≈ 10
approximation theory
~ \sim similarity
△ABC ~ △DEF means triangle ABC is similar to (has the same
is similar to[9]
shape) triangle DEF.
geometry
asymptotically
equivalent
is asymptotically ~ means . x ~ x+1
equivalent to
asymptotic analysis
equivalence relation
are in the same 1 ~ 5 mod 4
~ means (and equivalently ).
equivalence class
everywhere

=:
:=
\equiv
≡ := , =: or ≡ means is defined to be another name for ,
:\Leftrightarrow definition under certain assumptions taken in context.
is defined as;
:⇔ is equal by definition to ( ≡ ).
\triangleq everywhere
≜ ⇔ means is defined to be logically equivalent to .

\overset{\underset{\mathrm{def}}
≝ {}}{=}

≐ \doteq
congruence
is congruent to △ABC ≅ △DEF means triangle ABC is congruent to (has the same
measurements as) triangle DEF.
geometry
≅ \cong isomorphic ≅ means that group is isomorphic (structurally identical) to
group .
is isomorphic to V ≅ C2 × C2
abstract algebra (≈ )
congruence relation
... is congruent to ...
≡ \equiv modulo ...
≡ (mod ) means − is divisible by 5 ≡ 2 (mod 3)

modular arithmetic

⇔ \Leftrightarrow material equivalence

if and only if;
\iff
iff ⇔ means is true if is true and is false if is false. +5= +2⇔ +3=
↔ propositional logic
\leftrightarrow

:= Assignment
Let := 3, then...
is defined to be := means is defined to have the value .
:= + 3
=: everywhere

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Symbols that point left or right

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Name
Symbol Symbol
Read as Explanation Examples
in HTML in TeX
Category
strict inequality
is less than, means is less than .
is greater than means is greater than .
< order theory
> proper subgroup
is a proper subgroup of means is a proper subgroup of .
group theory
significant (strict)
inequality
≪ means is much less than .
is much less than, 0.003 ≪ 1000000
is much greater than
≫ means is much greater than .
order theory
asymptotic comparison
≪ is of smaller order
than, (
≪ means the growth of is asymptotically bounded by .
≪e
≫ \ll
\gg
is of greater order than = O( ).)
analytic number theory
absolute continuity
is absolutely means that is absolutely continuous with respect to , , If is the counting measure on and is the Lebesgue
continuous with
whenever , we have . measure, then .
respect to
measure theory
≤ means is less than or equal to .
inequality ≥ means is greater than or equal to .
is less than or equal to, ( <= >=
is greater than or equal )
3 ≤ 4 and 5 ≤ 5
to
5 ≥ 4 and 5 ≥ 5
order theory (≦ ≧
)
subgroup
≤ is a subgroup of ≤ means is a subgroup of .
Z≤Z
A3 ≤ S3
≥ \le
\ge
group theory
If

reduction
is reducible to ≤ means the problem can be reduced to the problem .
computational Subscripts can be added to the ≤ to indicate what kind of reduction. then
complexity theory

congruence relation
... is less than ... is
greater than ...
10 ≡ 5 (mod 5) for 1 ≦ ≦ 10
modular arithmetic
≦ ≦ means that each component of vector is less than or equal to
≧ \leqq vector inequality each corresponding component of vector .
\geqq ... is less than or ≧ means that each component of vector is greater than or equal
equal... is greater than to each corresponding component of vector .
or equal... ≦
order theory ≤ ≠

Karp reduction
is Karp reducible to;
is polynomial-time
1 ≺ 2 means that the problem 1 is Karp reducible to 2.
[10] If 1 ≺ 2 and 2 ∈ P, then 1 ∈ P.
many-one reducible to
≺ computational
≻ \prec
\succ
complexity theory
Nondominated order
is nondominated by
≺ means that the element is nondominated by element .[11] If 1 ≺ 2 then
Multi-objective
optimization
normal subgroup
is a normal subgroup
of
◅ means that is a normal subgroup of group . Z( ) ◅
◅ group theory
▻ ideal

&#x25C5; \triangleleft is an ideal of ◅ means that is an ideal of ring . (2) ◅ Z

\triangleright ring theory
&#x25BB;
antijoin ▻ means the antijoin of the relations and , the tuples in for
the antijoin of which there is not a tuple in that is equal on their common attribute
relational algebra names.

material implication ⇒ means if is true then is also true; if is false then nothing is
⇒ implies;
said about .
= 6 ⇒ 2 − 5 = 36 − 5 = 31 is true, but
(→ ⇒
→ \Rightarrow
if ... then
)
2 − 5 = 36 −5 = 31 ⇒ = 6 is in general false (since could
⊃ \rightarrow
\supset
propositional logic, (⊃
Heyting algebra
⇒ [12]
be −6).
)

⊆ subset
is a subset of
(subset) ⊆ means every element of is also an element of .[13]
(proper subset) ⊂ means ⊆ but ≠ .
( ∩ )⊆
ℕ⊂ℚ
⊂ \subseteq
\subset set theory ( ⊂ ⊆.) ℚ⊂ℝ

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⊇ superset
is a superset of
⊇
⊃
means every element of is also an element of .
means ⊇ but ≠ .
( ∪ )⊇
⊃ \supseteq
\supset set theory ( ⊃ ⊇)
ℝ⊃ℚ

compact embedding
is compactly contained
\Subset
in
⋐ means the closure of is a compact subset of .

set theory
function arrow
→ \to from ... to : → means the function maps the set into the set . Let : ℤ → ℕ ∪ {0} be defined by ( ) := 2.
set theory, type theory
function arrow
↦ \mapsto maps to : ↦ means the function maps the element to the element . Let : ↦ + 1 (the successor function).
set theory

Converse implication ← means that for the propositions and , if implies , then is
the converse implication of . to the element . This reads as "a if b",
← \leftarrow
.. if ..
or "not b without a". It is not to be confused with the assignment
logic operator in computer science.

