A

NOTES

ON

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

Department: Mechanical Engineering

Semester: Vth semester

Title of the Course: Automobile Engineering

Name of faculty: DEBABRATA PANDA

Internal Marks: 30 External Marks: 70

Credits: 3

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MODULE 1

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1.1 Introduction to Automobile Engineering:

Automobile engineering is the subject which deals with self propelled vehicle. The
name it self shows that Auto means it generates power by it self, Mobile means it can be move from
one place to other. All conventional automobile engines take the heat energy by the combustion of
fuel and it is converted into mechanical energy. For non-conventional automobile engines, electrical
energy, fuel cells, solar energy, hydrogen energy and other forms of energies are used. In some of the
vehicles combination of energies are use to run the vehicle, such vehicles are known as hybrid
vehicles.

1.2 Over view of Automobile Engineering:

Automobile Engineering broadly classified as follows:

a. Automobile power plant
b. Automobile Transmission system
c. Automobile control systems
d. Automobile electrical system
e. Automobile body engineering
f. Automobile servicing and Maintenance
g. Non-conventional Automobile vehicles

1.2.a Automobile Power Plant: This portion of the automobile engineering deals with, how the
power is developed in the Engine, and associated systems with engine, to run the engine safely and
comfortably. The important associated systems are:
i. Fuel feed system.
ii. Lubricating system.
iii. Cooling system
iv. Ignition system
the constructional details of automobile engine, engine components and the
components related to the engine associated systems also related to Automobile power plant.

1.3.b. Automobile Transmission system: This portion of automobile engineering deals with, how
the power is transferred from the engine to road wheels. While transfer the power clutch, gear box,
universal joints, propeller shaft, differential and rear axles are involved. Hence the constructional
details, working and different types of power transmission components are covered in the
Automobile transmission system.

1.3.c Automobile control system: Controlling of the total vehicle is desired to run the vehicle
properly. Direction control is done by the steering system, speed control is done by the braking
system and fluctuation control is done by the suspension system. Hence under this area steering,
braking and suspension systems, their construction details and their working are covered,

1.3.d Automobile Electrical system: Now a days heavy duty engines used in the market. If the
engine is heavy duty, obviously one can’t crank the engine manually to start. With the help of
starting motor only one can start the engine and the starting motor run by battery. The starting motor
draws very huge amount of electric current from battery at the time of starting. Battery should be
charged during the running of the vehicle. Hence the charging system is required. In the case of SI
engines one has to design the ignition system also. Hence in the automobile electrical system one can
study the staring system, charging system, ignition system, electrical accessories and electrical
lighting.

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1.3.e. Automobile Body engineering: In this area one can study the different types of automobile
bodies, their construction, stress over the body, different resistance to automobile body, body repairs
and body painting.

1.3.f Automobile servicing and maintenance: In this portion of the automobile engineering
preventive maintenance, running maintenance, Kilometer maintenance, Hourly maintenance and
Breakdown maintenance are covered. Reconditioning procedures for the engine like reboring,
honing, valve grinding, valve lapping, valve seat cutting, line boring etc. are also covered in this
area. Reconditioning of engine associated systems and transmission components also included in the
automobile servicing and maintenance.

1.3.g Non-conventional & hybrid automobile engines: In this portion one can cover the
implementation of the different alternative energy resources like solar, hydrogen, electrical etc. to
run the vehicle.

1.4 Automobile Chassis and body:

The main components of automobile vehicle are

a. Chassis
b. Body
Chassis is the structural foundation of a vehicle, to the chassis all the other
components attached. Automobile vehicle, except body is called as chassis i.e. the chassis consists of
Frame, Engine & associated systems, power transmission system, wheels and control systems like
steering, Braking and suspension systems. Chassis are classified into
 Conventional Chassis: when the engine is located beyond the driver’s cabin, it is
called as conventional control chassis. In this space is not utilized fully. But in the case of
accidents driver is in safe position.
 Semi-forward chassis: In this type, from the driver’s cabin, 50% engine beyond the
drivers cabin and remaining 50% parallel to driver’s cabin.
 Full forward Chassis: In this type engine is located completely in the drivers cabin
and parallel to the driver’s seat.

1.4.1 Components of the Chassis:

Frame:
Frame is the back bone of an automobile vehicle. It gives the support to all the
components and it has to withstand for all the static and dynamic loads. Below the frame wheels,
brakes and suspension system are connected, above the frame engine, transmission components,
steering, electrical systems and body are connected. In the frames two types are existed
1. Rigid frame
2. Integral frame

Rigid Frame: This is the frame separately prepared with low carbon alloy steel. For the heavy motor
vehicle and light motor vehicles this type of frames are preferred. Model frames are shown in the
following diagram,

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 In the rigid frames two longitudinal members and 6 to 8 cross members as per our
requirement provided. Generally the longitudinal members are in the Chanel shape, and cross
members are either I-section or channel or box type. Some of the frames are provided with the X-
member to prevent the sliding tendency of longitudinal members. All the members of frame provided
with holes to maintain the static balance as well as to reduce the unnecessary weight. The front
portion of the longitudinal members comes near when compared with rear portion to accommodate
the engine and steering system conveniently. Generally the steering system is attached to the front
wheels so that one has to give the proper clearance for the maximum steering angle, it is provided in
the front of the frame. Suspension brackets are provided at front and rear portion of the frame to
connect the suspension system. cross members gives the support to the Clutch housing , gearbox,
Universal joints and other accessories. Depending on the requirement and type of vehicle the design
of frame will vary.

Integral frame: The integral frame, Integral with the body of the vehicle. Generally this type frames
are preferred for the cars which carries low weight. In the integral frames lower panel and upper
panels are separately prepared in die forging and the connected at the bottom with welding. Hence
the structure seems like a box as shown below,

In this design the weight of the vehicle is reduced, and streaming can be done conveniently. In the
manufacturing point of view also, it is very easy to construct. To locate the engine, suspension
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steering, wheels and other accessories corresponding mounting are provided in the frame as shown in
the fig.

1.5 Engine: Engine is the power generating unit and it generally located in the front portion of the
vehicle.:
Based on the different parameters automobile engine are classified as follows:
1) According to the cycle of operations:
 2 – stroke engines
 4 – stroke engines
2) According to the cycle of combustion:
 Otto cycle
 Diesel cycle
 Dual cycle
3) According to arrangement of cylinders:
 Horizontal engine
 Vertical engine
 V – type engine
 Radial engine
4) According to their usage:
 Stationery engines
 Portable engines
 Marine engines
 Automobile engines
 Aero engines
5) According to the type of fuel employed:
 Oil engine
 Petrol engine
 Diesel engine
 Gas engine
 Kerosene engine
6) According to the method of ignition:
 Spark ignition engine
 Compression ignition engine
7) According to the method of cooling systems :
 Air cooled engine
 Water cooled engine
8) According to the valve arrangements:
 L – head engine
 I - head engine (Overhead valve engine)
 F – head engine
 T – head valve engine
9) According to the number of cylinders:
 Single cylinder engine
 Multi cylinder engine

Engine associated systems: To run the engine within the operating temperature with good
efficiency, the engine is need to associate with different systems like lubricating system, cooling
system, ignition system, starting & charging system, fuel fed system.

Power transmission system or running Gear: Many components such as clutch, gear box,
universal joint propeller shaft, differential and axles are involved in the power transmission from
engine to road wheels. Collectively these components are known as power transmission system or
running gear.

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Steering system, Braking system, Suspension system: These three systems can be called as control
systems for an automobile vehicle. Steering system gives the direction control, braking system gives
the speed control and suspension system gives the fluctuation control.

Wheels and Tyres: For the moving of the vehicle wheels and tyres are required. These should give
the minimum rolling resistance as well as strong enough to with stand for the total weight of the
vehicle and different load acted during the travel of the vehicle.

Body: It is the super structure of the vehicle. According to the requirements one can built the body.
But it should with stand for the driving torque, braking torque, cornering forces and vertical loads
acted over it. The body shoul give the minimum resistance to the air.

1.6 Classification of automobile vehicles:

Based on the load bearing capacity:
1. Heavy Motor vehicles & Light motor vehicles
a) Passenger vehicles: These are meant for transport the passengers from one place to
another place. Hence it is generally specified with the seating capacity.
b) Goods carriers: These are meant for transport the goods from one place to another
place. Hence it is generally specified with the tonnage that can be carried.
c) Transport vehicles and Non Transport vehicles: Transport vehicle is used for the
commercial purpose, Non transport vehicle is used for own operations.
2. Two wheelers
a. With Gear
b. Without gear
3. Special purpose vehicles: Ambulances, milk vans, fire service vehicles and other
emergency vehicles.
4. Heavy earthmoving Vehicles: Dumpers, loaders, caterpillar vehicles, Road rollers, and
civil Construction vehicles, Bulldozers etc.
5. Based on drives:
a. Single wheel drives, two wheel drives, three wheel drives, four wheel drives.
b. Front drive vehicles, rear wheel drive vehicles
c. Left side steering vehicles, Right side steering vehicles.

1.7 According to the Power transmission Automobile vehicles are classified as

Front Engine-
1. Rear wheel drive
2. Front wheel drive
3. Four wheel drive
Rear Engine-
4. Rear wheel drive

1. Rear wheel drive: In the rear wheel drive vehicles the Engine is located at the front, and the
power is transferred to the rear wheels through clutch, gearbox, universal joint, propeller shaft,
differential and rear axles as shown in the fig. Steering system provided to the front wheels, due to
this separation maintenance of steering system as well as transmission system is very convenient.
Now a day’s most of the vehicles are provided with rear wheel drive.

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 Rear wheel drive provides the separation in between steering engine and live wheels.
Front axle is dead axle, hence the steering system will be simplified and it is easy to give any
maintenance. For the other transmission components also one can give the maintenance
independently. When the vehicle is moving in forward direction, the air will moves in the opposite
direction. So that air flow over the engine and it also reduce the work required to suck the air over
the radiator by fan. The space available for luggage boot also good in this case.

2. Front wheel drive:

In the front wheel drive vehicles the Engine is located at the front, and the power is
transferred to the front wheels through clutch, gearbox, universal joint, and propeller shaft,
differential. Steering system provided to the front wheels. In this case front wheels are live wheels.
Hence one has to provide the differential for the front wheels and steering system also provided to
the front wheels. Due to this complexity, it is difficult to give the maintenance for the engine and
transmission components. For maintains and repair of transmission components a number of other
components are need to be remove. Front wheel drive fig. shown below. The total weight of the
engine and transmission components is acted over the front wheels. Hence it leads to hard steering.

3. Four-wheel drive: In the four-wheel drive power is supplied to the front wheels as well as rear
wheels. Generally these vehicles are preferred in hill areas where the roads are not good. The torque
obtained is high in these vehicles. In addition to the main gear box an additional transfer gear box is
provided. So that the vehicle is commonly runs as rear wheel drive and transfer gear box is engaged
to convert as four wheel drive

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4.Rear Engine rear wheel Drive: In this drive the engine is mounted at rear of the vehicle and rear
wheels are the live wheels. Due to less distance in between gear box output shaft to differential unit,
small propeller shaft is enough. More space is available at the driver’s cabin. For the steering system
also space is more and due to less weight over the front wheels, it is easy to steer the vehicle.
But in this case, lengthy gear selecting levers, clutch operating levers and
accelerator linkages are required. Just like in front wheel drive, here also maintenance difficulty is
existed. When the vehicle negotiating a curve, the centrifugal force acted over the vehicle at rear will
be higher and it leads to lateral slipping of the rear wheels. When the vehicle moves in forward
direction it creates a partial vacuum at the rear portion. It reduces the efficiency of the cooling
system. Due to providing of engine at rear, the inside space also reduce. Hence more luggage one
can’t carry. Commercial feasibility is not existed.

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1.8 Principle of operation of a conventional Automobile engine:
In the IC Engines air fuel mixture is kept under sufficient pressure exerted by the piston and
it is burnt in that confined space i.e in combustion chamber. The burning is caused for evolution of
heat, the heat caused for the expansion of the gaseous products, that expansion creates thrust force
over the cylinder walls and piston. Cylinder walls are the fixed boundaries and piston is movable
boundary, therefore piston will move and that motion is converted as useful mechanical energy
through connecting rod and crank shaft. It can be explained diagrammatically as follows:

To satisfy this principle, 4 strokes are designed and each stroke takes 180o crank
angle, and strokes in the case of vertical engines are expressed as movement of piston from
T.D.C to B.D.C or from B.D.C to T.D.C. To send the air, fuel mixture into the cylinder, inlet
valve is provided and to exhaust the combustion products, an exhaust valve is provided and these
valves are operated with separate operating mechanisms. The four strokes are:

1. Suction stroke
2. Compression stroke
3. Expansion stroke
4. Exhaust stroke (Detailed explanation is in the IC Engines subject)

1.9 Engine construction:

Any automobile engine basically consists of three structural parts. Cylinder head, cylinder
block, crank case & oil sump. To these structural components different components like piston,
crankshaft, cam shaft etc., and different systems like lubrication, fuel feed, cooling, ignition are
associated. Details are explained as follows:

1.CYLINDER BLOCK:

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A cylinder block consists of ,
 Cylinder liners in which the pistons slide up and down
 Provision for the valve mechanism
 Passages for the flow of cooling water and lubricating oil.
 Provision for mounting crank shaft, cam shaft
 On the top of the block provision for fixing the cylinder head, and at the bottom for engine oil
sump.

Piston reciprocates in the Cylinder block, so it has to withstand for wear, it is

subjected to stresses produced during combustion, so that it has to withstand for direct and thermal
stresses. By considering these the cylinder block is usually made of gray cast iron, and some of the
cylinder blocks are alloyed with nickel and chromium. Some blocks are cast from aluminium alloy in
which cast iron or steel sleeves are used. Cast iron is a satisfactory cylinder wall material because of
its better wearing qualities. In some engines, the cylinder walls are also plated with chromium. It is
done so because chromium is a very hard material and it reduces wall wear and increases the service
life. Silicon-Aluminum alloys can also be used as a cylinder material as these alloys have high
coefficient of thermal expansion and high wear resistance.
The composition of cast iron cylinder is as follows:
Iron 95%
Carbon 2.2%
Silicon 1.2%
Manganese 0.63%
Sulphur 0.12%
Phosphorous 0.85%
At the bottom of the block is provided with Crank shaft mountings, cam shaft mountings,
provision for fixing oil pump and engine oil sump. Top of the cylinder block is provided with
threaded holes to fix the studs and cylinder head is fixed above the block after placing gasket in
between them.
At the center cylindrical barrels (cylinder liners) are
Provided for piston movement and around the cylinder
Liners water jackets are provided. Passages are provided
Inside to circulate the lubricating oil from the sump to
Crank shaft, cam shaft, valve mechanism and for other
Moving components associated with the cylinder block.

CYLINDER HEAD:
The cylinder head is usually made of aluminium alloy or gray cast
iron. Aluminium has the advantages of light weight and high heat
conductivity. The cylinder head is cast separately from the
cylinder block so that it may be removed for cleaning carbon and
grinding valves very easily. To ensure gas tight joint in between
cylinder block and head a gasket is placed between them.
Depending on the valve layout, the cylinder head may carry the
camshaft, rockers and valves. Water passages are provided in the
head adjacent to the valves and plug seating lubricating oil
passages also provided in the head to lubricate valve operating
mechanism.
Advantages of aluminium alloy cylinder head over cast iron:
 Higher heat conductivity
 Light in weight
 Better cooling during running conditions
 Increased compression ratio without detonation

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  Greater power output and low fuel consumption due to higher compression ratio and
better cooling effect.
 Engine warms up quickly and requires a smaller radiator.
Disadvantages:
 Engine costs more due to usage of aluminium alloy
 Greater clearance is required between piston and cylinder due to higher thermal
expansion.
 It is liable to crusting due to low modulus of elasticity.
 Greater possibility of corrosion by cooling water.
 Due to interaction with the steel studs and aluminium alloy corrosion may
accelerated.

3. Engine Head Gasket:

A gasket is placed between the cylinder head and the cylinder block to prevent the leakage of charge
under compression in the cylinder, and to ensure gas tight joint.
The requirements of a gasket are:
 It should withstand for high pressure around 70 – 75 bar or high temperatures (2000oC -
2500oC).
 It should not cause any leakage of water or oil.
 It should not cause misalignment of the cylinder block and the head.
Engine gaskets are made of either copper and asbestos or steel and asbestos embossed with steel
Following other gaskets are used at cylinder head and block as per the engine design:
 Copper – asbestos gasket
 Steel – asbestos gaskets
 Steel - asbestos – steel gasket
 Single steel ridged or corrugated gasket
 Stainless steel gasket

Cylinder Head Gasket

Other gaskets used in the Engine:

 OIL PAN GASKETS:

These are made of three different materials: cork, felcoid and felcoprene. These
gaskets are used in between oil sump and cylinder head to prevent leakage of oil. Cork has good
compressibility but it is subjected to shrinkage and expansion. Felcoid has also good
compressibility but it is less subjected to shrinkage and expansion. It can also withstand
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 sufficient bending and twisting without breakage. Felcoprene is a synthetic rubber material. It is
highly resilient and compressible. It is not affected by oils and greases.

 MANIFOLD GASKETS:

These are of three types: Metal encased asbestos, felbestos and metal embossed shim
gasket. Metal encased gaskets are more resistant to burn out but are more expensive. Asbestos
and felbestos gaskets are used at the inlet manifold where the operating temperature is low and
metal embossed gaskets are used at the exhaust manifold where the operating temperature is
high.

 PUMP GASKETS:

These are made of felcoid. Felcoid is a combination of fiber and cork granules that is
more compressive and resilient. These are used at the pumps to prevent the leakage.

Inlet manifold Gasket

Engine oil Sump with Gasket

4. CRANKCASE:

In most of the engines crankcase is an integral unit with the cylinder block. For heavy
engines crankcase is separate part and It is attached to the bottom face of the cylinder block. The
function of crankcase is to provide support for the main journal bearings of the crankshaft. The
bottom of the crankcase wall is flanged to strengthen the casing and to provide with machined face
for the attaching of sump. The crankcase has to be such as to provide very high rigidity, because it
must provide reactions for the heavy forces set up due to gas pressures in the cylinders. The material
used for the crankcase is gray cast iron.

5. OIL PAN OR SUMP:

Oil pan is attached at the bottom of the crankcase and it is acts as a reservoir for
lubricating oil (SAE-20W40). It is usually made of pressed steel or aluminium. The oil pan serves as
a reservoir for the lubricating oil and it provides cooling and ventilation to the lubricating oil. The oil

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pump in the lubricating system draws oil from the oil pan and sends it to all working parts in the
engine.

6. CYLINDER LINER:

The cylinder liners are in the form of barrels made of alloy iron, containing silicon,
manganese, nickel and chromium. They are cast centrifugally. These liners are of the oil hardening
type and offer longer life for the engine. These are directly fit to the cylinder block using press fit.
The cylinder liners are of two types:
 Dry liners
 Wet liners
A dry liner is made in the shape of a barrel having a flange at the top which keeps it
into position in the cylinder block. The entire outer surface of the dry liner, in contact with the
cylinder block casting and hence has to be machine very accurately on the outside also. Thus, it is
not in direct contact with cooling water and hence is known as dry liner. Its thickness ranges from
1.5mm to 3mm.
A wet liner forms a complete cylinder barrel. It is provided with a flange at the top
which fits into the groove in the cylinder block. At the bottom either the block are the liner is
provided with grooves, in which the packing rings made of rubber are inserted. The liner is in direct
contact with the cooling water , hence it does not required high quality finishing at the outer surface
Its thickness ranges from 1.5mm to 6mm.
COMPARISION OF DRY AND WET LINERS:
 A wet liner can be replaced easily and no special tool is required for this purpose.

 A wet liner is in direct contact with circulating water and hence reduces piston
temperature effectively.

 A wet liner has to be provided with leak proof joint between the cylinder casting and
the liner.
A wet liner can’t be finished accurately before fitting; where as a dry liner has to be finished
accurately before fitting.

6. ENGINE COMPONENTS:
1. PISTON:It is a gas tight plug type of machine component which receives the
thrust force during the combustion of the fuel and converts it into mechanical energy. The
purpose of the piston is to provide a means of conveying the expansion of the gases to the crank
shaft, via the connecting rod, without loss of gas from the above or below.

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Requirements of piston:

 It should be withstand for high pressure and temperature.

 It should be light to reduce the weight of the reciprocating masses and to
enable higher engine speeds.
 It should have good heat conductivity to reduce the risk of detonation and
hence provides high compression ratio.
 The material used to make piston should have low expansion.

Working conditions of piston:

 High pressure and high temperature.
 It is subjected to impact loads so it must withstand for the loads applied.
 It must reciprocate freely inside the cylinder.
 The piston boss portion is subjected to wear and shear.

The material used for pistons is mainly aluminium alloy. Aluminium pistons can be
either forged or cast. Cast iron is also used as piston material. But aluminium is best suited as piston
material. It is because it has high thermal coefficient and hence, it transfers heat to surroundings
more efficiently at low expansion rate. It is also light in weight and therefore the inertial forces are
reduced. It also possesses good strength towards impact loads.
Functions of a piston:

 It has to receive the thrust force and converts it into useful mechanical energy.
 It has to acts as pressure tight plug, so that it creates suction during suction
stroke.
 It has to compress the charge to higher compression pressures without leaks.
 It has to give guidance to the direction of movement.
 It has to push the combustion products out from the cylinder perfectly.
Importance of piston clearance:
Clearance is provided in between piston and the cylinder walls, to ensure free
movement of the piston. If the clearance is more, then the charge will escape through the piston
clearance, and caused for loss of power. It also leads to sudden tilting of the piston as it moves down
in the power stroke. If the clearance is less, there will be power loss due to excessive friction, severe
wear and possible for seizure of the piston in the cylinder.

EXPANSION CONTROL IN PISTONS:

During operation, the piston runs many degrees hotter than the cylinder, because the
cylinder is surrounded by cooling water. Hence, the piston expands more than the cylinder. This
expansion must be controlled in order to avoid loss of adequate piston clearance. This problem may
persist in aluminium pistons because aluminium expands rapidly. To avoid this, following measures
can be taken:

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  By keeping away heat from the lower part of the piston as much as
possible: this can be done by cutting horizontal slots in the piston just below the lower oil control
ring groove. These slots reduce the path for the heat traveling from the cylinder head to the skirt.

 By making heat dam: Heat dam consists of a groove cut near the top of the
piston. This reduces the size of the path the heat can travel from the piston head to the skirt. And
hence the piston skirt does not expand much.

 By cam grinding the piston: The pistons are finished so that they are slightly
oval when cold. These pistons are called cam – ground pistons. When a cam ground piston warms
up, it turns to round shape. Its area of contact with the cylinder wall therefore increases. The minor
axis of the ellipse lies in the direction of the piston pin axis. The more expansion along minor axis
being caused by the piston posses. Thus, the piston after expansion at operating temperatures
becomes circular.

 By using struts: the piston expansion may also be controlled by using the
struts, band or belts passed into the piston .these cause the outward thrust of the expanding piston
head to be carried more toward the piston pin bosses then toward the trust faces so that the effect is
similar to that of the cam ground pistons .

PISTON HEAD SHAPES:

 Hemispherical
 Crown
 Dishes crown with valve recess
HIGH PERFORMANCE PISTONS:
Aluminium pistons can be either cast or forged. The forged piston is denser
and forms a better heat path to allow the heat to get away from the piston head. It has a grain flow
also that improves its bearing ability. The forged aluminium piston is lighter in comparison with the
cast iron pistons, and thus it produces low inertia forces as it accelerates and decelerates in the

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cylinder hence ,forged piston is the preferred for high performance engines .some other high
performance pistons:
 LOW EXPANSION PISTONS (INVAR STRUT PISTONS): it has negligible coefficient of
expansion. It is made up of invar metal

 AUTOTHERMIC PISTONS: These contain low expansion steel inserts at the piston pin
bosses. These inserts are so molded that their ends are anchored in the piston skirt. In this case,
a bi-metallic distortion due to the different coefficients of expansion of the insert and the parent
mental, transfers some of the generous initial clearance provided on the gudgeon pin axis to the
thrust axis as the piston warms up. This action enables small clearances to be maintained on the
thrust axis in both the cold and hot conditions, giving quieter running.

 SPECIALLOID PISTON: The modern special alloyed diesel piston ribs on the internal
surface skirt and the solid piers which take the load directly from the crown to the gudgeon pin
bearing area. The crown, ring-belt, and skirt sections are proportioned to the thermal
characteristics, which results in a substantial reduction in operating temperatures, thereby
reducing the tendency for ring sticking and distortion of thermal cracking in the region of the
valve pockets on the rim of the combustion bowl.

7. PISTON RINGS:

Piston rings are fitted into the grooves of the piston to maintain good seal between the
piston and the cylinder wall. There are three functions of the piston rings as follows:
 To provide a pressure seal to prevent blow-by of burnt gases. Blow-by is the name that
describes the escape of burnt gases from the combustion chamber, past the piston, and into
the crankcase.

 To form the main path for conduction of heat from the piston crown to the cylinder walls.

 To control the flow of oil to the skirt and rings themselves in adequate quantity while
preventing an excessive amount reaching the combustion chamber with consequent waste and
carbonization.

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TYPES OF RINGS:
There are two types of piston rings:
 Compression rings
 Oil control rings
Compression rings: These rings tend to increase the compression ratio and arrests the leakage of
charge.

PISTON RING GAP:

Piston rings have gap so that they may be installed into the piston grooves and removed when
worn out by expanding them. The gap ensures that radial pressure against the cylinder wall thus
having effective seal to prevent leakage of heavy combustion pressure. This gap must be checked
because if this is too great due to cylinder bore wear, the radial pressure will be reduced. The piston
gap may be in the range 0.178 mm to 0.5 mm.
7. PISTON PIN:
Piston pin connects the piston and the small end of the connecting rod. It is generally hollow
and is made of case hardened steel heat treated to produce a hard, wear resisting surface. There are
three methods to connect the piston pin:
The pin is fastened to the piston by set screws through the piston boss and has a bearing in the
connecting rod.The pin is fastened to the connecting rod with a clamp screw. In this case the piston
bosses form the bearing.The pin floats in both the piston bosses and the small end of the connecting
rod. It is prevented from coming in contact with the cylinder wall by two lock rings fitted in the outer
end of the piston bosses. These rings are called circlips. In this case, a bushing of phosphor bronze is
used in the small end of the connecting rod. The bush develops very little wear and requires renewal
only at long intervals.

9. Different types of cylinder wears:

a. Taper wear
b. Elliptical wear
Inspection of Ovality and taper in the cylinder:
Ovality and taper tests indicates the geometric imperfections of the cylinder.
Total volume of the cylinder is divided into two parts, i.e. clearance volume and
swept volume. In the swept volume piston reciprocates and wear takes place at
swept volume due to reciprocating motion of the piston. In the compression
stroke entire charge is compressed to clearance volume and the piston is at top
dead center. At end of the compression stroke air fuel mixer is ignited. Due to
spontaneous burning the air fuel mixer, pressure and temperature in the
clearance volume increased suddenly. Pressure exerted on cylinder walls and
piston, piston pushes down wards to bottom dead center, but due to the pressure
cylinder walls are tends to expand. Due continuous operation of the engine
18 | P a g e
 clearance volume slightly expands. At the same time lower portion of the
cylinder is at less temperature than the top portion. As a result of above effect
cylinder gets tapered.

The elliptical wear of the cylinder is known as ovality and it occurs due to active and reactive
forces of the connecting rod. When the piston moves from B.D.C. to T.D.C. the position of the
connecting rod and its orientation is as shown in fig and direction of active forces is in the upward
direction. When piston moves down wards in the power stroke connecting rod orientation is as
shown in fig. and it opposes the down word motion of the piston due to inertia as a result reactive
force will be acts in opposite direction. Due to these active and reactive forces of connecting rod,
diametrical opposite sides of the cylinder tends to enlarge. After long usage shape of the cylinder
will be forms into elliptical.

Geometrical imperfection of cylinder is measured with dial gauge in conjunction with

extension rod and master- piece. Let the standard cylinder bore diameter is 92mm. First choose slip
gauge of 92 mm. and it acts as a master- piece. Extension rod is connected to the dial gauge and dial
gauge reading set to zero at 92 mm. by using master piece.
Initially place the cylinder block on a perfectly true surface and make sure that
cylinder block is perfectly horizontal. Insert the dial gauge extension rod exactly right angles to the
horizontal surface and measure the dimensions of the cylinder in x - x' and y - y' directions, at an
interval of 10 mm lengthwise. Note the readings at each position and imagine the shape of cylinder.
Depends on the shape decision is taken for whether it requires honing (or) reboring

10. CONNECTING ROD:

The connecting rod is the connection between the piston rod and the crankshaft. The
small end of the connecting rod is connected to the piston pin and big end to the crank pin. The
function of the connecting rod is to convert the linear motion of the piston into rotary motion of the
crankshaft. A combination of axial and bending stresses act on the rod in operation. The axial
stresses are produced due to cylinder gas pressure and the inertia force arising on account of
reciprocating motion. A hole is drilled between the two ends for carrying lubricating oil from the big
19 | P a g e
end to the small end for lubrication of the piston pin and the piston. The connecting rods are
generally made by drop forging of steel or duralumin. Bearings are used in the big and small ends to
reduce wear. The bearing shells in the big end are lined with alloys like copper-tin, copper-lead,
lead-bronze etc. the small end is usually a solid eye fitted with phosphor bronze bush.

11. PISTON PIN OFFSET:

The piston face that receives more against the cylinder wall during the power stroke is called
the major thrust face. The face diametrically opposite and at right angles to the major thrust face
known as minor thrust face. When piston is just shifts from compression stroke to power stroke,
piston tilt from minor thrust face to major thrust face. Due to the sudden tilt, piston boss portion will
hit the cylinder wall, which is known as piston slap. To reduce sudden tilt and reduce noise the
piston pin is offset from the centre line of the piston towards the thrust face.

