A Study Into The Effect of Sugar Cane Fires On Ac Corona Noise PDF

A STUDY INTO THE EFFECT
OF
SUGAR CANE FIRES
ON
AC CORONA NOISE
DEVELOPMENT OF A LABORATORY
SIMULATION AND MEASUREMENT PROCESS
Thesis presented in fulfilment o f t h e requirements forthe degree

of Master of Engineering Science at the University of
Stellenbosch
Study leader: Mr J P Holtzhausen
January 1992
DECLARATION
I the undersigned hereby declare that the work contained in this

thesis is my own original work and has not previously in its
entirety been submitted at any university for a degree.
WALLACE L VOSLOO 15 January 1992

ABSTRACT
In sugar cane producing areas, it is accepted practice to burn

sugar cane fields prior to cutting. These fires cause problems
on nearby power lines by polluting insulators and deteriorating
air insulation, consequently leading to flashovers which cause
voltage dips. A further effect is an increase in corona activity
on the conductors.
A laboratory investigation was started as part of a project to
develop a method to detect the presence of fires along a power
line by analyzing the noise in the power line carrier circuits.
A corona cage with an integral smoke generator was developed to
simulate the effect of sugar cane fires (and the resulting smoke)
on corona activity. The necessary instrumentation to quantify the
relevant parameters were also developed.
The radio interference effect and frequency spectrum of the
corona noise, as a function of parameters such as smoke density
and flame temperature, was obtained and compared with those due
to heavy rain, insulator pollution and the conductor under normal
conditions.
It was found under laboratory conditions that the radio
interference due to sugar cane fires can be best detected in the
region of 200 kHz. It is in the order of .l5 dB(yV,25n) higher
than the interference caused by rain conditions.
Radio interference due to insulator pollution was found to be
orders of magnitude higher than at any of the other power line
environmental conditions.
A possible detection system using an identification technique
called "Cluster analysisn, can be used to discriminate between
sugar cane fires and the other sources of corona noise. This
technique was found to work well under laboratory conditions.
OPSOMMING
In areas waar suikerriet gekweek word, is dit aanvaarde praktyk

om die suikerrietplantasies te brand voor die oes van die riet.
Hierdie brande veroorsaak probleme op nabygelee transmissielyne
weens die besoedeling van isolators, asook die verswakking in
lugisolasie, wat kan lei tot oorvonking en vervolgens
spanningsvalle (Voltage dipsw). In Verdere effek is die
verhoging van korona-aktiwiteit op die geleiers.
In Laboratoriumondersoek is gelas as deel van 'n prodek om In
metode te vind om die teenwoordigheid van suikerrietbrande onder
transmissielyne te verklik deur middel van die analise van
netwerkruis.
In Koronahok met integrale vlam- en rookgenerator is ontwikkel
om die effekte van suikerrietbrande (en rook) op die korona-
aktiwiteit te bestudeer. Die nodige instrumentasie om die
relevante parameters te meet is ook ontwikkel.
Die radiosteuringseffek en frekwensiespektrum van koronaruis, as
In funksie van parameters soos rookdigtheid en vlamtemperatuur,
is gevind en vergelyk met die ruis weens swaar reen,
isolatorbesoedeling, en die van 'n geleier onder normale
toestande.
Onder laboratoriumtoestande is gevind datdie radiosteuringweens
In suikerrietbrand die beste by 200 kHz waargeneem kan word. Die
ruis is in die grootte-orde van 15 dB(pV,25n) hoer as die weens
reentoestande.
Radiosteuring weens isolatorbesoedeling is ordes hoer gevind as
die van enige van die ander transmissielyn omgewingskondisies.
Groeperingsanalise ("cluster analysist1) is In moontlike
identifikasietegniek wat gebruik kan word om te diskrimineer
tussen % suikerrietbrand en enige ander bron van koronaruis. Die
tegniek het homself goed bewys onder laboratoriumtoestande.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express my sincere thanks to the following persons:

m my study leader, Mr J P Holtzhausen, for his unbeatable
support, assistance and guidance during this project,
- Eskom management and training staff (Petro de Waal), for
their trust and financial support in helping me further my
studies,
- Engineering ~nvestigation(Eskom) personnel, Tony Britten,
Richard Evert, Riaan Roets and Bart Druif, for their
support and assistance,
- the Engineering Department University of Cape Town, Charles
Dingley, for supplying the basic corona cage,
- Mr Kynoch and Keith Porter (TJME), for supplying the metal
needed for the project at a reasonable price,
- the employees of Eskom at Brackenfell, Volly Franz and his
team, for supplying materials,
the employees of Koeberg Power Station, Brian Marshal1 and
his team, for supplying materials and ideas,
the employees of Eskom at OakdaPe, liveline workgroup, for
supplying materials, Joe Cuelho and his team for the thermo
video recording of the flame plasma,
the personnel of the Electrical Engineering workshop, Jim
Daly and his more than willing team, who helped me with the
construction of the test setup,
SED (University of Stellenbosch) personnel, Willie van
Rooyen, Jose Pinto, Paul Bayley and Ralph Pina, who helped
me with the design, construction and programming of the
instrumentation setup,
Dave Routledge (Mt Edgcombe research station), Pat Naidoo
and Stan Bransby (Eskom Natal), for supplying the necessary
sugar cane,
- the US library personnel, for their support and help,
m B W O (University of Stellenbosch) personnel, for helping
with video and graphical presentation,
- the personnel of the Electrical Engineering Department,
Dave Weber and Johan Vermeulen, for helping to analyze the
data,
m finally, my wife Karen, for all the emotional support and
love, that only someone as special as she can give.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION . , .. .. .. ..........
, 1
LITERATURE STUDY ON THEORETICAL ASPECTS AFFECTING

CORONA. ...................... 3
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE DISCHARGE PHENOMENA . ... 3
2.2 THE PHYSICS OF DISCHARGES . . . . . . . . ... 6
2.2.1 BASICS . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 6
2,2.1.1 CLASSICAL GAS LAWS . . . . ... 7

2.2.1.2 CLASSICAL THEORY OF ATOMS ... 11
2.2.1.3
2.2.1.4
IONIZATION AND EXCITATION
DE-IONIZATION AND DE-EXCITATION
. . 12
13
2.2.1.5 ......
ELECTRON ATTACHMENT 14
2.2.1.6 ELECTRON EMISSION FROM SOLID
ELECTRODES ......... . , 15
2,2.2 ACTIVE PROCESSES IN CORONA DISCHARGES 18
2.2.2.1 IONIZATION, EXCITATION BY

2.2.2.2
........
ELECTRON IMPACT
PHOTO-IONIZATION AND EXCITATION
18
18
2.2.2.3
2.2.2.4 ELECTRON
......
ELECTRON ATTACHMENT
EMISSION BY IONIC
19
IMPACT.... , ........ 19
2,2,3 THEORY OF GAS DISCHARGE . .....

, 20
2.2.3.1 DISCHARGES IN A UNIFORM-FIELD AIR

..............
GAP 20
2.2.3.2 NON-SELF-SUSTAINED DISCHARGES 22
2.2.3.3 SELF-SUSTAINED DISCHARGE .... 24
2.2.3.3.1 TOWNSEND MECHANISM ....

2,2.3.3.2PASCHENfS LAW FOR THE
2.2.3.3.3
BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE
STREAMER OR
.....
"KANAL"
MECHANISM .... ....
,
2.2.3.3.4 LEADER MECHANISM . . a m
2.2.3.4 CORONA DISCHARGE ONSET

...........
CONDITIONS
2-2.4 CORONA DISCHARGE MODES . . . . . . .
2.2.4.1 NEGATIVE CORONA MODES . ..
2.2.4.1.1 ELECTRON AVALANCHE AND ION
SPACE CHARGE .......
2.2.4.1.2 TRICHEL STREAMER DISCHARGE
2.2.4.1.3 NEGATIVE PULSELESS GLOW
DISCHARGE .........
2.2,4.1,4 NEGATIVE STREAMER DISCHARGE
2.2.4.2 POSITIVE CORONA MODES .....
2.2.4.2.1 ELECTRON AVALANCHE AND ION
2.2.4,2.2
.......
SPACE CHARGE
.......
BURSTCORONA
2.2.4.2.3 .
ONSET STREAMER DISCHARGE
2.2.4.2.4 POSITIVE (HERMSTEIN) GLOW
2.2.4.2.5
.........
DISCHARGE
BREAKDOWN STREAMER
...... ..
DISCHARGE ,
2.2,4.3 AC CORONAMODES . . . m
2.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING DISCHARGES . . . . . . . .

2.3.1 ATMOSPHERIC AND WEATHER CONDITIONS
2.3.2 INSULATORS, POLLUTION AND BAD
CONTACTS. . . . . . , . . ,. . . . .
2.3.3 AEROSOL PARTICLES , . . . . , . . . ,
2.3.3.1 AEROSOL PARTICLE CHARGING . . .
2.3.3.2 NEGATIVE CORONA AND AEROSOL
2.3-3.3
PARTICLES .
POSITIVE CORONA
. . .
AND
. . . ...
AEROSOL
PARTICLES . , , . . . . . . .
a
2.3.3.4 AC CORONA AND AEROSOL PARTICLES

2.3.4 HIGH TEMPERATURES AND FLAME PLASMAS .
TEST CAGE EVALUATION OF RADIO NOISE . , . , . .
2.4,1 SURFACE GRADIENT . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2 RADIO NOISE GENERATION FUNCTION . . .
2.4-3 TEST CAGE MEASUREMENT OF RADIO NOISE
CURRENT............ ...
2.5 MEASURINGRADIO NOISE . , . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.1 RADIO INTERFERENCE (RI) . . . . . . .
2.5.2 RADIO NOISE MEASUREMENT USING A QUASI-
PEAK (CISPR) DETECTOR ........
2.5.3 RADIO NOISE MEASUREMENT USING A FAST
DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM .......
3 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD ...........a.e.. 91
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM .......... 91
3.2 WHAT HAS TO BE SIMULATED ........... 92
3.2.1 NO FAIR WEATHER CONDITIONS *
3.2.2 RAIN ..............

3.2.3 SUGAR CANE FIRES . . . . . . . .
'3.2.4 POLLUTED INSULATORS . . . . . . .
3.3 HOW IT IS BEING SIMULATED . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1 NORMAL FAIR WEATHER CONDITIONS ,.
3.3.2 RAIN . . e r n . . . . . . . . e .
3.3.3 SUGAR CANE FIRES ........