subtype
is a subtype of 1 <: 2 means that 1 is a subtype of 2. If <: and <: then <: (transitivity).
<: type theory
<· cover
{1, 8} <• {1, 3, 8} among the subsets of {1, 2, ..., 10}
is covered by <• means that is covered by . ordered by containment.
order theory
entailment
⊧ means the sentence entails the sentence , that is in every
⊧ \vDash
entails
model in which is true, is also true.
⊧ ∨¬
model theory
inference
infers;
is derived from ⊢ means is derivable from . → ⊢¬ →¬
propositional logic,
⊢ \vdash predicate logic
partition
is a partition of ⊢ means that is a partition of . (4,3,1,1) ⊢ 9,
number theory
bra vector
⟨ | means the dual of the vector | ⟩, a linear functional which maps a
⟨| \langle
the bra ...;
the dual of ... ket | ⟩ onto the inner product ⟨ | ⟩.
Dirac notation
ket vector
the ket ...; A qubit's state can be represented as |0⟩+ |1⟩, where and
|⟩ \rangle the vector ... | ⟩ means the vector with label , which is in a Hilbert space.
are complex numbers s.t. | |2 + | |2 = 1.
Dirac notation

Brackets

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Name
Symbol Symbol
Read as Explanation Examples
in HTML in TeX
Category

combination;
binomial means (in the case of = positive integer) the number of
coefficient combinations of elements drawn from a set of elements.
{\ \choose\ } choose
combinatorics ( C( , ), C( ; ), , C , or

.)

multiset
coefficient
\left(\!\!{\
\choose\ multichoose (when is positive integer)
}\!\!\right) combinatorics means reverse or rising binomial coefficient.

means the function is defined as if

piecewise- the condition holds, or as if the condition holds.
defined
function; (The body of a piecewise-defined function can have any finite
pattern number (not only just two) expression-condition pairs.)
matching;
\left\{ Switch This symbol is also used in type theory for pattern matching the
\begin{array}{lr} statement constructor of the value of an algebraic type. For example
\ldots \\ \ldots is defined as
\end{array} ... if ..., or as does pattern matching on
\right. ... if ...;
match ... with the function's arguments and means that is defined as ,
and is defined as .
everywhere
(A pattern matching can have any finite number (not only just
two) pattern-expression pairs.)
absolute |3| = 3
value;
modulus |–5| = |5| = 5
| | means the distance along the real line (or across the
absolute
complex plane) between and zero.
value of; | |=1
modulus of
numbers |3+4 |=5
Euclidean
norm or
Euclidean
length or For x = (3,−4)
magnitude |x| means the (Euclidean) length of vector x.
|...| | \ldots | \!\,
Euclidean
norm of
geometry
determinant
determinant
| | means the determinant of the matrix
of
matrix theory
cardinality
cardinality of; | | means the cardinality of the set .
size of; |{3, 5, 7, 9}| = 4.
order of (# )
set theory
norm
norm of; ǁ ǁ means the norm of the element of a normed vector
ǁ + ǁ≤ǁ ǁ+ǁ ǁ
length of space.[14]
linear algebra

ǁ...ǁ nearest
\| \ldots \| \!\, integer
function ǁ ǁ means the nearest integer to .
ǁ1ǁ = 1, ǁ1.6ǁ = 2, ǁ−2.4ǁ = −2, ǁ3.49ǁ = 3
nearest
( [ ], ⌊ ⌉, nint( ) Round( ).)
integer to
numbers
set brackets
{,} {\{\ ,\!\ \}} the set of ... { , , } means the set consisting of , , and .[15] ℕ = { 1, 2, 3, ... }
\!\, set theory

{:} \{\ :\ \} \!\, set builder

notation
{ : ( )} means the set of all for which ( ) is true.[15] { |
{|} \{\ |\ \} \!\,
the set of ...
( )} is the same as { : ( )}.
{ ∈ℕ: 2 < 20} = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }
such that
set theory
{;} \{\ ;\ \} \!\,
floor
floor; ⌊ ⌋ means the floor of , i.e. the largest integer less than or
⌊...⌋ \lfloor \ldots
greatest
integer;
equal to .
⌊4⌋ = 4, ⌊2.1⌋ = 2, ⌊2.9⌋ = 2, ⌊−2.6⌋ = −3
\rfloor \!\,
entier ( [ ], floor( ) int( ).)
numbers

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ceiling ⌈ ⌉ means the ceiling of , i.e. the smallest integer greater than
⌈...⌉ \lceil \ldots ceiling or equal to .
⌈4⌉ = 4, ⌈2.1⌉ = 3, ⌈2.9⌉ = 3, ⌈−2.6⌉ = −2
\rceil \!\, numbers ( ceil( ) ceiling( ).)
nearest
integer
function ⌊ ⌉ means the nearest integer to .
⌊...⌉ \lfloor \ldots
nearest ⌊2⌉ = 2, ⌊2.6⌉ = 3, ⌊−3.4⌉ = −3, ⌊4.49⌉ = 4
\rceil \!\, ( [ ], || ||, nint( ) Round( ).)
integer to
numbers
degree of a [ℚ(√2) : ℚ] = 2
field
[:] [\ :\ ] \!\,
extension [ : ] means the degree of the extension : . [ℂ : ℝ] = 2
the degree of
field theory [ℝ : ℚ] = ∞
equivalence
class
[ ] means the equivalence class of , i.e. { : ~ }, where ~ is Let ~ be true iff ≡ (mod 5).
the
an equivalence relation.
equivalence Then [2] = {..., −8, −3, 2, 7, ...}.
class of
[ ] means the same, but with as the equivalence relation.
abstract
algebra
floor [ ] means the floor of , i.e. the largest integer less than or
floor; equal to .
greatest
[3] = 3, [3.5] = 3, [3.99] = 3, [−3.7] = −4
integer; ( ⌊ ⌋, floor( ) int( ).
entier
numbers )
nearest
integer [ ] means the nearest integer to .
function
[2] = 2, [2.6] = 3, [−3.4] = −3, [4.49] = 4
nearest ( ⌊ ⌉, || ||, nint( ) Round( ).
integer to )
numbers
Iverson
bracket
1 if true, 0
[] [\ ] \!\, otherwise
[ ] maps a true statement to 1 and a false statement to 0. [0=5]=0, [7>0]=1, [2 ∈ {2,3,4}]=1, [5 ∈ {2,3,4}]=0
propositional
[,] logic
[\ ,\ ] \!\, [ ] means { ( ) : ∈ }, the image of the function under the
image
set ⊆ dom( ).
[,,] image of ...
under ... ( ( )
everywhere .
Im , )
closed
interval
closed . 0 and 1/2 are in the interval [0,1].
interval
order theory
commutator
the
[ , ]= −1 −1 (or −1 −1), if , ∈ (a group). = [ , ] (group theory).
commutator
of
[ , ]= − , if , ∈ (a ring or commutative algebra). [ , ]= [ , ] + [ , ] (ring theory).
group theory,
ring theory
triple scalar
product
the triple
scalar [a, b, c] = a × b · c, the scalar product of a × b with c. [a, b, c] = [b, c, a] = [c, a, b].
product of
vector
calculus
function
application
( ) means the value of the function at the element . If ( ) := 2 − 5, then (6) = 62 − 5 = 36 − 5=31.
of
set theory
( ) means { ( ) : ∈ }, the image of the function under the
image
set ⊆ dom( ).
image of ...
under ... ( [ ]
everywhere .
Im , )
precedence
() (\ ) \!\, grouping
Perform the operations inside the parentheses first. (8/4)/2 = 2/2 = 1, but 8/(4/2) = 8/2 = 4.
parentheses