12. CRANKSHAFT:

Crankshaft is the part in the power transmission system on to which the reciprocating
motion of the piston is converted into the rotating motion with the help of connecting rod. A
crankshaft consists of crankpins, webs (crank arms or cheeks), balancing weights, oil holes, and the
main journals. Oil holes are drilled from main journals to the crankpins through crankwebs to
provide lubrication of big end bearings. Main bearings are lubricated from the oil galleries in the
cylinder block. When the engine is in running condition, the centrifugal forces acting at each
crankpin due to rotation of both the crankshaft as well as the big end of the connecting rod tend to
bend and distort the crankshaft. To counter this tendency, the counterweights are either formed as
integral part of the crank web or attached separately on the opposite side to crankpin. On one of the
main bearing journals usually near the flywheel end, thrust bearing is located so as to support the
loads in the direction of the shaft axis. Such loads may arise due to clutch release forces in the helical
gear valve timing gear train when accelerating or deceleration, forces in the gear train when driving
various auxiliary components, e.g., the oil pump, water pump, supercharger etc.

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13. FLYWHEEL:

A flywheel is a heavy wheel attached to the rear end of the crankshaft. The functions of a flywheel
are:
 The flywheel does the additional leveling off of the power impulses.
 It acts as a reservoir of energy. It absorbs energy as the engine tries to speed up and gives
back the energy as the engine slows down. Thus, the flywheel keeps the engine speed almost
constant.
14. CAMSHAFT:
A camshaft is a shaft on which the cams are mounted. The camshaft is mounted in the
bearings in the lower part of the cylinder block in most in-line engines. A cam is a device that
changes rotary motion of the cam into linear motion of the follower. A camshaft is
responsible for opening of valves. It has a number of cams along the length, two for each
cylinder, one to operate the inlet valve and the other to operate the exhaust valve. In addition
to this, it also has an eccentric to operate the fuel pump and a gear to drive the ignition
distributor and oil pump.

A camshaft is driven by the crankshaft either by a pair of timing gears or by a pair of timing
sprockets. The camshaft gear or sprocket has twice as many teeth as the gear or sprocket on the
crankshaft. Thus, every two revolutions of the crankshaft produce one revolution of the camshaft and
one opening and closing of the valves.
15.VALVES:

Valve is a device to open or close a passage. Fuel enters the cylinder through the inlet valve and the
burned gases produced after the combustion of fuel escape from the outlet valve. The valves are
generally made of silichrome steel which is an alloy of silicon and chromium. The valves are
operated by the cams mounted on the camshaft, which gets motion from the crankshaft. According to
the location of valves, the valve mechanisms are of two types:
 Valve mechanism for operating the valve in engine block (straight poppet
valve)
 Valve mechanism for operating the valve in cylinder head (overhead poppet
valve)

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STRAIGHT POPPET VALVE MECHANISM:

The valve stem slides up and down in the valve stem guide which acts as a slipper
bearing. It also prevents the gases from the valve port to the valve port to the valve port to the valve
chamber of the engine block. Valve spring is fitted between the engine block and spring retainer,
which keeps the valve closed tightly on the valve seat, until lifted by the valve tappet by the rotation
of the cam. The tappet or lifter is held between guides which are generally a part of the engine block.
Adjusting screw is provided on the tappet to adjust the clearance between the upper end of the tappet
and the bottom of the valve stem. As the cam rotates, it lifts the tappet which lifts the valve to the
open position thus connecting the valve part to the combustion chamber. Valve seat inserts are fitted
on the valve seats. These inserts are in the form of rings tapered grounded to suit the valve faces, and
made of special alloy steels. Usually they are used only on exhaust valve seats. They reduce wear
and can be replaced when worn out.

OVERHEAD POPPET VALVE MECHANISM:

This type of mechanism requires two additional moving parts – the push rod and the rocker
arm. As the cam rotates, it lifts the valve tappet or the lifter which actuates the push rod. The push
rod rotates the rocker arm about a shaft – the rocker arm shaft to cause one end to push down on the
valve stem to open the valve, thus connecting the valve port with the combustion chamber. In this
mechanism, the valve tappet clearance is between the rocker arm and the valve stem. It is adjusted by
means of an adjusting screw on the rocker arm end that contacts the push rod.

ENGINE LUBRICATION, TYPES OF LUBRICATION SYSTEMS

The primary objectives of lubrication are:
 To reduce friction between the moving parts
 To reduce wear of the moving parts
 To act as a cooling medium for removing heat
 To absorb shocks between the engine bearings and other engine parts thus reducing
noise and extending engine life
 To absorb and carry away harmful substances resulting from incomplete combustion
 To form a good seal between the piston rings and the cylinder walls.
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 The main functions of lubricating oil are:
 To minimize frictional wear and tear
 To cool by carrying away heat
 To seal the piston and thus preventing the escape of gases from the cylinder resulting
in power loss
 To cushion the parts against vibration and impact
 To clean the parts as it lubricates them, carrying away the impurities

PROPERTIES OF LUBRICANTS:

An engine lubricating oil must have the following properties:

 Viscosity: It is the measure of the resistance to flow or the internal friction of oil.
The viscosity of the engine lubricating oil must be just sufficient to ensure
hydrodynamic lubrication. If it exceeds this value, then higher power losses may
occur.

 Flash point: It is defined as the lowest temperature at which the lubricating oil will
flash when a small flame is passed across it. The flash point of the oil should be
sufficiently high so as to avoid flashing of oil vapours at the temperature occurring in
common use.

 Fire point: It is defined as the temperature at which the oil will burn continuously
after the flash point is reached. The fire point must also be very high for any
lubricating oil.

 Cloud point: Sometimes when the oil changes its state from liquid to solid, it starts
appearing cloudy. The temperature at which this occurs is termed as cloud point.

 Pour point: it is the lowest temperature at which the oil will pour. This property
must be considered because of its effect on the starting of an engine in cold conditions
and on free circulation of oil through exterior feed pipes when pressure is not applied.

 Oiliness: It is the characteristic property of oil. This property is highly desirable in

helping the lubricant to adhere to the cylinder walls.

 Corrosion: A lubricant should not corrode the working parts and it must retain its
properties even in the presence of foreign matter and additives.

 Physical stability: Lubricating oil must be physically stable at the lower and the
highest temperatures between which the oil is to be used. There should not be any
separation of solids at lowest temperature or vaporization beyond certain limits.

 Chemical stability: Lubricating oil must be chemically stable. There should not be
any tendency for oxide formation. The oil should also not decompose at higher
temperatures to form carbon, which makes the spark plug and valves faulty to
function.
TYPES OF LUBRICATING SYSTEMS:
The different systems for lubricating the automobile system are:
 PETRO-OIL SYSTEM: This system of lubrication is generally adopted in two-stroke petrol engine
like scooter and motor cycles. It is the simplest form of lubricating system. It does not consist of
any separate part, like oil pump, for the purpose of lubrication. But the lubricating oil is mixed into
23 | P a g e
 the petrol itself while filling in the petrol tank of the vehicle, in a specified ratio. When the fuel
goes into the combustion chamber during the engine operation, the oil particles will not burn along
with the fuel due to its high flash and fire points. It causes for lubrication of the piston rings,
cylinder walls, piston pin,etc.If the engine is allowed unused for a considerable time, the
lubricating oil separates from petrol and leads to clogging of passages in the carburettor, resulting
in the engine starting trouble. This is the main disadvantage of this system. Production of
hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide also high in this system.

The other disadvantages are

1. Even though the engine oil and fuel simultaneously poured into the fuel tank, when the
vehicle is kept ideal for long time (generally in nights) the separation of engine oil and
Fuel will takes place due to density difference. The engine oil is settled at the bottom and
when the engine is started the engine oil will flow first and it caused for choking of the
carburetor jets and leads to generation of high percentage of hydrocarbons.

2. As per the design the engine oil should not burn in the combustion chamber. But due to
direct exposure of engine oil to combustion, some portion of the engine oil will burn. It
leads to heavier carbon deposits on the cylinder head.

3. Carbon is partial conductor of the electricity. Hence if any carbon particle in the red heat
condition inserted in between positive and negative terminals of the spark plug, leads to
electrical short circuit and further it leads to failure of the spark plug.

4. After the circulation the engine oil comes out from the exhaust pipe and deposited on the
inner surface of the exhaust pipe. The exhaust pipe also at higher temperature, hence it is
caused for generation of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide.

 SPLASH SYSTEM: In this system of lubrication, the lubricating oil is stored in an oil trough or
sump. A scoop or dipper is made in the lowest part of the connecting rod. When the engine runs,
the dipper dips in the oil once, in every revolution of the crankshaft and causes the oil to splash
on the cylinder walls. This action affects the lubrication of the engine walls, piston ring,
crankshaft bearings and big end bearings.

PRESSURE SYSTEM:
In the petro-oil and splash lubrication systems only cylinder walls and piston gets
lubricated . Hence these are suitable for two stroke engines only. But for four stroke multi cylinder
engines lubrication is required for the valve operating mechanism, timing gears and other
miscellaneous components. In the pressure system of lubrication, the engine parts are lubricated
24 | P a g e
under pressure feed. The lubricating oil is stored in a separate tank or the sump, from where an oil
pump takes the oil through a strainer and delivers it through a filter to the main oil gallery at a
pressure of 2 – 4kg/cm2. The oil from the main gallery goes to the main bearings, from where some
of it after lubricating the main bearing, falls back to the sump, some oil is splashed to lubricate the
cylinder walls and the remaining goes through a hole to the crankpin. From the crankpin it goes to
the piston pin through a hole in the connecting rod web, where it lubricates the piston rings. For
lubricating camshaft and timing gears, the oil is led through a separate oil line from the oil gallery.
The valve tappets are lubricating the main oil to the tappet guide surfaces through drilled holes. To
lubricate the timing gears and the sprocket chain, sometimes a directed oil jet is employed. The valve
tappets are lubricated by connecting the main oil gallery to the tappet guide surfaces through drilled
holes. In case of overhead valve mechanism, the rocker arms are sometimes mounted on hollow
shafts which carry oil under pressure from the oil gallery. These hollow shafts feed oil for the
lubrication of rocker arms. In some other designs, the push rods are made hollow and the oil under
pressure is made to flow up to provide lubrication of various parts of the valve train. The oil that
seeps from the valve train as above is returned to the oil pan through drain holes, which are
sometimes so placed that the oil drains on the camshaft and the timing gears to lubricate them.

 SEMI-PRESSURE SYSTEM: it is the combination of splash system and pressure system.

Some parts are lubricated by splash system and some parts by pressure system. Almost all the
four stroke engines are lubricated by this system.

 DRY SUMP SYSTEM: In this system lubricating oil is stored in the oil sump is called wet
sump system, like the pressure system. Another sump also provided in this system and it is
always dry, that’s why it is known as dry sump system. In this system, the oil is carried in a
separate tank from where it is fed to the engine. The oil which falls into the oil sump after
lubrication is sent back to the oil tank by a separate delivery pump. Thus, the system consists of
two pumps, one to feed the oil and the other to deliver it back to the oil pump. This system is
used in situations where the vehicle has to change its position continuously, like in aircrafts. The
main advantage of this system is that there is no chance of breakdown the oil supply during up
and down movement of the vehicle.

25 | P a g e
Pre-lubrication System:
When the vehicle is kept ideal for long period then the lubricating oil from the all the
engine components slowly reached the engine oil sump and the parts are dry. I that condition if
anybody starts the vehicle it leads to damage of the components. Hence first one has to supply the oil
to the components after that they can start the vehicle. In the pre-lubrication system a separate oil
pump is provided which is run by battery. It is connected to the main lubrication line with a bypass.
So that this pump will operate at intial stage and caused for lubrication of components. Once the
engine started automatically the battery operated engine oil pump will stop and main engine oil
pump will caused for lubrication.

PARTS OF LUBRICATING SYSTEM:

The lubricating system in a four-stroke engine consists of the following parts:
OIL SUMP:
Oil sump is the lowest part of the crank case. It provides a covering for the crankshaft
and contains oil in it. In wet sump lubricating system, the oil is taken out from the sump and after
lubricating different parts it drops in the sump. The oil sump is known as oil pan. It is usually made
of steel pressings. Sometimes it is made of aluminium or cast iron. It contains a magnetic drain plug
at its lowest part to drain out the oil and to attract iron particles. It contains oil strainer and a barrel
for dipstick.
OIL PUMP: Oil pump is generally located inside the crankcase and suction end dipped in the oil.
The function of the oil pump is to supply oil under pressure to the various engine parts. oil pump is
driven by camshaft worm.

26 | P a g e
The oil pump is generally located inside the crank case below the oil level. The pump is usually
driven from the end of the distributor shaft. which gets its drive from the camshaft through a skew
gear with 1 : 1 gear ratio. The oil pressure in the engine increases with the increase in engine speed
which would increase the pump speed. The maximum pressure is limited by means of a pressure
relief valve and this valve is so Selected that the pump will deliver sufficient lubricating oil to all the
engine parts. Minimum oil pressure required is almost 100 kPa. Usually 15 to 30 litres per minute oil
circulation is enough for engine lubrication.

The different types of pumps used for engine lubrication are:

1. Gear pump 2. Crescent type gear pump
3. Rotor pump 4. Plunger pump
5. Vane pump.
1.Gear pump:

This is the type once almost universally used in the automotive engines. Its construction is very
simple in that it consists of two spur, or for quieter running, helical gears only which are in mesh
with each other. One gear is mounted on a stub shaft and is driven only whereas the other gear is the
driving gear, itself being driven directly by the cam shaft through the same gear which drives the
distributor shaft. The oil is transported from the inlet to the outlet side in gear spaces between the
gear teeth as shown in the figure and is discharged through the outlet port. Continuous delivery of the
oil from the outlet post exceeds the volume of the lubrication system passages, with the result that
excess discharged oil then causes the oil pressure in the system and rate of circulation of oil to be
increased. The pump is always submerged in oil in the crankcase and, therefore no priming is
necessary. The pump delivers oil at about 300-400 kPa. As explained above, the oil pressure would
depend upon the rate of oil delivered by the pump, which is further dependent upon the pump speed
as well as the bearing clearances in the lubrication system. For instance, lesser bearing clearance
would mean higher oil pressure. Likewise any restriction in the lubrication passages would also
increase the oil pressure. Therefore, a pressure relief valve is often provided in many oil pumps to
relieve the pressure when the same becomes excessive due to high engine speeds or the clogged oil
lines. When the pressure exceeds the prescribed value, the spring is compressed; ball is lifted off its
seat and the oil passes back to the inlet side through the bypass provided. The pressure at which
valve opens may be adjusted by means of the screw provided.

2.Crescent type Gear Pump

In this an internal ring gear is in mesh with a driving external gear which is mounted
eccentrically with respect to the ring gear. Due to this eccentricity there is a space in between the two
gears where a crescent shaped spacer is placed. Due to rotation of the gears, suction is produced at
the inlet end of the crescent, which draws in oil. This oil is then trapped in tooth spaces between the
crescent and the driving gear and the crescent and the tooth spaces of the internal driven gear and is
thus carried towards the outlet side of the crescent where it is discharged into the outlet port. With
continuous running the spaces between the gear teeth will be filled with oil after which the extra oil
27 | P a g e
will cause the oil pressure to increase. The oil pressure will subsequently depend upon the oil
supplied by the pump and the oil escaping from the engine bearings. This type of pump is very
suitable for small compact engines where camshaft is mounted high.

3. Rotor pump:

This type of oil pump is now widely used in automobiles. It is similar to the gear pump except that in
this two gears mesh internally. A is the external rotor having the number of lobes one more than on
the internal rotor B. The axes of rotation of the two rotors are different which causes the size of the
spaces between them to vary. Rotor B gets its drive from the engine and causes rotor A to rotate
along with it. The oil enters the pump through inlet port. as the rotor lobes are moving out of mesh.
The oil is then transported from inlet to the outlet of the pump in the spaces between rotor lobes. The
rotation reduces the clearance between the lobes and the oil is discharged under pressure as the lobes
of the rotors move into mesh at the outlet port. This type of pump is about 25% more efficient and
compact than the gear type pump. This is also quieter running since there are comparatively lesser
teeth in mesh for each revolution. Because of these advantages, its use is on increase in the
automobile engines.

Rotor pump

4. Plunger pump:
This is reciprocating type of pump in which the oil gets communicated from the inlet to the outlet by
alternate suction and pressure created by a reciprocating plunger. This was once used in engines
using splash lubrication for filling the oil troughs, but is obsolete now.

28 | P a g e
5. Vane pump.
This type consists of a cylindrical housing, within which is eccentrically mounted a driven
rotor. The rotor contains a number of vanes in the rotor slots equally spaced around its periphery.
These vanes can slide back and forth into these slots. The movement of sliding vanes is guided by
means of a control ring as shown. When the pump is operating, the vanes are pressed outwards
against the housing by their centrifugal force. The oil enters the inlet port and is swept by the vanes
to the outlet port. This type of pump has an advantage of a continuous oil flow compared to the
pulsating oil flow in case of gear pump.

OIL FILTERS
Lubricating oil is contaminated by various by-products of combustion of fuel, viz, water, acids and
unburnt fuel. In addition to these the fine particles of metal due to wear, especially during the
running in period and particles of rust formed in the engine are the other impurities presents in the
oil. It is, therefore. Absolutely necessary to remove these impurities to avoid permanent damage to
any or more running parts of the engine. It has been found from experience that impurity particles of
5 to 15 microns diameter are most damaging, because the oil film size is bigger than this due to
which smaller particles never come into contact with the mating surfaces separated by oil. The
particles bigger than this size would be filtered out and will not be able to cause any damage.
Two different types of oil filter systems are there viz., the by-pass system and the full flow
system . In the by-pass system the whole of the oil does not pass through the filter at the same time.
Most of the oil without being filtered goes to the bearings whereas the rest (about 10%) passing
through the filter is cleaned out and is

29 | P a g e
 OIL FILTER: It is used in the engine lubricating system to filter out the dirt or grit particles
from the oil. The oil filter systems are of the two types:

1. By-pass system

2. Full flow system

In by-pass system, the whole of the oil does not pass through the filter at the same time, but some of
the oil without being filtered goes to the bearings. Remaining oil passes through the filter and then
goes to bearings.
In full flow system, the whole oil passes first through the filter and then goes to the bearings. If the
filter is clogged due to any reason, the system fails completely and bearings would be starved.

Cartridge type oil filter

 OIL COOLER:

The purpose of oil cooler is to cool the lubricating oil in heavy duty engines where the oil
temperatures become quite high. Because the viscosity of the oil decreases with the temperature rise
and also the oil film may break at high temperatures, the oil must be kept cold in the lubricating
system.

COOLING SYSTEM
Necessity of the cooling system:

All the heat produced by the combustion of fuel in the engine cylinders is not
converted into useful power at the crankshaft. A typical distribution for the heat energy generated
during the combustion is given below:
Useful work at the crank shaft =25%-30%
Heat carried away by the Cooling system =30% -35%
Loss of heat in exhaust gases =35 %-40%
Loss of heat due to radiation & friction =5% -10 %

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 Unless until the cooling system is not provided to the engine, that heat is transferred
to the cylinder walls and it is caused for overheating of the engine. As per the second law of
thermodynamics “it is impossible to construct an engine which converts total heat energy into useful
work.”Hence the heat rejection is always present. If heat rejection is higher and if it is retained in the
cylinder walls, It leads to pre-ignition and seizing of the piston to move. However cooling beyond
optimum limit is not desirable, because it decreases the overall efficiency due to the following
reasons:
1. Thermal efficiency is decreased.
2. The vaporization of the fuel is poor. This leads to fall of combustion efficiency.
Hence the engine is not required operate at high temperatures and too low temperatures. The
designed cooling system should operat the engine with in the operating temperature i.e 800C-850C.
Types of cooling systems:
1. Air Cooling
2. Water cooling
a. Thrmo-syphon system
b. Pump based water cooling system.

1. Air Cooling
In the air cooling system, a continous flow of air over the engine is caused for cooling
the engine. The Heat transfer rate is depending on following factors:

(a) Surface area of metal which is in contact with air.

(b) Mass flow rate of air.
© Temperature difference between the heated surface and air.
(d) Conductivity of metal

From the combustion chamber heat is transferred to the walls of the cylinder in radiation and
convection mode. From the inner wall to outer wall of the cylinder in the conduction mode heat is
transferred. The governing equation for the conduction heat transfer

Q= K.A.(dT/dx)

Where the K is conduction heat transfer co-efficient, Hence the material has good conduction
coefficient heat transfer rate will be high. To satisfy that most of the cylinder heads are manufactured
with aluminium alloy. The cross sectional area and thickness depends on the strength based design.
At a particular load the heat generated and outside wall temperature carries constant values. The heat
transfer rate at full load conditions is higher than the no load conditions due to the variation of
temperature difference.
From the outside of the cylinder liner to air heat is transferred in the convection mode. The
governing equation for the convection heat transfer is,
Q= h.A.(dT)

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 Where the h is convection heat transfer coefficient. When the vehicle is stationary condition
and engine is in running condition the heat is transferred in natural convection mode, and when the
vehicle is moving in forward direction, then air also moves with same velocity of vehicle, but in
opposite direction. Hence the heat is transferred in the forced convection. So that, the heat transfer
rate is higher when the vehicle is moving in forward direction.
Where the A is surface area, when the surface area is more and more heat transfer rate will
increase. Hence fins are provided over the cylinder head to increase the surface area. While
designing of the fins one has to take care about direction of flow and retention time of the air over
the fin. The temperature difference if it is more in between fin surface and ambient heat transfer rate
is high. Hence in the cold atmosphere heat transfer rate is high.

Advantages.
1. Air cooled engines are lighter because of the absence of the radiator, cooling jackets and the
coolant.
2. They can be operated in low temperature regions, where the water may freeze.
3. In certain areas where there is scarcity of cooling water, the air cooled engine is an advantage.
4. Maintenance is easier because the problem of leakage is not there.
5. Air cooled engines get warmed up earlier than the water cooled engines.

Disadvantages.
1. It is not easy to maintain even cooling all around the cylinder,
2. As the coefficient of heat transfer for air is less than that for water, Hence the volumetric
efficiency will decrease
3. Some engine components may become inaccessible easily due to the guiding baffles and cooling,
which makes the maintenance difficult.
4. The cooling fins around the cylinders may vibrate under certain conditions due to which noise
level will be high.

WATER COOLING
In water cooling system, the cooling medium used is water. In this, the engine
cylinders are surrounded by water jackets through which the cooling water flows. Heat flows from
the cylinder walls to water further it transferred to air in the radiator.
Water cooling systems are of two types:
1.Thermosyphon system
2. Pump circulation system

1.Thermosyphon system:
It is very simple system, which was used in many early automobiles. It consists of a
radiator connected to the engine through flexible hoses. In this system, circulation of water is
obtained due to the difference in densities of the hot and the cold regions of cooling water. The
circulating water receives heat from the engine cylinders, thereby engine will cool. The hot water has
less density and it move in upwards direction and also caused for raise of the water level. Hence
from the upper hose pipe it will transfer to the radiator in the radiator heat is transferred to the
outside atmosphere. The cooled water reaches the bottom of the radiator and further it reaches the
engine water jackets from the lower hose. It is caused for lifting of the water in the water jackets.
Simultaneously the water receives the heat from the engine and water level increases and circulated
to radiator. Thus a continuous circulation of the water will be present.

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 The advantages of this system are simplicity and low initial cost. However this system accompanied
by many disadvantages also:
1. As the circulation of coolant is maintained by natural convention only, the cooling is rather slow.
Therefore, to have adequate cooling, the capacity of the system has to be large.
2. Due to the quantity of coolant being large, it takes, more time for the engine to reach the operating
temperature, hence thermal efficiency is less upto the operating temperature.
3. Radiator header tank must be located higher than the top of the cylinder coolant jackets, which is
difficult with the modern vehicles.
4. Certain minimum level of coolant water must be maintained in the system. If the coolant falls
below that level, continuity of flow would break and the system would consequently fail.

1. Pump circulation system. This system is similar to thermo-syphon system, but only difference
is water is circulated with the help of pump. The pump is driven by means of a belt from the
engine crankshaft. At front of the water pump a fan is fixed to suck the air from outside to
inside through the radiator. The fan is attached to the impeller. Hence whenever the pump
runs fan will run automatically. Water cooling system is shown below.
This system has the following advantages over the thermo-syphon system:
1. Circulation of coolant is proportional to both load and speed.
2. Circulation of coolant is positive and hence more efficient due to which the smaller water
jackets can be used resulting in overall decrease of engine size.
3. Unlike in thermo-syphon system, it is not necessary to place the radiator header (upper)
tank at above the engine level.

The components of the water cooling system:

1. Radiator
2. Pressure cap
3. Thermostat
4. Water jackets
1. Radiator
The function of the radiator is to store the cooling water and water is circulated from the
upper tank to lower tank through the small diameter pipes. These pipes are provided with the fins. So
that heat energy is transferred from the hot water to ambient air.
The radiator consists of an upper (or header) tank, core and the lower (or collector) tank.
An overflow pipe is connected to the header tank and drain pipe is connected to the lower tank.
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When the engine is in running, hot coolant from the engine enters the radiator at the top and. Is
cooled by the cross-flow of air, while flowing down the radiator. The coolant collects in the lower
tank from where it is pumped to the engine for cooling.

There are two basic types of radiator cores, viz., tubular type and cellular type. In the tubular
type, the coolant flows through tubes and air passes around them, while in the cellular type the air
passes through the tubes and coolant flows in the spaces in between them. Out of these, tubular type
cores are the most commonly used which are further classified depending upon the shape of the fins
around the tubes, which are meant to increase the area for heat transfer from coolant to the cooling
air. Both the core tubes as well as the fins are made from either with copper or aluminium. Tubes are
made from 0.1 mm to 0.3 mm sheet, whereas fins are made from about 0.1 mm thick material. The
materials used for radiators should be resistant to corrosion, possess higher thermal conductivity and
form easily, apart from having adequate strength. Copper and yellow brass is the widely used
materials for radiators. Aluminium is also used from weight and cost considerations.

1. Pressure cap
Radiator cap is pressure regulating valve. When the engine is in operating condition, the hot
water reaches the radiator upper tank. Hence the pressure will increase. If it is not released it leads to
breakage of radiator pipes. Due to increase of pressure a spring loaded valve in the cap opens and
caused for release of pressure. When the water is cooled to normal temperature a negative pressure is
created in the radiator. The air vent in the radiator caused for compensating the negative pressure.

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Thermostat
Thermostat valve is connected in between outlet pipe and the radiator and another exit also
connected at middle to the water pump casing. The main function of the thermostat is it cut down the
flow of coolant from engine to radiator when the engine is below operating temperature and it allows
the flow of coolent from the engine to radiator after the engine reaching the operating temperature.
Hence the thermal efficiency will improve.
Two types of thermostats are used in automobiles:
1. Bellow or aneroid type.
2. Wax or hydrostatic type.

1. Bellow type thermostat:

It consists of metallic bellow and it is filled with volatile liquid like acetone, alcohol
or ether which boils between 70-85°C. A valve is attached to the lower end of the bellow, while the
other end is attached a valve which fits into the cooling passage. The thermostat is fitted in the
coolant hose pipe at the engine outlet.

When the engine is started from rest (particularly in the early morning) the
surroundings of the engine are at low temperature. After starting if the engine further cooled due to
circulation of the coolant , it leads to decreasing of the thermal efficiency. Hence it is required to stop
the circulation of coolant upto the engine reaches its operating temperature. For this purpose
thermostat valve close the out let passage of the coolant when the temperature below the engine
operating temperature, because the volatile matter in the thermostat evaporated at the nearer
temperature to engine operating temperature. In this position the coolant is not circulated to radiator
but the exit coolant again it is circulated to water pump casing. Hence the coolant will reaches the
operating temperature quickly. When the engine temperature crosses the operating temperature the
volatile matter in the bellow will expand and caused for opening of outlet passage of cooling system.
Hence the coolant will circulated to the radiator and heat is dissipated to air.

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 Coolant circulation when thermostat valve closed Coolant circulation when thermostat valve open

Wax Thermostat:
A wax-element thermostat manufactured by the Dole valve Co, U.S.A. As the coolant
is heated, it transmits its’ heat to the copper-loaded wax having high coefficient of volumetric
thermal expansion (0.28% per °c) which expands so that the rubber plug contracts against the
plunger and exerts a force on it upwards so that it moves vertically. This movement of the plunger
opens a valve in the thermostat to allow coolant to flow through the radiator.

Two-stage thermostat
The construction of a two stage thermostat is similar to ordinary single stage thermostats described
above, except that in this there is an additional sub-valve, which starts opening at lower temperature
(say 79°C), thereby allowing limited circulation of the coolant during warm-up period, thus
preventing peak temperature hot spots. The main valve starts opening at some higher temperature,
say 88°C and both valves are fully open at engine operating temperature. Both the valves are fully
closed below 79°C, providing quicker warm-up of the engine. Thus a two-stage thermostat provides
more precise control of engine temperature by reducing peak temperature in critical areas.

Pump for coolant circulation:

A coolant pump is required for a pump circulation system to circulate the coolant forcibly.
The pump is mounted at the front end of the engine and is driven by the crankshaft pulley by means
of a V-belt. Centrifugal type pump is used for this purpose. The coolant from the radiator enters the
pump from the lower hose pipe and reaches the water pump casing. The water pump directly
mounted over the cylinder block water jackets inlet . Hence the water will enters into the cylinder
block further it is circulated to the cylinder head. From the cylinder head coolant which is high
temperature exited through the outlet pipe. Then it is entered in to the thermostat and reaches the
radiator as explained above.

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 The main parts of the pump are
1. casing
2. shaft-mounted impeller
3. Sealing to prevent the leakages.
After pouring the coolant in the radiator, the coolant will occupie the space of pump
casing and water jackets of the engine. Hence the impeller is totally dipped in the coolant, no
separate priming is required. When the impeller rotates, the coolant between the vanes is thrown
outward due to the centrifugal force. The centrifugal force depending upon the speed of rotation of
the pump spindle, which is proportional to the engine speed. This coolant leaving the periphery of
the impeller tangentially and having maximum kinetic energy then enters the volute casing. In the
volute casing kinetic energy of coolant converts into pressure energy. Under that pressure the coolant
is circulated in the system.