3.3.4 POLLUTED INSULATORS . . . . . . .
3.4 WHAT HAS TO BE MONITORED ENVIRONMENTALLY AND
HOW .................... .
3.4.1 TEMPERATURE . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.2 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE . . . . . .
3.4.3 HUMIDITY . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.4 FLOWRATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.4.5 PRESSURE DIFFERENCE . . . . . . . . . 108
3.4.6 OPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.4.7 PARTICLE CONTENT . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.5 MEASURING CIRCUITS AND METHODS . . . . . . . . 110
3.5.1 AC SUPPLY CIRCUIT . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.5.2 BLOCKING FILTER . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.5.3 DIRECT (RIV l a ) . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.5.4 QUASI PEAK (RIV lb. c) . . . . . . . . 114
3.5.5 TIME DOMAIN (RIV 2 ) . . . . . . . . . 115

3.6 COMMISSIONING AND THEORETICAL SIMULATION OF
MEASURING CIRCUITS ..............
3.6.1 BLOCKING FILTER . . . m . e . . . . .
3.6.2 ...........
DIRECT (RIV l a )
3.6.3 QUASI PEAX (RIV l b . c) . . . . . . . .
3.6.4 TIME DOMAIN (RIV 2) . . . . . . . . .
3.6.5 E-FIELD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. 7 TEST PROCEDURES TO SIMULATE ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITIONS ..................
3.7.1 NO FAIR WEATHER CONDITIONS * .
3.7.2 RAIN ................
3.7.3 FIRE ................
3.7.4 FIRE AND SMOKE . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.5 SMOKE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.6 INSULATOR POLLUTION . . . . . . . . .
3.7.6.1 STEAMFOGTEST . . . . . . . . .
3.7.6.2 SALTFOGTEST . . . . . . . . .
3 , 8 PERFORMED TEST PROCEDURES TO OBTAIN DATA . . .
3.8.1 DIRECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8.2 QUASI PEAK . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8.3 TIME DOMAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . .
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4 . 1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4 . 2 QUASIPEAKDATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.2.1 NORMAL FAIR WEATHER CONDITIONS . 131
4.2.2 RAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.2.3 SUGARCANEFIRES . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.2.3.1 FIRE (HOT AIR) . . . . . . . . 135

4.2.3.2 SMOKE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.2.3.3 FIREANDSMOKE . . . . . . . . . 139
4.3 TIMEDOMAINDATA ............... 141
4.3.1 NORMAL FAIR WEATHER CONDITIONS .. 142
4.3.2 RAIN . . . .. .. .. 144
4.3.3 SUGAR CANE FIRES . . , ..... .. 146
4.3.3.1 FIRE (HOT AIR) . .. .. . 146

4.3.3.2 SMOKE . . . 148
4.3.3.3 FIRE AND SMOKE . .. . . 150
4.3.4 INSULATOR POLLUTION . . ..... .. 152
5 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS . 154
5.1 INTRODUCTION .........,....... 154
5.2 QUASIPEAK . . .... .. . 154
5.3 POWER SPECTRAL DENSITY . . , . . . . . . . . . 162
5.4 "CLUSTER ANALYSIS" IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUE . . 174
6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............ 176
REFERENCES , , ............ ........ , 180
BIBLIOGRAPHY , ....,....,........... 182
APPENDIX A: (50 to 500 kHz) BANDPASS FILTER CIRCUIT
APPENDIX B: OPACITY METER CIRCUIT

APPENDIX C: METHODS USED TO CALCULATE AND MEASURE THE
CAPACITANCES IN FIGURE 3.9 (PAGE 110)
APPENDIX D: (50 Hz) LEAKAGE CURRENT CANCELLING CIRCUIT
APPENDIX E: EQUIPOTENTIAL PLOT OF THE ELECTRIC FIELD
INSIDE THE CORONA TEST CAGE
APPENDIX F: COMPUTER PROGRAM USED TO FIND THE POWER
SPECTRAL DENSITY OF THE CAPTURED TIME DOMAIN
NOISE SIGNAL
APPENDIX G: METHOD OF "DYNAMIC AGGREGATIONw
APPENDIX H: ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (SEM) PHOTOS TAKEN OF
SAMPLED PARTICLES DURING A SUGAR CANE FIRE
1 INTRODUCTION
Eskom has for several years experienced on its 275 and 400 kV
networks flashovers and resulting v o ~ t > ~ dips
e caused by the
presence of fires, suc as sugar cane fires, bush or grass fires.
Mr Pat Naidoo (Electrical Engineer of Eskom Natal) estimates that

cane-fire-induced faults account for approximately 70 % of all
customer dip-related plant failures in Natal.
Field research [l] indicated that the presence of sugar cane

fires under 275 kV power lines causes a marked increase of
conductor corona, hence the electromagnetic interference.
The research at Stellenbosch is part of an Eskom project,

investigating how the increase of noise - as measured in the
-
power line carrier circuits may be used to provide a means of
detecting the presence of such fires under a line.
The objective of this research is to simulate sugar cane fires

under controlled laboratory conditions and to investigate the
difference between the noise patterns generated by conductor
corona due to heavy rain, polluted insulators and the fire
itself.
The ability to discriminate between these sources is intended to

make it possible to develop a practical and reliable detection
system to warn of fires underneath power lines. On the basis of
this information the affected lines may be switched out, thus
avoiding flashovers and resulting voltage dips.
In order to solve the practical problem in question, the
following is discussed in the chapters that follow:
- a comprehensive literature study and summary of all factors

that could possibly affect the corona phenomena,
- experimental methods developed and used,
- experimental results obtained,
- analysis and discussion of experimental results,
- conclusion and recommendations.

2 LITERATURE STUDY ON THEORETICAL ASPECTS AFFECTING CORONA
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE DISCHARGE PHENOMENA
Saint Elmofs fire was probably the first recorded form of

corona. During stormy weather at sea, there appeared
occasionally flamelike reddish or bluish lights on the tops of
shipmasts, Sailors associated it with being a form of
protection and called it after their patron Saint, Saint Elmo.
Years later, in the mid eighteenth century, Benjamin Franklin

suggested that the sailors could possibly have been right: the
wet masts and spars were acting as lightning rods, thus
protecting the sailors from being struck by lightning
themselves. The rounded head of the mast wore this light like
crown or halo and it was later referred to as corona. This
corona phenomenon is caused by highly charged clouds that
induce high potential gradients around conductive objects above
ground level (such as the wet masts of ships) at which local
ionization is produced. Such coronas can be long in geometrical
shape. They are acoustically noisy and tend to attract the
lightning [2].
During a solar eclipse the moon can be seen as a dark ball

surrounded by a bright ring. This ring is also known as corona,
the Latin word for crown.
During the course of electrostatic investigations in the 17th

century, the same light-like phenomenon was first observed in
the laboratory. It was also traditionally referred to as
corona. The term corona is now commonly used to describe this
external electrical gas discharge phenomenon.
In the 20th century, corona has been investigated in many of
its theoretical aspects and laws have been formulated by
engineers and physicists such as Peek [3], Loeb [4], Meek [5],
Cobine [2], Nasser [6], Raether [ 7 ] ,Heymann [8,9], Garry [l01
and many others,
Research to date has found that when decreasing the separation

between sharply curved surfaces, a gap length is reached where
corona discharges form at the surface of these electrodes. This
occurs at a voltage less than the spark-breakdown voltage for
a non-uniform gap, when the electric-field intensity on the
electrode surface exceeds the electrical breakdown strength of
air (30 kV/cm). It is in the form of pulse or glow discharge.
The breakdown strength and electric field intensity are

influenced by several factors such as:
- air pressure
- temperature
- air motion
- humidity
- electrode material and shape
- irregularity of electrode surface
- presence of water vapour
- presence of an aerosol (smoke) or other gases
- incident photo-ionization
- type of voltage.
The electrical breakdown of air in the electrode region may

have the following effects:
- light
- audible noise
- radio noise
- vibration due to 8gelectronicwindw
- a deterioration of insulating materials due to ion
bombardment
- ozone, oxides of nitrogen, and in the presence of moisture,
nitric acid
- dissipation of energy (corona losses).
Corona discharges on transmission lines can occur around any

live hardware, so long as the corona inception field strength
is exceeded at the surface of that hardware. Thus, corona may
typically occur:
- around line conductors

- on spacers and dampers
- at the live ends of insulator assemblies and bushings.
For our purpose the radio noise on transmission lines is the

most important aspect of the corona phenomenon.
It is, however, important to note that there is another

category of transmission line electrical discharge which can
cause radio noise, namely gap discharge:
- Spark discharge, occurring between any two metal surfaces

not firmly bound together electrically. Such gaps typically
occur where corrosion forms an insulating dayer between two
normally bonded metal parts, such as ground wires and
clamps, loose washers and nuts, and the cap and pin of
consecutive insulators in a string
-- Micro-spark discharge, occurring in a miniature air gap
formed between a conducting and insulating surface, for
example between the insulator glass, cement and pin
- Surface discharge, occurring across dry bands on the
conductive surface of polluted insulators [Ill.
The purpose of this chapter is to supply the theoretical

background needed to help solve the practical problem of the
effect of sugar cane fires (as opposed to other factors) on
overhead transmission line radio noise,
The theoretical background supplied in this chapter is:
- a description of the physics of discharges under direct (dc)

and alternating (ac) current conditions
- factors influencing the discharge process, placing emphasis
on atmospheric and weather conditions, insulator pollution
and bad contacts, aerosols (particles], and flame plasmas
(high temperatures)
- single phase evaluation of ac corona and gap discharge using
a corona test cage, with emphasis on radio noise
- methods of measuring radio noise.
2.2 THE PHYSICS OF DISCHARGES
The work discussed in this section is based on a paper

presented by Trinh, wShort notes on the Physics of Corona
Discharges" as presented in the IEEE/PES Special Course,
University of Rome [K?],
2.2.1 BASICS
Before proceeding to discuss discharges in air, it is

appropriate to review the fundamental principles of the
kinetic theory of gases, which is useful in the study of
gaseous ionization and breakdown. A brief review of the
classical gas laws will therefore be presented using the
summary by Bird [13]. Since the conduction of a current
through a gas can only take place if charged particles are
available, a review of the classical theory of atoms and the
elementary processes of atomic physics will be presented.
The theory and laws below, will prove later to be valuable
tools in understanding the discharge process.
2.2.1.1 CLASSICAL GAS LAWS
In the absence of electric or magnetic fields, charged

particles in weakly ionized gases participate in molecular
collisions. Their motions closely follow the classical
kinetic gas theory.
Boylefs Law states:"he volume V of a fixed mass of gas is

inversely proportional to its pressure p at constant
temperature T'
pV = C = c o n s t a n t ... (1)
Charles's Law states:Toor a given mass of gas at constant

pressure, the volume is directly proportional to its
thermodynamic temperaturef
T
= C = constant .. . (2)
If the pressure is kept constant in the same system, then

the volumes V and V, are related to their absolute
temperatures T and To by Gay-Lussacfs Law
The Pressure Law states: "he pressure of a fixed mass of

gas is directly proportional to its thermodynamic
temperature at constant volumef
2T = C = constant ... (4)

Daltonfs Law of partial pressure states: 'The total
pressure of a mixture of gases occupying a given volume is
equal to the sum of the pressures of each gas (considered
separately) at constant temperaturef
From the above Laws we can conclude that
For an ideal gas C = mR, where m is the mass of the gas in

kg, and R is the universal gas constant in Joules/(kg
.
Kelvin) (%, = 287 S / (kg K) )
This leads to the universal gas Law
Maxwell (in 1860) developed the kinetic theory of gases,

and assumed that:
- gas consists of molecules of the same mass which are

assumed spheres
- molecules are in continuous random motion
- collisions are elastic and follow simple mechanical laws
- the mean distance between molecules is much greater than
their diameters
- forces between molecules and the walls of the container
are negligible.
Maxwell, and later Boltzmann, found that the mean possible
kinetic energy of a molecule in a gas is proportional to
the thermodynamic temperature by the equation
where c is the velocity of a molecule, m its mass and k is

the Boltzmanfs constant given by
where No is known as Avogadrofs number.
It was shown for a gas, occupying a volume V at pressure

p and containing n molecules each of mass m moving at a
possible velocity of c, that
The Boltzmann-Maxwell molecular velocity distribution

theory proved that the most frequent (or probable) kinetic
energy of a molecule is given by
where
According to Clausius the free path (X) of molecules and
particles are defined as the distance they can travel
freely before colliding with another particle. The free
path is a random quantity and its mean value depends upon
the concentration of particles or the density of the gas.
The mean free path is given by
where r, is the radius of the molecule, r, is the radius of

the incoming particle and N is the number of particles per
unit volume of the gas.
The collision cross-section is defined by
The mean free path is directly proportional to temperature

and inversely proportional to the gas pressure and can be
given by
We can obtain the number of collisions by

The free path distribution function using Boltzmannfs
distribution law gives the relation between the number of
molecules no just after a collision and the number of
molecules n that travel a distance X without collision and
is (given by
2.2.1.2 CLASSICAL THEORY OF ATOMS
The discharge process is best understood at atomic level.