(,) (\ ,\ ) \!\,
everywhere
tuple An ordered list (or sequence, or horizontal vector, or row
tuple; -tuple; vector) of values. ( , ) is an ordered pair (or 2-tuple).
ordered ( ( , ) ( , , ) is an ordered triple (or 3-tuple).
pair/triple/etc;
row vector; ( ) is the empty tuple (or 0-tuple).
sequence ⟨⟩ )
everywhere
highest
common ( , ) means the highest common factor of and .
factor (3, 7) = 1 (they are coprime); (15, 25) = 5.
highest ( hcf( , ) gcd( , ).)

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common
factor;
greatest
common
divisor; hcf;
gcd
number
theory
.
(,) (\ ,\ ) \!\,(\ ,\ open interval
) \!\,
( ( , ) 4 is not in the interval (4, 18).
open interval ] , [ (0, +∞) equals the set of positive real numbers.
],[ order theory )
]\ ,\ [ \!\,]
left-open
interval
(,] (\ ,\ ] \!\, half-open
interval; . (−1, 7] and (−∞, −1]
left-open
],] \ ,\ ] \!\,] interval
order theory
right-open
interval
[,) [\ ,\ ) \!\, half-open
interval; . [4, 18) and [1, +∞)
right-open
[,[ [\ ,\ [ \!\, interval
order theory
⟨ , ⟩ means the inner product of and , where and are
members of an inner product space.

⟨ , ⟩
inner product
inner product The standard inner product between two vectors = (2, 3) and = (−1, 5) is:
of ⟨ | ⟩ ( | ⟨x, y⟩ = 2 × −1 + 3 × 5 = 13
linear algebra ),
, ·
: ⟨ ⟩
< >

for a time series : ( ) ( = 1, 2,...)

average we can define the structure functions ( ):
let S be a subset of N for example, represents the average
average of
of all the elements in S.
statistics

For a single discrete variable of a function , the

expectation expectation value of is defined as
value
, and for a single continuous variable
the
expectation
the expectation value of is defined as
value of
⟨⟩ \langle\ \rangle
\!\, probability ; where is the PDF of the variable
theory
. [16]

⟨,⟩ \langle\ ,\ ⟨ ⟩ means the span of ⊆ . That is, it is the intersection of all
\rangle \!\, subspaces of which contain .
⟨ 1, 2, ...⟩ is shorthand for ⟨{ 1, 2, ...}⟩.
linear span
(linear) span
of; ⟨ , ⟩ .
linear hull of
linear algebra

Sp( ).

subgroup
generated by
a set means the smallest subgroup of (where ⊆ , a group)
In S3, and .
the subgroup containing every element of .
generated by is shorthand for .
group theory
tuple
is an ordered pair (or 2-tuple).
tuple; -tuple; An ordered list (or sequence, or horizontal vector, or row
ordered vector) of values. is an ordered triple (or 3-tuple).
pair/triple/etc;
row vector; ( ( , ) )
is the empty tuple (or 0-tuple).
sequence
everywhere
⟨ | ⟩ means the inner product of and , where and are
members of an inner product space.[17] ( | ) means the same.
⟨|⟩ \langle\ |\ inner product
⟨ , ⟩
\rangle \!\, inner product
of , ·
:
(|) linear algebra
⟨ ⟩
(\ |\ ) \!\,
< >