Thermo-responsive Coolant Pump:

In this pump the circulation of coolant is directly controlled by means of metallic
vanes on the impeller .This arrangement replaces the thermostat valve. At the temperature nearer to
engine operating temperature the pump will operate. If the temperature of the engine less than
operating temperature automatically it will cut down the power supply to pump. To operate this
pump a separate electrical circuit is required and it is connected to the battery. Hence by using this
system one can save the shaft power at low temperatures and th purpose of thermostat valve also
satisfied

Draw backs of the water as coolant:

The water is cheaply and abundantly available. Hence most of the cooling systems are
designed with water as coolant in olden days. But now all the vehicles are designed by considering
separate coolant instead of water. The draw backs of the water as follows:
1. Normal water consists of so much of dust particle. It may blocks the passage of water.

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 2. Water contains dissolved salts. These sats are separated from the water when heat received
from the engine and caused for formation of scales over the water jackets. Once the scales
formed heat transfer efficiency will reduce.
3. Water also contains dissolved oxygen. Hence when it is heated the dissolved oxygen comes
out and in the presence of water caused for corrosion.
4. Water will solidify at low temperatures and its volume will increase. It is caused for breaking
of radiator pipes. For this reason glycol is mixed with water.

The requirements of a good coolant:

1. It should miscible with water.
2. It should not freeze at normal cooling temperatures.
3. It should not caused for corrosion
4. It should posses good flow ability
5. It should not cause for scale formation.
6. The boiling point should be high at normal pressure.
MOTOR VEHICLE ACT:
This act gives the awareness of rules and regulations framed by the government for the
purpose of safe, secure movement of the vehicle. This act is very lengthy, contains 14 chapters.
Below briefly these chapters are shown;

CHAPTER – I, PRELIMINARY, Gives the basic definitions.

• A Working Group was, therefore, constituted in January, 1984 to review all the provisions of the
Motor Vehicles Act, 1939 and to submit draft proposals for a comprehensive legislation to replace the
existing Act.
• This Working Group took into account the suggestions and recommendations earlier made by
various bodies and institutions like Central Institute of Road Transport (CIRT), Automotive Research
Association of India (ARAI), and other transport organisations including, the manufacturers and the
general public, Besides, obtaining comments of State Governments on the recommendations of the
Working Group, these were discussed in a specially convened meeting of Transport Ministers of all
States and Union territories.
1. Short title, extent and commencement. –
(1) It extends to the whole of India.
(2) It shall come into force on such date* as the Central Government may, by notification in the
Official Gazette,
2. Definitions.
• “area”
axle weight: means in relation to an axle of a vehicle the
total weight transmitted by the several wheels attached to that axle to the surface on which the vehicle
rests;
“certificate of registration” means the certificate issued by a competent authority to the effect that a
motor vehicle has been duly registered in accordance with the provisions of Chapter IV

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CHAPTER II
LICENSING OF DRIVERS OF MOTOR VEHICLES

• Necessity for driving license. - (1) No person shall drive a motor vehicle in any public place
unless he holds an effective driving licence issued to him authorising him to drive the vehicle
• Age limit in connection with driving of motor vehicles. – No person under the age of eighteen
years shall drive a motor vehicle in any public place
• Responsibility of owners of motor vehicles for contravention of sections 3 and 4.
• Restrictions on the holding of driving license
• Restrictions on the granting of learner’s licences for certain vehicles
• Grant of learner’s license
• Grant of driving license.
• Form and contents of licences to drive.
• Form and contents of licences to drive.
• Licensing and regulation of schools or establishments for imparting instruction in driving of
motor vehicles
• Extent of effectiveness of licences to drive motor vehicles
• Driving licences to drive motor vehicles, belonging to the Central Government
• Power of licensing authority to disqualify from holding a driving licence or revoke such licence
• Power of State Government to make rules.
CHAPTER III
LICENSING OF CONDUCTORS OF STAGE CARRIAGES
• Necessity for conductor’s licence. - (1) No person shall act as a conductor of a stage carriage
unless he holds an effective conductor’s licence issued to him
• Revocation of a conductor’s licence on grounds of disease or disability.
Orders refusing, etc. conductor’s licences and appeals there from
CHAPTER IV
REGISTRAION OF MOTOR VEHICLES
• Necessity for registration
• Registration, where to be made
• Registration, how to be made
• Special provision for registration of motor vehicles of diplomatic officers, etc
• Temporary registration
Production of vehicle at the time of registration
• Refusal of registration or renewal of the certificate of registration
• Assignment of new registration mark on removal to another State.
• Special provisions in regard to transport vehicles
• Refusal of registration or renewal of the certificate of registration
• Assignment of new registration mark on removal to another State.
• Special provisions in regard to transport vehicles

CHAPTER V
CONTROL OF TRANSPORT VEHICLES
• Necessity for permits.
• General provision as to applications for permits
• Application for stage carriage permit
• Application for private service vehicle permit
• Procedure in applying for and granting permits

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CHAPTER – VI
Special Provisions Relating To State Transport Undertakings.

• Preparation and publication of proposal regarding road transport service of a State transport
undertaking
• Objection to the proposal
• Operation of additional services by a State transport undertaking in certain circumstances

CHAPTER VII
CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT AND MAINTENANCE
OF MOTOR VEHICLES
• General provision regarding construction and maintenance of vehicles
• Power of Central Government to make rules
• Power of State Government to make rules

CHAPTER VIII
CONTROL OF TRAFFIC
• Limits of speed
• Limits of weight and limitations on use
• Power to have vehicle weighed
• Parking places and halting stations
• Duty to obey traffic signs
• Vehicles with left hand control
• Signals and signalling devices
• Leaving vehicle in dangerous position
• Duty to produce licence and certificate of registration

CHAPTER IX
MOTOR VEHICLES TEMPORARILY LEAVING OR VISITING INDIA
Power of Central Government to make rules

CHAPTER X
LIABILITY WITHOUT FAULT IN CERTAIN CASES

• Liability to pay compensation in certain cases on the principle of no fault

• Provisions as to other right to claim compensation for death or permanent disablement
Permanent disablement

CHAPTER XI
INSURANCE OF MOTOR VEHICLES AGAINST THIRD PARTY RISKS

• Requirement of policies and limits of liability

• Validity of polices of insurance issued in reciprocating countries.
• Duty of insurers to satisfy judgments and awards against persons insured in respect of third party
risks
• Effect of death on certain causes of action

CHAPTER XII
CLAIMS TRIBUNALS

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 • Award of the Claims Tribunal
• Award of compensatory costs in certain cases

CHAPTER XIII
OFFENCES, PENALTIES AND PROCEDURE
• General provision for punishment of offences
• Disobedience of orders, obstruction and refusal of information.
• Driving at excessive speed
• Driving by a drunken person or by a person under the influence of drugs

CHAPTER XIV
MISCELLANEOUS
• Extra rules and regulations in future
• Extension of any chapter

CHAPTER 2
THE RESISTANCES ON THE VEHICLE

When the vehicle is in moving condition, the following resistances are acted on the vehicle.
1.Rolling resistance (Rr)
2. air resistance (Ra)
3.gradient Resistance(Rg)
While the power is transferred from the engine to live wheels, always frictional loss
exisisted in the transmission components. The speed of the vehicle also changed according to the
gear ratio, available in the gear box and differential unit. After considering the frictional loss and
gear ratios, the resultant power is available at the road wheels.

Rolling resistance: The resistive force which acted on the wheels of the vehicle against its rolling is
known as Rolling resistance. It is basically depending on following factors

1. Weight of the vehicle

2. Frictional coefficient of road
3. Type of tread provided on the wheel
4. Inflation of the tyre
If the weight of the vehicle is more the rolling resistance also increased. The frictional
coefficient of road if it is high the rolling resistance increased. Depending on the type of material
used for the preparation of the tyre trede and reinforce materials of the tyre also influences the rolling
resistance. If the tyre is under inflated then rolling resistance increases.

For a particular condition of vehicle run, the condition of the road, tyre tread material and the
tyre inflating pressure near to a constant value. The load of the vehicle is variable. Hence one can
calculate the rolling resistance as:

Rr= Krx W

Where Kr= Constant of the rolling resistance.

W = Weight of the vehicle in kg.

Air resistance: when the vehicle is moving the forward direction in still air, then air will move in the
opposite direction with same speed of the vehicle. Hence it gives resistance to the motion of the
41 | P a g e
vehicle. The air resistance is not depending on the weight of the vehicle. It depends on the frontal
area of the vehicle. If the the vehicle has streamlined body, then the air resistance is minimum, and
the vehicle has blunt faces like buses the air resistance will be high. The air resistance depending on
the following factors:
1. Frontal surface area
2. Direction of wind
3. Velocity of the wind

The air resistance can be calculated by using the formula

Ra = Kax AxV2
Where Ka= air resistance coefficient
A = frontal surface area in m2
V= Valocity of the vehicle in kmph.

Gradient resistance: when the vehicle is moving over the slope in upward direction the gradient
resistance will act on the vehicle. The gradient resistance depends on the weight of the vehicle and
inclination of the road.

The gradient resistance Rg= W Sinθ

Where, W is the weight of the vehicle in kg.
The total Resistive force to the vehicle Fr = Rr+ Ra+Rg
If the vehicle travels at a speed of V m/s
Then the resistive power at the wheels Pr = Frx V
Let the power delivered by the engine = Pe
The power available at the wheel = Pe x ȵt
Where ȵt is the transmission efficiency
The tractive force available at wheel Ft = (Pexȵt) / V
The Excess tractive force available at the wheel = Ft- Fr

Draw bar pull: The excess tractive force available at the wheel which is responsible for the pulling
of additional weight is known as draw bar pull (Ft- Fr).
Traction: The ability drive wheels to transmit the tractive force without slipping or loss known as
traction.
Tractive effort: The force available at the point of contact between the drive wheel tyres and road is
known as tractive effort
Usable tractive effort < Traction

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Problems:

To solve the problems and to identify the given data easily the following diagram is useful:

Let W= Weight of the vehicle in Kg

V= Velocity of the wheel in the respective gear
Gr= Gear ratio in the respective Gears
Fr = Resistive force at the wheel
Ft = Tractive force at the wheel.
Fr = Rolling resistance +Air resistance +gradient Resistance
= WKr+ Ka AV2+ Wsinθ
When the vehicle is travelling on Plane roads
Fr= WKr+ Ka AV2

CHAPTER 3
BRAKING SYSTEM
Brakes are required to stop the vehicle within the smallest possible distance and this is
done by converting the kinetic energy of the vehicle into the heat energy. The heat energy generated
is dissipated into the atmosphere.

Requirements of braking system:

1. The brakes must be strong enough to stop the vehicle within a minimum distance in an emergency.
But this should also be consistent with safety. The driver must have proper control over the vehicle
during braking.
2. The brakes must have good anti-fade characteristics i.e. their effectiveness should not decrease
with constant prolonged application e.g., while descending hills. Hence brakes should provide with
proper ventilation.

Classification of brakes:
The brakes are classified according the following considerations:
1. Purpose 2. Location 3. Construction
4. Method of actuation

1. Purpose:
As per the purpose brakes are classified as

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 1. Service or the primary
2. Parking or the secondary brakes.

The service brakes are the main brakes used for stopping the vehicle while in motion,
whereas the parking brakes are meant to hold the vehicle on a slope.

2. Location:
The brakes may be located either at the transmission output shaft or at the wheels. The brakes
which are located at the wheels have good ventilation and heat dissipation is good. Generally the
service brakes are located at the wheels and parking brakes are provided at the gear box output shaft.

3. Construction
a. drum brakes : In this brake drum are fixed on the axle and expansion of the brake shoes
caused for braking.
b. disc brakes: In this brake disc fixed on the axle and movement of the pistons caused for the
application of brakes.

4. Method of Actuation
Based on operating mechanism brakes are classified as follows:

(a) Mechanical brakes (b) Hydraulic brakes (d) Vacuum brakes (e) air brakes

(f) Servo brakes. (g) Power brakes

DRUM BRAKES:
In the drum brakes, a brake drum is attached concentric to the axle hub whereas on the axle
casing back plate is fixed. In case of front axle, the back plate is bolted to the steering knuckle.
Hence when the front wheels are rotated with steering. Back plate also moved along with the steering
knuckle. The back plate is made of pressed steel sheet. On the back plate brake shoes and
corresponding operating mechanism also mounted. The brake shoes are positioned on the back plate
with the help of fulcrum pins and shoes are pressed against the operating mechanism with the help of
a retaining spring. To avoid the raising of brake shoes locks are provided. In addition to this to adjust
the distance in between the brake shoes and brake drum cams are provided on the back plate as
shown in the fig. Brake shoes are provided with the frictional material. Hence if the brake shoes are
expands it will hold the brake drum firmly with the frictional material.

To operate the brake shoes different mechanisms are provided depending on the weight of vehicle
and braking effort required. Based on the operating mechanisms drum brakes are classified into

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a. Mechanical Brakes
b. Hydraulic brakes
c. Air brakes
d. Ari assisted hydraulic brakes

a. Mechanical Brakes: In the mechanical brakes cam or toggle lever is provided in between the
brake shoes. From the operating pedal or lever mechanical leverage is provided. Hence the applied
force is multiplied with the mechanical leverage and caused for rotation of the cam or toggle lever.
When the force is applied over the brake pedal , it is caused for the rotation of the cam and further it
is caused for the expansion of the brake shoes. Hence braking effort is applied over the brake drum.
When the force is released over the pedal due to the retention spring the brake shoes regains its
original position.

Leading shoe:

As shown in the fig. direction of rotation of the drum is counter clockwise and
fulcrum pin at the bottom and force is applied at the top of the brake shoe then the direction of
rotation tends to drag the shoe along with it. Hence it is caused for increasing of the braking effort.
Hence that brake shoe called as leading shoe.

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Trailing Shoe:

As shown in the fig. direction of rotation of the drum is clockwise and fulcrum pin at
the bottom and force is applied at the top of the brake shoe then the direction of rotation tends to
force against to the applied force. Hence it is caused for decreasing of the braking effort. Hence that
brake shoe called as trailing shoe.

If two shoes are leading shoes, then resultant braking effort is more. In such cases the
fulcrum pins are placed oppositely and two cam or toggle levers are used.

HYDRAULIC BRAKES:
Hydraulic brakes are works on the principle of Pascal’s law, i.e the intensity of the pressure
applied at one point on the incompressible fluid, it will distributed equally in all directions. To
saticify this principle one has to required two cylinders i.e first cylinder should have the smaller
diameter and second cylinder has the larger diameter. Both the cylinders should provided with
respective pistons the volume in between the pistons shoul filled with a incompressible liquid. Hence
when the pressure is applied over the fluid in the small diameter cylinder its intensity is equally
distributed in all directions in the large diameter cylinder hence the pressure will multiply and large
quatity of force is applied over the brake shoes as shown in the fig.

In the hydraulic braking system smaller diameter cylinder is called as master cylinder, and
larger diameter cylinder is wheel cylinder. Wheel cylinders are provided at the back plate of each
wheel i.e when the vehicle is provided with four wheels at four wheels four wheel cylinders are
provided. And all the four wheel cylinders are connected to a master cylinder which have smaller
diameter compression chamber. In between the master cylinder plunger and wheel cylinder pistons
incompressible brake fluid is filled. The pressure applied by the driver over the brake pedal transfer
to the plunger of the master cylinder though the mechanical linkages. According to Pascal’s law, that
pressure is multiplied and acted over the wheel cylinder pistons. The movement of the wheel
cylinder pistons caused for application of braking effort by the brake shoes. Lay out of the Hydraulic
braking system is shown in the diagram.

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 Layout of Hydraulic Brakes

Construction details of Master cylinder:

Basically the master cylinder have two chambers, one is reservoir and the other is
compression chamber. The reservoir top portion consists of opening for filling brake fluid, the
opening is provided with the cap with a vent hole. Hence the atmospheric pressure will act over the
brake fluid and it is caused for maintaining of atmospheric pressure over the brake fluid. The lower
portion of the reservoir is provided with compression chamber as shown in the fig. compression
chamber is connected to the upper reservoir through the intake and by pass ports. The compression
chamber is provided with a plunger the front of the plunger is provided with a primary cup and rear
portion is provided with secondary cup. The middle of the plunger is provided with annular space .
Hence that space is filled with the brake fluid. The primary cup closes the small holes which are
provided in the front flage of the plunger, when it is moving in forward direction. When the plunger
is moving in backward direction the primary cup will bent and it aloows the flow of brake fluid from
rear portion of the plunger to front portion. Infront of the primary cup, a piston returning spring is
connected. The other end of the piston return spring connected with the check valve. The check valve
is two way valve. Under the predetermined pressure the chck valve allows the flow of fluid in the

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forward direction and due to negative pressure it allows the flow of fluid in the opposite direction i.e
wheel cylinder to master cylinder. A dust prevention cap is provided at the end.

Construction details of wheel cylinder:

Wheel cylinder Exploded view of wheel cylider

The wheel cylinder is located on the back plate which at the wheel. The shape of the wheel
cylinder is in the form of sleeve that’s why it is also called as sleeve cylinder. It is working under the
master cylinder. Hence it is also called as slave cylinder. As shown in the fig. wheel cylinder is
having a cylindrical sleeve and ends are provided with the external slots to hold the dust prevention
caps. Two pistons are placed inside back to back a retention spring in between the pistons. Hence
these pistons are very close to each other in normal conditions. The wheel cylinder provided with the
inlet passage to allow the brake fluid and another jet also provided at the wheel cylinder it is brale
bleeding jet, to remove the air from the brake linings.

Linkages:
From brake pedal to Master cylinder:
From the brake pedal, Mechanical linkages are provided to the push rod of the master
cylinder. In the mechanical linkages some of force multiplication will takes place. The resultant force
will act over the plunger of the master cylinder
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From the master cylinders to wheel cylinders:

As shown in the fig. High pressure pipes are connected from the master cylinder
output to the wheel cylinder. While joining no leakage should present in the lines. Otherwise air will
entrapped in to the flow lines. Brake fluid is filled in the reservoir and it occupies the compression
chamber spaces. The fluid filled in the all flow line without air bubbles. Hence from the master
cylinder to the space in between the pistons of wheel cylinder brake fluid is present.
Working:
When the driver applies the force over the brake pedal, it is transferred to the push rod of the
master cylinder through the mechanical linkages. In the mechanical linkages some of force
multiplication will takes place. The resultant force will act over the plunger of the master cylinder.
As a result the plunger of the master cylinder will move forward and caused for the compressing the
brake fluid in the compression chamber. The pressure of the brake fluid will increase and after
reaching predetermined pressure the check valve will open and caused for flow of brake fluid under
pressure. Hence the pistons of the wheel cylinder will move away from each other. The movement is
caused for expansion of the brake shoes and braking force is applied over the brake drum.
When the driver removes the force over the brake pedal due to retaining spring in the master
cylinder plunger will move quickly to initial position and at wheel cylinders due to retaining sprin of
the brake shoes wheel cylinder pistons regains its original position. But the fluid in between the
master cylinder plunger and wheel cylinder piston will not move that much fast. Hence a partial
vacume is created Infront of the master cylinder plunger. Immediately this partial vacuum should be
compensated by the brake fluid otherwise, further braking is not possible. Hence the partial vacuum
is compensated by collapsing of the primary cup. When it is collapsed due to backward movement of
the piston the brake fluid which is at the rear portion of the plunger will come fron through the hole
provided in the flange of master cylinder. Now further braking is possible. When the brakes are not
applied , then the excess brake fluid again reach the reservoir through the bypass port. From the
primary port from the reservoir brake oil reaches the circumferential space of the plunger.

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Brake Bleeding:

Removing of air from the brake fluid flow lines is known as brake bleeding. Air is
compressible fluid. Hence if a single bubble of air present in the system the hydraulic brake system
will ineffective. To remove the air following procedure need to adopt:
1. Pump the brake pedal continually, until the pedal tight to pump. Hence the air in the flow
lines will compress. Hold the pedal in that position.
2. By placing bottle at the brake bleed nipple as shown in the fig. losen the nipple. The air along
with some brake fluid it will come out. The brake pedal will go down to the foot board. Inthat
position hold the pedal and tighten the nipple.
3. Again start pumping the brake pedal and repeat the above steps, until the air removed from
the lines.
4. Repeat the same procedure for all the wheel cylinders.

Tandem Master Cylinder:

The basic disadvantage with the master cylinder is a single cylinder connected to rear
and front brakes. Hence whenever the air entrapped at any place it caused for failure of both front
and rear brakes. Then vehicle is dangerous condition. To avoid that situation. Tandem master
cylinder is introduced. In the tandem master cylinder front and rear braking systems are separated.
Hence front brakes are failed rear will work and vice versa. As observed in the master cylinder in the
tandem master cylinder also same components but number is more. Two plungers, two check valves
two retaining springs, two intake and by pass ports ar existed as shown in the fig. The arrangement of
the plunger and remaining valves is also similar to the master cylinder. But the total compression
chamber is connected to the single reservoir.

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Working:
When the driver applies the force over the brake pedal, it is transferred to the push rod
of the master cylinder through the mechanical linkages. In the mechanical linkages some of force
multiplication will takes place. The resultant force will act over the first plunger of the master
cylinder. As a result the plunger of the master cylinder will move forward and caused for the
compressing the brake fluid in the compression chamber. The pressure of the brake fluid will
increase and after reaching predetermined pressure the check valve of the rear wheels will open and
caused for flow of brake fluid under pressure to rear wheel cylinders. Hence the pistons of the wheel
cylinder will move away from each other. The movement is caused for expansion of the brake shoes
and braking force is applied over the rear brake drums. The further movement of the plunger 1
caused for moving pushing of the plunger2. Due to that movement pressure of the brake fluid in the
front brake lines will increase and caused for opening of front check valve and brake fluid is flow to
the front wheel cylinder and caused for stopping of front wheels. In any case rear brakes are failed.
Then the plunger 1 is directly push the plunger 2 and caused for application of front brakes. If rear
brakes are failed, then the movement of plunger1 caused for the stopping of front wheels. The
compensation of the partial vacuum when the driver releases the force over brake pedal is done
similar to the master cylinder explained above.

PNEUMATIC BRAKES:
The responsive time of the air brakes is less than the hydraulic brakes. Hence air brakes are
very quickly operated. Generally air brakes are preferred for the heavy motor vehicles.
Construction details:
The main components of the air brakes are
1. Air compressor
2. Unloader vale
3. Reservoir
4. Brake valve.
The arrangement of these components is shown in the fig. At the back plate of the
wheels construction is similar to the drum brakes, i.e. brake shoes, fulcrum, adjusting pins are
similar. To operate the brake shoes S-cam is used. The S-cam is operated with help of diaphragm
valve, placed at the brake drum. The compressor is run by the crank shaft pulley. The suction end of
the compressor connected with the air filter and delivery end is connected with unloader valve.
Further it is connected to the reservoir. The reservoir is designed to operate at certain maximum
pressure. It the air pressure crosses the limit the unloader valve will bypass the air flow hence air is
entered into the outside atmosphere. The delivery of the reservoir connected to the brake valve. At
the wheel each wheel carries the diaphragm valve. The diaphragm valve is connected to the brake
valve

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Working: the Brake valve is provided at the foot of the driver. Hence driver can operate the brake
valve conveniently. Whenever the vehicle is fitted with the air brakes, in the reservoir min pressure is
required to operate the brakes. Hence driver has to check the air pressure after stating of the vehicle
immediately. After ensuring min pressure in the reservoir, he can drive the vehicle. To operate the air
brake driver has to operate the brake valve with pedal . the opening of the brake valve is caused for
flow of the compressed air from the reservoir to the diaphragm. Hence diaphragm will move in
forward direction and caused for the application of brakes. When the effort is released over the brake
pedal .the diaphragm is connected to the atmosphere and pressure released. The deficiency of the air
in the reservoir is compensated by compressor again.

AIR ASSISTED HYDRAULIC BRAKES (SERVO BRAKES):

In addition to the primary operating mechanism, if any additional per is added
then it is called as servo mechanism. Here air gives the extra effort to operate the hydraulic brakes.
This type of braking system is fitted for TATA vehicles.

Construction :
As shown in the fig. a small compressor connected by the side of the engine and it is run by the
eccentricity provided in the cam shaft. Suction end of the compressor is connected with the air filter
and delivery end connected with reservoir through the unloader valve. Hence when the compressor is
operated then air is filled in the reservoir upto predetermined value. if it is exceeds the unloader
valve releases the air in to outside atmosphere. The delivery of the reservoir is connected with the
diaphragm of the booster. The booster output shaft is connected with the plunger of the master
cylinder. Remaining hydraulic circuit is similar to the hydraulic braking system.

Working;
For this braking system also driver has ensure enough pressure in the reservoir. After that the
driver applies the brake it opens the valve in between reservoir and booster. Hence air under pressure
go to the booster. Hence the diaphragm of the booster move forwarded and caused for pushing the
operating lever of the master cylinder. Hence the hydraulic braking system is activated.

ELECTRIC BRAKES
This type of brakes, though not very popular, as service brakes, have been commonly
used on trailers. The current from the battery is utilized to energize an electromagnet within the
brake drum, which in turn actuates the mechanism (usually a cam) to expand the brake shoes. When
current stops, the cam and brake shoes are returned to the release position by retractor springs. The
severity of braking is controlled by means of a rheostat, which is operated by the driver through the
foot pedal. As an alternative to the foot-operated rheostat, hydraulic pressure has also been used to

52 | P a g e
apply electric brakes. As pedal is pressed more, hydraulic pressure actuates the rheostat to increase
current to the electromagnet.

Advantage of electric brakes

1.The operating linkage is much simplified in electric brakes. Instead of comp1icated linkage as in
mechanical brakes or pipe lines as in hydraulic brakes, these require only one cable for each drum.
2. Being electrically operated there is much less time lag between the pressing of the brake pedal and
application of brakes at the wheels, as compared to other systems.
3. For trailer brakes, this type offers much simplified connections; simply one cable has to be carried
to the trailer side.

DISC BRAKE:

Construction:
As shown in Fig. a disc brake consists of a cast iron disc bolted to the wheel hub and a
stationary housing called caliper. The caliper is connected to some stationary part of the vehicle, like
the axle casing or the stub axle and is cast in two parts, each part containing a piston. In between
each piston and the disc, there is a friction pad held in position by retaining pins, spring plates etc.
Passages are designed in the caliper for the fluid to enter or leave each housing. These passages are
also connected to another
one for bleeding. Each cylinder contains a rubber sealing ring between the cylinder and the piston.
When the brakes are applied, hydraulically actuated pistons move the friction pads into contact with
the disc, applying equal and opposite forces on the later. On releasing the brakes, the rubber sealing
rings act
as return springs and retract the pistons and the friction pads away from the disc.
For a brake of this type,

Constructional features
1. The discs of the brakes have been conventionally made of pearlitic gray cast iron. The material is
cheap and has good anti wear properties. Cast steel discs have also been employed in certain
cases, which wear still less and provide higher coefficient of friction; yet the big drawback in
their case is the less uniform frictional behavior. Recently materials like ceramics and carbon
fiber have also found their way into automotive brakes

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2. Two types of discs have been employed in various makes of disc brakes, i.e., the solid or the
ventilated type. The ventilated type, no doubt, provides better cooling. It is seen that using a
ventilated
disc results in reduction of about 30% in the pad temperatures, as compared to solid discs. This
results in longer pad life. However, the ventilated discs also have certain disadvantages. They are
usually thicker and even sometimes heavier than the solid discs. In case of severe braking conditions,
they are liable to wrap and moreover, the dirt accumulates in the vents, which, apart from affecting
cooling, results in wheel imbalance.
3. Some disc brakes use such friction pads as contain metallic contact inside. The contact is exposed
when the pad wears down to the specified thickness and thereby completes an electrical circuit which
lights up a warning lamp on the instrument panel, indicating to the driver that the pads need
replacement.

4. Some large pistons for disc brakes are made of hard plastic whereas in some other cases, these are
precision ground and plated with nickel chrome which provides them with a hard surface which is
durable.

Comparison of Disc and Drum types of brakes

1. In case of disc brakes friction surfaces are directly exposed to the cooling air, whereas in the drum
type, the friction occurs on the internal surfaces, from which heat can be dissipated only after it has
passed by conduction through the drum.

2. The friction pads in case of disc brakes are flat as compared to curved friction linings in case of
drum
brakes. This means that in disc brakes, there is uniform wear of friction pads. Moreover, the friction
pad material is not subjected to any bending, thereby increasing the range of materials from which to
choose the suitable one. Generally asbestos fiber with metal oxide fillers bonded with organic
compounds as the material used for friction pads.
3. Unlike the conventional drum brake, the design of disc brake is such that there is no loss
efficiency due to expansion. As the system becomes hot, expansion of a drum of internally-
expanding shoe type of brake tends to move the friction surfaces apart, causing a loss of effective
pedal travel. On the other hand, disc expansion merely changes the relative.

4. Disc brakes weigh less than their conventional drum type counterpart a saving of approximately
20 per cent being possible.

HAND BRAKE (SECONDARY BRAKES):

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 Hand brakes or the parking brakes operate independently. These are used for parking on
slopes and during emergency. Hence these are also called secondary brakes. Generally these brakes
use the same brake shoes as are for the main foot brakes, but they have to be actuated by a
completely separate mechanism than for the main i.e., the primary brakes. Most cars use mechanical
cable to actuate these.
Some cars with four-wheel disc brakes have a separate drum brake integrated into the hub of the rear
wheels. This drum brake is only for the secondary brake system and is actuated only by the cable; it
has no hydraulics. Hand brake is generally located on the side of the driver's seat. On most of the
vehicles hand brake applies only the rear brakes. A ratchet release handle to which the catch rod is
attached, is hinged on the handbrake lever. To the other end of the catch rod, pawl is attached, which
slides in the guide fixed on the brake lever. The brake lever itself is hinged on a bracket, which is
bolted to the chassis frame on the inside. On this bracket is also mounted a ratchet as shown in the
figure. The operating cable is attached to the lower end of the brake lever. To apply the brakes,
ratchet has to be released first. This is done by pressing the ratchet release handle, which causes the
pawl to move up, disengaging the ratchet. Then the brake lever is pulled up, which further pulls the
cable which operates the rear brakes mechanically through a linkage operating on the piston of the
rear wheel cylinder. which
is in two halves. The ratchet release handle, which had been pressed so far, is released now, so that
the pawl moves down with the spring action and engages with the ratchet thus keeping the brakes
applied.