A basic understanding of classical atomic theory is
therefore also a valuable tool at our disposal.
P e r m i t t e d energy s t a t e s ( o r b i t s )
outer orbits
@ I
Figure 2.1 Energy states of hydrogen atom and its
schematic representation.
According to the classical theory [12,14,15], an atom is

composed of a nucleus of Np protons and Nu neutrons
surrounded by N, electrons in continuous orbital movement.
The number Np of protons and electrons varies with and

characterizes the element, while the number Nu of neutrons
determines the mass of the atom and varies with the
isotopes of the same element.
The orbits of the peripheral electrons are defined by a

set of quantum numbers which correspond essentially to
various permitted energy states for the electrons. Figure
2.1 illustrates the classification of the permitted energy
states of a hydrogen atom and a schematic representation
of the same atom.
In its neutral.state,the peripheral electron occupies the

orbit of lowest energy, illustrated in figure 2.1 by the
black dot on the smallest orbit (in this case -2.15 10-l8
Joule). However, numerous permitted states of higher
energy exist, any of which can be occupied by the
peripheral electrons (as illustrated by the orbit with a
white dot in the same figure).
2.2.1.3 IONIZATION AND EXCITATION
If, by some process, energy is absorbed by the atom in a

gas, the peripheral electron shifts to one of the states
of higher energy where it becomes more loosely attached to
the atom, as demonstrated by a larger orbit. The atom is
then said to be in an excited state.
From this we may conclude that:
- an atom can absorb only a finite discrete amount of

energy, corresponding to the difference between two
energy states
- a critical energy level can be defined at which the
peripheral electron is removed from the atom. The atom
is said to be ionized, and is separated into one
positively charged ion and one free electron. The energy
required to separate the atom and the electron is known
as the ionization energy.
Several physical processes exist by which an atom can
absorb energy. Those most commonly encountered are:
- Ionization and excitation by electron collisions: In

this process, the kinetic energy of colliding electrons
is absorbed by the atom
- Ionization and excitation by ion collisions: In this
process, the kinetic energy of colliding ions is
absorbed by the atom
- Photo ionization and excitation: Here, the photon energy
E = hv ( v being the light frequency and h being Planckrs
constant) is absorbed by the ionised or excited atom
- Thermionic ionization and excitation, in which the
energy absorbed by the atom comes from the heat source
supplied to the gas.
2.2.1.4 DE-IONIZATION AND DE-EXCITATION
Any ionized or excited atom, left to itself, will return

to the neutral state where its potential energy is lowest.
The atom is then said to be de-ionized or de-excited. The
lifetime of an excited atom in a gas, is in the order of
10-' S, except for so-called metastable particles which may
remain excited for some 10" s. The lifetime of ions varies
significantly, depending on local conditions.
The most common de-excitation process is photo-emission.

In returning to its neutral state, the excited atom
releases the absorbed energy AE in the form of light, the
frequency of which is obtained from
where v is the frequency and h Planck's constant.

The characteristic light spectra of gases are defined by
the individual energy-states of the gas molecules.
In de-ionization processes, the ion is neutralized by a
charged particle of opposite polarity.
The general equation of such a process may be written as
e- + A" - A .. . (18)
In air, however, such a process is improbable because of

the high energy states of the colliding particles and de-
ionization is more likely to occur through a third body
where the electron is first attached to a neutral atom to
form a negative ion. The latter, in turn, reacts with the
positive ion to render two neutral atoms.
2.2.1.5 ELECTRON ATTACHMENT
In the ionization process, a neutral atom divides into a

positive ion and a free electron. The electron may remain
free or may become attached to a neutral atom to form a
stable negative ion. The latter is characteristic of what
are known as electronegative gases, The work needed to
remove an electron from a negative ion, thus restoring the
neutrality of an atom, is known as the electron affinity.
The attachment equation is given as
Since they reduce the number of active free electrons,
electron negative gases can therefore influence the
development of discharges. Two common electronegative
gases are oxygen, O,, and sulphur hexafluoride, SF,.
2.2.1.6 ELECTRON EMISSION FROM SOLID ELECTRODES
In a solid metal electrode, the electrons at the

peripheral layer of the atoms, are free to move within the
metal. To escape from the metal surface, however, an
electron must gain sufficient energy to overcome the force
of attraction exerted by the metal atoms at the boundary
surface. This energy is commonly referred to as the work
function of the metal and is one of its main
characteristics. A simple interpretation of the work
function is illustrated figure
energy level o f
electron outside
t h e metal
electron
XI metal s u r f a c e
positive
image
energy level o f
electron inside
t h e metal
Figure 2.2 Schematic and energy representation of an

electron emitted from a metal surface.
As an electron leaves the metal surface, a positively
charged image of the electron is left inside the metal
which attracts the emitted electron back to the metal
surface.
The force of attraction is
where
is the electric field created by the positive image charge

[l p 3 3 8 ) . The work function is then equal to
To extract an electron from the metal surface, the

electron requires an amount of energy at least equal to
the work function of the metal.
The most common of the physical mechanisms for supplying

energy to peripheral electrons inside the metal in order
to extract them, are listed below:
- thermionic emission, where the energy is supplied by,

direct heating of the metal
- electron emission by electron bombardment
- electron emission by ionic bombardment
- electron emission by bombardment of metastable atoms
- field emission.
According to the foregoing interpretation of the work
function, it is conceivable that electron emission from a
metal electrode may be influenced by the presence of an
external electric field.
Let us consider the case of an electrode in a negative

uniform field E. The effective force to which the emitting
electron is subjected is
F = e [E,( X )- El ... (25)
and the energy required for the electron to be extracted

from the metal surface is
Let X, be the distance at which the image field is

cancelled by the applied field then
Equation (26) may be rewritten as

The influence of an applied field is, therefore, to modify
the effective work function. At sufficiently high field
intensity an electron may be extracted from the electrode
by the action of the applied field alone (field emission) .
2.2,2 ACTIVE PROCESSES IN CORONA DISCHARGES
Corona discharges is the term generally applied to all forms

of electrical discharges occurring in air prior to
flashovers in the air gap. Since air is a particular
mixture of different gases (mainly N2 (79%) and 0, (20%), the
latter being electronegative) certain physical processes are
more active than others in corona discharges,
IONIZATION, EXCITATION ELECTRON IMPACT
Ionization and excitation by electron impact are

particularly active in corona discharges, especially in
the presence of an externally applied field. The reason
for this is the large difference in the masses of the
electron and the atom. In collisions between electrons and
atoms, the electrons retain all the kinetic energy they
had prior to the collision. Thus, an electron can
accumulate kinetic energy, from the applied field over
several free paths until it has sufficient energy to
excite or ionize the neutral gas atom with which it
collides. Ionization by electron collision is the main
process responsible for the development of corona
discharges.
2.2.2.2 PHOTO-IONIZATION AND EXCITATION
During the development of an electrical discharge, the

number of gas particles excited is far greater than the
number of ion pairs produced. In returning to the neutral
state, these excited particles release a considerable
amount of photons with characteristic wavelengths
(depending on the gas). Photo-ionization is a very active
process in the development of corona discharges,
particularly in the creation of the free electrons
necessary for maintaining the ionization activities.
2.2.2.3 ELECTRON ATTAC
Air contains 20% of 0,, which is a highly electronegative

gas. Electrons can therefore attach themselves easily to
oxygen molecules to fo the more stable negative ions.
Depending on the ener of the free electrons, this
attachment may occur by one of two processes:
- direct attachment
- or dissociative attachment
The formation of negative ions by attachment to oxygen

molecules, has been found to have a considerable influence
on the development of corona discharges because it greatly
reduces the ionization activity by electron impact.
2.2.2.4 ELECTRON EMISSION BY IONIC IMPACT
This process is very active, especially in electrode

configurations where the high non-uniform field
distribution allows the ions to accumulate a significant
amount of energy in the last few free paths, thus leading
to electron emission on impact.
2.2.3 THEORY OF GAS DISCHARGE
In the study of gas discharges there are two general types

of discharges: self-sustaining and non-self-sustaining. The
mechanism of breakdown of a gas, called a spark, is a
transition from the non-self-sustaining to the several types
of self-sustaining discharge. (Sparks in small electrode
spacings usually occur suddenly and generate radio noise of
higher frequency and magnitude than corona.)
It is characteristic of spark breakdown that the voltage

across the gap drops due to a process which produces a high
conductivity between cathode (-) and anode (+).
At present two typical gas breakdown mechanisms are known:
- the Townsend mechanism,

- the streamer (or '%analM) mechanism.
Considerable controversy existed in the past as to which of

these mechanisms governed spark breakdown. It is now widely
accepted that both mechanisms operate, but under different
conditions.
In this section we discuss the above phenomenon which leads

us to the corona discharge on-set conditions in a non-
uniform field gap and the basic theory governing gap
discharge.
2.2.3.1 DISCHARGES IN A UNIFORM-FIELD AIR GAP
Let us consider a uniform-field air gap as seen in figure