Other non-letter symbols

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Name
Symbol Symbol
Read as Explanation Examples
in HTML in TeX
Category
convolution
convolution;
convolved with ∗ means the convolution of and . .
functional
analysis
complex
∗ means the complex conjugate of .
conjugate
conjugate .
(
complex )
numbers
group of units ∗ consists of the set of units of the ring , along with the
the group of operation of multiplication.
units of
× U( ).
ring theory
hyperreal
* numbers
the (set of) ∗R means the set of hyperreal numbers. Other sets can be
∗N is the hypernatural numbers.
hyperreals used in place of R.
non-standard
analysis
Hodge star
operator ∗ means the Hodge dual of a vector . If is a -vector
If are the standard basis vectors of ,
Hodge star; within an -dimensional oriented quadratic space, then ∗ is
Hodge dual an ( − )-vector.
linear algebra
Kleene star
Corresponds to the usage of * in regular expressions. If ∑ is
Kleene star If ∑ = ('a', 'b', 'c') then ∑* includes '', 'a', 'ab', 'aba', 'abac',
a set of strings, then ∑* is the set of all strings that can be
computer etc. The full set cannot be enumerated here since it is
created by concatenating members of ∑. The same string
science, countably infinite, but each individual string must have
can be used multiple times, and the empty string is also a
mathematical finite length.
member of ∑*.
logic
proportionality
is proportional
to; ∝ means that = for some constant . if = 2 , then ∝ .
varies as
everywhere
Karp
reduction[18]
∝ \propto \!\, is Karp reducible
to;
is polynomial- ∝ means the problem can be polynomially reduced to
If 1 ∝ 2 and 2 ∈ P, then 1 ∈ P.
time many-one the problem .
reducible to
computational
complexity
theory
set-theoretic
complement ∖ means the set that contains all those elements of
minus; that are not in .[13]
∖ \setminus
without; {1,2,3,4} ∖ {3,4,5,6} = {1,2}
throw out; (−
not )
set theory
conditional
event P( | ) means the probability of the event occurring given if X is a uniformly random day of the year P(X is May 25 |
given that occurs. X is in May) = 1/31
probability
restriction
restriction of ... 2
| means the function is restricted to the set , that is, it is The function : R → R defined by ( ) = is not injective,
| to ...;
the function with domain ∩ dom( ) that agrees with . but |R+ is injective.
restricted to
set theory
such that
S = {(x,y) | 0 < y < f(x)}
such that;
| means "such that", see ":" ( ). The set of (x,y) such that y is greater than 0 and less than
so that
f(x).
everywhere
∣ means divides .
∣ \mid divisor, divides ∤ means does not divide .
divides Since 15 = 3 × 5, it is true that 3 ∣ 15 and 5 ∣ 15.
( ∣
∤ \nmid
number theory
|
)
exact divisibility
∣∣ ∣∣ means exactly divides (i.e. divides but +1
exactly divides 2 ∣∣ 360.
\mid\mid does not).
number theory

∥ ∥ means is parallel to .
\| ∦ means is not parallel to .
Requires the viewer to support parallel
⋕ means is equal and parallel to .
∦ Unicode: \unicode{x2225},
\unicode{x2226}, and
is parallel to If ∥ and ⊥ then ⊥ .
geometry ( ∥
\unicode{x22D5}.
||
⋕ \mathrel{\rlap{\,\parallel}}
)

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incomparability
requires
is incomparable
\setmathfont{MathJax}.[19] to ∥ means is incomparable to . {1,2} ∥ {2,3} under set containment.
order theory
cardinality
cardinality of; # means the cardinality of the set .
size of; #{4, 6, 8} = 3
order of (|...| )
set theory
connected sum
connected sum
of;
# \sharp knot sum of;
# is the connected sum of the manifolds and . If and
# is homeomorphic to , for any manifold , and the
are knots, then this denotes the knot sum, which has a
knot sphere .
slightly stronger condition.
composition of
topology, knot
theory
primorial
primorial # is product of all prime numbers less than or equal to . 12# = 2 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 11 = 2310
number theory
such that
such that; : means "such that", and is used in proofs and the set-
so that builder notation ( ). ∃ ∈ ℕ: is even.
everywhere
field extension
: means the field extends the field .
extends;
ℝ:ℚ
over
≥ .
field theory
: means the Frobenius inner product of the matrices
inner product of and .
matrices
: inner product of ⟨ , ⟩, ⟨ | ⟩ ( |
linear algebra ),
, · See also bra–ket notation.
index of a
subgroup The index of a subgroup in a group is the "relative size"
index of of in : equivalently, the number of "copies" (cosets) of
subgroup that fill up
group theory
division
divided by
: means the division of with (dividing by ) 10 : 2 = 5
over
everywhere
vertical ellipsis Denotes that certain constants and terms are missing out
⋮ \vdots \!\,
vertical ellipsis (e.g. for clarity) and that only the important terms are being
everywhere listed.
wreath product ≀ means the wreath product of the group by the group
≀ \wr \!\,
wreath product
of ... by ...
. is isomorphic to the automorphism group of the
complete bipartite graph on ( , ) vertices.
group theory wr .

\blitza
\lighting: requires
\usepackage{stmaryd}.[20]
\smashtimes requires
\usepackage{unicode-math} and
\setmathfont{XITS Math} or
another Open Type Math
x+4=x−3※
Font.[21]
↯ [2]
downwards
zigzag arrow Statement: Every finite, non-empty, ordered set has a
⨳ \Rightarrow\Leftarrow
contradiction; Denotes that contradictory statements have been inferred.
largest element. Otherwise, let's assume that is a finite,
non-empty, ordered set with no largest element. Then, for
this contradicts For clarity, the exact point of contradiction can be appended. some , there exists an with , but
that
⇒⇐ [2] everywhere
then there's also an
Thus,
with , and so on.
are distinct elements in . ↯ is
\bot finite.

[2]

\nleftrightarrow

\textreferencemark[2]
Contradiction![2]

exclusive or
xor
The statement ⊕ is true when either A or B, but not
propositional both, are true. (¬ ) ⊕ is always true, ⊕ is always false.
⊻ means the same.
⊕ \oplus \!\,
logic, Boolean
algebra

⊻
The direct sum is a special way of combining several objects
\veebar \!\, direct sum into one general object. Most commonly, for vector spaces , , and , the
direct sum of following consequence is used:
abstract algebra ( ⊕, ∐ is used; ⊻ is = ⊕ ⇔ ( = + ) ∧ ( ∩ = {0})
only for logic.)
Kulkarni– Derived from the tensor product of two symmetric type (0,2)
Nomizu product tensors; it has the algebraic symmetries of the Riemann
{~\wedge\!\!\!\!\!\!\bigcirc~} Kulkarni– tensor. has components

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Nomizu product
.
tensor algebra
D'Alembertian;
wave operator It is the generalisation of the Laplace operator in the sense
that it is the differential operator which is invariant under the
□ \Box \!\
non-Euclidean
isometry group of the underlying space and it reduces to the
Laplacian
Laplace operator if restricted to time independent functions.
vector calculus

Letter-based symbols
Includes upside-down letters.