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MODULE -2

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 AUTOMOBILE TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION TO CLUTCH
Function:
Clutch is a mechanism which connects or disconnects the transmission of power from one
shaft to other shaft, when both shafts axes are collinear and it is also allows the gradual engagement
of power to the other shaft. The clutch is located in between engine and the gear box.
In an automobile
a. While the vehicle is starting from rest the entire load of the vehicle engine can”t pull
suddenly, but gradually it can pull. For the gradual engagement of the load clutch is
required.
b. When driver apply brakes the vehicle will stop, but engine need to be run. The
disconnection of the power from the engine will caused for running of the engine and
stoping of the vehicle.
c. When the gears are shifted from one to other, the power should be disconnected for the drive
shaft. This is also saticified by the clutch.
d. Whenever the vehicle momentorly stoped, but the engine is required to be in running
condition,clutch is required.

REQUIREMENTS OF CLUTCH

1. Torque transmission without slipping: The clutch should be able to transmit the maximum
torque of the engine under all conditions. It is usually designed to transmit 125 to 150 per
cent of the maximum engine torque.
2. Gradual engagement : The clutch should positively take the drive gradually without the
occurrence of sudden jerks.
3. Heat dissipation: During clutch application, large amounts of heat are generated. The
rubbing surfaces should have sufficient area and mass to absorb the heat generated. The
proper design of the clutch should ensure proper ventilation or cooling for adequate
dissipation of the heat.
4. Dynamic balancing: At high speeds of rotation the clutch should balanced dynamically.
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 5. Vibration damping: Suitable mechanism should be incorporated within the clutch, to
eliminate noise produced in the transmission.
6. Size: The size of the clutch must be suitable to available space.
7. Inertia: The clutch rotating parts should have minimum intertia. Otherwise, when the clutch
is released for gear changing, the clutch plate will keep on spinning, causing hard shifting and
gear clashing in spite of synchronizer.
8. Clutch free pedal play: To reduce effective clamping load on the carbon thrust bearing and
wear thereof, sufficient clutch free pedal play must be provided in the clutch.
9. Ease of operation : For higher torque transmissions the operation of disengaging the clutch
must not be tiresome to the driver.

Types of Clutches:

Following are the main types of clutches:

1. Friction clutches
2. Fluid clutch

Principal of operation of Friction clutch:

Let shaft A and disc C keyed and revolving at same speed, say N r.p.m. Shaft B and the disc
D keyed and they are stationary. When these two are separate no power will be transferred to the
shaft B. Now apply some axial force on the disc D so that it comes in contact with disc C. As soon as
these two are in contact the dic D will rotate and power is transferred from C to D.

Factors Affecting the Power Transmission from Shaft A to Shaft B:

W = axial load applied on the driven member
µ =coefficient of friction in between the driver and driven discs
R = effective mean radius of friction surface

In the case of Clutch unit, Fly wheel, Pressure plate and clutch plate are the main
components. These three are parallel located and their axis is collinear. Fly wheel is driver, The axial
load is applied by the pressure plate and clutch plate carries the frictional surface. The frictional plate
is located in between the fly wheel and pressure plate. The internal splines of the clutch plate
engaged with the external splines of the out put shaft (clutch shaft / gearbox drive shaft). Hence the
principle of the frictional clutch is satisfied.

To provide better coefficient of friction following frictional materials used for the clutch plates:

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TYPES OF DRY FRICTION CLUTCHES:

• Single plate clutch

• Multi plate clutch
• Cone clutch
• Centrifugal clutch
• Semi-centrifugal clutch
• Diaphragm Clutch

Single Plate Clutch:

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Construction Details:

A simplified sketch of a single plate clutch is given in Fig. Friction Clutch plate is
held between the flywheel and the pressure plate. There are springs (the number may vary,
depending upon design) arranged circumferentially on rear of portion of the pressure plate, which
provide axial thrust force to keep the clutch in engaged position. The friction plate (Clutch plate) is
provided with a hub, and the hub have internal splines. The internal splines of the hub engaged with
external splines of the clutch shaft. One end of the clutch shaft is supported in the pilot bearing
which is provided in the flywheel and the other end is coneected to the gear box and that end acts as
input shaft for the gear box. Friction facing is attached to the friction plate on both sides to provide
two annular friction surfaces. A pedal is provided to pull the pressure plate against the spring force
whenever it is required to be disengaged. Ordinarily it remains in engaged position.

Construction details of Pressure plate

Working:
When the clutch pedal is pressed, the pressure plate is moved to the right against the
force of the springs. This is achieved by means of a suitable linkage and a release bearing (thrust
bearing).With this movement of the pressure plate, the friction plate is released and the clutch is
disengaged. Now the pressure plate clutch plate and fly wheel are separated. Hence there is no power
transmission from the engine to gear box.
When no force is applied on the clutch pedal, the spring force at the rear portion of the
pressure plate will caused for tight holding of the clutch plate against the fly wheel. Hence the power
is supplied from fly wheel to clutch cover, clutch cover to pressure plate, from the pressure plate to
frictional surface of the clutch plate, the to the splines at the hub, finally it is transferred to the gear
box shaft. Once the clutch is perfectly engaged, the fly wheel, clutch plate and pressure plate will
rotate as single unit, the power directly transferred from fly wheel to output shaft. Only the
disadvantage with the single plate clutch is, it requires more space to accommodate. Hence it is
suitable for heavy and light motor vehicles.
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Constructional Details of clutch plate of single plate clutch :

The clutch plate is not a single solid disc. But it is a composite disc. The hub of the clutch
plate is provided with the internal splines and it is connected to the disc with slots inside. In these
slots torsional spring are inserted. Hence the torsional stresses are absorbed by the springs in both
clockwise and counter clockwise directions. To this slotted disc cushioning springs are attached. The
se cushioning springs are plate twisted springs. The twisting of the plates it self gives the cushioning
effect. The axial trust force is resisted by these springs. The cushioning springs are split into small
plates. Hence heat dissipation also good from the frictional surfaces. To the cushioning springs the
clutch lining is attached with the help of revits as shown in the fig.

Multi Plate Clutch:

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 The main advantage of multi plate clutch is for the same torque transmission the size of the
clutch is less than the single plate clutch. Hence it can be adoptable at narrow spaces. Mainly it is
suitable for two wheelers.

Construction details:
In the multi plate clutch number of metal plates and clutch plates are provided as per the
requirement. The clutch plates having internal splines and metal plates having external splines as
shown in the fig. A slotted drum is fixed to the fly wheel unit. Hence when the engine is operated the
slotted drum will rotate along with the fly wheel unit. Into these slots the extended portions of the
metal plates are inserted. The output shaft the clutch is splined shaft. One end of the output shaft is
supported in the pilot bearing of the flywheel and the other end is connected with the gear box. The
splines of the output shaft engaged with the internal extensions of clutch plate. A pressure plate is
connected at the end of the metal plates and clutch plates. The pressure plate operated with the help
of mechanical leverage to the clutch pedal.

Working:
When the clutch pedal is pressed, the pressure plate is away from the flywheel against
the force of the springs. This is achieved by means of a suitable linkage and a release bearing (thrust
bearing).With this movement of the pressure plate, the friction plates and clutch plates are released.
The frictional plates and metal plates are free to rotate and the clutch is in disengaged position.
Hence there is no power transmission from the engine to gear box.
When no force is applied on the clutch pedal, the spring force at the rear portion of the
pressure plate will caused for tight holding of the clutch plates and metal plates against the fly wheel.
Hence the power is supplied from fly wheel to clutch drum, clutch drum to metal plates, from the
metal plates to frictional plates, form the frictional plates to output shaft. Finally it is transferred to
the gear box shaft. Once the clutch is perfectly engaged, the fly wheel, metal plates, clutch plates and
pressure plate will rotate as single unit, the power directly transferred from fly wheel to output shaft.

Cone Clutch:

A simplified diagram of the cone clutch shown in the fig. In this type the contact surfaces are
in the form of cones. In the engaged position, the male cone is fully inside the female cone so that the
friction surfaces are in complete contact. This is done by means of springs which keep the male cone
pressed all the time. When the clutch is engaged, the torque is transmitted from the engine via the fly
wheel and the male cone to the splined gear box shaft. For disengaging the clutch the male cone is
pulled out by means of the lever system operated through the clutch pedal thereby separating the
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contact surfaces. The only advantage of the cone clutch is that the normal force acting on the contact
surfaces is larger than the axial force, as compared to the simple single plate clutch. In the case of
single plate clutch the normal force acting on the contact surfaces is equal to the axial force. But
disengaging of the cone clutch requires more force than the engaging. Hence it is having limited
applications.

Centrifugal Clutch:

A. Centrifugal Weight
B. Bell crank lever
C. Pressure plate
D. Clutch plate
E. Retention aprings
F. Flywheel
G. Lock springs
H. Clutch cover
P. Lever end to operate pressure plate

For the centrifugal clutch on clutch pedal is required. The clutch is engaged with help of
centrifugal force produced during the roatation of the clutch.

Construction: Similar to the single plate clutch centrifugal clutch also contains, flywheel, pressure
plate and clutch plate. Flywheel is connected with the clutch cover and further it is connected with
the pressure plate. Hence when the flywheel is rotated clutch cover and the pressure plate also
rotated. A centrifugal weight with a bell crank lever as shown in the fig connected to the clutch
cover. Clutch plate is located in between the pressure plate and the flywheel and axes of fly wheel,
clutch plate and pressure plate are collinear. The clutch plate is connected to the output shaft.

Working: When the engine is in rest and when the engine speed is below 500 rpm flywheel,
pressure plate, clutch plate are separate due to the spring force provided for the pressure plate.
Because the centrifugal force which is produced at below 500 rpm is less than the spring force. When
flywheel clutch plate and pressure plate are separated there is no power transmission to the output
shaft. When the speed of the engine is more than the 500rpm than due to the rotation of clutch cover
centrifugal weight will fly away from the center. The corresponding movement is transferred to the
pressure plate through the bell crank lever. As a result the pressure plate will push towards the fly
wheel and caused for tight holding of the clutch plate. Hence power is transmitted from the flywheel
to clutch and further it is transferred to the output shaft. Again if the speed of the engine is less than
the 500rpm during the travel it will disengage and vice versa. Hence no cltch pedal or lever is

63 | P a g e
required to operate this clutch. But at the start of engaging the percentage of slip will be more and
one it is engaged fully the slip will decrease.
Semi-Centrifugal Clutch:

Centrifugal clutch will not transfer the power at low speeds. To compensate that
disadvantage semi centrifugal clutch is designed.
Construction:
In the semi centrifugal clutch in addition to the centrifugal weights spring also provided at the
rear portion of the pressure plate. For the semi centrifugal clutch, clutch pedal is required. For small
torque transmission the clutch springs designed so that they have sufficient strength for applying the
required amount of force and at the same time are not so stiff as to cause strain to the driver while
disengaging. The clutch springs are designed to transmit the torque at normal speeds, while for
higher speeds, centrifugal force assists in torque transmission.

Working:
When the vehicle is at rest or no force applied over the clutch pedal, the clutch is in engaged
position. i.e the pressure plate clutch plate and flywheel are together, due to spring force. When the
driver applies the force over the brake pedal, then the pressure plate will pull back due the
mechanical linkages, against the spring force. At this condition the clutch plate not tightly hold by
the pressure plate, No power is transferred to the output shaft. Again when the force over the clutch
pedal is removed due to spring force pressure plate will move towards the fly wheel and tightly hold
the clutch plate. Hence power will transfer to output shaft. At the higher speeds of rotation of the
clutch cover caused for application of centrifugal force on the pressure plate. Hence both spring force
and centrifugal force acts on the pressure plate. So that slip will reduce and power transmission
efficiency will increase. But only the disadvantage is, it requires more force to disengage at higher
speeds.
Diaphragm Clutch:

Construction:
In the diaphragm clutch fingers and springs are replaced by the single diaphragm.
The remaining components are similar to single plate clutch. At the rear portion of the pressure plate
a metallic diaphragm is provided and initially the the diaphragm is in convex shape, but when the
pressure is applied over the pedal, the diahram shape is converted into concave, Hence the clutch will
64 | P a g e
disengaged. The shape of the diaphragm as shown in the Fig. the anuular portion is connected to the
pressure plate and central portion is oprated with help of release bearing. Due to elimination of the
fingers and springs the weight of the clutch unit is reduced. The other advantage is clutch finger
adjustment is not required. Because it is a single plate. Maintainance also less compared with other
clutches.

Working:
When the pressure applied over the clutch pedal, it caused for the operation of release
bearing. The release bearing will press the pressure plate at the rear portion of the diaphragm at the
ceter. Hence the the covex shape of the diaphragm is chages to concave and caused for pulling of the
pressure plate. Now there is no pressure over the clutch plate, it is free to rotate. Hence on out put
obtained at the out put shaft. This is disengaged position.
When the pressure over the clutch pedal released then again the diaphragm will
regains its original shape, and caused for pushing of the pressure plate towards the fly wheel unit.
Hence the flywheel unit and clutch plate and pressure plate hold together tightly and caused for

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transfer of power. This engaged position. The engaged and dis engaged positions are shown in the
fig.

Electromagnetic Clutch:

This type of clutch has been employed on some Renault cars. The construction and working
of this clutch may be understood by means of simplified Fig.. A is the engine flywheel incorporating
the winding B. Clutch plate Cis lined with friction surfaces and is free to slide on splines on the
clutch shaft. D is the pressure plate. The winding B is supplied with current from battery dynamo.
When the winding B is energized, it attracts the pressure plate D, thereby engaging the clutch. When
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supply to winding B is cut off, the clutch is disengaged. There is a clutch release switch in the gear
lever. This switch is operated as soon as the driver holds the gear lever to change the gear, cutting off
current to the winding and thus causing clutch disc engagement. Ordinarily the winding is connected
to engine dynamo. At lower engine speeds, dynamo output is also low which makes the force in
winding very small. Three springs are also provided in the clutch (not shown) to balance this reduced
electromagnetic force at low speeds, thus disengaging the clutch. During normal operation, the
electromagnetic force of the winding is regulated by means of an electrical resistance, which itself is
controlled by means of accelerator pedal. As the acceleration pedal is pressed the resistance is
gradually cut, thus increasing the electromagnetic force. The electromagnetic type of clutch is best
suited where remote operation is desired since no linkages are required to control its engagement. A
major limitation of this type is that of heat capacity since the clutch-operating temperature is limited
by the temperature rating of the insulation of the magnetic coil. Another disadvantage is its higher
initial cost.

Dog Clutch:

Dog clutch is a positive clutch. This type of clutch is used in the constant mesh gear box. out
of driver and driven shaft one shaft is provided with the external teeth and other shaft is provided
with internal splines as shown in the fig. Ends of these splines in the form of triangular and
resembles the dog teeth. Due to triangular shape its engaging and disengage.Due to engaging of these
external and internal splines the power will transferred from one shaft to other. There is no slop in
between the shafts. Hence it is also called as positive clutch.

Fluid Clutch or fluid flywheel:

Principal of operation: the principle of operation of fluid clutch can be explained by using two table
fans. These two fans are need to be put in opposite to each other as shown in the fig. for one fan the
power is supplied and the other fan is not supplied with power. But due to rotation of the first fan the
second fan also rotated. When the first one rotated due to electric power, it exerts the force over the
surrounding air. The air with higher kinetic energy it creats impulse over the second fan and caused
for rotation. In the similar way the driver and driven members of the clutch are placed. Driver is
connected to the fly wheel and driven member is connected to the out put shaft. The transfer of
momentum from driver to driven depends on
1. The distance in between the members
2. Shape of the members
3. The type of fluid in between the members
4. The direction of motion of the fluid.

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From the second diagram one can observe the driver and driven members clearly which is very
nearer to the actual operation of the fluid flywheel.

Construction of fluid fly wheel:

The fluid fly wheel has one driver and one driven members and driver is called as impeller
and driven member is called as rotor. The se two are oppositely placed and these are enclosed in a
casing. In between the driver and driven members hydraulic fluid is filled. The driver and driven
members are in the shell form as shown in the fig. in the shells radial vanes are provided. So that
good impulsive force is acted over the fluid in the driver and driven members. The driver is directly
connected to the flywheel. Whereas driven member is connected on the splines of the out put shaft.
The output shaft one end is supported on the driver with a bearing and the other end is connected
with the gear box.

Working of fluid fly wheel:

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 A simplified fluid fly wheel diagram is shown in the above fig. Left side member can be
considered as impeller and right side member is rotor. Impeller receives the power from the fly
wheel and it will rotate. Due to its rotation the fluid which is nearby receives the kinetic energy and
move away from the axis of rotation. With that higher kinetic energy fluid is moving from the
impeller to rotor tangentially at the circumference. Hence the fluid exerts more force on the rotor and
rotor will rotate. Once the energy is transferred to the rotor fluid will move near to the axis of
rotation. Again it is entered into the impeller and receives the energy the process is continued. Hence
the power is transferred to the rotor. Further it is transferred to the gear box. there is no rigid linkage
in between the impeller and rotor and when the speed of the engine is higher then slip will low and
speed of the engine is low slip will be higher. When speed is below the minimum required speed, it
will disengage. Hence this fluid fly wheel not required any pedal to operate. Gear changing also can
be done directly.

GEAR BOX
Necessity of Gear Box :
According to torque & speed requirements of the vehicle the gear box will provide respective
speed and torque. Following are the respective conditions,
1. At the time of starting: At the time of start of the vehicle, the total inertial load should be pull
by the engine. At that time more torque is required rather than the speed.
2. At the time of climbing the gradients: At the time of climbing the gradients, the gradient
resistance acting against the motion . hence more torque is required.
3. Vehicle fully loaded : When the vehicle fully Loaded rolling resistance will increase. Hence
more torque is required.
4. Moving after braking: when brake are applied the vehicle come to rest. Again it has to move,
hence more torque is required.
5. Moving on plain roads: When the vehicle is in moving condition, and if it is moving over the
plain road the torque required is less and when the vehicle is moving with high speed for
same power input, millage will be good.
For all these conditions the gear box will provide required speed and torque.

Principal of operation of a Gear Box:

we know the power transmission equation, as shown below

Power transmitted (P)= 2Π N T/ 60,000 kW

Where
P= Input power to the Gear box
N= RPM of the Gear box output shaft
T= Torque available at the Gear box Output Shaft

For the Constant input power the speed and torque of output shaft of the gear box inversely
proportional.

T∞1/N
i.e When the torque availbilty at the output shaft incrases speed availability at that shaft will
decrease for the given input power, and vice- versa also true.
But the speed of the gear wheels is the function of diameter.
N2/N1 = D1/D2
Where
N1 = Speed of the driver member
N2 = Speed of the driven member
i.e By maintaining different diameters for the driver and driven members one can get the
different speeds. When the power is transferred from the smaller diameter wheel to larger
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 diametered wheel the speed will decrese and the power is transferred from the larger
diametered wheel to smaller diametered wheel the speed will increase. Based on these
principles Gear box will work.

The main components of G.B are

1. Drive shaft
2. Counter shaft or lay shaft
3. Main shaft or output shaft

Construction details:
The Drive shaft is nothing but clutch shaft. Hence when ever the clutch is in engaged position
the power is received by the drive shaft of the gear box. Counter shaft is parallel to the main shaft
and it is a single shaft. Counter shaft having different diameter gear wheels. From left to right, the
diameter of the gear wheels gradually decreases. The Bigger gear wheel of the counter shaft is in
engage with the drive shaft. Hence all the gear wheels are in rotating condition. The output shaft one
end is supported on the drive shaft bearing the other end is connected to the universal joint and the
output shaft is parallel to the counter shaft. The output shaft is splined shaft, and gear wheels are
mounted on the output shaft. it is parallel to ht e counter shaft. Counter shaft gear wheels are drivers
for the output shaft gears. To engage these gears different mechanisms are provided.

Based on the different types of engaging mechanism the gear box are classified into
1. Sliding mesh Gear Box
2. Constant mesh Gear Box
3. Synchromesh Gear box.

Sliding Mesh Gear Box

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Simplified Diagram of Sliding Mesh Gear Box

3- Speed Sliding mesh Gear Box

In the sliding mesh Gear box, the gear wheels of the out put shaft having internal splines, and
out put shaft having external splines. The internal splines of the gear wheels are incontact with the
external splines of the shaft.Due to sliding of the Gears on the output shaft gears will engage as
shown in the fig.

Working:
When the clutch is in engaged position, the drive shaft will rotate. Hence counter shaft along
with the gears it will rotate. A constant reduction of speed and increasing of torque at the drive shaft
and counter shaft. All the gear wheels on the counter shaft having same angular velocity. When the
gears of counter shaft and output shaft are not in engaged position as shown in the fig. no output
from the gear box. that is neutral position.

Engaging of 1st gear:

When the larger diameter gear wheel (D) on the output shaft is shifted towards gear (C) and
engaged with it, the power will transferred from drive shaft to lay shaft, further from gear wheel C to
Gear wheel D. From Gear wheel D to output shaft through the splines the power will transfer.
Counter shaft gear is drive Gear and main shaft gear is driven gear. The power is transferred from the
smaller diameter wheel to larger diameter wheel. Hence the speed will decrease and torque available
will be more at the output shaft. Maximum loads are pull by the engine in the 1st gear. So that the
first gear also called as load gear.

Engaging of 2nd Gear:

To engage the second gear, first the gear which is in engaged position should be neutralized.
After that the F gear is shifted towards the E gear and engaged with it,the power will transferred
from drive shaft to lay shaft, further from gear wheel E to Gear wheel F. From Gear wheel F to
output shaft through the splines the power will transfer. Counter shaft gear is drive Gear and main
shaft gear is driven gear. The power is transferred from the smaller diameter wheel to larger diameter
wheel. But the drive gear diameter is more than the drive gear of the 1st gear. Hence the speed will
more than the 1st gear and torque available will be less than the 1st gear at the output shaft.

Engaging of 3rd Gear:

To engage the 3rd gear, first the gear which is in engaged position should be neutralized. After
that the F gear is shifted towards the A gear (drive Gear) and engaged with it. The gear wheel F
having another ring at the left side with internal teeth and drive shaft having a ring of gear teeth on
roght side. Hence these two rings are engaged. The power will transferred from drive shaft to gear
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wheel F Directly.. From Gear wheel F to output shaft through the splines the power will transfer. The
power is transferred directly from the drive shaft. Hence whatever the speed and torque available at
the drive shaft transferred to the output shaft. The speed availability is higher than the all other gears.
Hence this gear will called as top gear.

Engaging of Reverse Gear:

To engage the Reverse gear, first the gear which is in engaged position should be neutralized.
After that the D gear is shifted towards the G gear. In between D gear and G gear an idler is provided
hence the direction of the rotation of the out put shaft will change. Here the power is transferred from
smaller gear wheel to larger gear wheel the torque obtained is higher and speed is less. From Gear
wheel D to output shaft through the splines the power will transfer.

Disadvantages of sliding mesh Gear Box:

Even though the sliding mesh gear box is simple in construction and operation it is having
following disadvantages:
1. High impulsive force on the gears during engagement: All the gear wheels on the Sliding
mesh gear box are provided with the spur teeth only, because they have slide and engage.
Due to spur teeth during the engagement it will creat high impulsive force on driven gear.
2. More wear& tear: There is a scope of producing of smaller metal components in large
quantity during the operation. These elements are retained over the flank of the gears and acts
as abrasion material. Hence wear and tear is more
3. Noisy in operation: Due to continues hitting of the spur gears during the operation more noise
is produced
4. Engaging and disengaging is difficult: The gears are engaged in the rotating condition and
disengaged in the rotating condition. Hence engaging and disengaging is difficult, when it is
compared with constant mesh and synchromesh gear boxes.
5. Suitable for low speed operations: sliding and engaging can be done at slow speeds only, but
not for the high speeds.
Constant Mesh Gear Box GBC-30 :

Constant mesh Gear Box

(Simplified fig.)
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 In the constant mesh gear box the disadvantages of sliding mesh gear box are over
come. In this gear box all the gears of the counter shaft and main shaft are in engaged position and
they are provided with helical teeth. Hence high impulsive forces during the engagement of the gears
and noisy operation is overcome. Dog clutches are provided in between the gears. Dog teeth are in
triangular shape. Hence engaging of triangular teeth is easier than the spur teeth. It can be used for
high speed operations.
Construction:
The constant mesh gear box also similar to sliding mesh gear box driveshaft, lay shaft
and output shaft is existed.But all the gear wheels on the lay shaft and main shaft are in engaged
position. In between the main shaft gears and main shaft bushes are provided. Even though continues
engagement of gears of main shaft and counter shaft caused for rotation of the gears on main shaft,
that rotation will not transferred to the main shaft due to bushes. The gear wheels on the main shaft
provided with the annular rings at the side as shown in the fig. these annular rings are provided with
the internal dog teeth. In between two gear wheels on dog clutch is provided as shown in the fig. on
either sides of the dog clutch externally dog teeth are provided. The dog clutch at the hub portion it is
provided with internal splines, and these splines are meshed with the external splines of the main
shaft.In the fig Dog clutches are A&B, Gears are shown with numbers.

Working: When the clutch is in engaged position, the drive shaft will rotate. Hence counter shaft
along with the gears it will rotate. A constant reduction of speed and increasing of torque at the drive
shaft and counter shaft. All the gear wheels on the counter shaft having same angular velocity. All
the gear wheels on the main shaft are in engaged with the counter shaft gears hence all are rotating
with the counter shaft. But due to the bush in between the main shaft gears and main shaft that
rotation is not transferred to the main shaft.
The Gear set 3&7 gives the 1st gear (Load Gear)
The Gear set 2&8 gives the 2nd gear
The Gear 9 gives the 3rd gear (Top Gear)
The Gear set 4,5 &6 gives the reverse gear.

Engaging of 1st gear:

When the Dog clutch B moved towards the 3&7 Gear set and when it is engaged, the speed
ratio of 3&7 transferred to dog clutch B. the internal splines of the dog clutch engaged with external
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splines of main shaft. Hence the corresponding torque and speed are transferred to the out put shaft.
In 3&7 gear set the power is transferred from smaller gear wheel to larger gear wheel, obviously it
produces more torque and less speed.
Engaging of 2nd Gear:
To engage the 2nd gear first one has to disengage the first gear by shifting the dog clutchB to
neutral position. Later the Dog clutch A moved towards the Gear 8 and when it is engaged, the speed
ratio of 2&8 transferred to dog clutch A. the internal splines of the dog clutch engaged with external
splines of main shaft. Hence the corresponding torque and speed are transferred to the out put shaft.
In 2&8 gear set the power is transferred from smaller gear wheel to larger gear wheel, obviously it
produce more torque and less speed. But torque provided is less than the 1st gear and speed is more
than the 1st gear.

Engaging of 3rd Gear:

To engage the 3rd gear first one has to disengage the 2nd gear by shifting the dog clutch A to
neutral position. Later the Dog clutch A moved towards the Gear 9 and when it is engaged, the speed
of gear 9 is transferred to dog clutch A. the internal splines of the dog clutch engaged with external
splines of main shaft. Hence the corresponding torque and speed are transferred to the output shaft.
Gear 8 is drive gear hence whatever be the speed of that, it is transferred to the output shaft.

Engaging of Reverse Gear:

To engage the Reverse gear first one has to disengage the already engaged gear by shifting
the dog clutch to neutral position. Later the Dog clutch B is moved towards the Gear set 4,5,6 and
when it is engaged, the speed ratio of gear 4,5,6 is transferred to dog clutch B. the internal splines of
the dog clutch engaged with external splines of main shaft. Hence the corresponding torque and
speed are transferred to the output shaft. Gear 5 is idler gear hence the direction of the output shaft
will be reversed. In the reverse gear torque obtained is more and speed is less.

Disadvantages
Double declutching :
Double declutching is drawback of the constant mesh gear box. Operating the clutch two
times when the gear is shifted from one to other is known as double de clutching. The gear wheels on
the main shaft are in continues engage with the counter shaft. Hence inertial load on the counter shaft
will be more. Hence when ever power disengaged the gear wheels tends to come to rest. The dog
clutches are connected to the out put shaft through the splines. Hence when the vehicle is in moving
dog clutches will rotate. Let the gear is shifted from 1st to 2nd. To disengage the 1st gear first one has
to press the clutch and make dog clutch neutral. In that condition the gear wheels tends to slow
down, but due to movement of the vehicle dog clutches having high speed. In that condition 2nd gear
dog clutch is try to engage, it will not engaged due to vast speed difference. Now again one has to
release the clutch give the acceleration, so that speed of the gears will increase. Now again press the
cluth and engage the second gear. Likewise it is required to operate the clutch twice when the gears
are shifted. If it is 5 speed gear box to move from the 1st to top gear 9times the clutch required to
operate. This is the drawback of the constant mesh gearbox.

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Synchromesh gear box
GBS-40

Construction:
In the synchromesh gear box the drawback of constant mesh gear box is rectified. The construction
of synchromesh gear box is very much similar to the constant mesh gear box. But the gear wheels
which are on the main shaft having taper in addition to the annular gear. The synchronizing unit is
also very much similar to dog clutch. But it is having two rings, one is inner ring and other one is
outer ring. The inner ring having the taper inside and the outer ring carries a spring loaded ball and
dog teeth. The inner ring having inertia splines at the hub and external splines of the output shaft
engaged with the internal splines.

Working:
When the first gear need to engage, the synchronizing unit S2 required to move towards the Gear D.
When it is moving the inner and outer rings will move as one unit, due to spring lock. Due to this
movement the tapered portion of the synchronizing unit will engage with tapered portion of the gear
first as shown in fig a. Hence even though vast difference existed in between the gear wheel and
synchronizing unit both acquires same speed. Now further movement of the outer ring will caused
for release of spring lock and dog teeth are engaged with the annular ring of the gear wheel as shown
in fig b. Hence from the gear wheel synchronizing unit receives the power without slip and further it
is transferred to the out put shaft. Simlarly for other gears engaged. Due to the taper portion in the
synchronizing unit double declutching is eliminated.
a. Just before engagement b. after engagement

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Gear selector Mechanism:

Gear selecting mechanism or shifting mechanism for sliding mesh gear box, constant mesh
gear box and synchromesh gear box is more or less it is same. As shown in the fig gear selecting
forks are at the end and they engaged with gears of the the out put shaft in case of sliding mesh gear
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box and they are engaged with the dog clutches in case of constant mesh gear box, and they are
engaged with the synchronizing units in the case of synchromesh gear boxes. For engaging two gears
one fork is sufficient. The forward moment of the selecting ring engages one gear, and backward
movement of the fork will engages the other gear. For a 4 speed gear box 3 selector rods are
provided. Two for the forward and one for the reverse as shown in the fig. The forks are connected
with the selecting rods the selecting rods are located in the gear box top cover. At one end of the
levers a horizontal slot is provided for each rod. In the neutral position all three slots will collinear.
Into this slots end of the gear selector rod will inserted. At the middle of the gear selecting rod a ball
joint is provided. Hence the gear selecting rod can move freely either in the forward/ back ward
direction or left/right directions. To lock the selecting rods in the particular position spring loaded
ball mechanism is provided. To engage the first as per the diagram given above move the gear
selector rod extream right and move it in the backward direction. Hence the first gear will engage. If
it is shifted to backwards in the same position second gear will engage. If the gear lever is at the
middle and if it is move in forward direction third gear will engage and if it is move in the back ward
fourth gear will engage. If the gear rod is moved to the extreme left if it is move in forward direction
reverse will engage. The gear selecting directions vehicle to vehicle it will change as per the design.