2.3 (a) and assume that free electrons are emitted
artificially from the cathode by means of an external
source, such as ultra-violet light or cosmic radiation.
cathode (-> anode (+>
ultraviolet
/ light electrons
v photon
avalanche avalanche
Figure 2.3(a) Uniform-field air gap controlled by a

high voltage source.
FLASHOVER
SELF-SUSTAINED /L/
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
NON-SELF-SUSTAINED
Uo U1 U2 Udc
VOLTAGE
Figure 2.3 (b) V-I characteristics of a uniform field air

gap
The typical current-voltage curve of the air gap is given
in figure 2.3 (b) where three voltage ranges may be
distinguished:
- For voltages below U,, the current first increases

linearly with the applied voltage, then gradually
saturates as the voltage approaches U,. In this first
range of voltages, the current is produced by movement
of free electrons which are emitted from the cathode and
move across the gap under the influence of the applied
voltage, At low voltages, only a portion of the
electrons emitted from the cathode can reach the anode.
Saturation of the current occurs when all the electrons
emitted can cross the air gap.
- For voltages between U, and U,, the current increases
exponentially with the applied voltage.
- For voltages above U,, the current increases faster than
exponentially until flashover occurs at U,.
In the experiment described by Trinh [l21 above, the

current will cease to flow in the external circuit unless
free electrons are artificially emitted from the cathode.
This is true for all voltages below U,. In such cases, the
discharge is referred to as a non-self-sustained
discharge. At voltages of U, or higher, however, the
discharge will continue to develop, even if the external
source of free electrons is removed. This discharge is
said to have reached the self-sustained regime.
2.2.3.2 NON-SELF-SUSTAINED DISCHARGES
The exponential increase in the discharge current observed

at voltages between U, and U, was first explained by J.S.
Townsend (in 1912) as being due to ionization of the air
by electron collisions.
As already mentioned, this ionization process is very

active in electrical discharges, owing to the ability of
the electrons to accumulate energy from several free
paths.
Let a be the first coefficient of ionization, representing

the number of ion pairs produced by a single electron
advancing a distance of I cm in the direction of the
applied field. Then the number of ion pairs produced by
n(x) electrons advancing a distance dx is
Integrating from cathode to anode over the distance X

gives
It may be seen that the number of ion pairs produced

increases exponentially as the no primary electrons move
across the gap, It is also a function only of the number
of initial electrons. The entire ionization process is
referred to as the development of an electron avalanche.
The equation above also indicates that the avalanche will
terminate
. -
at the anode and that new electron avalanches
have to be initiated from the cathode to maintain the
discharge activity. The discharge is therefore known as
the non-self-sustained type.
Numerical values of a have been measured for a variety of

gases and are expressed generally as a function of gas
pressure p and E/p, E being the electric field strength
2-2.3.3 SELF-SUSTAINED DISCHARGES
2.2.3.3.1 TOWNSEND MEC
To explain the behaviour of the discharge in the voltage

range U 1 U,, it is necessary to introduce a secondary
mechanism by which free electrons are created in the
cathode region to initiate new avalanches. One such
mechanism is the photoemission of electrons from the
cathode during the development of the primary electron
avalanche across the gap.
If n, is the total number of electrons emitted from the

cathode then n, - n, is the number of electrons emitted
by photo-emission or due to ion collisions at the
cathode.
The total number of electrons created during the

development of the avalanche is given by
where d is the spacing between electrodes.
If y represents the efficiency of photo-emission at the

cathode, then the number of free electrons emitted from
the cathode by this secondary mechanism is
On the other hand, n, = n, - q, thus

and the number of electrons in the avalanche at any
distance X is
The above expression shows that when the secondary

mechanism is active, the discharge current may increase
faster than exponentially. It also indicates that at
voltages U < U,, where U, is defined by the Townsend
criterion as
the discharge current depends on the initial number no of

free electrons supplied from the external source and is
therefore essentially of the non-self-sustained type. At
the critical voltage of U = U,, the number of electrons
created in the discharge current increases quickly,
limited by the external power supply circuit only. The
discharge reaches a new phase where the initial number
of free electrons, no, has no influence on the discharge
current. In other words, the discharge is now
self-sustained [163.
2.2.3.3.2 PASCHENfS LAW FOR THE BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE
Kuffel gives a good explanation of the above phenomenon

in his book '"High Voltage EngineeringM [l6 p 3541. This
explanation is summarised below.
An analytical expression for the breakdown voltage for

uniform field gaps, as a function of gap length and gas
pressure, can be derived, If we substitute
into the equation
y ead = 1 , .. (42)
we obtain
For a uniform field V, = Ed, where V, is the breakdown

voltage,
which means that the breakdown voltage of a uniform
field gap is a unique function of the product of
pressure and the electrode separation for a particular
gas and electrode material, The above equation is known
as Paschenrs Law, and was established experimentally in
1889, This does not imply that the sparking voltage
increases linearly with the product pd, although it is
found in practice to be nearly linear over certain
regions. The relationship between the breakdown voltage
and the product pd takes the form shown in figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4 Paschenfs curve.

2.2.3,3.3 STREAMER OR "KANAL1' MECHANISM
Kind and Karner gives a good explanation of this process

in their book "High Voltage Technologyw [l7 p 2.01 and
this is presented below.
On increasing the gap, pressure or potential gradient,

the experimental results contradict the conclusions of
the Townsend mechanism. Investigations by Raether [ 7 ] ,
Loeb [4] and Meek [5] have shown that the exponential
growth of an avalanche cannot be increased at will since
the avalanche becomes unstable at a critical length X,.
Measurements in a uniform field show that for
atmospheric air
With the growing number of ionization processes, the

original field becomes more and more distorted due to
the space charges of the avalanche. On the avalanche
front in particular, local increases in field strength
occur where the electrons present are accelerated so
that further ionization is facilitated. Moreover, many
atoms or molecules are excited so that photons are
emitted (figure 2.5) .
The photons created can produce electrons in space which
can initiate subsequent avalanches. These, if suitably
orientated, may combine with the primary avalanche. The
electrons produced by the process migrate from the
surroundings towards the still positive area behind the
head of the avalanche and a weakly conducting streamer
is formed. The forward growth of the discharge is
essentially accelerated by the photo-ionization process
proceeding at the speed of light and reaching values of
1-10 m/ps. As soon as these streamers have established
contact between the electrodes, heating up to a low
resistance plasma streamer generally occurs by the
actual breakdown current,
electric
field
emitted photon
field
Figure 2,5 Streamer formation by the streamer

mechanism.
According to the streamer mechanism, a complete

breakdown can develop from a single avalanche. The
forward growth direction of the streamer here can,
because of the range of the photon radiation, even be in
the opposite direction of the avalanche.
The critical avalanche length X, in a non-uniform

electric field can be calculated using the relation
where streamer discharge can only occur for d > X,.
Because of the dependence of a on the field strength, X,

gets much smaller for higher voltages. This explains
the very short formative time-lags (down to a few ns)
which have been observed in breakdown testing with
strongly overshooting impulse voltages. A quantitative
comprehension of the streamer mechanism is not
unconditionally possible.
2.2.3.3.4 LEADER MECHANISM
For very large spacings (d > 1 meter), a discharge

process occurs which is denoted a streamer leader
mechanism. This .mechanism leads to bridging of large
gaps at comparatively low field strength [17 p 211.
When streamers are not capable of reaching the opposite

electrode and triggering the return stroke, a very high
density of ionization may develop near the originating
electrode of the streamer dendrite. This is evidenced by
a very bright spot at this electrode, or very close to
it, from which a new channel of ionization of a totally
different nature develops.
This highly ionized spot is produced by the great

concentration of streamer branches having a high degree
of ionization activities at their growing tips. As the
voltage is raised, a new ionization wave develops, known
also as a leader channel. This ionization wave has a
much greater intensity than that of the primary
streamers [6 p 3181, e.g. Lightning.
2.2.3.4 CORONA DISCHARGE ONSET CONDITIONS
In a uniform field gap as shown in figure 2.3 (a), the

establishment of a self-sustained discharge takes the form
of an electric breakdown of the air gap separating the two
electrodes. If a non-uniform field gap is used, however,
a self-sustained discharge can develop in a small region
near the highly stressed electrode without bridging the
gap. Such a self-sustained discharge is commonly referred
to as corona discharge and it can develop over a range of
voltages prior to breakdown of the gap. Because of the
non-uniform field distribution, the ionization coefficient
cr is a function of the distance X from the highly stressed
electrode. The formula for self-sustained discharge in a
uniform field can be modified to the case of a non-uniform
field gap and becomes
l - y e I.*= o ..=
in which the integral was evaluated for values of X where

the ionization coefficient a is positive.
In air, where electron attachment is active, a coefficient

can be defined which represents the number n of free
electrons lost by attachment in 1 cm of advance of the
electron avalanche. The effective ionization coefficient
becomes
and the corona onset conditions are written as
It should be noted that several corona onset criteria

exist, all related in one way or another to the previous
equation developed for a simplified case. A physical
meaning may be attached to the corona onset criteria just
defined.
If the relation above is rewritten as
then the left hand side represents the avalanche

development from a single electron and l / y represents the
critical size of the avalanche.
2.2.4 CORONA DISCHARGE MODES
For the information presented in the following sections, the

papers by Trinh [l2 p 15 and 301 are used as a basis and
the work done by Cobine [2]# Nasser [6], Meek and Craggs [ 5 ]
is used as further reading.
Due to the non-uniform field necessary for the development

of corona discharges, the air gap between the electrodes can
be divided into two regions, separated by a boundary surface
S, such that beyond this boundary, the field intensity is not
sufficient to maintain effective ionization. Due to their
relatively slow mobility, ions of both polarities are
accumulated in the air gap from several consecutive electron
avalanches and form quasi-stationary ion clouds commonly
referred to as positive and negative ion space charges. To
properly interpret the development of corona discharges in
air, account must be taken of the active role of ion space
charges which, although they are continuously dispersed by
the applied field, can nevertheless greatly affect the local
field intensity and, hence, the development of corona
discharges,
2.2.4.1 NEGATIVE CORONA MODES
2.2.4.1.1 ELECTRON AVALANCHE AND ION SPACE CHARGE
When the highly stressed electrode is at a negative

potential, electron avalanches are initiated at the
cathode and develop in a continuously decreasing field
towards the anode. Referring to figure 2.6(a), the
electron avalanche will stop at the boundary surface
because of the low field intensity prevailing in the
region of the gap beyond S,. Since free electrons can
move much faster than ions under the influence of the
applied field, they are concentrated at the avalanche
head during its path.
L
do d
distance
Figure 2.6(a) First stage of development of electron

avalanche from the cathode.
A concentration of positive ions thus forms in the

region of the gap between the cathode and the boundary
surface S,. Referring to 'figure 2.6 (b), free electrons
continue to migrate across the gap. In air, free
electrons are rapidly attached to 0, molecules to form
negative ions which, because of their slow drift
velocity, start to accumulate in the region of the gap
beyond the boundary surface S,. Thus, upon completion of
the development of the first electron avalanche, there
are two ion space charges in the gap.
The presence of ion space charges in the gap has a

direct effect on the local field distribution. It
produces a slight increase in the field near the cathode
and reduces the local field intensity at the anode end
of the gap. As a result, the boundary surface S, of zero
ionization activity is displaced towards the cathode.
The subsequent electron avalanche therefore develops in
a region of a slightly higher field intensity but
extends over a shorter distance than its predecessor.
anode (+>
*:C*
cathode
. W
Figure 2 . 6 ( b ) Further development of electron avalanche

from the cathode.
The influence of the ion space charge is such that it

actually promotes the development of the discharge at
the highly stressed electrode, producingthree different
modes of corona discharge with distinct electrical,
physical, and visual characteristics.
These are respectively with increasing field intensity:
- Trichel pulse discharge