Letter modifiers
Also called diacritics.

Name
Symbol Symbol
in HTML
Read as Explanation Examples
in TeX
Category
mean
overbar; (often read as "x bar") is the mean (average value
.
... bar of ).
statistics
finite sequence,
tuple
finite sequence, means the finite sequence/tuple . .
tuple
model theory
algebraic closure
algebraic closure The field of algebraic numbers is sometimes denoted as because it
of is the algebraic closure of the field .
\bar{a} is the algebraic closure of the rational numbers .
field theory
complex
conjugate means the complex conjugate of .
conjugate ∗ .
(
complex )
numbers
topological
closure
is the topological closure of the set .
(topological) In the space of the real numbers, (the rational numbers are
closure of dense in the real numbers).
cl( ) Cl( ).
topology
vector
harpoon
\overset{\rightharpoonup}{a}
linear algebra
unit vector
(pronounced "a hat") is the normalized version of
hat
vector , having length 1.
geometry
â \hat a estimator
The estimator produces a sample estimate for the
estimator for is the estimator or the estimate for the parameter .
statistics mean .

derivative ′( ) means the derivative of the function at the point

, i.e., the slope of the tangent to at .
... prime;
′ ' derivative of
If ( ) := 2, then ′( ) = 2 .
( '
calculus )
derivative
means the derivative of with respect to time. That
• ... dot;
If ( ) := 2, then .
\dot{\,} time derivative of is .
calculus

Symbols based on Latin letters

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List of mathematical symbols - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_symbols

Name

Read as
Symbol Symbol
Category Explanation Examples
in HTML in TeX

universal quantification
for all;
∀ \forall
for any;
for each;
∀ , ( ) means ( ) is true for all . ∀ ∈ ℕ, 2 ≥ .
for every
predicate logic
boolean domain
𝔹 \mathbb{B} B;
the (set of) boolean values; 𝔹 means either {0, 1}, {false, true}, {F, T}, or . (¬ )∈𝔹
the (set of) truth values;
B \mathbf{B} set theory, boolean algebra

ℂ \mathbb{C}
complex numbers
C;
the (set of) complex numbers
ℂ means { + : , ∈ ℝ}. = √−1 ∈ ℂ
C \mathbf{C} numbers

cardinality of the continuum

cardinality of the continuum;
𝔠
The cardinality of is denoted by or by the symbol (a lowercase Fraktur
\mathfrak c c;
cardinality of the real numbers letter C).
set theory
partial derivative
partial; ∂ /∂ means the partial derivative of with respect to , where is a function on 2
If ( , ) := , then ∂ /∂ = 2 ,
d ( 1, ..., ).
calculus
boundary
∂ \partial boundary of ∂ means the boundary of ∂{ : || || ≤ 2} = { : || || = 2}
topology
degree of a polynomial ∂ means the degree of the polynomial .
degree of ∂( 2 − 1) = 2
algebra ( deg .)

𝔼 \mathbb E expected value the value of a random variable one would "expect" to find if one could repeat the
expected value random variable process an infinite number of times and take the average of the
E probability theory values obtained
\mathrm{E}
existential quantification
there exists;
∃ \exists
there is; ∃ : ( ) means there is at least one such that ( ) is true. ∃ ∈ ℕ: is even.
there are
predicate logic
uniqueness quantification
∃! \exists!
there exists exactly one ∃! : ( ) means there is exactly one such that ( ) is true. ∃! ∈ ℕ: +5=2 .
predicate logic

∈ \in
set membership
(1/2)−1 ∈ ℕ
is an element of; ∈ means is an element of the set ;[15] ∉ means is not an element
is not an element of of .[15]
∉ \notin everywhere, set theory
2−1 ∉ ℕ

set membership
∌ \not\ni
does not contain as an element ∌ means the same thing as
of .
∉ , where is a set and is not an element
set theory

such that symbol often abbreviated as "s.t."; : and | are also used to abbreviate "such that". The
use of ∋ goes back to early mathematical logic and its usage in this sense is Choose ∋ 2| and 3| . (Here | is used in
such that
declining. The symbol ("back epsilon") is sometimes specifically used for "such the sense of "divides".)
mathematical logic
∋ \ni
that" to avoid confusion with set membership.
set membership
∋ means the same thing as ∈ , where is a set and is an element of
contains as an element
.
set theory
quaternions or Hamiltonian
ℍ \mathbb{H} quaternions
H; ℍ means { + i+ j+ k : , , , ∈ ℝ}.
the (set of) quaternions
H \mathbf{H} numbers
N means either { 0, 1, 2, 3, ...} or { 1, 2, 3, ...}.

ℕ \mathbb{N} natural numbers

the (set of) natural numbers ℕ = {| | : ∈ ℤ} or ℕ = {| | > 0: ∈ ℤ}
N.
N \mathbf{N}
numbers
ω
≤.
Hadamard product For two matrices (or vectors) of the same dimensions the
○ \circ
entrywise product Hadamard product is a matrix of the same dimensions with
linear algebra elements given by .

function composition
∘ \circ composed with ∘ is the function such that ( ∘ )( ) = ( ( )).[22]
if ( ) := 2 , and ( ) :=
= 2( + 3).
+ 3, then ( ∘ )( )

set theory

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Big O notation
big-oh of The Big O notation describes the limiting behavior of a function, when the If f(x) = 6x4 − 2x3 + 5 and g(x) = x4, then
O O Computational complexity argument tends towards a particular value or infinity.
theory

∅ \emptyset empty set

the empty set null set ∅ means the set with no elements.[15] { } means the same. { ∈ℕ:1< 2 < 4} = ∅
\varnothing
{} set theory

\{\}
set of primes
P;
ℙ is often used to denote the set of prime numbers.
the set of prime numbers
arithmetic
projective space
P;
the projective space;
ℙ means a space with a point at infinity. ,
the projective line;
ℙ \mathbb{P} the projective plane
topology

P \mathbf{P}
probability
the probability of
probability theory
ℙ( ) means the probability of the event occurring.
If a fair coin is flipped, ℙ(Heads) = ℙ(Tails) =
0.5.
P( ), Pr( ), P[ ] or Pr[ ].