Gear shifting Mechanism at Steering:

In some of the cars the gear selecting mechanism is provided at the steering column. The basic
mechanism in the gear box cover will be the same but operating mechanism is provided at the
steering column. At steering column parallel to the column another rod is provided for the gear
shifting mechanism. A tongue is provided on the gear lever rod. The tongue located in between two
brackets. The brackets are connected with the gear levers operating mechanism. When the brackets
are at middle it is neutral position. When the brackets are rotated in clockwise one ger wil engage
and if the bracket is rotated in the other direction another gear will engage through the operating
mechanism. With two brackets one can used to engage four gears. Corresponding gears engagement
direction as shown in the fig..

Advanced Gear boxes are:

1.Epicyclic Gear box:
Epicyclic gearbox-consists of two, three or even four epicyclic or planetary gear sets. A
simple gear set as shown in Fig. has a sun gear, about which planets turn round. These planet gears
are carried by a carrier and a shaft and are also in mesh internally with a ring gear, which is also
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called annulus or internal gear sometimes. Different torque ratios i.e. speed ratios are obtained by
making anyone of the parts, viz, the sun gear, the planets and the annulus stationary. Similarly by
locking two parts with each other, a solid drive i.e. direct gear is obtained.

Epicycle Gear box:

Working of Epicyclic gear train:

The Working of Ericyclic gear train explained by considering sun gear wheel as driver and
planetary pinions are the driven members and brakes are provided over the annular gear as shown in
the above fig. When the brakes are not applied over the annular gear, it is free to rotate about its axis.
The engine out put shaft is connected to the sun gear wheel. Hence when the engine is in running
sungear will rotated and it is caused for the rotation of the planatory pinions about their axes
(planetary pinions are provided with bushes at their hubs). Due to that rotation annular gear will
rotated about its own axis,but the carrier will not rotated, hence there is no power output. When the
brakes are applied over the annular gear then the rotation of the annular will stoped. Now the
planatory pioins are rotated about their own axis and they are rotated about the sun gear axis. Hence
the cage will rotated and the out put is obtained at the shaft. The engaging and disengaging is done
by operating the brakes over the annular. These brakes may be operated by solenoid switch. Then by
operating the switches in the dash board one can engage or dis engage the epicyclic gear box.
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There may be six possible speeds, four of which are forward and two reverse: . .
(i) Forward, fast output speed - This is obtained when ring is driving, planet carrier is driven and the
sun gear is held stationary.
(ii) Forward, very fast output speed - This is obtained when planet is driving, sun gear is driven and
the ring gear is held stationary.
(iii) Forward, slow output speed - With planet carrier driving, ring gear driven and the sun gear
stationary,
(iv) Forward, very slow output speed - This results when the sun gear is driving, planet carrier driven
and the ring gear stationary.
(v) Reverse, slow output speed - This is obtained when the sun gear is driving, the ring gear is driven
and the planet carrier is stationary.
(vi) Reverse, fast output speed - This condition is obtained with the ring gear driving, sun gear driven
and the planet carrier stationary.

Working of 2-speed epicyclic Gear

Construction:
As shown in fig input shaft is connected with the ring gear. The output shaft is
connected with the planetary pinions the planetary pinions further connected with the metal plates of
the multi plate clutch. The clutch plates of the multi plate clutch are in connection with tubular shaft
of the sun gear. In between the sun gear and output shaft bush is provided. Hence the rotation of the
sun gear will not affect the output shaft rotation. The brake shoes are provided over the brake drum
which is connected with the tubular shaft of the sun gear.

Working:
In the two forward speeds epicyclic gear box, Direct gear is obtained by releasing the brake
and engaging the clutch. This locks the sun wheel and the planet carrier. Lower gear is obtained
when brake is applied which locks sun gear S. If, for example, number of teeth of the ring gear and
sun wheel are respectively.

Advantage of epicyclic gear box:

The advantage of epicyclic gearing is thus obvious. All the gears are in constant mesh and to
engage any desired gear one simply has to apply the particular brake or the clutch. For this, the drive
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from the engine need not be disconnected as in case of ordinary crash type gear box. The gear
changing operation thus becomes very easy with an epicyclic gear box, which makes it suitable for
use in automatic transmissions.

FREEWHEEL UNIT

In some vehicles a freewheel unit (also called one way clutch) is provided just after the gear
box. In the Fig. the construction of free wheel unit is shown. It is very much similar in action to the
bicycle free wheel. The inner driving member is connected to the gear box shaft and the outer one to
the propeller shaft. The driving member has three steps as shown in figure. In each step there are
three spring-mounted rollers. When the driving member is rotating in the direction shown in the
figure the driven member will also be rotating in the same direction, because of insertion of the
rollers in the narrow spaces in between the driver and driven members. But when the driven member
becomes the driving member (when the speed of the driven member more than the driving member)
e.g., when the car is going downhill with the engine stopped or clutch disengaged, the inner member
will not rotate along with the outer one, because the rollers are occupied the wider spaces in between
driver and driven. Thus in this case the transmission and the engine will be isolated from the wheels.
This results in fuel economy. In some instances, the freewheel has to be locked, e.g. in reverse drive.
In such cases the provision of locking the freewheel drive is there. There is a dog clutch provided
whose teeth can engage with the teeth on the inside of the outer free-wheel member. The dog clutch
is automatically engaged by a connection from the reverse gear selector. There is also a provision for
the manual locking of the freewheel.

The advantages of using a freewheel at the end of the gear box shaft are:
1. The engine can idle simply by closing the throttle without bringing the gears in neutral. Thus gear
changing at low speed is much simplified
2. Less wear on the transmission because whenever the car free wheels, the engine and the gear box
are disconnected from the propeller shaft.
3. On long downward slopes, an appreciable amount of fuel will be saved. The saving may be upto
20 per cent. However, the main disadvantage is that as there is no resistance due to engine and gear
box friction while freewheeling, the brakes must be used more effectively to stop the vehicle on a
downward slope. Freewheel is also used as essential component of torque converter in modern
automatic transmissions.

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Torque converter:

Construction :
The construction of a torque converter is similar to that of the fluid flywheel, the only difference
being that it has an additional stationary member called the stator or the reaction member and all the
members have blades or vanes of specific shape. The operation of fluid fly wheel and torque
converter however is, not similar. Whereas the fluid flywheel transmits the same torque as given to it
by the engine shaft, the torque converter increases the torque in a ratio of about 2 : 1 to 3 : 1. Thus
it serves the same purpose as that of a gear box and that too in a better way. Whereas in the gear box
the torque variation is only in finite number of steps, in the case of torque converter torque output
variation is continuous. However, the efficiency of a torque converter is high only within narrow
limits of speed.
A single stage torque converter is shown in Fig. It consists of 3 main parts, viz
(i) the impeller or the driving member which is connected to the engine,
(ii) the turbine or the driven member which is connected to the road wheels through the transmission
gears and the drive line,
(iii) the stator fixed to, the frame through a free wheel.
In addition, there is a transmission oil pump which keeps the converter full of oil
under pressure. Pressure is necessary to keep the converter full of oil when rotating. Due to rotation
the centrifugal force pushes the oil in the outward direction and this tends to form air pockets near
the centre of the converter. This phenomenon of forming air pockets due to low pressure is called
cavitation , to avoid which the converter pressure is kept between 2to 12 bar.

Working:
When the engine is started, the impeller starts rotating. Initially, the oil from the impeller is
pushed into the turbine because of the higher centrifugal force at the impeller.Thus the oil, having
taken high kinetic energy from the engine through the impeller, hits the outer edge of the turbine.
This flow of the high energy oil provides the force that tends to rotate the turbine. This force
increases with the increase of engine speed. When it is great enough the turbine starts rotating and
the vehicle moves. The turbine blade angle is such that it changes the direction of the oil flow so that
when it comes out of the turbine at the centre, its direction is effectively backward. If there were no
stator and it was to enter the impeller directly, it will push the impeller in the opposite direction and
will thus cause a loss of power. To avoid this dragging action on the impeller, the fluid from the
turbine is made to strike a stationary member i.e., stator, which changes its direction suitably, so that
the oil leaving the stator strikes the impeller in the favorable direction i.e. in the same direction in
which the impeller is turning (The stator takes the reaction while doing so and is therefore called, a
reactor also). Then the impeller throws the oil back into the turbine at the outer edge. This goes on
continuously. Thus repeated pushing of the turbine blades causes the torque on the turbine to
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increase, the phenomenon being called torque multiplication. It must be remembered, however, that
the helping action of the stator in deflecting the fluid in the favorable direction and subsequent torque
multiplication occurs when the turbine speed (proportional to the vehicle speed) is less than the
impeller speed (i.e. the engine speed). Thus the maximum torque multiplication occurs when the
turbine is stationary and impeller is running at the engine speed. This is called stall. The maximum
torque multiplication at stall is about 2.1 to 2.6. When the vehicle begins to move, the turbine speed
starts to increase and the torque multiplication gradually reduces as the difference in the impeller and
turbine speeds decreases. Torque multiplication will become unity as the turbine speed becomes
equal to the impeller speed. This is equivalent to direct gear. Under low speed condition the stator
deflects the fluid flow back to the impeller. Under high speed condition the stator free wheels and
fluid flow is not deflected. When the turbine speed has increased and is nearly 85% to 90% of the
impeller speed, the coupling point is reached and the oil leaves the turbine in the forward direction,
hitting the back of the stator blade. The stator blades thus cause a hindrance in the flow of fluid from
the turbine to impeller. To avoid this stator is mounted on a freewheel, which allows it to rotate in
the direction of the turbine or impeller. It cannot, however, rotate in the opposite direction. With this
arrangement, the stator rotates in the desired direction and does not cause hindrance to the fluid
motion.
Torque converter with Centrifugal Clutch:

Construction& working:
In this impeller, rotor and stator are common components just like torque convertor.
An additional attachment is centrifugal clutch. The centrifugal clutch is connected over the turbine,
and centrifugal weights faced towards the impeller inner circumference. At lower speeds the impeller
rotation is caused for rotation of the turbine and power delivered to the output shaft. But after
reaching 80%-85% of transmission efficiency, further increase in efficiency is difficult. But due to
higher speeds of the turbine the centrifugal weights are fly away from the center and the frictional
material of the centrifugal weights will hold the impeller inner circumference. Hence the power will
transferred directly to the out put shaft through the centrifugal clutch.

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Double clutch torque converter:

Construction & Working:

In this a multi plate clutch is provided in addition to the torque converter. At low
speeds always slip will present in the torque convertor. In that condition when the multi plate clutch
is engaged the power will transfer, but at the higher speed torque convertor gives the satisfactory
torque transmission.

OVERDRIVE:

Overdrive is a device to step up the gear ratio. It is fitted in between transmission and the
propeller shaft. It enables a high cruising speed to be attained with a comparatively low engine
speed. This results in less wear of the engine components. As the friction losses at lower speeds are
less, there is saving of fuel consumption. Overdrive is generally fitted on top gear only. But in some
sport cars, overdrives are also fitted on gears other than the top gear which increases the torque ratios
available. For examples, when overdrive is fitted on top, third and second gear, seven forward speeds
or torque ratios are available. The overdrive may be operated either manually or automatically at a
predetermined speed.

Construction:
The construction details of the over drive as shown in the fig. It consists of an epicyclic gear
train in which the sun gear is free to rotate on the input shaft, while the carrier can move on splines
on the input shaft. A freewheel clutch is also fitted on the input shaft splines. The output shaft is
connected to the ring.

Working:
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 When the sun gear is not locked input shaft rotates the cage of the sun and planetary system
and inner race of the free wheel unit. The outer race is connected to the ring gear and it is connected
to the output shaft. In this condition planetary pinions will not rotated about its own axis but as a
single unit it will rotate around the axis of the sungear. When the sungear is locked with the casing,
i.e., it becomes stationary, the planetary pinion will rotated about its own axis and rotated about the
sungear axis. Hence the speed of the output shaft is increased i.e., overdrive is engaged.

PROPELLER SHAFT:

This is the shaft which transmits the drive from the transmission to the bevel pinion or
worm of final drive in front engine, rear drive vehicles and from the transfer box to the front and rear
axles in all-wheel drive vehicles It is also called drive shaft. It consists mainly of three parts:
(1) Shaft - As this has to withstand mainly torsional loads, it is usually made of tubular cross-section.
It also has to be well balanced to avoid whirling at high speeds. Shafts are made of steel, aluminium
or composite materials.
(2) One or two universal joints, depending upon the type of rear axle drive used. The universal joints
account for the up and down movements of the rear axle when the vehicle is running. Modern
vehicles use, however, high-speed constant velocity joints, rubber couplings with options for
intermediate bearings, limited slip devices and crash features that absorb energy.

(3) Slip joint - Depending upon the type of drive, one slip joint may be there in shaft. This serves to
adjust the length of the propeller shaft when demanded by the rear axle movements. fig shows a
propeller shaft, with two universal joints at the ends and a slip or sliding joint. Slip joint is formed by
the internal splines on the sleeve attached to the left universal joint and external splines on the
propeller shaft as shown. Thus decreasing the length to half would increase the critical speed four
times. In some designs this has been achieved by extending the rear end of the transmission main
shaft and housing while in others, by extending the final drive pinion shaft and housing.

UNIVERSAL JOINTS: From the engine crack shaft to gear box out put shaft the power is parallel to
the horizontal it is transmitted. To provide sufficient ground clearance the engine to gear box they
are at above the ground level. But the wheels which are receiving the power in contact with the road
i.e they are at lower level. Hence the power required to transfer at an angle. A universal joint is a
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particular type of connection between two shafts, whose axes are inclined to each other. To Transfer
the power at any angle within the maximum and minimum limits universal joint is required. The
angle of inclination continuously changes in the following conditions (as shown in fig.):
a. When the vehicle is not loaded.
b. When the vehicle is loaded.
c. When the front wheels on the height and rear wheels at normal road.
d. when the rear wheels on the height and front wheels at normal road.
e. due to driving and breaking torques

Construction:
Let the shaft A is connected to Gear box output shaft and shaft B is to propeller shaft. Shaft A
and Shaft B are provided with two Yokes which are at the 900 to each other. The Spider C has four
arms. The two opposite arms of the spider are supported in bushes (or in needle bearings) in the yoke
of shaft A, while the other two arms of the cross are supported in the yoke of shaft B. Thus shaftA
can have angular rotation and the shafts B also have the angular rotation. It is thus seen that it will be
possible with the Hooke's joint for the shafts A and B to have positive drive while allowing angular
movement between them. An improved form of the Hooke's joint by using needle roller bearings to
support the cross in the yokes is universal joint. The construction details as shown in the fig.

85 | P a g e
Working:
When the vehicle is in moving the angle of inclination of the propeller shaft continuously
changes and it is compensated by the rotation of the yoke on the spider and the power is transferred.
But if it is provided with one universal joint the constant velocity at the output shaft will not
maintained when the shafts are at an angle as shown fig

When the angle of inclination in between the shafts is 00 then the velocity of the input and
output shaft is same. But the angle inclination in between the input and output shaft is 100, for every
450 rotation the speed of the out put shaft is either more than the input shaft speed or less than the
input shaft speed, it is a sinusoidal curve. This deviation is goes on increasing when the angle of
inclination in between driver and driven increases. To maintain the constant velocity at out put shaft
two universal joints are use on either ends of the propeller shaft as shown in the fig.

Other joints are also use to transfer the power at an angle with a constant velocity. Those are
1. Rzeppa Plunging C.V. Joint
2. Closed Tulip Plunging C.V Joint
3. Tripoid type C.V.Joint

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 1. Rzeppa Plunging C.V. Joint: The first real constant velocity joint, still in use, is the Rzeppa
joint (as shown in Fig.).

In this six spherical balls are held in a precise geometric position midway between the two
shafts, bisecting the angle between them. This permits the driving and the driven shafts to move
toward or away from each other. the central rollers will compensate the the angle of inclination. But
it will not influences the output shaft speed.

2.Closed Tulip Plunging C.V Joint:

In the closed tulip type joint centrally a triangular plate is located and it carries three arms
with rollers. Hence the change in angel of inclination is compensated by the rotation of the rollers
and there is no influence over the speed over the output shaft.
3.Tripoid type C.V.Joint:

Almost concurrently with the Rzeppajoint, another constant velocity joint developed in
France was the tripod joint, which used. three roller bearings attached to arms at the end of the
driving shaft.
Rear Axle drives:
a. Hotchkiss Drive:

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 This is the simplest and most widely used type of rear axle drive. In this case the
springs besides taking weight of the body, also take the torque reaction, driving thrust and the side
thrust. Above fig. shows such a drive. The propeller shaft is provided with two universal joints and a
sliding joint. The leaf springs are fixed to the rear axle. The front end of the spring is fixed rigidly on
the frame, while the rear end is supported in a shackle. The driving thrust is transmitted to the frame
by the front half of the springs. Due to the torque reaction, the spring deflects at the front half
portion. Thus torque reaction is taken up by the springs. Similarly, to take up the braking torque the
springs would deflect in the opposite direction. When the springs deflect in the manner shown, the
bevel pinion shaft also changes its position. Therefore if there is only one universal joint at the front
end of the propeller shaft, it will bend under this condition. To avoid this, another universal joint at
the rear end of the propeller shaft is used. Again when the rear axle moves up and down, it has to
move in a circle with the front spring support at the frame as centre. But for the propeller shaft
motion, the centre is at the front universal joint. This means that during this movement of the rear
axle, the length of the propeller shaft has to vary. This is provided for by means of a sliding joint in
the propeller shaft.

Torque Tube Drive:

In this type of drive, the spring takes only the side thrust besides supporting the body weight.
The torque reaction, braking torque and the driving thrust are taken by another member which is
called the torque tube. One end of torque tube is attached to the axle casing, while the other end
which is spherical in shape fits in the cup fixed to the frame as shown in Fig. As is seen the torque
tube encloses the propeller shaft. Since in this case the torque tube takes the .torque reaction, the
centre line of the bevel pinion shaft will not shift and further it will always pass through the centre of
the spherical cup if the propeller shaft is connected to the gear box shaft by means of a universal
joint situated exactly at the centre of the spherical cup. In such a situation, no universal joint is
needed at the rear end of the propeller shaft. Also no sliding joint is provided because both the pinion
shaft and the propeller shaft in this case will move about the same centre, i.e., about the centre of the
spherical cup. Clearly torque reaction and the driving thrust are taken by the torque tube. Note, In
both the types of drives the side thrust is taken by the leaf springs. If, however, coil springs are used,
they are not able to take the side loads and therefore, a separate member is employed in that case.
Such a member is usually in the form of a transverse radius rod fixed approximately parallel to wheel
axis, with one end pivoted to the axle casing and the other to the chassis frame. Such rods are usually
called Panhard rods.

FINAL DRIVE
The function of the final drive is to transfer the power at 900 and it is also provide a
permanent speed reduction. The reduction provided is about 4 : 1 in cars and 10 : 1 in heavier
vehicles. Upto the final drive the power is transmitted linearly, after that it is need to be transfer at
right angles to the either sides to drive the wheels. The final drive in practice, consists of a bevel
pinion and a crown wheel ( in rear wheel drives) or alternatively, worm and wheel arrangement(in
front wheel drives).
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 The bevel pinion is mounted on a shaft which is connected to the propeller shaft generally
through a universal joint. After that bevel pinion is engaged with the crown wheel. Hence the power
is transferred at the right angels. When the vehicle is moving on straight path final drive action is
sufficient. When the vehicle is taking turning differential action is required. From the crown wheel
the drive goes to the differential. Three types of gears are used for the final drive gearing:

1. Straight Bevel Gears

These contain the straight teeth. They are therefore simplest and thus the cheapest of all types
However, with straight bevel gears, at one instant only one pair of teeth of pinion and the crown
wheel will be in contact. As a result an uneven transmission of motion will take place as the load is
transferred from one pair of teeth to the next. Thus these gears are noisy and suffer from high wear.

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2. Spiral Bevel Gears
The spiral bevel gears have curved teeth which result in greater contact of the teeth. Because
of these spiral bevel gears, the final drive is silent in running and stronger than the straight bevel
gears.

3. Hypoid Gears

Hypoid gears
These types of gears are widely used for final drive these days. The name 'hypoid' is derived
from the 'hyperboloid of revolution'. The basic surface on which the teeth are cut in their case, is
hyperboloid, which is a solid obtained by rotating a hyperbola about an offset axis. Such gears are
employed to connect shafts at right angles to each other, but not lying in the same plane. In
appearance, the shape of the teeth is similar to the spiral bevel gears. In the case of hypoid gears, the
pinion shaft is placed below the axis of the crown wheel. This permits a lower position of the
propeller shaft, thus allowing a low chassis height. Moreover, with hypoid gears, pitch diameter of
the pinion for a given size of the crown wheel for a given speed reduction is more on account of the
offset. This increases strength of the pinion by about 20 to 30 per cent and also provides a larger
pitch overlap, resulting in real silent running. The obvious disadvantage is less ground clearance.
Further, these are comparatively expensive, difficult to assemble and need special high pressure
lubricant because of greater sliding action present in this case. Both the pinions including its shaft
and the crown wheel are usually made from nickel-chrome alloy steel, machined and carburised,
after which they are case hardened by quenching in oil.

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DIFFERENTIAL
When the car is taking a turn, the outer wheels will have to travel greater distance as
compared to the inner wheels in the same time. If therefore, the car has a solid rear axle only and no
other device; there will be tendency for the wheels to skid. If the wheel skidding is to be avoided,
some mechanism must be incorporated in the rear axle, which should reduce the speed of the inner
wheels and increase the speed of the outer wheels when taking turns; it should at the same time keep
the speeds of all the wheels same when going straight ahead. Such a device which serves the above
function is called a differential. In case of the non-driving wheels, however, the difference in speeds
of the inner and the outer wheels poses no problem since such wheels are independent of each other
and as such they can adjust their speeds according to the requirements (e.g dead wheels, bullock cart
wheels).

Main Components of differential are

1. Sun gear (2 nos.) 2. Planet pinion (4 nos.) 3. Cage 4. Spider to connect the planetary pinions
The components of the final drive, bevel pinion and crown wheel will transfer the
power at right angles. When it is provided with the differential, a cage is connected to the crown
wheel. Inside the cage either sides sun gears are connected. The e outer surface of the sun gears plain
and they are inserted into the crown wheel and cage as shown in the fig. In between the sun gears
planetary pinions are placed these planetary pinions are secured at right angles with the help of
spider. The sun gears having internal splines and the external splines of the rear half axle are engaged
with the internal splines of the sun gears the constructional details are shown in the fig.

Working:

The frictional resistance on both the wheels is equal then there is no differential action. The
power is directly transferred to both sides’ half rear axles equally, through the cage. But when the
vehicle takes turning the cornering force is acted on the inner wheels. As a result the resistance over
the inner sun gear is more than the outer sun gear. Therefore inner sungear will slow down and the
inner sun gear as base the out sungear will rotate. Hence whatever be the speed lost by the inner
sungear , it is transferred to the outer sun gear. Hence the speed of the outer wheel is more than the
inner wheel. Thus the differential action will be continued depending on the resistance on the
sungears.
In some cases one live wheel is on road and other wheel on the loose sand. In this case the
resaistence over the wheel which is on road having more resistance and the wheel which is in the

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loose sand having less resistance. In this case also differential will work. The wheel which is in the
loose sand will rotate with high speed and the wheel which on the road having low speed or
completely stopped. In such cases differential action is not required and differential lock is required.
When it is locked then the power supplied to both the wheels equally.

Rear axle housings:

The casing itself is supported by road wheels. Various forces and torques experienced by the rear
axle can be identified as follows:
1. Weight of the Body
The rear axle may be considered a beam supported at the ends and loaded at two points The rear
weight W of the body is transmitted to the rear axle through two suspension springs. Rl and R2are the
reaction forces from the road wheels. This weight causes shear force and bending moment in the axle
shaft.
2. Driving Torque:
Driving torque produced in the engine causes the torque to be produced in the road wheels, which
has to be transmitted from the axle casing to the chassis frame and the body of the vehicle. This is
most conveniently done by some form of member connecting the axle casing and the chassis frame
in the longitudinal direction. Such members are called thrust members or radius rods.
3. Torque Reaction
If the road wheels are prevented from rotation with the propeller shaft rotating, it is seen that the
bevel pinion will tend to roll round the crown wheel. This tendency is also present when the vehicle
is running so that the bevel pinion always tends to climb round the crown wheel. Thus there is a
force on the axle casing (which supports the bevel pinion), to rotate. This is called torque reaction. In
the same .way, the braking torque on the axle casing is opposite in direction to the torque reaction.
This tendency on the part of the axle casing has to be opposed, because, otherwise the propeller shaft
would be subjected to heavy bending loads. This can be effectively done by means of a member. one
end of which is attached to the axle casing and the other end to the frame so that the member itself
remains in the direction of the vehicle axis.
4. Side Thrust
Often the rear axle experiences side thrust or pull due to any side load on the wheel, e.g., the
cornering force. Panhard rod may be employed.to hold the axle in position against the side thrust.

REAR AXLE SHAFT SUPPORTING

The rear live axle half shafts have to withstand the following loads:
1. Shearing force due to vehicle weight.
2. Bending moment on account of the offset of the vehicle load applied through the spring seats and
the road wheels
3. End thrust caused by the side forces on account of cornering, side wind etc.
4. Bending moment caused by the end thrust and its reaction offered by the tyres on the ground.
5. Driving torque.
In all the methods for axle supporting, the axle shaft has to take driving torque. But the
various designs vary depending upon which of the other loads is taken by the axle shaft. An axle in
which the shaft has to take all the loads is called semi-or non- floating axle and the one in which only
driving torque is taken by the axle shaft is called full-floating axle'. In between we have the three
quarter floating' type. These will now be described in detail.

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Semi-floating axle

Fig.shows a semi-floating type of rear axle. The wheel hub is directly connected to the axle shaft or
is an extension of the same. The inner end of the axle shaft is splined and is supported by the final
drive unit, whereas the outer end is supported by a single bearing inside the axle casing. In this all
the loads listed above are taken by the axle shaft. The vehicle load is transmitted to each of the half
shafts through the casing and the bearing. This causes a bending load and a tendency to shear at the
point marked. Besides, the side forces also cause end thrust and bending moment in the axle shafts,
which have to take driving torque also. The semi floating axle is the simplest and the cheapest of all
types, because of which it is widely use on cars. However, since the axle shafts have to support all
loads, they have to be of larger diameter for the same torque transmitted compared to the other types
of axle supporting.

Full-floating axle

This type is very robust one and is used for heavy vehicles. The axle shafts have flanges at
the outer ends, which are connected to the flanged sleeve by means of bolts. There are two taper
roller bearings supporting the axle casing in the hub, which take up any side load. Thus in this the
axle shafts carry only semi-floating axle. Driving torque the weight of the vehicle and the end thrust
are not carried by them, the weight being completely supported by the wheels and the axle casing. As
the axle shafts carry only the driving torque, their failure or removal does not affect the wheels. Thus
.the axle shafts can be taken out or replaced without jacking up the vehicle. For the same reason the
vehicle can be towed even with a broken half-shaft. Full floating as shown in the fig.

Three quarter floating axle

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 This is a compromise between the more robust full floating type and the simplest semi-
floating type. In this bearing is located between the axle casing and the hub instead of between the
axle casing and the shaft as in case of semi-floating axles. Clearly the axle shafts do not have to
withstand any shearing or bending actions due to the weight of the vehicle, which are taken up by the
axle casing through the hub and the bearing, provided the bearing lies in the plane of the road wheel.
However, it has to take the end loads and the driving torque. At one time this type of axle was
popular for cars and light commercial vehicles. However with improvements in design, materials and
fabrication techniques, the cheaper and simple semi-floating axles are again being preferred these
days over the three quarter floating type.

REAR AXLE CASING

The casings used for rear axles are of two types:
1. Split Type
In this type the axle casing is made in two halves and then bolted together for assembly. This type
has a major disadvantage that in case of any fault, the whole of the rear axle has to be removed as a
unit and then disassembled. This type is obsolete now.
2. Banjo or Separate Carrier Type
This type of axle is of one-piece type, shaped like a banjo. The complete differential unit is
carried in a separate carrier which is bolted to the axle casing. The two half shafts are put from sides.
Therefore in case of any need for repairs, the half shafts can be taken out directly from the sides and
the differential assembly removed by opening bolts only.
3. Salisbury or Integral Carrier type
This is similar in construction to the banjo type except that in this the carrier, i.e., the differential
housing, has permanent housing tubes pressed and welded in its sides. According to S.A.E.
nomenclature, it is called the unitized carrier housing. This type of housing is most widely used
these days in case of rear wheel drive cars.

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MODULE-3

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 -: FRONT WHEEL AND STEERING:-
For effective control of the vehicle throughout its speed range with safety and without much
effort on wide variety of road surfaces proper control on the vehicle is necessary. The steering
system, brake system, and suspension systems are come under the controlling systems of an
automobile. Thus the requirements of steering system should discuss first.
 Control the speed of the vehicle with smooth operation of the steering wheel.
 It should respond quickly in the turns.
 It should operate with less effort of the driver.
 Less operating cost.
 It should minimize the road shock.
Steering system gives the directional stability. In the steering the rotating motion of the
steering wheel converted into angular motion of the wheels. Generally the steering system provided
for the front wheels of the vehicle. Hence details of the front wheel discussed first.
3.1FRONT WHEEL ASSEMBLY:
Front axle of rear wheel drive vehicle is a solid axle. Middle of the axle has I cross section,
which gives resistance against bending loads. At ends it has elliptical cross section as shown in the
fig. Ends of front axle carries hollow cylindrical sections, which carries stub axle, steering knuckle
arm.