- negative pulseless glow discharges
- negative streamer discharge
Corona on a negative conductor can be seen as

concentrated reddish tufts of glowing gas at points
along a conductor. These glowing points are quite
uniformly spaced along a polished conductor, and they
increase in number with increased current,
An interpretation of the physical mechanisms leading to

the development of these different negative corona modes
is given in the following sections.
2.2.4.1.2 TRICHEL STREAMER DISCHARGE
This discharge mode follows a regular pulsating pattern

in which the streamer is initiated, develops, and is
suppressed. A short dead time follows before the cycle
is repeated. The duration of an individual streamer is
very short (a few hundreds of nanoseconds), while the
dead time varies from a few microseconds to a few
milliseconds or even longer. The resulting discharge
current consists of regular negative pulses of small
amplitude and short duration, succeeding one another at
frequency rates of kHz to MHz.
The development of Trichel streamers cannot be explained

without taking into account the influence of the ion
space charge and that of the applied field. The
streamer is initiated by a free electron from the
cathode. If the corona onset conditions are met, the
secondary emissions are sufficient to trigger new
electron avalanches from the cathode and maintain the
discharge activity. During the streamer development,
several generations of electron avalanches are initiated
from the cathode and propagate along the streamer
channel.
Meanwhile two dense ion space charges are also

accumulating in the gapc The formation of ion space
charges gradually brings the boundary surface S, closer
to the cathode. The positive ion cloud is thus
compressed at the cathode and is partially neutralized
by the cathode and negative ions produced in subsequent
avalanches. This creates a remaining negative ion space
charge which eventually reduces the local field
intensity at the cathode below the onset field and
suppresses the discharge.
A dead time period follows, during which the remaining

ion space charges are dispersed by the applied field.
A new streamer will again develop when the space

charges, in the region immediately surrounding the
cathode, have been removed to a sufficient extent.
The Trichel streamer mechanism is based on a very active

electron attachment process to suppress the ionization
activity within a few hundreds of nanoseconds.
The streamer repetition rate is essentially a function

of the applied field. On increasing the applied electric
field, a decrease in the pulse repetition rate may be
observed. This is due to a short duration, stable
discharge regime causing a small current plateau
following the Trichel pulse, thus increasing the time
interval between two consecutive Trichel pulses.
2.2.4.1.3 NEGATIVE PULSELESS GLOW DISCHARGE
This corona mode forms after Trichel pulses and is

characterised by a pulseless discharge current.
The discharge itself is particularly stable and starts

from the cathode as a dark space (Crookefsdark space),
followed by a negative glow region, a Faraday dark
space, and finally a positive column of conical shape.
These features of the pulseless glow discharge result

from very stable conditions corresponding to active
electron emission from the cathode due to ionic
bombardment. The electrons are emitted with very low
kinetic energy. While being propelled through the
cathode dark space, they acquire sufficient energy to
ionize the gas thus causing intensive ionization at the
negative glow region.
At the end of the negative glow region, the electrons

have lost most of their kinetic energy. They are then
propelled across the Faraday dark space where they
ionize the gas atoms in a random manner forming the
positive column. The conical shape of the positive
column is attributed to the diffusion action of the free
electrons,
These stable discharge conditions may be explained by

the greater efficiency of the applied field in removing
space charges at higher field intensities. Negative ion
space charges cannot build up sufficiently close to the
cathode to effectively reduce the cathode field and
suppress the ionization activities there.
This interpretation of the discharge mechanism is

further supported by the existence of a current plateau
in the Trichel streamer pulse where an equilibrium
exists for a short time between the removal and the
creation of the negative ion space discharge. It has
been shown that the transition from the Trichel streamer
mode to the negative pulseless glow is due to an
indefinite prolongation of one such current plateau.
2.2.4.1.4 NEGATIVE STREAMER DISCHARGE
If the applied field is increased further, negative

streamers may be observed. This discharge process has
basically the same characteristics as observed in the
negative pulseless glow, but here the positive column of
the glow discharge is constricted to form the streamer
channel, which extends farther into the gap. The glow
discharge characteristics observed at the cathode imply
that this corona mode also depends largely on electron
emission from the cathode by ionic bombardment, while
the formation of a streamer channel characterised by
intensive ionization, denotes an even more effective
space charge removal action by the applied field.
The streamer channel is fairly stable. It projects from

the cathode into the gap and back again, giving rise to
a pulsating fluctuation of relatively low frequency in
the discharge current.
2.2.4-2 POSITIVE CORONA MODES
2.2.4,2.1 ELECTRON AVALANCHE AND ION SPACE CHARGE
When the highly stressed electrode is of positive

polarity (figure 2.9 (a)) , the electron avalanche is
initiated at a point on the boundary surface S, and
develops towards the anode in a continuously increasing
field. As a result, the highest ionisation activity is
observed at the anode. Here again, due to the lower
mobility of the ions, a positive ion space charge is
left behind along the development path of the avalanche.
cathode (-1
(3
anode
0'0,
q s n s ~
*Q,
@+
produced:
electron
Figure 2.9(a) First stage of development of an electron

avalanche towards the anode.
Because of the high field intensity at the anode,

electron attachment to the 0,molecules is less effective
than at avalanches developing at the highly stressed
cathode. In fact, the majority of free electrons
created are absorbed at the anode. Negative ions are
formed mainly in the low field region farther along the
gap
cathode c->
do d
distance
Figure 2.9 (b) Further stages of development of an

electron avalanche towards the anode.
Three types of characteristic behaviour of the space

charge may be observed:
- The incoming free electrons are highly energetic and

cannot be immediately absorbed by the anode. As a
result, free electrons tend to spread over the anode
surface. In so doing, they lose their energy through
positive ionization of the gas particles until they
are finally absorbed at the anode, thus contributing
to the development of the discharge over the anode
surface
- Due to the positive ions which are concentrated next
to the anode surface, a field enhancement is produced
.
in the gap (figure 2.9 (b)) This attracts secondary
electron avalanches and thus promotes radial
propagation of the discharge in the gap along a
streamer channel
- During streamer discharge, the ionization activity
extends into the low field region of the gap where the
nominal field intensity would normally not be
sufficient to sustain ionization. Such behaviour has
been explained by the, concentration of intense
ionization activity in a small volume of gas, referred
to as the corona globule. The globule propagates in
the low field gap owing to the action of the electric
field generated by its own positive ion space charge.
It has been shown that if the ionization activity is
sufficiently intensive to create a corona globule
containing 108 positive ions, within a spherical volume
of 3x10" cm in radius, the ion space charge field is
such that it attracts sufficient new electron
avalanches to create a new corona globule a short
distance away from it, The primary corona globule is
neutralized by the incoming electrons, thus causing
the corona globule to effectively move ahead in the
field direction towards the anode.
As in the case of a highly stressed anode, the presence

of ion space charges of both polarities in the anode
region greatly affects the local distribution of the
field intensity and, consequently, the development of
corona discharges at the anode, Four different corona
discharge modes having distinct electrical, physical and
visual characteristics can be observed at a highly
stressed anode, prior to flashover of the gap.
These are respectively with increasing field intensity:
- burst corona
- onset streamer discharge
- positive glow discharge, Hermstein glow
- breakdown streamer discharge
Corona on a positive conductor has the appearance of a
uniform bluish-white sheath over the entire surface of
the conductor,
An interpretation of the physical mechanisms leading to

the development of the different corona modes at the
anode is discussed in he following sections.
2.2.4.2.2 BURST CORONA
This corona discharge esults from the ionization

activities at the anode surface, which allow the highly
energetic incoming electrons to lose their energy prior
to their absorption by the anode. During this process,
a number of positive ions are created in an area
immediately next to the anode which collectively builds
up a small positive space charge and suppresses the
discharge at this part of the anode. The spread of free
electrons then moves to another part of the anode.
The resulting discharge current consists of very small

positive pulses, each corresponding to a spread in the
ionization over a small area at the anode and its
subsequent suppression by the positive ion space charge
produced.
2.2,4.2.3 ONSET STREAMER DISCHARGE
This corona mode results from the radial development of

the discharge. The positive ion space charge formed
adjacent to the anode surface causes a field enhancement
in its immediate vicinity and attracts subsequent
electron avalanches. Thus a streamer channel develops
radially, forming the onset streamer discharge. This
discharge mode is highly effective and the streamers are
observed to extend farther into the low field region of
the gap. During the development of the streamers, a
considerable number of positive ions are formed in the
low field region. The cumulative effect of the
successive electron avalanches and the absorption at the
anode of the free electrons created in the discharge,
result in a residual positive ion space charge
eventually forming in front of the anode. The local
gradient at the anode then drops below the critical
value for ionization and causes the suppression of the
streamer discharge. A dead time is consequently
required for the applied field to remove the ion space
charge and to restore the proper conditions for the
development of a new streamer.
The discharge develops in a pulsating mode, producing a

positive current of large amplitude and relatively low
repetition rate due to the large number of ions created
in a single streamer.
2.2,4.2.4 POSITIVE (HEMSTEIN) GLOW DISCHARGE
At voltages close to onset, the discharge develops in

either the burst corona or onset streamer modes. As the
voltage is increased, it rapidly becomes more effective
in removing the ion space charge in the immediate
vicinity of the surface, thus promoting the lateral
development of burst corona at the anode. In fact,
burst corona can even be triggered a few microseconds
after suppression of the onset streamer and develop over
a short period of time until it is suppressed by its own
positive space charge.
Such corona behaviour at the anode can be explained as

follows: After suppression of the onset streamer, the
anode region is rapidly cleared of the positive ion
space charge. In the meantime, the incoming negative
ion may encounter a high enough gradient to shed an
electron. The field intensity at the anode may be
sufficient for the free electrons created to initiate
ionization activity over the anode surface in the form
of burst corona. The latter will continue to develop
until it is again suppressed by its own positive space
charge.
As the voltage rises even higher, the burst corona is

further enhanced by a more effective space charge
removal action of the field at the anode. During the
development of the burst corona, positive ions are
created and rapidly pushed away from the anode. The
accumulation of positive ions in front of the anode
results in the formation of a positive ion space charge,
which prevents the radial development of the discharge
into the gap. Consequently, the burst corona develops
more .readily, at the expense of the onset streamer,
until complete suppression of the latter. A new mode,
known as the positive glow discharge is then established
at the anode.
This discharge is essentially a development of the

ionization activity over the anode surface. It forms a
thin luminous layer immediately adjacent to the anode
surface, where intense ionization activity takes place.
The discharge current is essentially a direct current
superimposed by a small pulsating component with a high
repetition rate, in the hundreds of kHz range.
The development of the positive glow discharge may be