The power set P({0, 1, 2}) is the set of all

Given a set , the power set of is the set of all subsets of the set . The subsets of {0, 1, 2}. Hence,
Power set
power set of 0 is
the Power set of P({0, 1, 2}) = {∅, {0}, {1}, {2}, {0, 1}, {0, 2},
denoted by P( ).
Powerset {1, 2}, {0, 1, 2} }.

rational numbers 3.14000... ∈ ℚ

ℚ \mathbb{Q} Q;
the (set of) rational numbers; ℚ means { / : ∈ ℤ, ∈ ℕ}. π∉ℚ
the rationals
Q \mathbf{Q} numbers

real numbers π∈ℝ

ℝ \mathbb{R} R;
the (set of) real numbers; ℝ means the set of real numbers. √(−1) ∉ ℝ
the reals
R \mathbf{R} numbers
conjugate transpose
conjugate transpose; † means the transpose of the complex conjugate of .[23]
† adjoint; †
If = ( ) then = ( ).
{}^\dagger Hermitian adjoint/conjugate ∗T, T∗, ∗, T T.
/transpose/dagger
matrix operations
transpose T means , but with its rows swapped for columns.
T transpose If = ( ) then T = ( ).
{}^{\mathsf{T}} t tr.
matrix operations ′,
top element
the top element ⊤ means the largest element of a lattice. ∀ : ∨⊤=⊤
lattice theory
⊤ \top top type
⊤ means the top or universal type; every type in the type system of interest is a
the top type; top ∀ types , <: ⊤
subtype of top.
type theory
perpendicular
is perpendicular to ⊥ means is perpendicular to ; or more generally is orthogonal to . If ⊥ and ⊥ in the plane, then || .
geometry
orthogonal complement
orthogonal/ perpendicular ⊥ means the orthogonal complement of (where is a subspace of the
complement of; inner product space ), the set of all vectors in orthogonal to every vector in Within , .
perp .
linear algebra
coprime
is coprime to ⊥ means has no factor greater than 1 in common with . 34 ⊥ 55
number theory

independent ⊥ means is an event whose probability is independent of event . The

double perpendicular symbol ( ) is also commonly used for the purpose of
⊥ \bot
is independent of
denoting this, for instance: (In LaTeX, the command is: "A \perp\!
If ⊥ , then P( | ) = P( ).
probability \!\!\perp B".)

bottom element
the bottom element ⊥ means the smallest element of a lattice. ∀ : ∧⊥=⊥
lattice theory
bottom type
the bottom type; ⊥ means the bottom type (a.k.a. the zero type or empty type); bottom is the
bot ∀ types , ⊥ <:
subtype of every type in the type system.
type theory

comparability { , } ⊥ {1, 2, , 3, } under set

containment.
is comparable to ⊥ means that is comparable to .
order theory

𝕌 \mathbb{U}
all numbers being considered
U;
𝕌 means "the set of all elements being considered."
It may represent all numbers both real and complex, or any subset of these—
𝕌 = {ℝ,ℂ} includes all numbers.

the universal set;

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the set of all numbers;

all numbers considered hence the term "universal". If instead, 𝕌 = {ℤ,ℂ}, then π ∉ 𝕌.
U \mathbf{U} set theory
set-theoretic union

∪ \cup
the union of ... or ...;
union
∪ means the set of those elements which are either in , or in , or in
both.[13]
⊆ ⇔( ∪ )=
set theory
set-theoretic intersection
intersected with; ∩ means the set that contains all those elements that and have in
∩ \cap intersect common.[13]
{ ∈ℝ: 2 = 1} ∩ ℕ = {1}
set theory
logical disjunction or join in a
lattice The statement ∨ is true if or (or both) are true; if both are false, the
∨ \lor
or;
max;
statement is false. ≥4∨ ≤2⇔
number.
≠ 3 when is a natural

join For functions (x) and (x), (x) ∨ (x) is used to mean max(A(x), B(x)).
propositional logic, lattice theory
logical conjunction or meet in a
lattice
The statement ∧ is true if and are both true; else it is false.
and; <4∧ >2⇔ = 3 when is a natural
min; number.
meet For functions (x) and (x), (x) ∧ (x) is used to mean min(A(x), B(x)).
∧ \land propositional logic, lattice theory
wedge product
∧ means the wedge product of any multivectors and . In three-
wedge product;
exterior product dimensional Euclidean space the wedge product and the cross product of two
vectors are each other's Hodge dual.
exterior algebra
multiplication 3 × 4 means the multiplication of 3 by 4.
times;
7 × 8 = 56
multiplied by ( *
arithmetic )
Cartesian product
the Cartesian product of ... and
× means the set of all ordered pairs with the first element of each pair
...; {1,2} × {3,4} = {(1,3),(1,4),(2,3),(2,4)}
selected from X and the second element selected from Y.
the direct product of ... and ...
× \times set theory
cross product
(1,2,5) × (3,4,−1) =
cross u × v means the cross product of vectors u and v
(−22, 16, − 2)
linear algebra
× consists of the set of units of the ring , along with the operation of
group of units
multiplication.
the group of units of
ring theory ∗ U( ).
tensor product, tensor product
of modules
⊗ \otimes tensor product of
means the tensor product of and .[24]
product of modules and over the ring .
means the tensor {1, 2, 3, 4} ⊗ {1, 1, 2} =
{{1, 1, 2}, {2, 2, 4}, {3, 3, 6}, {4, 4, 8}}
linear algebra

semidirect product ⋊φ is the semidirect product of (a normal subgroup) and (a subgroup),

with respect to φ. Also, if = ⋊φ , then is said to split over .
⋉ \ltimes
the semidirect product of
group theory
(⋊ ⋉, ×.)