The front wheels are carried on the spindles of the knuckles. They run in tapered roller or ball
bearings. In order to prevent the road shocks from being transmitted to the driver and the passengers
the steering system should absorb the shocks. For this purpose steering gears attached to the front
wheels are used. The knuckle arm is connected to the hollow cylindrical shapes by the help of a king
pin and a tie rod is connected to the knuckle arm to maintain the steering of the vehicle.
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TYPES OF FRONT AXLES:
1. Reversed Elliot type: It is the common type of front axle which we can observe for the heavy
vehicles. Stub axle carries the knuckle arm and main axle carries the hollow cylindrical
shapes.
2. Elliot Type: Stub axle carries the hollow cylindrical shapes and main axle carries the knuckle
arm. In this type steering linkage is connected to the hollow cylindrical shape, so it is very
hard to operate.

STERING SYSTEM LAYOUT:

Steering box: - It consists of mainly two parts a worm on the end of steering shaft and a pitman arm
shaft. There is a gear sector, toothed roller or stud fitted on the pitman arm shaft. Generally the
steering box consists of worm drive fastened to the steering wheel and a cross shaft right angles to it
by the driven gear to transmit the rotary motion of steering wheel to angular motion of wheels.
Pitman arm: - It basically helps to transmit the twisting force multiplied by the gear ratio to knuckle
arm by dragging up and down.
Tie rod: - The tie rod helps to transmit the angular motion of one wheel to the other one by the help
of linear (Left/Right) motion in such a way that both the front wheels can respond smoothly with
little effort by the driver. Two ball joints are provided on both side of the tie rod for angular motion.

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Knuckle arm and cylindrical arm: -The knuckle arm helps to rotate the sub axle along with the
wheels by transmitting the motion from pitman arm to stub axles, whereas cylindrical arm is
connected to the front axle to minimize the shock from road. The knuckle arm is connected to the
cylindrical shape by the help of a king pin.

TYPES OF STEERING GEARS:-

There are different types of steering gears used on different vehicles. Depending upon the
method of coupling and steering tube with pitman arm different types of steering gears are:
1. WORM AND PINION:

 It was developed from a worm and wheel; whereas the case hardened steel worm is
connected to the steering wheel and worm wheel of light alloy casting is connected to drop
man arm which is 900 to it.
 When steering wheel rotates during a turn the worm rotates the worm wheel which turns the
drop man arm clockwise or anticlockwise. Thus the pitman arm connected to the drop man
arm rotates along with it which operates the steering linkage through knuckle arm.
2. CAM AND ROLLER:
 This steering gear consists of cam rotating in
housing, roller, rocker shaft and a drop arm.
 By moving the steering wheel and steering shaft
the cam is rotated. Due to this rotation the roller
is compelled to follow the helix of the grove. By
this the rocker shaft is caused to rotate as well as
the drop man arm is moved.

3. WORM AND NUT TYPE:

 This steering gear consists of a worm connected to the
steering wheel and a steel nut screwed over the worm to
transmit the motion. A cross shaft is connected to the
nut externally and the drop man arm is connected to
cross shaft with an angle of 900 to it.
 By moving the steering wheel and steering shaft the
worm is rotated. Due to this rotation the worm the nut is
compelled to follow the helix of the grove. By this the
cross shaft is caused to rotate as well as the drop man
arm is moved.
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4. WORM WITH RECIRCULATING BALL GEAR:

 If a nut with steel balls acting as threads is used

in a worm and nut steering gear a 90% of
efficiency is obtained due to line contact in
between the worm and nut.
 As shown in the figure a half nut and the
transfer tube contain the balls. A wheel sector
is connected to the external teeth of the nut to
transmit the rotation.

5. RACK AND PINION

 This gear is employed in Hindustan ambassador car and many other cars.
 The rack and pinion steering has rack acting as the centre section of a three piece tie rod. The
tie rod having ball joints at each end for allowing the rise and fall of the wheels.
 A pinion wheel is connected to the rack gear to transmit the rotational motion of steering
wheel to linear motion of tie rod.
 Two ball joints are connected to both sides of tie rod to give the angular motion to the
knuckle arm along with the stub axle.

CONDITION OF CORRECT STEERING:-

For correct steering all the four wheels should rotate on a single instantaneous center at turns.

STEERING GEOMETRY:-
1. CAMBER ANGLE:-
 It is defined as the angle between vertical axes of the
wheel to the inclination of the wheels from the front view
of the automobile.
 In order to reduce the effect of road shocks on the steering
gear and to have easier control on the vehicle camber is
provided in the wheels.
 Camber may be positive or negative depending upon
whether the tilt is outward or inward.
 Positive camber is basically provided in passenger cars
but negative camber is placed in Sports cars.

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 In modern passenger cars the main purpose of providing positive camber (Tilt outwards) to
wheels initially so that top of the wheels is prevented from tilting inward too much due to
excessive loading and for less tyre wear after loading.

2. KINGPIN INCLINATION:-
 It is defined as the angle between vertical axes of the wheel
to the inclination of the kingpin from the front view of the
automobile.
 This provides steering stability to the vehicle reduces tyre
wear as well as reduced its steering effort when stationary.
 The king pin inclination should be equal on both the sides
of the car; otherwise the car will tend to pull to the side
having grater angle.
 Due to this inclination as the vehicle is swung away from
straight position ball joints and supporting parts are moved
upwards. But after the steering wheel is released when turn
has completed the wheels are brought back to straight
position.

3. COMBINED INCLINATION ANGLE:-

 It is the sum of camber angle and kingpin inclination angle.
 It basically helps for correct steering with less effort by the driver
with less uniform tyre wear.

4. CASTER ANGLE:-
 For directional stability it is necessary that the wheels
should follow the same direction as the vehicle
travel. This is obtained by caster action in the front
wheels.
 The angle formed by the projected centre line of the
kingpin inclination and the vertical axis of the wheel
is called the Caster angle.
Or
The angle formed by the steering line of the vehicle
and the vertical axis of the wheel is called the Caster
angle.
 The caster angle may be positive or negative.
 Caster angle varies between 20 and 50.

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 A positive caster angle is made by tilting the king pin forward from the vertical axis whereas
the Negative caster angle is made by tilting the king pin backward from the vertical axis.
 Positive caster angle aids to difficult directional stability therefore in all the automobile
negative caster angle is used.

NEGATIVE CASTER ANGLE

5. TOE-IN &TOE-OUT:-

 The drawing in of the front wheels in front so that the distance between the front end is less
than the back ends is known as Toe in; Whereas The drawing out of the front wheels in front
so that the distance between the front end is more than the back ends is known as Toe out.
 Toe in are basically placed in passenger cars whereas Toe out are placed in Sports cars.
 The main purpose of Toe in and Toe out are 1. To keep the parallel rolling of the front wheels
2. To stabilize steering 3. To check side slipping and excessive tyre wear
 When the vehicle takes a turn in toe in the outer wheel helps to negotiate the turn whereas in
Toe out the inner wheel helps to turn
the vehicle.

6. SCRUB RADIUS:-
 It is the distance measured from the
Road or contact surface between road
and tyre to the intersection point of
tyre inclination line and king pin
inclination line.
 It may be Positive, Negative or Zero
depends upon the intersection point.

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  It is positive if the intersection point is at the top of road surface and Negative if the
intersection point is at the bottom of road surface.
 Negative scrub radius aids to excessive tyre wear from outer surface of tyre.

7. SLIP ANGLE:-
 It is angle formed by the tyre during a turn.
 When the slip angle is formed in the front wheels or steering wheels the cornering force acts
perpendicular to the wheels.

8. CENTER POINT STEERING:-

 The steering of automobile in which the front wheels are parallel to each other during
forward motion of vehicle is called as Center point steering system.
 In center point steering camber angle, scrub radius is considered as zero.
 The tyre wear is uniform throughout the circumference of the wheels.
 This is only possible during forward motion of the vehicle.
 In this case the kingpin and the wheel centre line are parallel and 900 to the axle, these forces
acting together will force the wheels to pen outwards.

9. UNDERSTEER AND OVERSTEER:-

 The vehicle would turn more sharply than the normal when the rear slip angles are more than
the front slip angles. The vehicle tends to follow the path from the direction of side force.
This condition is known as OVER STEER. This should reduce the driver effort when
turning the vehicle.
 The vehicle would take a path of larger radius than the normal when the front slip angles are
more than the rear slip angles. The vehicle tends to take a path away from the direction of
side force. This condition is known as UNDER STEER. This should increase the driver
effort when turning the vehicle.

POWER STEERING:-
 In automobiles, power steering (also power assisted steering (PAS) or steering assist system)
helps drivers steer by augmenting steering effort of the steering wheel.
 Pneumatic, Hydraulic or electric actuators add controlled energy to the steering mechanism,
so the driver can provide less effort to turn the steered wheels when driving at typical speeds,
and reduce considerably the physical effort necessary to turn the wheels when a vehicle is
stopped or moving slowly.
 These systems have a direct mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the
linkage that steers the wheels. This means that power-steering system failure (to augment
effort) still permits the vehicle to be steered using manual effort alone.
 In other power steering systems, electric motors provide the assistance instead of hydraulic
systems. As with hydraulic types, power to the actuator (motor, in this case) is controlled by
the rest of the power-steering system.
 Some construction vehicles have a two-part frame with a rugged hinge in the middle; this
hinge allows the front and rear axles to become non-parallel to steer the vehicle. Opposing
hydraulic cylinders move the halves of the frame relative to each other to steer.
 Power Steering basically operated in three ways, They are Pneumatuc, Hydraulic and
Electrical.

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HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
 Hydraulic power steering systems work by using a hydraulic system to multiply force applied
to the steering wheel inputs to the vehicle's steered (usually front) road wheels. The hydraulic
pressure typically comes from age rotor or rotary vane pump driven by the vehicle's engine.
A double-acting hydraulic cylinder applies a force to the steering gear, which in turn steers
the road wheels.
 The steering wheel operates valves to control flow to the cylinder. The more torque the driver
applies to the steering wheel and column, the more fluid the valves allow through to the
cylinder, and so the more force is applied to steer the wheels.
 One design for measuring the torque applied to the steering wheel has a torque sensor –
a torsion bar at the lower end of the steering column.
 As the steering wheel rotates, so does the steering column, as well as the upper end of the
torsion bar. Since the torsion bar is relatively thin and flexible, and the bottom end usually
resists being rotated, the bar will twist by an amount proportional to the applied torque.
 The difference in position between the opposite ends of the torsion bar controls a valve. The
valve allows fluid to flow to the cylinder which provides steering assistance; the greater the
"twist" of the torsion bar, the greater the force.
 Since the hydraulic pumps are positive-displacement type, the flow rate they deliver is
directly proportional to the speed of the engine. This means that at high engine speeds the
steering would naturally operate faster than at low engine speeds.
 Because this would be undesirable, a restricting orifice and flow-control valve direct some of
the pump's output back to the hydraulic reservoir at high engine speeds. A pressure relief
valve prevents a dangerous build-up of pressure when the hydraulic cylinder's piston reaches
the end of its stroke.
 The steering booster is arranged so that should the booster fail, the steering will continue to
work (although the wheel will feel heavier). Loss of power steering can significantly affect
the handling of a vehicle.
 The working liquid, also called "hydraulic fluid" or "oil", is the medium by which pressure is
transmitted. Common working liquids are based on mineral oil.

ELECTRIC SYSTEMS
 Electric power assisted steering (EPS/EPAS) or motor-driven power steering (MDPS) uses
an electric motor to assist the driver of a vehicle.
 Sensors detect the position and torque of the steering column, and a computer module applies
assistive torque via the motor, which connects to either the steering gear or steering column.
This allows varying amounts of assistance to be applied depending on driving conditions.
Engineers can therefore tailor steering-gear response to variable-rate and variable-damping
suspension systems, optimizing ride, handling, and steering for each vehicle.
 On Fiat group cars the amount of assistance can be regulated using a button named "CITY"
that switches between two different assist curves, while most other EPS systems have
variable assist. These give more assistance as the vehicle slows down, and less at faster
speeds.
 A mechanical linkage between the steering wheel and the steering gear is retained in EPAS.
In the event of component failure or power failure that causes a failure to provide assistance,
the mechanical linkage serves as a back-up.
 When EPAS fails, the driver encounters a situation where heavy effort is required to steer.
This heavy effort is similar to that of an inoperative hydraulic steering assist system.
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 Depending on the driving situation, driving skill and strength of the driver, steering assist loss
may or may not lead to a crash. The difficulty of steering with inoperative power steering is
compounded by the choice of steering ratios in assisted steering gears vs. fully manual.
 Electric systems have an advantage in fuel efficiency because there is no belt-driven
hydraulic pump constantly running, whether assistance is required or not, and this is a major
reason for their introduction.
 Another major advantage is the elimination of a belt-driven engine accessory, and several
high-pressure hydraulic hoses between the hydraulic pump, mounted on the engine, and the
steering gear, mounted on the chassis. This greatly simplifies manufacturing and
maintenance.
 By incorporating electronic stability control electric power steering systems can instantly
vary torque assist levels to aid the driver in corrective maneuvers.
 The first electric power steering system appeared on the Suzuki Cervo in 1988. The system
has been applied by various automobile manufacturers.

(HYDRAULIC POWER STEERING PARTS)

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II. ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS OF AN AUTOMOBILE:
IGNITION SYSTEM:-
An ignition system generates a spark or heats an electrode to a high temperature to ignite a fuel-air
mixture in spark ignition internal combustion engines oil-fired and gas-fired boilers, rocket engines,
etc. The widest application for spark ignition internal combustion engines is in petrol road vehicles:
cars (autos), four-by fours (SUVs), pickups, vans, trucks, and buses.
Compression ignition Diesel engines ignite the fuel-air mixture by the heat of compression and do
not need a spark. They usually have glow plugs that preheat the combustion chamber to allow
starting in cold weather. Other engines may use a flame, or a heated tube, for ignition. While this was
common for very early engines it is now rare.
It is of basically two types.
1. Conventional ignition system
2. Electronic Ignition system
BATTERY IGNITION SYSTEMS
Most of the modern spark-ignition engines use battery ignition system. The essential components of
battery ignition system are a battery, ignition switch, ballast resistor, ignition coil, breaker points,
condenser, capacitor distributor and spark plugs.
A battery ignition system has a 6- or 12-volt battery charged by an engine-driven generator to supply
electricity, an ignition coil to increase the voltage, a device to interrupt current from the coil, a
distributor to direct current to the correct cylinder, and a spark plug projecting into each cylinder.
Current goes from the battery through the primary winding of the coil, through the interrupting
device, and back to the battery.
The breaker points, condenser, distributor rotor and the spark advance mechanisms are usually
housed in the ignition distribution. The breaker points are actuated by a shaft driven at half engine
speed for a four stroke cycle engine. The distributor rotor is directly connected to the same shaft.
The system has a primary circuit of low-voltage current and a secondary circuit for the high-voltage
circuit.
The primary circuit consists of the battery, ammeter, ignition switch, primary coil winding and
breaker points. The primary coil winding usually has approximately 240 turns of relatively heavy
copper wire wound around the soft iron core of ignition coil.
The secondary circuit contains the secondary coil windings, distributor, spark plug leads and the
spark plug. The secondary windings consists of about 21000 turns of small, well insulate copper
wire.
Contact Breaker
In older automobiles, the interruption of the primary current was created by "breaker points," a
switch with tungsten contacts to retard erosion. Driven at half engine speed, a breaker cam, a rotating
object with a lobed surface (one lobe for each cylinder), opened and closed the points. When the
breaker points were closed, current flowed through the primary winding of the ignition coil. In
electronic ignition systems, introduced in the early 1960s, the interrupting device is a reluctor, a
magnetic pulse distributor that produces timed electric signals that are amplified to control the
current to the primary winding of the ignition coil. Such systems generally reduce ignition
maintenance and increase engine efficiency.

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The Ignition Coil and Distributor
The primary winding consists of wire coiled around an iron core. Over this is a secondary winding of
many more turns of finer wire attached to the distributor. Current flowing through the primary
winding creates a magnetic field. When the breaker cam opens the breaker points or the reluctor
delivers its signal, the circuit is broken and current stops. The magnetic field collapses, inducing in
the secondary winding a much higher voltage that is led to the distributor. Inside the distributor a
moving finger rotates at half engine speed. As it rotates it touches contacts, each of which runs to a
different cylinder. Rotation is timed so that when the finger is touching the contact for a particular
cylinder, a high voltage has just been induced in the secondary winding of the ignition coil and the
piston has almost reached the top of the compression stroke. Thus a high voltage is impressed across
the spark plug gap.
The Spark Plug
The spark plug consists of a center electrode imbedded in insulating ceramic. Around the outside is a
threaded metal shell that screws into a hole in the top of the cylinder. A ground electrode extends
from the shell over the end of the center electrode. Between the two electrodes there is a small gap of
.015–.040 in. (.038–.102 cm). At about
16000-18000 volts a spark jumps the gap
and ignites the air-gasoline mixture. A
centrifugal advance makes the spark fire
earlier at high engine speeds; a vacuum
advance makes it fire earlier at small
throttle openings above idle.

Schematic diagram of Battery Ignition System

WORKING:-
 When the ignition switch and the breaker points are closed a low-voltage current flows from
the battery through the primary circuit and builts up a magnetic field around the soft iron core
of the ignition coil.
 When the breaker points are opened by the action of the cam on the distributor shaft, the
primary circuit is broken and the magnetic field begins to collapse, an induced current from
the collapsing magnetic field flows in the same direction in the primary circuit as the battery
current and charges the condenser which acts as a reservoir for the flowing current due to a
rapidly collapsing magnetic field, high voltage is induced in the primary (it might be as high
as 250 volts) and even higher in the secondary (10,000 to 20,000 volts).
 The high voltage in the secondary passes through the distributor rotor to one of the spark plug
leads and into the spark plug. As soon as sufficient voltage is built up in the secondary to
overcome the resistance of a spark plug, the spark arcs across the gap and the ignition of the
combustible charge in the cylinder takes place.
 The induced current in the primary to overcome the resistance of a spark across the gap and
the ignition of the combustible charge in the cylinder takes place. The induced current is the
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 primary, as it was pointed out above flows in the same direction as it did before the breaker
points opened up and charges the condenser.
 The increasing potential of the condenser retards and finally stops the flow of current in the
primary circuit and the rapidly ‘backfires’ or discharges again through the primary, but in the
direction opposite to the original flow of current. This rapid discharge of condense produces
directional oscillation in the current flow in the primary circuit.
 This oscillation is weekend with every succeeding reversal in the current flow until the
original potentials and the direction of current flow the primary circuit are established. The
discharge of condenser by itself does not produce the spark, but only hastens the collapse of
the magnetic field around the soft iron core.
 The condenser, which has a capacitance range from 0.15 to 0.24 mf in the automotive system,
not only assists in the collapse f the magnetic field, but also prevents arcing at the breaker
points by providing a place for the induced current to flow in the primary circuit.
 If the condenser is too small or too large, the breaker points will lead to excessive pitting will
result the breaker points and the distributor must be carefully synchronized with the
crankshaft of the engine to give the proper timing of the spark in each of the cylinders.
MAGNETO IGNITION SYSTEM
 It is a special type of ignition system with its own electric generator to provide the required
necessary energy for the vehicle (automobile) system.
 It is mounted on the engine and replaces all components of the coil ignition system except the
spark plug.
 A magneto when rotated by the engine is capable of producing a very high voltage and
doesn’t need a battery as source of external energy.
 A schematic diagram of a high tension magneto ignition system is shown in the figure under.
The high tension magneto ignition system incorporates the windings to generate the primary
voltage as well as to set up the voltage and thus does not require to operate the spark plug.

Schematic Diagram of Magneto Ignition System

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Magneto ignition system can be either rotating armature type or rotating magneto type.
1. In the first type, the armature consisting of the primary and secondary windings all
rotate between the poles of a stationary magnet.
2. In the second type the magnet revolves and windings are kept stationary.
3. A third type of magneto called the polar inductor type in use. In the polar inductor type
magneto both the magnet and the windings remain stationary but the voltage is
generated by reversing the flux field with the help of soft iron polar projections, called
inductors.
WORKING:-
 The working principle of the magnetic ignition system is same as that of the coil ignition
system. With the help of a cam, the primary circuit flux is changed and a high voltage is
produced in the secondary circuit.
 The variation of the breaker current with speed for the coil ignition system and the magnetic
ignition system is shown in the graph 1. It can be seen that since the cranking speed at stat is
low the current generated by the magneto is quite small.
 As the engine speed increases the current flow also increases. Thus, with magneto there is
always a starting difficulty and some times a separate battery is needed for starting.
 The magneto ignition system is best suitable at high speeds and is widely used in automobiles
like sports and racing cars, aircrafts engines etc.

Graph 1: Breaker current vs speed in coil and magneto ignition system

 In comparison, the battery ignition system is more expensive but highly reliable. Because of
the poor starting characteristics of the magneto system invariably the battery ignition system
is preferred to the magneto system in automobile engines.
 However, in two wheelers magneto ignition system is favored due to light weight and less
maintenance.
 The main advantage of the high tension magneto ignition system lies in fact that the wirings
carry a very high voltage and thus there is a strong possibility of causing engine misfire due
to leakage.
 To avoid this the high tension wires must be suitably shielded. The development of the low
tension magneto system is experiment to avoid this trouble. In the low tension magneto
ignition system the secondary winding is changed to limit the secondary voltage to a value of
about 400 volts and distributor is replaced by a brush contact.
 The high voltage is obtained with the help of a step-up transformer. All these changes have
the effect of limiting the high voltage current in the small part of the ignition system wiring
and thus avoid the possibilities of leakage etc.
.

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COMPARISON BETWEEN BATTERY IGNITION SYSTEM AND MAGNETO IGNITION
SYSTEM

S.no Battery Ignition System Magneto Ignition System

In battery ignition system, battery is In magneto ignition system, no battery is required for
1
necessary for engine to start. engine to start.

Difficult to start the engine when battery is

2 There is no problem of battery discharge.
discharged.

3 Battery Maintenance is required. No battery maintenance problems.

Current for primary circuit is obtained from The required electric current is produced from the
4
the battery. magneto.

A good spark is available at the spark plug During starting of engine, quality of spark is poor due to
5
even at low speed. low speed.

Efficiency of the battery ignition system

efficiency of the system improves as the engine speed
6 decreases with the reduction in spark
rises due to high intensity spark..
intensity as engine speed rises.

7 Occupies more space. Very much compact.

Recharging of battery must be done when

8 the battery gets No such arrangement required.
discharged.

Commonly employed in cars and light

9 Mainly used in racing cars and two wheelers.
commercial vehicles.

Common Problems with a conventional ignition system are:

 Points wear and erode (poor current flow and sloppy timing)
 Points limit power input to coil (limiting coil output)
 Point dwell limits and "point float" or "bounce" limit high power at high RPM
 Mechanical Advance and vacuum advance wears
 Advance cannot be mechanically adjusted for all the variables, especially detonation
 Points get wet and stop working altogether
 Timing belt (chain) wears and/or breaks

ELECTRONIC IGNITION SYSTEM

 The disadvantage of the mechanical system is the use of breaker points to interrupt the low-
voltage high-current through the primary winding of the coil; the points are subject to
mechanical wear where they ride the cam to open and shut, as well as oxidation and burning
at the contact surfaces from the constant sparking. They require regular adjustment to
compensate for wear, and the opening of the contact breakers, which is responsible for spark
timing, is subject to mechanical variations.
 In addition, the spark voltage is also dependent on contact effectiveness, and poor sparking
can lead to lower engine efficiency. A mechanical contact breaker system cannot control an
average ignition current of more than about 3 A while still giving a reasonable service life
and this may limit the power of the spark and ultimate engine speed.
 Electronic ignition (EI) solves these problems. In the initial systems, points were still used
but they handled only a low current which was used to control the high primary current
through a solid state switching system. Soon, however, even these contact breaker points
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 were replaced by an angular sensor of some kind - either optical, where a vaned rotor breaks
a light beam, or more commonly using a Hall effect sensor, which responds to a
rotating magnet mounted on the distributor shaft. The sensor output is shaped and processed
by suitable circuitry, then used to trigger a switching device such as a thyristor, which
switches a large current through the coil.

Schematic Diagram of Electronic Ignition System

WORKING:-
 When the ignition switch is closed a low-voltage current flows from the battery through the
primary circuit and built up a magnetic field around the soft iron core of the ignition coil.
 When the armature rotates it creates a strong magnatic field because of the pole of the core is
near to the magnet. These strong magnetic field just act like the makeup of current in primary
winding of the ignition coil.
 When armature rotates the core points are separated from the magnet, Thus the primary
circuit is broken and the magnetic field begins to collapse, an induced current from the
collapsing magnetic field flows in the same direction in the primary circuit induces a high
voltage in the secondary winding in the ignition coil.
 The high voltage in the secondary passes through the distributor rotor to one of the spark plug
leads and into the spark plug. As soon as sufficient voltage is built up in the secondary to
overcome the resistance of a spark plug, the spark arcs across the gap and the ignition of the
combustible charge in the cylinder takes place.
 This oscillation is weekend with every succeeding reversal in the current flow until the
original potentials and the direction of current flow the primary circuit are established.
 The number of iron core in armature depends upon the number of spark plugs connected in
the cylinder.

Schematic Diagram of Electronic Ignition System (CDI)

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CDI PRINCIPLE (CAPACITORIZED DISCHARGE IGNITION)
The spark necessary to ignite the air/petrol mixture in the combustion chamber is produced by the
CDI module. This system consists of 7 stages.
HV SUPPLY
 The HV supply differs from small motors to automobiles. The small one or two cylinder
motors one or two stroke have a fly-wheel which includes a supply winding. This coil
produces, after rectification, a positive voltage variable between 100V and 400V.
 The HV for an automobile CDI is supplied by a DC/DC converter. This stage produces
generally 400V fromthe 12V battery voltage.
CAPACITOR
The capacitor between 0.47 and 2μF is used firstly, to store the charge from the HV supply. During
the second phase of the ignition cycle the capacitor is discharged through the ignition circuit.
SWITCH
The switch transfers the energy stored in the capacitor to the primary of the ignition coil. This
function is carried out by a SCR or a triac. The switch is generally linked to a diode for the reverse
current.
SENSOR
The goal of the sensor is to synchronize the spark with the engine rotation. For the small motor the
sensor detects a bump at each engine revolution. For car modules the sensor system gives a pulse for
each cylinder ignition point.
CONDITIONING
The conditioning is a very important stage which must assume the following functions:
 Optimization of the SCR gate current for all the RPM range.
 Filtering of parasitic strikes occurring on the sensor signal.
 For the most sophisticated small engine and all the car systems, it has to ensure the correct
lead angle.
This stage is realized using few passive components for small motor modules, while for automotive
management systems a microprocessor is needed.
IGNITION COIL
The ignition coil is a step up transformer which delivers high voltage to the spark plug. This value
can be between 5 and 20kV depending on the working conditions.
SPARK PLUG
The spark plug is the final element of the ignition chain. High engine efficiency and a complete gas
combustion are linked to a good spark quality.
WORKING:-
 Most ignition systems used in cars are inductive discharge ignition (IDI) systems, which are
solely relying on the electric inductance at the coil to produce high-voltage electricity to
the spark plugs as the magnetic field collapses when the current to the primary coil winding is
disconnected (disruptive discharge).
 In a CDI system, a charging circuit charges a high voltage capacitor, and at the instant of
ignition the system stops charging the capacitor, allowing the capacitor to discharge its output
to the ignition coil before reaching the spark plug.
 A typical CDI module consists of a small transformer, a charging circuit, a triggering circuit
and a main capacitor. First, the system voltage is raised up to 250 to 600 volts by a power
supply inside the CDI module. Then, the electric current flows to the charging circuit and
charges the capacitor.
 The rectifier inside the charging circuit prevents capacitor discharge before the moment of
ignition. When the triggering circuit receives the triggering signal, the triggering circuit stops
the operation of the charging circuit, allowing the capacitor to discharge its output rapidly to
the low inductance ignition coil.
 In a CDI ignition, the ignition coil acts as a pulse transformer rather than an energy storage
medium as it does in an inductive system. The voltage output to the spark plugs is highly
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 dependent on the design of the CDI ignition. Voltages exceeding the insulation capabilities of
existing ignition components can lead to early failure of those components.
 Most CDI ignitions are made to give very high output voltages, but this is not always
beneficial. When there's no triggering signal, the charging circuit is re-connected to charge
the capacitor.

SPARK ADVANCE MECHANISMS:-

 Ignition timing, in a spark ignition internal combustion engine (ICE), is the process of setting
the angle relative to piston position and crankshaft angular velocity that a spark will occur in
the combustion chamber near the end of the compression stroke.
 The need for advancing the timing of the spark is because fuel does not completely burn the
instant the spark fires, the combustion gasses take a period of time to expand, and the angular
or rotational speed of the engine can lengthen or shorten the time frame in which the burning
and expansion should occur.
 In a vast majority of cases, the angle will be described as a certain angle advanced before top
dead center (BTDC). Advancing the spark BTDC means that the spark is energized prior to
the point where the combustion chamber reaches its minimum size, since the purpose of
the power stroke in the engine is to force the combustion chamber to expand.
 Sparks occurring after top dead center (ATDC) are usually counter-productive
(producing wasted spark, back-fire, engine knock etc.) unless there is need for a supplemental
or continuing spark prior to the exhaust stroke.
Mechanical ignition systems use a mechanical spark distributor to distribute a high voltage
current to the correct spark plug at the correct time. In order to set an initial timing advance or
timing retard for an engine, the engine is allowed to idle and the distributor is adjusted to achieve
the best ignition timing for the engine at idle speed.
This process is called 'setting the base advance'. There are two methods of increasing timing
advance past the base advance. The advances achieved by these methods are added to the base
advance number in order to achieve a total timing advance number.