interpreted as resulting from a particular combination
of the rate of removal and the creation of positive ions
in the gap. The field is such that the positive ion
space charge is rapidly renewed from the anode, thus
promoting surface ionization activities, while the field
intensity is not sufficient to allow the radial
development of the discharge and the formation of
streamers. The contribution of the negative ions is
mainly to supply the necessary triggering electrons to
sustain ionization activity at the anode.
2.2.4.2.5 BREAKDOWN STREAMER DISCHARGE
If the applied voltage is further increased, streamers

are again observed and they eventually lead to breakdown
of the gap, The development of breakdown streamers is
preceded by local points of intense ionization activity,
streamer spots which may be seen moving over the anode
surface.
Positive breakdown streamers develop more and more

intensively with the applied voltage and eventually
causes breakdown of the gap. The discharge is
essentially the same as the onset streamer type but can
extend much farther into the gap. The streamer current
is more intense and may occur at a higher repetition
rate.
Crossing the gap by streamer does not necessarily result

in gap breakdown, which proves that the filamentary
region of the streamer is not a fully conducting
channel.
The development of a breakdown streamer may be

correlated to the very effective removal action of the
applied field at these levels. This gives rise, at
first, to the formation of a streamer spot where
continuous intense ionization may take place.
Subsequently, as space charge removal becomes even more
effective, radial propagation of the discharge becomes
possible and leads to the development of positive
streamers of the breakdown type.
2.2.4.3 AC CORONA MODES
When alternating voltages of 50 Hz are used, the gradient

ighly stressed electrodes varies continuously,
both in intensity and in polarity.
The polarity of the electrode will be changing very slowly

in relation to the corona breakdown process, which is
completed in intervals of 104 to 1 0 - ~sec.
The alternating voltage will not have enough time to

reverse the direction of the electric field once the
breakdown process has been initiated, thus the mechanism
is essentially the same as under steady fields.
The critical electric gradient (E, in kV peak/cm) at the

surface of a conductor, necessary to produce visual ac
corona in air, is given for a coaxial conductor
cylindrical geometry by Peek's [ 3 ] empirical equation as
The factor m, is the surface or roughness factor and is

given a value between O and 1, where the value for a
smooth surface is 1. The radius of the conductor r is
given in cm.
The relative air density (6) is given by
where p is atmospheric pressure in cm Hg and t is the

temperature in degrees Celsius.
The critical onset voltage necessary to produce E, above is
given for a coaxial conductor cylindrical geometry by the
equation
where R is the radius, in cm, of the cylinder surrounding

the conductor.
Townsend assumed that the field may be divided into two

regions between the electrodes. Very near the conductor
the gas is highly ionized up to a distance ri after which
the field falls below the critical value of 30 kV/cm for
air at atmospheric pressure. The field is assumed too low
for ionization in the rest of the space beyond ri. The
value of ri in cm, in a coaxial conductor cylindrical
geometry,is given [2 p 2581 by the empirical equation
where x is the radius of the single conductor.
The Townsend criterion, for a self-sustaining discharge,

leads to the criterion for sparkover occurring before the
corona process. Between the electrodes of a coaxial
conductor cylindrical geometry this is given [l2 p. 3951 by
the empirical formula
where r, in cm is the critical sparkover distance and r is

the radius of the single conductor.
However, a question asked is whether the period of time
between field polarity reversals (10 msec) is sufficient
to clear the gap of any ion space charges from the
preceding half-cycle ?
The removal of the ion space charges is mainly a function

of the distance between the electrodes. For a coaxial
conductor cylindrical geometry, Trinh and Jordan [l2 p 343
gives a formula for calculating the critical distance, r,
by
where r in cm is the radius of the conductor, f the

frequency in Hz, E, the critical corona onset gradient and
K, the ion mobility given [l6 p 3311 by
where m is the mass of the ion, M is the mass of the gas

molecule, ?i the ions mean free path and c its rms
velocity,
Two distinct situations can exist, described as follows:
- For short gaps, distances < r, the ion space charge

created in one half cycle is absorbed by the electrodes
in the same half cycle. The same corona modes that
develop in steady fields are thus observed.
- For long gaps, distances > r,, usually present at

transmission lines, the ions space charge created in one
half cycle is not absorbed in the electrodes, but is
drawn back to the region of high field intensity in the
following half cycle and can influence the corona mode
development. Onset streamers are suppressed in favour of
the glow discharge, The following corona modes are thus
observed: negative Trichel streamers, negative glow
discharges, positive glow discharges, and positive
breakdown streamers. Negative streamers do not appear
here, owing to the fact that their onset gradient is
higher than the breakdown voltage occurring during the
positive half cycle,
In our studies we are mainly concerned with large gaps and

can thus assume that the period of time between field
polarity reversals is not sufficient to clear the gap of
any ion space charges from the preceding half-cycle.
The action of the space charges formed due to an

alternating electric field in a coaxial conductor geometry
for somewhat idealized conditions, can be seen in figure
2.12 below as explained by Cobine C2 p 2751.
In this figure the space charges are assumed to have

sharply defined boundaries instead of the actual diffuse
boundaries.
The cycle begins at (a) when there is no voltage between

the coaxial cylinders. A residual negative space charge
exists between the cylinders due to the previous half
cycle of negative corona. Lines of force begin on positive
bound charges on both conductor and cylinder and end on
the negative space charge. Thus, although the potential
difference between the cylinders is zero, there is a field
at the surface of the cylinders due to the residual space
charge.
Figure 2.12 Alternating voltage effect on corona space
charges.
At some time (b), the applied voltage has caused an

additional bound positive charge at the surface of the
conductor, has decreased the bound charge at the cylinder,
and has caused the space charge to move inward. At this
instant the field at the conductor is high enough to cause
cumulative ionization and the initiation of positive
corona,
At the start of the positive corona, positive ions are

driven outwards and the residual negative-ion space charge
is quickly neutralized. Near the end of the period of
positive corona (c), the positive-ion space charge is most
dense near the conductor.
When the applied voltage is zero, (d), lines of force from
the positive-ion space charge end on negative bound
surface charges on the conductor and on the cylinder,
At some time (e), the fields due to space and surface

charges reach a value sufficiently high for ionization to
occur at the conductor, negative corona begins, and the
residual positive-ion space charge is neutralized.
At some time (f), the negative corona ends similar to (c).

During the positive corona period (b-c) the electrons
responsible for most of the ionizing are moving towards
the conductor fromthe surrounding region. These electrons
form avalanches that proceed towards the conductor and
produces a positive space charge very near the conductor
that increases exponentially as the conductor is
approached.
In the negative corona region (e-f) the electrons

responsible for the ionization of the gas come from the
L
surface of the conductor, where they are emitted

principally by positive-ion bombardment and are
accelerated outward. The positive-ion space charge
increases exponentially with distance from the wire until
a point is reached at which the effectiveness of the
electrons in ionizing decreases owing to the lower
electric field.
The conductivity a of an ionized gas can be determined by

looking at the ion and electron mobilities, and is given
[l6 p 3321 in terms of current density j and electric
field strength E (note that the space charge would have an
influence on the resultant electric field strength) as
where
where K, is the ion mobility, n, is the number of ions, n,

is the number of electrons and the electron mobility is
given [16 p 3311 by
During the periods (a-b) and (c-e) the motion of the

residual-ion space charge under the influence of the
applied voltage results in a component of current that
adds to the normal capacitance charging current.
Three different components of corona current may be

recognised. These are the normal capacitance charging
current, the residual ionization current during the
periods (a-b) and (c-e), and the current resulting from
the motion of large space charge during the periods (b-c)
and (e-f) of the applied alternating voltage. A corona
current waveform showing the above phenomenon can be seen
in figure 2.13.
The higher frequency corona modes can also be identified

on the discharge (corona) current. Looking at the periods
(b-c) and (e-f) as discussed above, and omitting the other
two current components, we can identify the following
possible corona modes as shown in figure 2.14.
CORONA
CURRENT
CAPACITIVE
CHARGING
CURRENT
, RESIDUAL
IONISATION
CURRENT
Figure 2 - 1 3 Waveform of corona current due to an applied

alternating voltage.
POSITIVE
CYCLE
CORUNA CURRENTS
NEGATIVE
CYCLE
figure 2.14 Possible corona modes under AC voltage.

2.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING DISCHARGES
There are various environmental and other factors that

influence the corona or gap discharge process such as:
- air pressure
- temperature
- air motion
- humidity
- line fittings
- insulator pollutio
- presence of water vapour or rain
- the presence of particles and smoke.
A few of these effects are discussed below as they are useful

tools in our study.
2.3.1 ATMOSPHERIC AND WEATHER CONDITIONS
A reduction in barometric pressure and/or an increase in the

ambient temperature can reduce the air density, which
reduces -the breakdown strength of air and, thereby,
increases the likelihood of a corona discharge taking place.
This effect was formulated by Peek [3] and has been
discussed above. This phenomenon is usually not too
important, except at altitudes above 1000 m 1123.
Other atmospheric conditions are considered to be more

significant in areas that have sufficient rain, fog, frost
or low temperatures, which can lead to the formation of ice
or water droplets on the surface of the conductor [12].
Rain and snow are the cause of high corona activity on the
surface of a conductor. The water droplets or snow which
collect on a conductor surface during a storm, modify the
electric field significantly, creating a large number of
corona sources [18].
Water droplets deform on a conductor surface when voltage is
applied (usually becoming conical in shape). The electric
forces can sometimes overcome the surface tension of the
drop, and the tip then erupts into minute charged droplets.
Boulet and Jakubezyk [l8 1341 found that the drop
disruption occurs when
where E is the conductor surface gradient in kV/cm, S the

water surface tension in dyneslcm, and r the radius of the
water drop in cm.
The non-erupted conducting point, formed by deformation, is

a strong corona noise source. These drops collect on the
bottom of the conductor and run across and along the
strands.
Discharges may also occur when snowflakes or raindrops pass

the conductor and initiate a discharge from the conductor to
the particle, It can be generally explained for all small
foreign particles in the following manner: The approaching
particles cause a local field distortion. By induction, a
dipolar charge distribution appears at the ends of the
particle, This charge enhances the field and initiates the
discharge. The instant the particle touches the conductor
through the discharge path, the particle assumes the same
polarity charge as the conductor. Since like charges repel,
the particle rapidly retreats from the high field region.
The observation that snowflakes stick more frequently to an
un-energized conductor than to an energised one, confirms
the hypothesis. Raindrops, although not so visible, are
affected the same way.
Gap discharges are strongly influenced by weather. It is
only in dry weather that the small gap between two
conductive parts will act as an insulator or dielectric,
where gap discharge can take place. In foul weather and rain
a conductive path may be established between these two
parts, which consequently remain at the same potential.
Interference caused by gap discharges is a phenomenon that
is normally associated with fair weather and is usually
absent under wet weather conditions. As a result this type
of interference is often referred to as "dry noisew [ll].
2.3.2 INSULATORS, POLLUTION AND BAD CONTACTS
The work done by Cunliffe [l11 gives a good explanation of