⋊ \rtimes
semijoin
⋉ is the semijoin of the relations and , the set of all tuples in for which
the semijoin of = ,.., ( )
there is a tuple in that is equal on their common attribute names.
relational algebra
natural join
⋈ \bowtie
the natural join of ⋈ is the natural join of the relations and , the set of all combinations of
tuples in and that are equal on their common attribute names.
relational algebra
ℤ means {..., −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}.
ℤ+ or ℤ> means {1, 2, 3, ...} .
ℤ \mathbb{Z} integers
ℤ≥ means {0, 1, 2, 3, ...} .
the (set of) integers ℤ={ ,− : ∈ ℕ ∪ {0}}
* [25] and others to mean {... -2,
Z numbers ℤ is used by some authors to mean {0, 1, 2, 3, ...}
\mathbf{Z} -1, 1, 2, 3, ... }[26] .

ℤ integers mod ℤ means {[0], [1], [2], ...[ −1]} with addition and multiplication modulo .
\mathbb{Z}_n
the (set of) integers modulo ℤ3 = {[0], [1], [2]}
, .
ℤ numbers ℤ/ ℤ ℤ/( )
\mathbb{Z}_p

Z \mathbf{Z}_n -adic integers

the (set of) -adic integers
Z numbers , .

Symbols based on Hebrew or Greek letters

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Name
Symbol Symbol
Read as Explanation Examples
in HTML in TeX
Category
aleph number
ℵ represents an infinite cardinality (specifically, the -th one, where is
ℵ \aleph
aleph
an ordinal).
|ℕ| = ℵ0, which is called aleph-null.
set theory
beth number
ℶ represents an infinite cardinality (similar to ℵ, but ℶ does not
ℶ \beth
beth
necessarily index all of the numbers indexed by ℵ. ).
set theory
Dirac delta
function
( )
Dirac delta of
hyperfunction
Kronecker
delta
Kronecker
delta of
δ \delta hyperfunction

Functional
derivative
Functional
derivative of
Differential
operators

∆ \vartriangle symmetric
difference ∆ (or ⊖ ) means the set of elements in exactly one of or . {1,5,6,8} ∆ {2,5,8} = {1,2,6}
⊖ \ominus symmetric
difference ( , Δ, ) {3,4,5,6} ⊖ {1,2,5,6} = {1,2,3,4}
set theory
⊕ \oplus
delta Δ means a (non-infinitesimal) change in .
delta;
is the gradient of a straight line.
change in ( ,δ d
calculus ∆, )
Δ \Delta Laplacian
Laplace If is a twice-differentiable real-valued function, then the Laplacian of
The Laplace operator is a second order differential operator in
operator
n-dimensional Euclidean space is defined by
vector
calculus
gradient
del;
nabla;
∇ (x1, ..., x ) is the vector of partial derivatives ( / 1, ..., / ). If ( , , ) := 3 + ², then ∇ = (3 , 3 , 2 )
gradient of
vector
calculus
divergence

∇
del dot;
\nabla divergence of If , then .
vector
calculus

curl
curl of
If , then .
vector
calculus

Pi
pi; Used in various formulas involving circles; π is equivalent to the amount
3.1415926...; of area a circle would take up in a square of equal width with an area of 4
A = πR2 = 314.16 → R = 10
≈355÷113 square units, roughly 3.14159. It is also the ratio of the circumference to
mathematical the diameter of a circle.
constant
projection
Projection of restricts to the attribute set.
π \pi relational
algebra
Homotopy
group
the th consists of homotopy equivalence classes of base point
Homotopy preserving maps from an n-dimensional sphere (with base point) into the
group of pointed space X.
Homotopy
theory
product
product over
... from ... to ... means .
of
arithmetic

∏ \prod
Cartesian
product
means the set of all (n+1)-tuples
the Cartesian
product of;
the direct ( 0, ..., ).
product of

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set theory
coproduct
A general construction which subsumes the disjoint union of sets and of
coproduct
topological spaces, the free product of groups, and the direct sum of
∐ \coprod
over ... from ...
to ... of
modules and vector spaces. The coproduct of a family of objects is
essentially the "least specific" object to which each object in the family
category admits a morphism.
theory
selection
The selection selects all those tuples in for which holds
Selection of
σ \sigma between the and the attribute. The selection selects all those
relational tuples in for which holds between the attribute and the value .
algebra
summation
sum over ...
∑ \sum from ... to ... of
means .

arithmetic

Variations
In mathematics written in Persian or Arabic, some symbols may be reversed to make right-to-left writing and reading easier.[27]

See also
Greek letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering
List of letters used in mathematics and science
List of common physics notations
Diacritic
ISO 31-11 (Mathematical signs and symbols for use in physical sciences and technology)
Latin letters used in mathematics
List of mathematical abbreviations
List of mathematical symbols by subject
Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols (Unicode block)
Mathematical constants and functions
Mathematical notation
Mathematical operators and symbols in Unicode
Notation in probability and statistics
Physical constants
Table of logic symbols
Table of mathematical symbols by introduction date
Typographical conventions in mathematical formulae
APL syntax and symbols