MECHANICAL TIMING ADVANCE

 An increasing mechanical advancement of the timing takes place with increasing engine
speed. This is possible by using the law of inertia.
 Weights and springs inside the distributor rotate and affect the timing advance according to
engine speed by altering the angular position of the timing sensor shaft with respect to the
actual engine position.
 This type of timing advance is also referred to as centrifugal timing advance. The amount of
mechanical advance is dependent solely on the speed at which the distributor is rotating. In
a 2-stroke engine, this is the same as engine RPM. In a 4-stroke engine, this is half the engine
RPM.
 Lighter weights or heavier springs can be used to reduce the timing advance at lower engine
RPM. Heavier weights or lighter springs can be used to advance the timing at lower engine
RPM. Usually, at some point in the engine's RPM range, these weights contact their travel
limits, and the amount of centrifugal ignition advance is then fixed above that rpm.

VACUUM TIMING ADVANCE

 The second method used to advance (or retard) the ignition timing is called vacuum timing
advance. This method is almost always used in addition to mechanical timing advance.

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  It generally increases fuel economy and drivability, particularly at lean mixtures. It also
increases engine life through more complete combustion, leaving less unburned fuel to wash
away the cylinder wall lubrication (piston ring wear), and less lubricating oil dilution
(bearings, camshaft life, et al.).
 Vacuum advance works by using a manifold vacuum source to advance the timing at low to
mid engine load conditions by rotating the position sensor (contact points, Hall Effect or
optical sensor, reluctor stator, etc.) mounting plate in the distributor with respect to the
distributor shaft.
 Vacuum advance is diminished at wide open throttle (WOT), causing the timing advance to
return to the base advance in addition to the mechanical advance.
 One source for vacuum advance is a small opening located in the wall of the throttle
body or carburetor adjacent to but slightly upstream of the edge of the throttle plate. This is
called a ported vacuum. T
 he effect of having the opening here is that there is little or no vacuum at idle, hence little or
no advance. Other vehicles use vacuum directly from the intake manifold. This provides full
engine vacuum (and hence, full vacuum advance) at idle. Some vacuum advance units have
two vacuum connections, one at each side of the actuator membrane, connected to both
manifold vacuum and ported vacuum. These units will both advance and retard the ignition
timing.

CHARGING SYSTEM:-
The modern charging system hasn't changed much in over 40 years. It consists of the alternator,
regulator (which is usually mounted inside the alternator) and the interconnecting wiring.
The purpose of the charging system is to maintain the charge in the vehicle's battery, and to provide
the main source of electrical energy while the engine is running.
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If the charging system stopped working, the battery's charge would soon be depleted, leaving the car
with a "dead battery." If the battery is weak and the alternator is not working, the engine may not
have enough electrical current to fire the spark plugs, so the engine will stop running.
If the battery is "dead", it does not necessarily mean that there is anything wrong with it. It is just
depleted of its charge. It can be brought back to life by recharging it with a battery charger, or by
running the engine so that the alternator can charge it.
The main component in the charging system is the ALTERNATOR. The alternator is a
generator that produces Alternating Current (AC), similar to the electrical current in your
home. This current is immediately converted to Direct Current (DC) inside the alternator. This is
because all modern automobiles have a 12 volt, DC electrical system.
A VOLTAGE REGULATOR regulates the charging voltage that the alternator produces, keeping it
between 13.5 and 14.5 volts to protect the electrical components throughout the vehicle.
There is also a system to warn the driver if something is not right with the charging system. This
could be a dash mounted voltmeter, an ammeter, or more commonly, a warning lamp. This lamp is
variously labeled "Gen" Bat" and "Alt.". If this warning lamp lights up while the engine is running,
it means that there is a problem in the charging system, usually an alternator that has stopped
working. The most common cause is a broken alternator drive belt.
The alternator is driven by a belt that is powered by the
rotation of the engine. This belt goes around a pulley
connected to the front of the engine's crankshaft and is
usually responsible for driving a number of other
components including the water pump, power steering
pump and air conditioning compressor. On some
engines, there is more than one belt and the task of
driving these components is divided between them.
On engines with separate belts for each component, the
belts will require periodic adjustments to maintain the
proper belt tension. On engines that use a serpentine
belt, there is usually a spring loaded belt tensioned that
maintains the tension of the belt, so no periodic
adjustments are required. A serpentine belt is designed to
last around 30,000 miles.
THE ALTERNATOR
The alternator uses the
principle of
electromagnetism to
produce current. The way this works is simple. If you take a strong
magnet and pass it across a wire, that wire will generate a small
voltage. Take that same wire and loop it many times, than if you
pass the same magnet across the bundle of loops, you create a more
sizable voltage in that wire.
There are two main components that make up an alternator. They
are the rotor and the stator. The rotor is connected directly to the
alternator pulley. The drive belt spins the pulley, which in turn spins
the rotor. The stator is mounted to the body of the alternator and
remains stationary. There is just enough room in the center of the stator for the rotor to fit and be
able to spin without making any contact.

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The stator contains 3 sets of wires that have many loops each and are evenly distributed to form a
three phase system. On some systems, the wires are connected to each other at one end and are
connected to a rectifier assembly on the other end. On other systems, the wires are connected to each
other end to end, and at each of the three connection points, there is also a connection to the
rectifier. More on what a rectifier is later.
The rotor contains the powerful magnet that passes close to
the many wire loops that make up the stator. The magnets in
the rotor are actually electro magnets, not permanent
magnets. This is done so that we can control how much
voltage the alternator produces by regulating the amount of
current that creates the magnetic field in the rotor. In this
way, we can control the output of the alternator to suit our
needs, and protect the circuits in the automobile from
excessive voltage.
Now we know that every magnet has a north and a South Pole
and electro magnets are no exception. Our rotor has two
interlocking sections of electro magnets that are arranged so that there are fingers of alternating north
and south poles. That is evenly distributed on the outside of the rotor.
When we spin the rotor inside the stator and apply current to the rotor through a pair of brushes that
make constant contact with two slip rings on the rotor shaft. This causes the rotor to become
magnetized. The alternating north and South Pole magnets spin past the three sets of wire loops in
the stator and produce a constantly reversing voltage in the three wires. In other words, we are
producing alternating current in the stator.
Now, we have to convert this alternating
current to direct current. This is done by
using a series of 6 diodes that are mounted in
a rectifier assembly. A diode allows current
to flow only in one direction. If voltage
tries to flow in the other direction, it is
blocked. The six diodes are arranged so that
all the voltage coming from the alternator is
aligned in one direction thereby converting
AC current into DC current.
There are 2 diodes for each of the three sets
of windings in the stator. The two diodes are
facing in opposite directions, one with its
north pole facing the windings and the other
with its south pole facing the windings. This
arrangement causes the AC current coming
out of the windings to be converted to DC
current before it leaves the alternator through the B terminal. Connected to the B terminal of the
alternator is a fairly heavy wire that runs straight to the battery.
Current to generate the magnetic field in the rotor comes from the ignition switch and passes through
the voltage regulator. Since the rotor is spinning, we need a way to connect this current from the
regulator to the spinning rotor. This is accomplished by wires connected to two spring loaded
brushes that rub against two slip rings on the rotor's shaft. The voltage regulator monitors the
voltage coming out of the alternator and, when it reaches a threshold of about 14.5 volts, the
regulator reduces the current in the rotor to weaken the magnetic field. When the voltage drops
below this threshold, the current to the rotor is increased.

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There is another circuit in the alternator to control the charging system warning lamp that is on the
dash. Part of that circuit is another set of diodes mounted inside the alternator called the diode
trio. The diode trio takes current coming from the three stator windings and passes a small amount
through three diodes so that only the positive voltage comes through. After the diodes, the wires are
joined into one wire and sent out of the alternator at the L connection. It then goes to one side of the
dash warning lamp that is used to tell you when there is a problem with the charging system. The
other side of the lamp is connected to the run side of the ignition switch. If both sides of the warning
lamp have equal positive voltage, the lamp will not light. Remove voltage from one side and the
lamp comes on to let you know there is a problem.
This system is not very efficient. There are many types of malfunctions of the charging system that
it cannot detect, so just because the lamp is not lit does not mean everything is ok. A volt meter is
probably the best method of determining whether the charging system is working properly
THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR
The voltage regulator can be mounted inside or outside of the alternator housing. If the regulator is
mounted outside (common on some Ford products) there will be a wiring harness connecting it to the
alternator.
The voltage regulator controls the field current applied to the spinning rotor inside the alternator.
When there is no current applied to the field, there is no voltage produced from the alternator. When
voltage drops below 13.5 volts, the regulator will apply current to the field and the alternator will
start charging. When the voltage exceeds 14.5 volts, the regulator will stop supplying voltage to the
field and the alternator will stop charging. This is how voltage output from the alternator is regulated.
Amperage or current is regulated by the state of charge of the battery. When the battery is weak, the
electromotive force (voltage) is not strong enough to hold back the current from the alternator trying
to recharge the battery. As the battery reaches a state of full charge, the electromotive force becomes
strong enough to oppose the current flow from the alternator, the amperage output from the alternator
will drop to close to zero, while the voltage will remain at 13.5 to 14.5. When more electrical power
is used, the electromotive force will reduce and alternator amperage will increase. It is extremely
important that when alternator efficiency is checked, both voltage and amperage outputs are checked.
Each alternator has a rated amperage output depending on the electrical requirements of the vehicle.
CHARGING SYSTEM GAUGE OR WARNING LAMP
The charging system gauge or warning lamp monitors the health of the charging system so that you
have a warning of a problem before you get stuck.
When a charging problem is indicated, you can still drive a short distance to find help unlike an oil
pressure or coolant temperature problem which can cause serious engine damage if you continue to
drive. The worst that can happen with a charging system problem is that you get stuck in a bad
location.
A charging system warning lamp is a poor indicator of problems in that there are many charging
problems that it will not recognize. If it does light while you are driving, it usually means the
charging system is not working at all. The most common cause of this is a broken alternator belt.
There are two types of gauges used to monitor charging systems on some vehicles: a voltmeter which
measures system voltage and an ammeter which measures amperage. Most modern cars that have
gauges use a voltmeter because it is a much better indicator of charging
system health. A mechanic's voltmeter is usually the first tool a technician
uses when checking out a charging system. A modern automobile has a 12
volt electrical system. A fully charged battery will read about 12.5 volts
when the engine is not running. When the engine is running, the charging
system takes over so that the voltmeter will read 14 to 14.5 volts and should
stay there unless there is a heavy load on the electrical system such as
wipers, lights, heater and rear defogger all operating together while the
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engine is idling at which time the voltage may drop. If the voltage drops below 12.5, it means that
the battery is providing some of the current. You may notice that your dash lights dim at this point. If
this happens for an extended period, the battery will run down and may not have enough of a charge
to start the car after shutting it off. This should never happen with a healthy charging system
because as soon as you step on the gas, the charging system will recharge the battery. If the voltage
is constantly below 14 volts, you should have the system checked. If the voltage ever goes above 15
volts, there is a problem with the voltage regulator. Have the system checked as soon as possible as
this "overcharging" condition can cause damage to your electrical system.
If you think of electricity as water, voltage is like water pressure, whereas
amperage is like the volume of water. If you increase pressure, then more
water will flow through a given size pipe, but if you increase the size of the
pipe, more water will flow at a lower pressure. An ammeter will read from
a negative amperage when the battery is providing most of the current
thereby depleting itself, to a positive amperage if most of the current is
coming from the charging system. If the battery is fully charged and there
is minimal electrical demand, then the ammeter should read close to zero,
but should always be on the positive side of zero. It is normal for the
ammeter to read a high positive amperage in order to recharge the battery
after starting, but it should taper off in a few minutes. If it continues to read more than 10 or 20
amps even though the lights, wipers and other electrical devices are turned off, you may have a weak
battery and should have it checked.
STARTING SYSTEM:-
The "starting system", the heart of the electrical system in your car, begins with the Battery. The key
is inserted into the Ignition Switch and then turned
to the start position. A small amount of current
then passes through the Neutral Safety Switch to
a Starter Relay or Starter Solenoid which allows
high current to flow through the Battery Cables to
the Starter Motor. The starter motor then cranks the
engine so that the piston, moving downward, can
create a suction that will draw a Fuel/Air mixture
into the cylinder, where a spark created by the
Ignition System will ignite this mixture. If
the Compression in the engine is high enough and
all this happens at the right Time, the engine will
start.

BATTERY

The automotive battery, also known as a lead-acid storage battery, is an electrochemical device that
produces voltage and delivers current. In an automotive battery we can reverse the electrochemical
action, thereby recharging the battery, which will then give us many years of service. The purpose of
the battery is to supply current to the starter motor, provide current to the ignition system while
cranking, to supply additional current when the demand is higher than the alternator can supply and
to act as an electrical reservoir.
The automotive battery requires special handling. The electrolyte (water) inside the battery is a
mixture of sulfuric acid and water. Sulfuric acid is very corrosive; if it gets on your skin it should be
flushed with water immediately; if it gets in your eyes it should be flushed with a mild solution of
baking soda and water immediately and you should see a doctor as soon as possible. Sulfuric acid
will eat through clothing, so it is advisable to wear old clothing when handling batteries. It is also
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advisable to wear goggles and gloves while servicing the battery. When charging, the battery will
emit hydrogen gas; it is therefore extremely important to keep flames and sparks away from the
battery.
Because batteries emit hydrogen gas while charging, the battery case cannot be completely sealed.
Years ago there was a vent cap for each cell and we had to replenish the cells when the electrolyte
evaporated. Today's batteries (maintenance free) have small vents on the side of the battery; the
gases emitted have to go through baffles to escape. During this process the liquid condenses and
drops back to the bottom of the battery. There's need to replenish or add water to the battery.
Today's batteries are rated in cold cranking amps. This represents the current that the battery can
produce for 30 seconds at 0 degrees before the battery voltage drops below 7.2 volts. An average
battery today will have a CCA (Cold Cranking Amps) of 500. With the many different makes and
models of cars available today, batteries will come in many different sizes, but all sizes come in
many CCAs. Make sure you get a battery strong enough to operate properly in your car. The length
of the warranty is not indicative of the strength of the battery.
Battery cables are large diameter, multistranded wire which carries the high current (250+ amps)
necessary to operate the starter motor. Some battery cables will have a smaller wire, soldered to the
terminal, which is used to either operate a smaller device or to provide an additional ground. When
the smaller cable burns it indicates a high resistance in the heavy cable.
Even maintenance free batteries need periodic inspection and cleaning to insure they stay in good
working order. Inspect the battery to see that it is clean and that it is held securely in its carrier. Some
corrosion naturally collects around the battery. Electrolyte condensation contains corrosive sulfuric
acid, which eats away the metal of battery terminals, cable ends and battery holddown parts. To
clean away the corrosion, use a mixture of baking soda and water, and wash all the metal parts
around the battery, being careful not to allow any of the mixture to get into the battery (batteries with
top cell caps and vents). Rinse with water. Remove the battery cables from the battery (negative
cable first), wire brush the inside of the cable end and the battery post. Reinstall the cables (negative
end last). Coat all exposed metal parts( paint or grease can be used) so that the sulfuric acid cannot
get on the metal.
IGNITION SWITCH
The ignition switch allows the driver to distribute electrical current to where it is needed. There are
generally 5 key switch positions that are used:
Lock- All circuits are open (no current supplied) and the steering wheel is in the lock position. In
some cars, the transmission lever cannot be moved in this position. If the steering wheel is applying
pressure to the locking mechanism, the key might be hard to turn. If you do experience this type of
condition, try moving the steering wheel to remove the pressure as you turn the key.
Off- All circuits are open, but the steering wheel can be turned and the key cannot be extracted.
Run- All circuits, except the starter circuit, are closed (current is allowed to pass through). Current is
supplied to all but the starter circuit.
Start- Power is supplied to the ignition circuit and the starter motor only. That is why the radio stops
playing in the start position. This position of the ignition switch is spring loaded so that the starter is
not engaged while the engine is running. This position is used momentarily, just to activate the
starter.
Accessory- Power is supplied to all but the ignition and starter circuit. This allows you to play the
radio, work the power windows, etc. while the engine is not running.
Most ignition switches are mounted on the steering column. Some switches are actually two separate
parts;

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The lock into which you insert the key. This component also contains the mechanism to lock the
steering wheel and shifter.
The switch which contains the actual electrical circuits. It is usually mounted on top of the steering
column just behind the dash and is connected to the lock by a linkage or rod.
NEUTRAL SAFETY SWITCH
This switch opens (denies current to) the starter circuit when the transmission is in any gear but
Neutral or Park on automatic transmissions. This switch is normally connected to the transmission
linkage or directly on the transmission. Most cars utilize this same switch to apply current to the
backup lights when the transmission is put in reverse. Standard transmission cars will connect this
switch to the clutch pedal so that the starter will not engage unless the clutch pedal is depressed. If
you find that you have to move the shifter away from park or neutral to get the car to start, it usually
means that this switch needs adjustment. If your car has an automatic parking brake release, the
neutral safety switch will control that function also.
STARTER RELAY
A relay is a device that allows a small amount of electrical current to control a large amount of
current. An automobile starter uses a large amount of current (250+ amps) to start an engine. If we
were to allow that much current to go through the ignition switch, we would not only need a very
large switch, but all the wires would have to be the size of battery cables (not very practical). A
starter relay is installed in series between the battery and the starter. Some cars use a starter solenoid
to accomplish the same purpose of allowing a small amount of current from the ignition switch to
control a high current flow from the battery to the starter. The starter solenoid in some cases also
mechanically engages the starter gear with the engine.
BATTERY CABLES
Battery cables are large diameter, multistranded wire which carry the high current (250+ amps)
necessary to operate the starter motor. Some have a smaller wire soldered to the terminal which is
used to either operate a smaller device or to provide an additional ground. When the smaller cable
burns, this indicates a high resistance in the heavy cable. Care must be taken to keep the battery cable
ends (terminals) clean and tight. Battery cables can be replaced with ones that are slightly larger but
never smaller.
STARTER MOTOR
The starter motor is a powerful electric motor, with a small gear (pinion) attached to the end. When
activated, the gear is meshed with a larger gear (ring), which is attached to the engine. The starter
motor then spins the engine over so that the piston can draw in a fuel/ air mixture, which is then
ignited to start the engine. When the engine starts to spin faster than the starter, a device called an
overrunning clutch (bendix drive) automatically disengages the starter gear from the engine gear.
LIGHTING CIRCUIT
Statutory regulations specify the number, position and specification of many of the external lights
fitted to a vehicle. In addition to the obligatory lights, manufacturers and owners of the vehicle often
install other supplementary lights to meet other requirements. Various lamps are grouped in separate
circuits, which include the following:
(i) Side and rear lamps including lamps for the number plate, glove compartment and
instrument panel illumination. (ii) Main driving lamps (headlamps) incorporating a dipped facility to
prevent approaching drivers being dazzled. (Hi) Rear fog lamp(s) to guard the rear of the vehicle in
conditions of poor visibility.
(iv) Auxiliary driving lamps including spot lamps for distance illumination and fog lamps to reduce
the reflected glare from fog.
(v) Reversing lamps to illuminate the road when the vehicle is moving backwards and warn other

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drivers of the movement.
(vi) Brake lights to warn a following driver that the vehicle is slowing down.
(vii) Interior light and courtesy lights on doors.
(viii) Instrument panel lights to signal the correct operation of a unit or the presence of a fault in a
particular system.
(ix) Directional indicators and hazard warning lights.
CIRCUIT LAYOUT
To obtain maximum illumination the lamps are connected in parallel. With the arrangement an open
circuit in any branch causes failure only in that one branch, the other lamps still function normally.
The vehicle lighting systems normally use an earth return circuit, because this requires less cable
length than an insulated return or two wire system. When the vehicle body is used as an earth, a good
clean connection must be provided at suitable earthing points on the main body. This earthing lead is
specifically essential if the lamp is fitted in a plastics body panel.
Lighting circuit diagrams are presented in either a locational or compact theoretical from. In the
former type each component is located relative to its position on the vehicle. This is useful in
indicating the location of the various connectors and components, but the diagram becomes more
difficult to trace out a particular circuit path. To avoid this problem, some manufactures make use of
extra diagrams to indicate separate parts of the circuit.

Lighting circuit (simplified).

The lamps in this parallel circuit are controlled by three switches. Switch 1 operates the side and rear
lamps. It also supplies power. Switch 2 operates the headlamps and supplies power.
Switch 3 distributes the current to either the main beam or the dip-beam head lamp bulbs.
If a single fuse is installed along with in the external lighting supply cable, then all lights go out
when the fuse fails. This is a dangerous situation when the vehicle is travelling at speed along a dark
road. To eliminate such a situation manufacturers either fit separate fuses for each
light system, or refrain from fusing the headlamp circuit altogether.

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 III. ELECTRICAL VEHICLES:
Electricity from off-vehicle sources, or may be self-contained with a battery or generator to convert
fuel to electricity. EVs include road and rail vehicles, surface and underwater vessels, electric
aircraft and electric spacecraft.
EVs first came into existence in the mid-19th century, when electricity was among the preferred
methods for motor vehicle propulsion, providing a level of comfort and ease of operation that could
not be achieved by the gasoline cars of the time. The internal combustion engine (ICE) has been the
dominant propulsion method for motor vehicles for almost 100 years, but electric power has
remained commonplace in other vehicle types, such as trains and smaller vehicles of all types.
HISTORY
Electric motive power started in 1827, when Slovak-Hungarian priest Ányos Jedlik built the first
crude but viable electric motor, provided with stator, rotor and commutator, and the year after he
used it to power a tiny car. A few years later, in 1835, professor Sibrandus Stratingh of University of
Groningen, the Netherlands, built a small scale electric car and a Robert Anderson of Scotland is
reported to have made a crude electric carriage sometime between the years of 1832 and 1839.
Around the same period, early experimental electrical cars were moving on rails, too. American
blacksmith and inventor Thomas Davenport built a toy electric locomotive, powered by a primitive
electric motor, in 1835. In 1838, a Scotsman named Robert Davidson built an electric locomotive
that attained a speed of four miles per hour (6 km/h). In England a patent was granted in 1840 for the
use of rails as conductors of electric current, and similar American patents were issued to Lilley and
Colten in 1847.
Between 1832 and 1839 (the exact year is uncertain), Robert Anderson of Scotland invented the first
crude electric carriage, powered by non-rechargeable primary cells.
By the 20th century, electric cars and rail transport were commonplace, with commercial electric
automobiles having the majority of the market. Over time their general-purpose commercial use
reduced to specialist roles, as platform trucks, forklift trucks, ambulances, tow tractors and urban
delivery vehicles, such as the iconic British milk float; for most of the 20th century, the UK was the
world's largest user of electric road vehicles.
Electrified trains were used for coal transport, as the motors did not use precious oxygen in the
mines. Switzerland's lack of natural fossil resources forced the rapid electrification of their rail
network. One of the earliest rechargeable batteries - the nickel-iron battery - was favored
by Edison for use in electric cars.
EVs were among the earliest automobiles, and before the preeminence of light, powerful internal
combustion engines, electric automobiles held many vehicle land speed and distance records in the
early 1900s. They were produced by Baker Electric, Columbia Electric, Detroit Electric, and others,
and at one point in history out-sold gasoline-powered vehicles. In fact, in 1900, 28 percent of the cars
on the road in the USA were electric. EVs were so popular that even President Woodrow Wilson and
his secret service agents toured Washington DC in their Milburn Electrics, which covered 60–70 mi
(100–110 km) per charge.
A number of developments contributed to decline of electric cars. Improved road
infrastructure required a greater range than that offered by electric cars, and the discovery of large
reserves of petroleum in Texas, Oklahoma, and California led to the wide availability of affordable
gasoline/petrol, making internal combustion powered cars cheaper to operate over long distances.
Also internal combustion powered cars became ever easier to operate thanks to the invention of
the electric starter by Charles Kettering in 1912, which eliminated the need of a hand crank for
starting a gasoline engine, and the noise emitted by ICE cars became more bearable thanks to the use
of the muffler, which Hiram Percy Maxim had invented in 1897. As roads were improved outside
urban areas electric vehicle range could not compete with the ICE. Finally, the initiation of mass

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production of gasoline-powered vehicles by Henry Ford in 1913 reduced significantly the cost of
gasoline cars as compared to electric cars.
In the 1930s, National City Lines, which was a partnership of General Motors, Firestone,
and Standard Oil of California purchased many electric tram networks across the country to
dismantle them and replace them with GM buses. The partnership was convicted of conspiring to
monopolize the sale of equipment and supplies to their subsidiary companies, but were acquitted of
conspiring to monopolize the provision of transportation services.
Experimentation
In January 1990, General Motors' President introduced its EV concept two-seater, the "Impact", at
the Los Angeles Auto Show. That September, the California Air Resources Board mandated major-
automaker sales of EVs, in phases starting in 1998. From 1996 to 1998 GM produced 1117 EV1s,
800 of which were made available through three-year leases.
Chrysler, Ford, GM, Honda, Nissan and Toyota also produced limited numbers of EVs for California
drivers. In 2003, upon the expiration of GM's EV1 leases, GM crushed them. The crushing has
variously been attributed to:
the auto industry's successful federal court challenge to California's zero-emissions vehicle mandate,
a federal regulation requiring GM to produce and maintain spare parts for the few thousands EV1s
and the success of the oil and auto industries' media campaign to reduce public acceptance of EVs.
There are many ways to generate electricity, of varying costs, efficiency and ecological desirability.

 A passenger train, taking power through a third rail with return through the traction rails
 direct connection to generation plants as is common among electric trains, trolley buses,
and trolley trucks (See also : overhead lines, third rail and conduit current collection)
 Online Electric Vehicle collects power from electric power strips buried under the road
surface through electromagnetic induction
 generated on-board using a diesel engine: diesel-electric locomotive
 generated on-board using a fuel cell: fuel cell vehicle
 generated on-board using nuclear energy: nuclear submarines and aircraft carriers
 renewable sources such as solar power: solar vehicle
It is also possible to have hybrid EVs that derive electricity from multiple sources. Such as:
 on-board rechargeable electricity storage system (RESS) and a direct continuous connection
to land-based generation plants for purposes of on-highway recharging with unrestricted
highway range
 on-board rechargeable electricity storage system and a fueled propulsion power source
(internal combustion engine): plug-in hybrid

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  Another form of chemical to electrical conversion is fuel cells, projected for future use.
ELECTRIC VEHICLE BATTERY
Most electric vehicles use lithium ion batteries. Lithium ion batteries have higher energy density,
longer life span and higher power density than most other practical batteries. Complicating factors
include safety, durability, thermal breakdown and cost. Li-ion batteries should be used within safe
temperature and voltage ranges in order to operate safely and efficiently.
Increasing the battery's lifespan decreases effective costs. One technique is to operate a subset of the
battery cells at a time and switching these subsets.
ELECTRIC MOTOR
The power of a vehicle electric motor, as in other vehicles, is measured in kilowatts (kW). 100 kW is
roughly equivalent to 134 horsepower, although electric motors can deliver their full torque over a
wide RPM range, so the performance is not equivalent, and far exceeds a 134 horsepower (100 kW)
fuel-powered motor, which has a limited torque curve.
Usually, direct current (DC) electricity is fed into a DC/AC inverter where it is converted
to alternating current (AC) electricity and this AC electricity is connected to a 3-phase AC motor.
For electric trains, forklift trucks, and some electric cars, DC motors are often used. In some
cases, universal motors are used, and then AC or DC may be employed. In recent production
vehicles, various motor types have been implemented, for instance: Induction motors within Tesla
Motor vehicles and permanent magnet machines in the Nissan Leaf.
VEHICLE TYPES

The Chevrolet Volt is the world's top sellingplug-in hybrid of all time. Global Volt/Ampera family
sales passed the 100,000 unit milestone in October 2015.
HYBRID EV
A hybrid electric vehicle combines a conventional (usually fossil fuel-powered) power train with
some form of electric propulsion. As of April 2016, over 11 million hybrid electric vehicles have
been sold worldwide since their inception in 1997. Japan is the market leader with more than
5 million hybrids sold, followed by the United States with cumulative sales of over 4 million units
since 1999, and Europe with about 1.5 million hybrids delivered since 2000. Japan has the world's
highest hybrid market penetration. By 2013 the hybrid market share accounted for more than 30% of
new standard passenger car sold, and about 20% new passenger vehicle sales including kei cars.
Norway ranks second with a hybrid market share of 6.9% of new car sales in 2014, followed by the
Netherlands with 3.7%
Global hybrid sales are by Toyota Motor Company with more than 9 million Lexus and Toyota
hybrids sold as of April 2016, followed by Honda Motor Co., Ltd. with cumulative global sales of
more than 1.35 million hybrids as of June 2014, Ford Motor Corporation with over 424,000 hybrids
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sold in the United States through June 2015 and the Hyundai Group with cumulative global sales of
200,000 hybrids as of March 2014, including both Hyundai Motor Company and Kia Motors hybrid
models. As of April 2016, worldwide hybrid sales are led by the Toyota Prius liftback, with
cumulative sales of over 3.7 million units. The Prius nameplate has sold more than 5.7 million
hybrids up to April 2016.
PROPERTIES OF EV
COMPONENTS
The type of battery, the type of traction motor and the motor controller design vary according to the
size, power and proposed application, which can be as small as a motorized shopping
cart or wheelchair, through pedelecs,electric motorcycles and scooters, neighborhood electric
vehicles, industrial fork-lift trucks and including many hybrid vehicles.
ENERGY SOURCES
Although EVs have few direct emissions, all rely on energy created through electricity generation,
and will usually emit pollution and generate waste, unless it is generated by renewable source power
plants. Since EVs use whatever electricity is delivered by their electrical utility/grid operator, EVs
can be made more or less efficient, polluting and expensive to run, by modifying the electrical
generating stations. This would be done by an electrical utility under a government energy policy, in
a timescale negotiated between utilities and government.
Fossil fuel vehicle efficiency and pollution standards take years to filter through a nation's fleet of
vehicles. New efficiency and pollution standards rely on the purchase of new vehicles, often as the
current vehicles already on the road reach their end-of-life. Only a few nations set a retirement age
for old vehicles, such as Japan or Singapore, forcing periodic upgrading of all vehicles already on the
road.
EVs will take advantage of whatever environmental gains happen when a renewable energy
generation station comes online; a fossil-fuel power station is decommissioned or upgraded.
Conversely, if government policy or economic conditions shifts generators back to use more
polluting fossil fuels and internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), or more inefficient sources,
the reverse can happen. Even in such a situation, electrical vehicles are still more efficient than a
comparable amount of fossil fuel vehicles. In areas with a deregulated electrical energy market, an
electrical vehicle owner can choose whether to run his electrical vehicle off conventional electrical
energy sources, or strictly from renewable electrical energy sources (presumably at an additional
cost), pushing other consumers onto conventional sources, and switch at any time between the two.
EFFICIENCY
Because of the different methods of charging possible, the emissions produced have been quantified
in different ways. Plug-in all-electric and hybrid vehicles also have different consumption
characteristics.
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
Electromagnetic radiation from high performance electrical motors has been claimed to be associated
with some human ailments, but such claims are largely unsubstantiated except for extremely high
exposures. Electric motors can be shielded within a metallic Faraday cage, but this reduces efficiency
by adding weight to the vehicle, while it is not conclusive that all electromagnetic radiation can be
contained.
CHARGING
If a large proportion of private vehicles were to convert to grid electricity it would increase the
demand for generation and transmission, and consequent emissions. However, overall energy
consumption and emissions would diminish because of the higher efficiency of EVs over the entire

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cycle. In the USA it has been estimated there is already nearly sufficient existing power plant and
transmission infrastructure, assuming that most charging would occur overnight, using the most
efficient off-peak base load sources.
BATTERY SWAPPING
Instead of recharging EVs from electric socket, batteries could be mechanically replaced on special
stations in a couple of minutes (battery swapping).
Batteries with greatest energy density such as metal-air fuel cells usually cannot be recharged in
purely electric way. Instead, some kind of metallurgical process is needed, such as aluminum
smelting and similar.
Silicon-air, aluminum-air and other metal-air fuel cells look promising candidates for swap batteries.
Any source of energy, renewable or non-renewable, could be used to remake used metal-air fuel cells
with relatively high efficiency. Investment in infrastructure will be needed. The cost of such batteries
could be an issue, although they could be made with replaceable anodes and electrolyte.
CHASSIS SWAPPING
Instead of replacing batteries, it is possible to replace the entire chassis (including the batteries,
electric motor and wheels) of an electric Modular vehicle.
Such a system was patented in 2000[75] by Dr Gordon Dower and three road-licensed prototypes
have been built by the Ridek Corporation in Point Roberts, Washington.
SAFETY
The United Nations in Geneva (UNECE) has adopted the first international regulation (Regulation
100) on safety of both fully electric and hybrid electric cars, with the intent of ensuring that cars with
a high voltage electric power train, such as hybrid and fully EVs, are as safe as combustion-
powered cars. The EU and Japan have already indicated that they intend to incorporate the new
UNECE Regulation in their respective rules on technical standards for vehicles.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF EVS
ENVIRONMENTAL
EVs release no tail pipe air pollutants at the place where they are operated. They also typically
generate less noise pollution than an internal combustion engine vehicle, whether at rest or in
motion. The energy that electric and hybrid cars consume is usually generated by means that have
environmental impacts. Nevertheless, adaptation of EVs would have a significant net environmental
benefit, except in a few countries that continue to rely on older coal fired power plants for the bulk of
their electricity generation throughout the life of the car.
There are special kinds of electric vehicles named SAFA TEMPO in Nepal that help lower the
pollution created by vehicles. These vehicles are powered by electricity - usually charged batteries -
rather than oil or gas and currently heavily promoted by the government to facilitate environmental
and vehicle management issues.. Electric motors don't require oxygen, unlike internal combustion
engines; this is useful for submarines and for space rovers.
MECHANICAL
Electric motors are mechanically very simple and often achieve 90% energy conversion
efficiency over the full range of speeds and power output and can be precisely controlled. They can
also be combined with regenerative braking systems that have the ability to convert movement
energy back into stored electricity. This can be used to reduce the wear on brake systems (and
consequent brake pad dust) and reduce the total energy requirement of a trip. Regenerative braking is
especially effective for start-and-stop city use.