the above topic and is presented below.
The basic requiremen for discharge activity to occur on a

polluted insulator, is that a surface or leakage current
must flow over it. This will occur if the insulator has a
high voltage applied across it and its normal insulating
surface becomes conductive due to the pollution condition.
There are basically two different pollution conditions that

may cause a conductive surface layer on an insulator:
-A dry pollution layer accumulates on the insulator

surface, for example: salt residues that dry on the
insulator after a salt fog, dust, industrial smoke, or
soot from cane and veld fires. This layer may contain
soluble substances that dissolve when wetted (by fog, dew,
drizzle etc) and cause the layer to become conductive.
Once the leakage current due to the conductive layer is

flowing, the degree of the resulting discharge activity
depends on two, oppositely interactive, processes that
occur on the insulator surface.
Both of these are very variable and depend on the
composition and distribution of the contamination on the
insulator.
Consider the case of an insulator covered with a deposit

of dry pollution. While dry, the solid layer has a very
high resistivity. If some moisture is applied to the dry
surface, any soluble components in the layer begin to
dissolve, and a film of ionic liquid gradually covers the
insulator surface. Since ionic liquids are in general
conductive, the insulator surface resistivity decreases as
the liquid film develops. If the insulator has no voltage
applied across it, this surface resistivity continues to
decrease to a minimum value. If the wetting continues,
this minimum value is maintained until sufficient liquid
has collected on the insulator for it to begin dripping
off the edges. As the conducting ions are thus washed off
the insulator, so the surface resistivity increases again.
This wetting and washing, with the consequent changes in
surface resistivity, is the first interactive process that
occurs,
If the insulator is energised during the wetting, then the

second process also occurs. As the wetting starts and the
surface resistivity falls, the applied voltage causes a
leakage current to flow in the conductive layer. The
magnitude of current is directly proportional to the
surface conductivity and its effect is to cause localised
heating, proportional to the square of the current
density. The heating tends to dry the surface in
opposition to the applied wetting. This is the second
interactive process. Depending on the wetting rate and on
the distribution and amount of soluble contaminant on the
insulator, a complicated transient phenomenon will occur
as the two processes interact.
As the leakage current drying progresses, it may cause a
completely dry area, a dry band. Such an area will not be
conductive and so no surface resistive current flows
across it. This results in a potential difference build-up
across the dry band. If this becomes sufficiently high,
the electric fie1 strength may be large enough to
initiate an electric discharge or spark across the dry
band, If the gap remains dry, the discharge process is
repeated and a repetitive pulse type current flows and
produces radio noise i the region of a few MHz [12].
- An initially dry insulator becomes covered by a film of

conductive moisture when the insulator is subjected to a
salt spray or fog (as may happen in coastal areas), or
when industrial air pollution may cause a conductive fog.
If the pollution takes the form of conductive fog rather
than the above example where a pre-deposit dry layer is
made wet, the situation is similar. Then however, the
leakage current depends on the conductivity of the wetting
agent, and not on the rate of wetting of a solid layer.
Nonetheless, once the initial conductive film has been set
up, and leakage current is flowing, similar interactive
wetting and drying occurs, and results in the production
of radio noise.
The physical aspects of the interference phenomenon of

sparking due to bad contacts can be explained as follows:
When floating conductive parts are subjected to the electric
field of high voltage power lines they become electrically
charged. The potential difference between adjacent
conductive parts will increase even if both parts are
t8iloating~1.If the distance between conductive parts is
small, the increasing field strength in the space between
may reach the critical level and lead to a complete
breakdown of the gap. Avalanche ionisation initiates the
development of an arc, the gap discharge occurs, the
potential difference vanishes and the arc extinguishes. The
whole sequence of events can be repeated when the parts
become recharged, as the space is once again electrically
stressed and the next gap discharge takes place.
The repetition rate of the sequence depends on the charging

and discharging time constants of the circuit and the value
of the surrounding electric field, as well as the size of
the gap. Individual sparks can occur at many hundred to a
few thousand times per second. The frequency of this gap-
type discharge is in the order of a few hundred MHz [12].
This form of sparking is generally initiated by the

frequency of the supply voltage. When the line voltage and
consequently the field strength in the gap exceeds a
critical value, a train or burst of sparks is generated
during each half cycle.
Gap sources on overhead lines may be associated with lightly

weighted pin and cap insulators, where the weight of the
insulator is insufficient to prevent the surface from
oxidation, or with corroded hardware parts and faulty
joints. In the case of porcelain string insulator units, it
has been found that sparks can be produced by discharges in
small voids in the porcelain. The contact between a pin-type
insulator and phase conductor, broken insulators and even
paint layers, may give rise to gap discharges.
2.3.3 AEROSOL PARTICLES
The work done by Davies in his book, "Aerosol S c i e n ~ e[21]

~~
is used as the basis for this study in conjunction with the
work done by Oglesby and Nichols in their book
electrostatic Precipitation1' [19], and is presented below.
A11 natural or artificially generated aerosols are to some

extent charged electrically. The electrical charge may be
acquired when gaseous ions, produced by such agents as
ionizing radiation, high voltage corona discharge, or high
temperature, and static electrification, are captured by the
aerosol particles.
Work done by Sadurski [20] shows that the breakdown strength

of an air gap injected with aerosol particles (grass) is
radically reduced.
The presence of aerosol particles thus has a great influence

on corona discharges and can lead to breakdown of the air
gape
2.3.3.1 AEROSOL.PARTICLE CHARGING AND BEHAVIOUR
The work done by Whitby and Liu, '#TheElectrical behaviour

of Aerosolsn [21 p 591 is used as the basis for the work
discussed below. The purpose of the formulas presented is
not to quantify but to give the reader a perception for
the effect that particle size, electric field strength,
and temperature have on the charging of aerosol particles.
Aerosol particles are defined according to:
- particle size
- number of unit charges and sign (plus, minus or bipolar)
- and particle mobility,
The maximum electrical charge that can be carried by a

particle is limited by the physical properties of the
particle. For a spherical particle of diameter d, the
limiting charge q is given [l9 p 623 by the equation
where E, is the surface field intensity at which emission

of electrons or ions will occur on the particle surface.
When aerosol particles are mixed with bipolar ions, the
particles will come to charge equilibrium with the ionic
atmosphere due to the frequent collision between the
particles and ions and thus become charged. Natural
atmospheric aerosols are usually charged because of this
mechanism and the presence of bipolar ions produced by
cosmic rays and other radioactive elements in the
atmosphere.
There are two mechanisms responsible for the charging of

particles by unipolar ions. They are generally referred to
as field and diffusion charging where:
- field charging is related to the ordered motion of ions,

under the influence of the applied electric field, which
results in collisions between the ions and particles
suspended in the gas.
- diffusion charging results from ionic collisions with

the particles brought about by the random thermal motion
of the ions.
Field charging is the dominant mechanism for particles

with radius greater than 0 . 5 pm, while diffusion charging
redominates for particles with a radius less than 0.2 pm.
For particles in the intermediate range, both mechanisms
are considered simultaneously.
Cochet 121 p 671 derived the following equation that takes

both mechanisms of particle charging into account. When
the sub-micron particles are charged under moderate
electric field intensities, the charge as a function of
time t is given by
where h is the free path of the ion, d is the particle
diameter, the dielectric constant of the particle, E,
the applied electric field, JX, the ion mobility, N the
unipolar ion concentration per unit volume and e the unit
of electric charge.
When unipolar ions are generated continuously, for example

due to corona discharges, in the presence of uncharged
aerosol particles, the particles become charged to the
same sign very rapidly due to diffusion of ions to the
particles.
The concentration of a cloud of unipolar charged aerosol

particles will decrease as a result of mutual repulsion
among the charged particles and the total' number of
charged aerosol particles in the system will decrease due
to the migration of the charged particles to the
boundaries of the system due to space charge. The decay
rate of a cloud of unipolar charged aerosol particles is
several orders of magnitude smaller than that for small
ions due to the smaller mobility of charged aerosol
particles.
At reduced pressure, the particles can be charged to

substantially higher levels than is possible at
atmospheric pressure under the same electric field
intensities and the same ion concentration.
aerosol particle with diameter d carrying q elementary

units of electrical charge present in an electric field of
intensity E,, experiences an electric force F which causes
it to move through the suspending medium at a velocity v.
The electrical mobility of the particle is thus defined
[21 p 681 as the ratio
where
and
where C is Cunningham" correction factor to Stoke's law

and v,, is the viscosity of air. Using the above equations
we find the electrical mobility as
The coagulation of aerosols is explained by Zebel [21 p

311 as the process of adhesion or fusion of aerosol
particles upon contact with one another.
The coagulation rate of an aerosol may be affected by the

electrostatic charge on the particles or the effect of an
electric field on the aerosol. The three main effects on
the coagulation of aerosol particles are:
- The decrease in coagulation rate of unipolar aerosols:

particles of a unipolar aerosol will repel each other,
thereby decreasing the coagulation rate
- The increase in coagulation rate of a bipolar aerosol:
highly charged bipolar particles of an aerosol coagulate
at much greater rates than uncharged aerosols.
Electrical coagulation, for example, plays an important
role in the coagulation of particles produced by flames,
while smoke particles coagulate to a linear chain-like
shape. Electrical coagulation rates decrease very
rapidly because of the elimination of particle charge
- The coagulation of any uncharged aerosol in an electric
field: aerosol particles in a very high electric field
have induced charge which causes them to behave like
dipoles. Long threadlike combinations are thus formed as
the dipoles combine.
2.3.3.2 NEGATIVE CORONA AND AEROSOL PARTICLES
During the negative corona process, negative ions are

produced due to electrons combining with electronegative
gases beyond the boundary surface S,. These negative
unipolar ions move towards the anode. If aerosol particles
are present in this region, they are charged to a negative
potential by the unipolar negative ions due to the
processes as previously discussed. The charged aerosol
particles move towards the anode as seen in figure 2.16
below where they accumulate and form a particle layer.
The electrical resistivity of the aerosol particles plays

a role in the conduction of the corona current [19]:
- at a high resistivity it tends to limit the corona

current flowing through the particle layer to the anode
and can result in large voltage drops and high electric
fields within the particle layer. However, breakdown of
gases in the interstitial spaces of a particle layer can
occur at conditions much lower than those required for
breakdown of gases in the inter electrode space. Both
sparkover at low current and voltage, and back corona,
can occur due to electrical breakdown of the gases in
the particle layer. This breakdown occurs in much the
same manner as that near the corona electrode. That is,
the electric field within the particle layer is
sufficient to accelerate electrons to ionization
velocity. These electrons impact gas molecules to create
a positive ion and an additional electron. The resulting
avalanche effect generates large quantities of positive
ions and free electrons. Because of the direction of the
electric field, the positive ions are propelled towards
the negative corona electrode and the electrons are
propelled towards the anode. Electrical breakdown of the
particle layer can result in a spark being propagated to
the corona electrode, or in a steady state breakdown
termed a back corona, depending on the conditions under
which breakdown occurs.
at a low resistivity, the voltage drop across the
particle layer will be low and the effect will be as if
the electrode spacing was decreased,
anode (+l
particle
ions
m
-' -
electric
f ietd
Figure 2.16 The effec of negative corona on aerosol

particles.
Temperature plays an important role in the resistivity of

particles. The resistivity of a particle may be considered
as consisting of two parallel resistors, one corresponding
to the volume resistivity and the other to surface
resistivity, each being highly temperature dependent. At
elevated temperatures (above 250 degrees C), volume
resistivity is relatively low, so that it is not
influenced by the higher value of the surface resistivity
in parallel. Conversely(in the low temperature region,
volume resistivity is relatively high and has little
influence on the effective resistance.
2.3.3.3 POSITIVE CORONA AND AEROSOL PARTICLES
During the positive corona process, positive ions are

produced due to electrons propagating from the boundary
surface S, towards the anode. A tail of positive unipolar
ions moves beyond the boundary surface towards the
cathode. If aerosol particles are present in this region
they are charged to a positive potential by the unipolar
positive ions due to the processes as previously
discussed. The charged aerosol particles move towards the
cathode as seen in figure 2.17 below where they accumulate
and form a particle layer.
cathode (-)
particle f
Figure 2.17 The effect of positive corona on aerosol

particles.
The affect of resistivity of the aerosol particles on the

corona current, is as discussed in the previous section,
2.3.3.4 AC CORONA AND AEROSOL PARTICLES
Using the above theories and the work done by Cobine [2 p