References
14. Nielsen, Michael A; Chuang, Isaac L (2000), ,
1. "LaTeX/Mathematics" (https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/LaTeX/Mathematics). . Retrieved
New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 66, ISBN 0-521-63503-9, OCLC 43641333
18 November 2017.
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/43641333)
2. "The Comprehensive LATEX Symbol List" (http://www.math.boun.edu.tr/instructors/gurel
15. Goldrei, Derek (1996), , London: Chapman and Hall, p. 3,
/symbols-a4.pdf) (PDF). p. 15. Retrieved 16 November 2017. "Because of the lack of
ISBN 0-412-60610-0
notational consensus, it is probably better to spell out “Contradiction!” than to use a symbol for
this purpose." 16. "Expectation Value" (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ExpectationValue.html).
. Retrieved 2017-12-02. External link in |website= (help)
3. Cook, John. "Unicode / LaTeX conversion" (https://www.johndcook.com/unicode_latex.html).
. Retrieved 18 November 2017. 17. Nielsen, Michael A; Chuang, Isaac L (2000), ,
New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 62, ISBN 0-521-63503-9, OCLC 43641333
4. "LaTeX/Special Characters" (https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/LaTeX/Special_Characters).
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/43641333)
. Retrieved 18 November 2017.
18. Berman, Kenneth A; Paul, Jerome L. (2005), ,
5. "\unicode - Tex Command" (https://web.archive.org/web/20171201034818/https:
Boston: Course Technology, p. 822, ISBN 0-534-42057-5
//tutorialsbay.org/tex_commands/unicode.html). . Retrieved 18 November 2017.
19. "Parallel Symbol in TeX" (https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/mathjax-users/r7rO-PDQtqc
6. "Unicode characters in pdflatex output using hexcode without UTF-8 input"
/gllzD-NtOI0J). . Retrieved 16 November 2017.
(https://tex.stackexchange.com/questions/89796/unicode-characters-in-pdflatex-output-using-
hexcode-without-utf-8-input). . Retrieved 18 November 2017. 20. "Math symbols defined by LaTeX package «stmaryrd»" (http://milde.users.sourceforge.net
/LUCR/Math/mathpackages/stmaryrd-symbols.pdf) (PDF). Retrieved 16 November 2017.
7. "fontenc vs inputenc" (https://tex.stackexchange.com/questions/44694/fontenc-vs-
inputenc#44699). . Retrieved 18 November 2017. 21. "Answer to Is there a "contradiction" symbol in some font, somewhere?"
(https://tex.stackexchange.com/questions/28192/is-there-a-contradiction-symbol-in-some-font-
8. "pdflatex crashes when Latex code includes \unicode{f818} and \unicode{f817} and how to
somewhere/28201#28201). . Retrieved 16 November 2017.
handle it" (https://tex.stackexchange.com/questions/192626/pdflatex-crashes-when-latex-code-
includes-unicodef818-and-unicodef817-and). . Retrieved 18 November 22. Goldrei, Derek (1996), , London: Chapman and Hall, p. 5,
2017. ISBN 0-412-60610-0

9. "Math is Fun website" (http://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/symbols.html). 23. Nielsen, Michael A; Chuang, Isaac L (2000), ,
New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 69–70, ISBN 0-521-63503-9, OCLC 43641333
10. Rónyai, Lajos (1998), , TYPOTEX, ISBN 963-9132-16-0
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/43641333)
11. Deb, K.; Pratap, A.; Agarwal, S.; Meyarivan, T. (2002). "A fast and elitist multiobjective genetic
24. Nielsen, Michael A; Chuang, Isaac L (2000), ,
algorithm: NSGA-II". . 6 (2): 182.
New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 71–72, ISBN 0-521-63503-9, OCLC 43641333
doi:10.1109/4235.996017 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2F4235.996017).
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/43641333)
12. Copi, Irving M.; Cohen, Carl (1990) [1953], "Chapter 8.3: Conditional Statements and Material
25. Z^* from Wolfram MathWorld (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Z-Star.html)
Implication", (8th ed.), New York: Macmillan Publishers (United States),
pp. 268–269, ISBN 0-02-325035-6, LCCN 89037742 (https://lccn.loc.gov/89037742) 26. LK Turner, FJ BUdden, D Knighton, "Advanced Mathematics", Book 2, Longman 1975.

13. Goldrei, Derek (1996), , London: Chapman and Hall, p. 4, 27. M. Benatia, A. Lazrik, and K. Sami, "Arabic mathematical symbols in Unicode
ISBN 0-412-60610-0 (http://www.ucam.ac.ma/fssm/rydarab/doc/expose/unicodeme.pdf)", 27th Internationalization
and Unicode Conference, 2005.

External links
Jeff Miller: (http://jeff560.tripod.com/mathsym.html)
Numericana: (http://www.numericana.com/answer/symbol.htm)
GIF and PNG Images for Math Symbols (http://us.metamath.org/symbols/symbols.html)

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List of mathematical symbols - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_symbols

Mathematical Symbols in Unicode (https://web.archive.org/web/20070117015443/http://tlt.psu.edu/suggestions/international/bylanguage/math.html)

Using Greek and special characters from Symbol font in HTML (http://www.alanwood.net/demos/symbol.html)
DeTeXify handwritten symbol recognition (http://detexify.kirelabs.org/classify.html) — doodle a symbol in the box, and the program will tell you what its name is
Handbook for Spoken Mathematics (http://web.efzg.hr/dok/MAT/vkojic/Larrys_speakeasy.pdf) — pronunciation guide to many commonly used symbols
Some Unicode charts of mathematical operators and symbols:

Index of Unicode symbols (https://www.unicode.org/charts/#symbols)

Range 2100–214F: Unicode Letterlike Symbols (https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2100.pdf)
Range 2190–21FF: Unicode Arrows (https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2190.pdf)
Range 2200–22FF: Unicode Mathematical Operators (https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2200.pdf)
Range 27C0–27EF: Unicode Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols–A (https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U27C0.pdf)
Range 2980–29FF: Unicode Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols–B (https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2980.pdf)
Range 2A00–2AFF: Unicode Supplementary Mathematical Operators (https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2A00.pdf)
Some Unicode cross-references:

Short list of commonly used LaTeX symbols (http://www.artofproblemsolving.com/Wiki/index.php/LaTeX:Symbols) and Comprehensive LaTeX Symbol List (https://web.archive.org
/web/20090323063515/http://mirrors.med.harvard.edu/ctan/info/symbols/comprehensive/)
MathML Characters (http://www.robinlionheart.com/stds/html4/entities-mathml) - sorts out Unicode, HTML and MathML/TeX names on one page
Unicode values and MathML names (http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-MathML/chap6/bycodes.html)
Unicode values and Postscript names (http://svn.ghostscript.com/ghostscript/branches/gs-db/Resource/Decoding/Unicode) from the source code for Ghostscript

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