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They can be finely controlled and provide high torque from rest, unlike internal combustion engines,
and do not need multiple gears to match power curves. This removes the need
for gearboxes and torque converters.
EVs provide quiet and smooth operation and consequently have less noise and vibration than internal
combustion engines. While this is a desirable attribute, it has also evoked concern that the absence of
the usual sounds of an approaching vehicle poses a danger to blind, elderly and very young
pedestrians. To mitigate this situation, automakers and individual companies are developing systems
that produce warning sounds when EVs are moving slowly, up to a speed when normal motion and
rotation (road, suspension, electric motor, etc.) noises become audible.
ENERGY RESILIENCE
Electricity can be produced from a variety of sources; therefore it gives the greatest degree of energy
resilience.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
EV 'tank-to-wheels' efficiency is about a factor of 3 higher than internal combustion engine
vehicles. Energy is not consumed while the vehicle is stationary, unlike internal combustion engines
which consume fuel while idling. However, looking at the well-to-wheel efficiency of EVs, their
total emissions, while still lower, are closer to an efficient gasoline or diesel in most countries where
electricity generation relies on fossil fuels.
Well-to-wheel efficiency of an EV has less to do with the vehicle itself and more to do with the
method of electricity production. A particular EV would instantly become twice as efficient if
electricity production were switched from fossil fuel to a wind or tidal primary source of energy.
Thus, when "well-to-wheels" is cited, one should keep in mind that the discussion is no longer about
the vehicle, but rather about the entire energy supply infrastructure - in the case of fossil fuels this
should also include energy spent on exploration, mining, refining, and distribution.
COST OF RECHARGE
According to General Motors, as reported by CNN Money, the GM Volt will cost "less than
purchasing a cup of your favorite coffee" to recharge. The Volt should cost less than 2 cents per mile
to drive on electricity, compared with 12 cents a mile on gasoline at a price of $3.60 a gallon. This
means a trip from Los Angeles to New York would cost $56 on electricity, and $336 with gasoline.
This would be the equivalent to paying 60 cents a gallon of gas.
The reality is that the cost of operating an EV varies wildly depending on the part of the world in
which the owner lives. In some locations an EV costs less to drive than a comparable gas-powered
vehicle, as long as the higher initial purchase-price is not factored in (i.e. a pure comparison of
gasoline cost to electricity cost). In the USA, however, in states which have a tiered electricity rate
schedule, "fuel" for EVs today costs owners significantly more than fuel for a comparable gas-
powered vehicle. A study done by Purdue University found that in California most users already
reach the third pricing tier for electricity each month, and adding an EV could push them into the
fourth or fifth (highest, most expensive) tier, meaning that they will be paying in excess of $.45 cents
per KWH for electricity to recharge their vehicle. At this price, which is higher than the average
electricity price in the US, it is dramatically more expensive to drive a pure-EV than it is to drive a
traditional pure-gas powered vehicle. "The objective of a tiered pricing system is to discourage
consumption. It's meant to get you to think about turning off your lights and conserving electricity. In
California, the unintended consequence is that plug-in hybrid cars won't be economical under this
system," said Tyner (the author), whose findings were published in the online version of the journal
Energy Policy.
STABILIZATION OF THE GRID
Since EVs can be plugged into the electric grid when not in use, there is a potential for battery
powered vehicles to even cut the demand for electricity by feeding electricity into the grid from their
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batteries during peak use periods (such as midafternoon air conditioning use) while doing most of
their charging at night, when there is unused generating capacity. This vehicle-to-grid (V2G)
connection has the potential to reduce the need for new power plants, as long as vehicle owners do
not mind reducing the life of their batteries, by being drained by the power company during peak
demand.
Furthermore, our current electricity infrastructure may need to cope with increasing shares of
variable-output power sources such as windmills and PV solar panels. This variability could be
addressed by adjusting the speed at which EV batteries are charged, or possibly even discharged.
Some concepts see battery exchanges and battery charging stations, much like gas/petrol stations
today. Clearly these will require enormous storage and charging potentials, which could be
manipulated to vary the rate of charging, and to output power during shortage periods, much as
diesel generators are used for short periods to stabilize some national grids.
RANGE
Many electric designs have limited range, due to the low energy density of batteries compared to the
fuel of internal combustion engined vehicles. EVs also often have long recharge times compared to
the relatively fast process of refueling a tank. This is further complicated by the current scarcity of
public charging stations. "Range anxiety" is a label for consumer concern about EV range.
HEATING OF EV
In cold climates, considerable energy is needed to heat the interior of a vehicle and to defrost the
windows. With internal combustion engines, this heat already exists as waste combustion heat
diverted from the engine cooling circuit. This process offsets the green house gases external costs. If
this is done with battery EVs, the interior heating requires extra energy from the vehicles' batteries.
Although some heat could be harvested from the motor or motors and battery, their greater efficiency
means there is not as much waste heat available as from a combustion engine.
However, for vehicles which are connected to the grid, battery EVs can be preheated, or cooled, with
little or no need for battery energy, especially for short trips.
ELECTRIC PUBLIC TRANSIT EFFICIENCY
Shifts from private to public transport (train, trolleybus, personal rapid transit or tram) have the
potential for large gains in efficiency in terms of individual miles per kWh.
Research shows people do prefer trams, because they are quieter and more comfortable and
perceived as having higher status. Therefore, it may be possible to cut liquid fossil fuel consumption
in cities through the use of electric trams. Trams may be the most energy-efficient form of public
transportation, with rubber wheeled vehicles using 2/3 more energy than the equivalent tram, and run
on electricity rather than fossil fuels.
In terms of net present value, they are also the cheapest—Blackpool trams are still running after 100-
years,[citation needed] but combustion buses only last about 15-years.
INCENTIVES AND PROMOTION
Many governments offer incentives to promote the use of electric vehicles, with the goals of
reducing air pollution and oil consumption. Some incentives intend to increase purchases of electric
vehicles by offsetting the purchase price with a grant. Other incentives include lower tax rates or
exemption from certain taxes, and investment in charging infrastructure.

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HYBRID VEHICLE
A hybrid vehicle uses two or more distinct types of power, such as internal combustion
engine+electric motor, e.g. in diesel-electric trains using diesel engines and electricity from overhead
lines, and submarines that use diesels when surfaced and batteries when submerged. Other means to
store energy include pressurized fluid, in hydraulic hybrids.
POWER SOURCES
Power sources for hybrid vehicles include:
 Coal, wood or other solid combustibles
 Compressed or liquefied natural gas
 Petrol (gasoline) or Diesel fuel
 Human powered e.g. pedaling or rowing
 Electromagnetic fields, Radio waves
 Electric batteries/capacitors
 Overhead electricity
 Hydraulic accumulator
 Hydrogen
 Flywheel
 Solar
 Wind
VEHICLE TYPE
TWO-WHEELED AND CYCLE-TYPE VEHICLES
Mopeds, electric bicycles, and even electric kick scooters are a simple form of a hybrid, powered by
an internal combustion engine or electric motor and the rider's muscles. Early prototype motorcycles
in the late 19th century used the same principle.
In a parallel hybrid bicycle human and motor torques are mechanically coupled at the pedal or one of
the wheels, e.g. using a hub motor, a roller pressing onto a tire, or a connection to a wheel using a
transmission element. Most motorized bicycles, mopeds are of this type.
In a series hybrid bicycle (SHB) (a kind of chainless bicycle) the user pedals a generator, charging a
battery or feeding the motor, which delivers all of the torque required. They are commercially
available, being simple in theory and manufacturingA series hybrid electric-petroleum
bicycle (SHEPB) is powered by pedals, batteries, a petrol generator, or plug-in charger - providing
flexibility and range enhancements over electric-only bicycles.
HEAVY VEHICLES
Hybrid power trains use diesel-electric or turbo-electric to power railway locomotives, buses, heavy
goods vehicles, mobile hydraulic machinery, and ships. A diesel/turbine engine drives an electric
generator or hydraulic pump, which powers electric/hydraulic motor(s) - strictly an electric/hydraulic
transmission (not a hybrid), unless it can accept power from outside. With large vehicles conversion
losses decrease, and the advantages in distributing power through wires or pipes rather than
mechanical elements become more prominent, especially when powering multiple drives — e.g.
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driven wheels or propellers. Until recently most heavy vehicles had little secondary energy storage,
e.g. batteries/hydraulic accumulators — excepting non-nuclear submarines, one of the oldest
production hybrids, running on diesels while surfaced and batteries when submerged. Both series and
parallel setups were used in WW2 submarines.
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
FUEL CONSUMPTION AND EMISSIONS REDUCTIONS
The hybrid vehicle typically achieves greater fuel economy and lower emissions than
conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), resulting in fewer emissions being
generated.
These savings are primarily achieved by three elements of a typical hybrid design:
Relying on both the engine and the electric motors for peak power needs, resulting in a smaller
engine size more for average usage rather than peak power usage. A smaller engine can have less
internal losses and lower weight.
Having significant battery storage capacity to store and reuse recaptured energy, especially in stop-
and-go traffic typical of the city driving cycle.
Recapturing significant amounts of energy during braking that are normally wasted as heat.
This regenerative braking reduces vehicle speed by converting some of its kinetic energy into
electricity, depending upon the power rating of the motor/generator.
Other techniques that are not necessarily 'hybrid' features, but that are frequently found on hybrid
vehicles include:
Using Atkinson cycle engines instead of Otto cycle engines for improved fuel economy.
Shutting down the engine during traffic stops or while coasting or during other idle periods.
Improving aerodynamics; (part of the reason that SUVs get such bad fuel economy is the drag on the
car. A box shaped car or truck has to exert more force to move through the air causing more stress on
the engine making it work harder). Improving the shape and aerodynamics of a car is a good way to
help better the fuel economy and also improve vehicle handling at the same time.
Using low rolling resistance tires (tires were often made to give a quiet, smooth ride, high grip, etc.,
but efficiency was a lower priority). Tires cause mechanical drag, once again making the engine
work harder, consuming more fuel. Hybrid cars may use special tires that are more inflated than
regular tires and stiffer or by choice of carcass structure and rubber compound have lower rolling
resistance while retaining acceptable grip, and so improving fuel economy whatever the power
source.
Powering the a/c, power steering, and other auxiliary pumps electrically as and when needed; this
reduces mechanical losses when compared with driving them continuously with traditional engine
belts.
These features make a hybrid vehicle particularly efficient for city traffic where there are frequent
stops, coasting and idling periods. In addition noise emissions are reduced, particularly at idling and
low operating speeds, in comparison to conventional engine vehicles. For continuous high speed
highway use these features are much less useful in reducing emissions.
HYBRID VEHICLE EMISSIONS
Hybrid vehicle emissions today are getting close to or even lower than the recommended level set by
the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). The recommended levels they suggest for a typical
passenger vehicle should be equated to 5.5 metric tons of carbon dioxide. The three most popular
hybrid vehicles, Honda Civic, Honda Insight and Toyota Prius, set the standards even higher by
producing 4.1, 3.5, and 3.5 tons showing a major improvement in carbon dioxide emissions. Hybrid
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vehicles can reduce air emissions of smog-forming pollutants by up to 90% and cut carbon dioxide
emissions in half.
More fossil fuel is needed to build hybrid vehicles than conventional cars but reduced emissions
when running the vehicle more than outweigh this.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF HYBRID CAR BATTERY
Though hybrid cars consume less fuel than conventional cars, there is still an issue regarding the
environmental damage of the hybrid car battery. Today most hybrid car batteries are one of two
types: 1) nickel metal hydride, or 2) lithium ion; both are regarded as more environmentally friendly
than lead-based batteries which constitute the bulk of petrol car starter batteries today. There are
many types of batteries. Some are far more toxic than others. Lithium ion is the least toxic of the two
mentioned above.
The toxicity levels and environmental impact of nickel metal hydride batteries—the type currently
used in hybrids—are much lower than batteries like lead acid or nickel cadmium according to one
source. Another source claims nickel metal hydride batteries are much more toxic than lead batteries,
also that recycling them and disposing of them safely is difficult. In general various soluble and
insoluble nickel compounds, such as nickel chloride and nickel oxide, have known carcinogenic
effects in chick embryos and rats. The main nickel compound in NiMH batteries is nickel
oxyhydroxide (NiOOH), which is used as the positive electrode.
The lithium-ion battery has attracted attention due to its potential for use in hybrid electric vehicles.
Hitachi is a leader in its development. In addition to its smaller size and lighter weight, lithium-ion
batteries deliver performance that helps to protect the environment with features such as improved
charge efficiency without memory effect. The lithium-ion batteries are appealing because they have
the highest energy density of any rechargeable batteries and can produce a voltage more than three
times that of nickel–metal hydride battery cell while simultaneously storing large quantities of
electricity as well. The batteries also produce higher output (boosting vehicle power), higher
efficiency (avoiding wasteful use of electricity), and provides excellent durability, compared with the
life of the battery being roughly equivalent to the life of the vehicle. Additionally, use of lithium-ion
batteries reduces the overall weight of the vehicle and also achieves improved fuel economy of 30%
better than petro-powered vehicles with a consequent reduction in CO2emissions helping to prevent
global warming.
CHARGING
The optimum charging window for Lithium ion batteries is 3-4.2 V. Recharging with a 120 volt
household outlet takes several hours, a 240 volt charger takes 1–4 hours, and a quick charge takes
approximately 30 minutes to achieve 80% charge. 3 important factors-distance on charge, cost of
charging, and time to charge In order for the hybrid to run on electrical power, the car must perform
the action of braking in order to generate some electricity. The electricity then gets discharged most
effectively when the car accelerates or climbs up an incline. In 2014, hybrid electric car batteries can
run on solely electricity for 70–130 miles (110–210 km) on a single charge. Hybrid battery capacity
currently ranges from 4.4 kWh to 85 kWh on a fully electric car. On a hybrid car, the battery packs
currently range from 0.6 kWh to 2.4 kWh representing a large difference in use of electricity in
hybrid cars.
RAW MATERIALS INCREASING COSTS
There is an impending increase in the costs of many rare materials used in the manufacture of hybrid
cars. For example, the rare earth element dysprosium is required to fabricate many of the
advanced electric motors and battery systems in hybrid propulsion systems. Neodymium is another
rare earth metal which is a crucial ingredient in high-strength magnets that are found in permanent
magnet electric motors.

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Nearly all the rare earth elements in the world come from China, and many analysts believe that an
overall increase in Chinese electronics manufacturing will consume this entire supply by 2012. In
addition, export quotas on Chinese rare earth elements have resulted in an unknown amount of
supply.
A few non-Chinese sources such as the advanced Hoidas Lake project in northern Canada as well
as Mount Weld in Australia are currently under development; however, the barriers to entry are high
and require years to go online.
Hybrids-Electric vehicles (HEVs) combine the advantage of gasoline engines and electric motors.
The key areas for efficiency or performance gains are regenerative braking, dual power sources, and
less idling.
Regenerate Braking. The drive train can be used to convert kinetic energy (from the moving car) into
stored electrical energy (batteries). The same electric motor that powers the drive train is used to
resist the motion of the drive train. This applied resistance from the electric motor causes the wheel
to slow down and simultaneously recharge the batteries.
Dual Power. Power can come from either the engine, motor or both depending on driving
circumstances. Additional power to assist the engine in accelerating or climbing might be provided
by the electric motor. Or more commonly, a smaller electric motor provides all of the power for low-
speed driving conditions and is augmented by the engine at higher speeds.
Automatic Start/Shutoff. It automatically shuts off the engine when the vehicle comes to a stop and
restarts it when the accelerator is pressed down. This automation is much simpler with an electric
motor. Also see dual power above.

FUEL CELL
A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity through a
chemical reaction of positively charged hydrogen ions with oxygen or another oxidizing agent. Fuel
cells are different from batteries in requiring a continuous source of fuel and oxygen or air to sustain
the chemical reaction, whereas in a battery the chemicals present in the battery react with each other
to generate an electromotive force (emf). Fuel cells can produce electricity continuously for as long
as these inputs are supplied.
The first fuel cells were invented in 1838. The first commercial use of fuel cells came more than a
century later in NASA space programs to generate power for satellites and space capsules. Since
then, fuel cells have been used in many other applications. Fuel cells are used for primary and
backup power for commercial, industrial and residential buildings and in remote or inaccessible
areas. They are also used to power fuel cell vehicles, including forklifts, automobiles, buses, boats,
motorcycles and submarines.
There are many types of fuel cells, but they all consist of an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte that
allows positively charged hydrogen ions (or protons) to move between the two sides of the fuel cell.
The anode and cathode contain catalysts that cause the fuel to undergo oxidation reactions that
generate positively charged hydrogen ions and electrons. The hydrogen ions are drawn through the
electrolyte after the reaction.
At the same time, electrons are drawn from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit,
producing direct current electricity. At the cathode, hydrogen ions, electrons, and oxygen react to
form water. As the main difference among fuel cell types is the electrolyte, fuel cells are classified
by the type of electrolyte they use and by the difference in startup time ranging from 1 second
for proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEM fuel cells, or PEMFC) to 10 minutes for solid oxide
fuel cells (SOFC). Individual fuel cells produce relatively small electrical potentials, about 0.7 volts,
so cells are "stacked", or placed in series, to create sufficient voltage to meet an application's
requirements.

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 In addition to electricity, fuel cells produce water, heat and, depending on the fuel source, very small
amounts of nitrogen dioxide and other emissions. The energy efficiency of a fuel cell is generally
between 40–60%, or up to 85% efficient in cogeneration if waste heat is captured for use.
TYPES OF FUEL CELLS
Fuel cells come in many varieties; however, they all work in the same general manner. They are
made up of three adjacent segments: the anode, the electrolyte, and the cathode. Two chemical
reactions occur at the interfaces of the three different segments. The net result of the two reactions is
that fuel is consumed, water or carbon dioxide is created, and an electric current is created, which
can be used to power electrical devices, normally referred to as the load.
At the anode a catalyst oxidizes the fuel, usually hydrogen, turning the fuel into a positively charged
ion and a negatively charged electron. The electrolyte is a substance specifically designed so ions can
pass through it, but the electrons cannot. The freed electrons travel through a wire creating the
electric current. The ions travel through the electrolyte to the cathode. Once reaching the cathode, the
ions are reunited with the electrons and the two react with a third chemical, usually oxygen, to create
water or carbon dioxide.

A block diagram of a fuel cell

The most important design features in a fuel cell are
 The electrolyte substance: The electrolyte substance usually defines the type of fuel cell.
 The fuel that is used. The most common fuel is hydrogen.
 The anode catalyst breaks down the fuel into electrons and ions. The anode catalyst is usually
made up of very fine platinum powder.
 The cathode catalyst turns the ions into the waste chemicals like water or carbon dioxide. The
cathode catalyst is often made up of nickel but it can also be a nanomaterial-based catalyst.
A typical fuel cell produces a voltage from 0.6 V to 0.7 V at full rated load. Voltage decreases as
current increases, due to several factors:
Activation loss
Ohmic loss (voltage drop due to resistance of the cell components and interconnections)
Mass transport loss (depletion of reactants at catalyst sites under high loads, causing rapid loss of
voltage).

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To deliver the desired amount of energy, the fuel cells can be combined in series to yield
higher voltage, and in parallel to allow a higher current to be supplied. Such a design is called a fuel
cell stack. The cell surface area can also be increased, to allow higher current from each cell. Within
the stack, reactant gases must be distributed uniformly over each of the cells to maximize the power
output.
POWER
Stationary fuel cells are used for commercial, industrial and residential primary and backup power
generation. Fuel cells are very useful as power sources in remote locations, such as spacecraft,
remote weather stations, large parks, communications centers, rural locations including research
stations, and in certain military applications. A fuel cell system running on hydrogen can be compact
and lightweight, and have no major moving parts. Because fuel cells have no moving parts and do
not involve combustion, in ideal conditions they can achieve up to 99.9999% reliability.
Since fuel cell electrolyzer systems do not store fuel in themselves, but rather rely on external
storage units, they can be successfully applied in large-scale energy storage, rural areas being one
example. There are many different types of stationary fuel cells so efficiencies vary, but most are
between 40% and 60% energy efficient.[ However, when the fuel cell's waste heat is used to heat a
building in a cogeneration system this efficiency can increase to 85%.
This is significantly more efficient than traditional coal power plants, which are only about one third
energy efficient. Assuming production at scale, fuel cells could save 20–40% on energy costs when
used in cogeneration systems. Fuel cells are also much cleaner than traditional power generation; a
fuel cell power plant using natural gas as a hydrogen source would create less than one ounce of
pollution (other than CO2) for every 1,000 kW·h produced, compared to 25 pounds of pollutants
generated by conventional combustion systems. Fuel Cells also produce 97% less nitrogen oxide
emissions than conventional coal-fired power plants.
One such pilot program is operating on Stuart Island in Washington State. There the Stuart Island
Energy Initiative has built a complete, closed-loop system: Solar panels power an electrolyzer, which
makes hydrogen. The hydrogen is stored in a 500-U.S.-gallon (1,900 L) tank at 200 pounds per
square inch (1,400 kPa), and runs a ReliOn fuel cell to provide full electric back-up to the off-the-
grid residence. Another closed system loop was unveiled in late 2011 in Hempstead, NY.
Fuel cells can be used with low-quality gas from landfills or waste-water treatment plants to generate
power and lower methane emissions. A 2.8 MW fuel cell plant in California is said to be the largest
of the type.
COGENERATION
Combined heat and power (CHP) fuel cell systems, including Micro combined heat and
power (MicroCHP) systems are used to generate both electricity and heat for homes (see home fuel
cell), office building and factories. The system generates constant electric power (selling excess
power back to the grid when it is not consumed), and at the same time produces hot air and water
from the waste heat. As the result CHP systems have the potential to save primary energy as they can
make use of waste heat which is generally rejected by thermal energy conversion systems. A typical
capacity range of home fuel cell is 1–3 kWel / 4–8 kWth. CHP systems linked to absorption
chillers use their waste heat for refrigeration.
The waste heat from fuel cells can be diverted during the summer directly into the ground providing
further cooling while the waste heat during winter can be pumped directly into the building. The
University of Minnesota owns the patent rights to this type of system.
Co-generation systems can reach 85% efficiency (40–60% electric + remainder as
thermal). Phosphoric-acid fuel cells (PAFC) comprise the largest segment of existing CHP products
worldwide and can provide combined efficiencies close to 90%.Molten Carbonate (MCFC) and
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) are also used for combined heat and power generation and have
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electrical energy efficiences around 60%. Disadvantages of co-generation systems include slow
ramping up and down rates, high cost and short lifetime. Also their need to have a hot water storage
tank to smooth out the thermal heat production was a serious disadvantage in the domestic market
place where space in domestic properties is at a great premium.
Delta-ee consultants stated in 2013 that with 64% of global sales the fuel cell micro-combined heat
and power passed the conventional systems in sales in 2012. The Japanese ENE FARM project will
pass 100,000 FC mCHP systems in 2014, 34.213 PEMFC and 2.224 SOFC were installed in the
period 2012-2014, 30,000 units on LNG and 6,000 on LPG.
Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs)
Main articles: Fuel cell vehicle, Hydrogen vehicle, and List of fuel cell vehicles

Configuration of components in a fuel cell car

Toyota Mirai

Element One fuel cell vehicle

AUTOMOBILES
As of 2015, two fuel cell vehicles have been introduced for commercial lease and sale in limited
quantities: the Toyota Mirai and the Hyundai ix35 FCEV. Additional demonstration models include
the Honda FCX Clarity, and Mercedes-Benz F-Cell.[90] As of June 2011 demonstration FCEVs had
driven more than 4,800,000 km (3,000,000 mi), with more than 27,000 refuelings. Demonstration
fuel cell vehicles have been produced with "a driving range of more than 400 km (250 mi) between
refueling". They can be refueled in less than 5 minutes. The U.S. Department of Energy's Fuel Cell
Technology Program claims that, as of 2011, fuel cells achieved 53–59% efficiency at one-quarter
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power and 42–53% vehicle efficiency at full power, and a durability of over 120,000 km (75,000 mi)
with less than 10% degradation. In a Well-to-Wheels simulation analysis that "did not address the
economics and market constraints", General Motors and its partners estimated that per mile traveled,
a fuel cell electric vehicle running on compressed gaseous hydrogen produced from natural gas could
use about 40% less energy and emit 45% less greenhouse gasses than an internal combustion vehicle.
A lead engineer from the Department of Energy whose team is testing fuel cell cars said in 2011 that
the potential appeal is that "these are full-function vehicles with no limitations on range or refueling
rate so they are a direct replacement for any vehicle. For instance, if you drive a full sized SUV and
pull a boat up into the mountains, you can do that with this technology and you can't with current
battery-only vehicles, which are more geared toward city driving."
In 2014, Toyota introduced its first fuel cell vehicle in Japan, the Mirai, at a price of less
than US$100,000, although former European Parliament President Pat Cox estimates that Toyota
will initially lose about $100,000 on each Mirai sold. Hyundai introduced the limited
production Hyundai ix35 FCEV. Other manufacturers that have announced intentions to sell fuel cell
electric vehicles commercially by 2016 include General Motors, Honda, Mercedes-Benz and Nissan.
OTHER APPLICATIONS
 Providing power for base stations or cell sites
 Distributed generation
Emergency power systems are a type of fuel cell system, which may include lighting,
generators and other apparatus, to provide backup resources in a crisis or when regular
systems fail. They find uses in a wide variety of settings from residential homes to hospitals,
scientific laboratories, and data centers.
 Telecommunication equipment and modern naval ships.
An uninterrupted power supply (UPS) provides emergency power and, depending on the
topology, provide line regulation as well to connected equipment by supplying power from a
separate source when utility power is not available. Unlike a standby generator, it can provide
instant protection from a momentary power interruption.
 Base load power plants
 Solar Hydrogen Fuel Cell Water Heating
 Hybrid vehicles, pairing the fuel cell with either an ICE or a battery.
 Notebook computers for applications where AC charging may not be readily available.
 Portable charging docks for small electronics (e.g. a belt clip that charges a cell phone
or PDA).
 Smartphones, laptops and tablets.
 Small heating appliances
 Food preservation, achieved by exhausting the oxygen and automatically maintaining oxygen
exhaustion in a shipping container, containing, for example, fresh fish.
 Breathalyzers, where the amount of voltage generated by a fuel cell is used to determine the
concentration of fuel (alcohol) in the sample.
 Carbon monoxide detector, electrochemical sensor.

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