2741 the following theory was formulated.
When alternating voltages of 50 Hz are used, the gradient

at the highly stressed electrodes varies continuously,
both in intensity and in polarity.
A question asked, is whether the period of time between

field polarity reversals (10 msec) , is.sufficient to clear
the gap of any ion and aerosol space charges from the
preceding half-cycle ?
In our studies on ac corona, we are mainly concerned with

large gaps and can thus assume that the period of time
between field polarity reversals is not sufficient to
clear the gap of any ion and aerosol space charges from
the preceding half-cycle. Here we assume that no wind is
present.
The action of the space charges formed due to an

alternating electric field at ambient temperature in a
coaxial conductor geometry, for somewhat idealized
conditions, can be seen in figure 2.18.
In this figure the space charges are assumed to have

sharply defined boundaries instead of the actual diffuse
boundaries.
The cycle begins at (a) when there is no voltage between

the coaxial cylinder and conductor. A residual negative
ion and aerosol space charge exists between the cylinder
and conductor due to the previous half cycle of negative
corona. Lines of force begin on positive bound charges on
both conductor and cylinder and end on the negative space
charges. Thus, although the potential difference between
the cylinder and conductor is zero, there is a field on
the surfaces of both due to the residual space charge. The
ions move faster, due to their greater mobility, than the
charged aerosol particles which on their turn, disperse
slowly due to mutual repulsion.
Figure 2.18 Alternating voltage effect on ion and aerosol

space charges.
At some time (b), the applied voltage has caused an

additional bound positive charge at the surface of the
conductor, has decreased the bound charge at the cylinder,
and has caused the negative ion space charge to move
inward. The negative charged aerosol particles also move
inward, but slower than the ions. At this instant the
field at the conductor is high enough to cause cumulative
ionization and the initiation of positive corona.
At the start of the positive corona, positive ions are
driven outwards and the residual negative ion space charge
is quickly neutralized. The positive ions combine with
neutral aerosol particles and charge the particles. The
positively charged aerosol particles move outwards and
coagulate with the inward moving negatively charged
aerosol particles, they lose their charge slowly and
become neutralised. Towards the end of the positive corona
period (c), the positive ion space charge is most dense
near the conductor, and has positively charged the aerosol
at its boundary.
When the applied voltage is zero, (d), lines of force from

the positive ion and aerosol space charges end on negative
bound surface charges on the conductor and the cylinder.
A process similar to (a) takes place further.
At some time (e), the fields due to space and surface

charges reach a value sufficiently high for ionization to
occur at the conductor. Negative corona begins, and the
residual positive ion and aerosol space charges are
neutralized in a process similar to (b).
At some time (f), the negative corona ends with a process

similar to (c),
The conductivity of an ionized gas and electrically

charged aerosol can be determined by looking at the ion,
electron, and charged particle mobilities, and is given in
terms of current density j and electric field strength E
as
where
where K, is the ion mobility, n, is the number of ions, K,

is the electron mobility, n, is the number of electrons, I$,
is the charged particle mobility and n, the, number of
charged particles,
Experimental results obtained by Sadurski [20] state that:
- the presence of floating particles in an air gap at

ambient temperature reduces the ac flashover voltage by
20 to 30 %
- the breakdown is not self-sustained and is triggered by
the floating particles, and is extinguished when the
particles move to a non critical area of the gap
- the breakdown is characterised by a high resistance
during flashover, and depends on the amount of floating
particles (Was this with high or low resistivity
particles ? ) .
Thus from the above we can conclude that for the periods
(b-c) and (e-f) in figure 2-18, a change in corona current
and even flashover could occur due to the presence of
aerosol particles in the air gap between the electrodes.
2.3.4 HIGH TEMPERATURES AND FLAME PLASMAS
In general a plasma can be defined as being a collection of

equal numbers of positive and negative charge carriers which
has a net zero electric charge. A flame (1100 degrees C) can
be seen as a high temperature plasma. In high voltage
engineering an arc is considered as a good conductor. Tests
done by Bird C221 show that flames have lower resistance
(better conductance) than arcs. The effect of -a flame plasma
on the corona generation would be to decrease the effective
electrode spacing and radically increase the ambient
temperature, thus increasing the corona noise, If flames
come into contact or close to the electrodes a resulting
flashover occurs,
When flames are not close to the electrode spacing, we can

assume that only a turbulent hot air plasma is present.
Work done by Sadurski 1201 shows that tpe influence of

thermal ionisation on the flashover voltage of air is small
for temperatures under 500 degrees C, and that the flashover
voltage may be considered as a function of the electrode
spacing and the air density only. However, at 1100 degrees
C the breakdown voltage tends, due to extensive thermal
ionisation, to be 15% lower than that obtained from the
density effect alone.
Bird [22] observed that the intense heat from a fire, with
no smoke present, caused no flashover. The only effect
observed was an increase in the audible corona noise.
Thus, from the above, we can conclude that if flames come

close to, or in contact with, the electrodes a flashover
occurs. However, hot air ( c 500 degrees G) will not
radically affect the flashover voltage point. An increase of
corona noise could be expected in both instances.
2.4 TEST CAGE EVALUATION OF RADIO NOISE
One of the major effects of ac corona and gap discharges is

radio noise. Apart from its effect on communications, radio
noise is an important tool for this study, in that it is
related to the background electromagnetic noise appearing in
power line carrier systems. By fingerprinting the frequency
characteristics and amplitude of the various conductor radio
noise sources (such as heavy rain, polluted insulators, line
fittings, and the fire itself) one would hope to be able to
detect these conditions by analyzing the power line carrier
noise.
To measure the above radio noise in a laboratory we use a

single phase test cage, referred to as a corona cage, as seen
in figure 2,19 below.
Figure 2.19 Corona cage.

The function of the corona cage is to allow the main corona
parameters of conductors to be measured as a function of the
applied voltage. The cage allows conductors to be tested at the
same gradient as under operation but at lower voltages than the
operating voltages.
The cage consists of three cylinders lying horizontally, with

the conductor under test along the central axis of the
cylinders. The two cylinders on either end reduce fringing
effects so that a well-defined field exists on the central
cylinder from which measurements of the corona current (I) can
be made (the current as seen in figure 2.13 p 53 is a good
example of such a current).
The conductor surface gradient plays an important role in the

generation of corona and is discussed below, followed by a
theoretical discussion of the radio noise generation function
and two basic techniques for measuring corona current using a
test cage.
2.4.1 SURFACE GRADIENT
The computation of the electric field, E = -W, in the

absence of corona is described by Laplace" equation, V 2 V
= 0 and is used to evaluate the corona starting gradients.
We use the Laplace field instead of the more complex field
with space charge as in the presence of corona or surface
irregularities, for the practical reason that it is very
difficult to evaluate the more complex fields. (For
instance, the design curves used for radio noise
measurements refer to the surface gradient as it would be
computed without corona. In this case the gradient does not
represent the real gradient on the conductor, but is used to
describe the voltage stress).
In the case of a concentric cylinder and conductor corona
cage with various centre conductor geometries, the basic
relationship for average gradient ( E,
) in kV/cm, maximum
gradient (Ern) in kV/cm, R the radius of the cage in.cm and
the geometric mean radius (GMR) in cm is given [18 p 1291 by
%v=
-
-
v .. . (72)
n r In (-1 R
GMR
where % is the bundle radius in cm, r the conductor radius

in cm and n the number of conductors.
It is important to note that the radio noise increases with

increasing conductor radius, even if the surface gradients
remain the same. This phenomenon is due to the fact that the
decay of the electric field from the surface decreases with
an increase of conductor radius. Therefore, the electric
field surrounding a large conductor can support longer
corona streamers than the electric field around small
conductors [AC Britten, verbally].
The capacitance (C) in farads/meter, inductance (L) in
henrylmeter, characteristic impedance (Z) in ohm's can be
seen in the following equations
2 % ~ ~
C =
R
. .. (75)
In (->
GMR
25c
In(-) R
GMR
... (76)
z =-1
2n GMR
... (77)
where
and
2.4.2 RADIO NOISE GENERATION FUNCTION
If the gradient (average/maximum) and the conditions in the

vicinity of the surface of a 3-phase line conductor are
duplicated using the same conductor bundle, then the
generation of corona per unit length is also duplicated.
However, the observed effects of corona generation (audible
noise, radio noise, and corona loss) are not, in general,
duplicated. For example, radio-frequency current produced by
a given corona activity will depend on the capacitance of
conductor to ground, and the extent to which this influences
the movement of the space charges.
To facilitate the translation of measured data on single-

phase conductors to expected values on 3-phase transmission
lines, it is therefore desired to express corona effects in
terms of "generation quantitiesw, which depend only on the
corona generation and which are related to measured data by
wgeometric'lquantities, and other factors as determined by
the method of measurement.
The generation quantity used for radio noise is the

generation function
The measured quantity used for radio noise is the radio

noise current
The relationship between the two is given [18 p 1411 by
where C is the capacitance of the conductor geometry to

ground.
Corona generation is assumed to originate from a uniform

distribution of uncorrelated sources (i.e. rain drops) and
the total current is given [l8 p 1431 by
where I is the current due to one source.
If the distribution of discrete sources is extended to the

concept of a continuous distribution we can write
where X is the length of the conductor and I, now is a

measure of the radio noise power per unit length, and is
usually expressed in terms of p A m - I n . The generation
function can then be found using the appropriate
relationship.
The basic relationship between radio-noise current and

generation function was originally established by G.E. Adams
(1956). However, a simpler and perhaps more intuitive
approach, based on the work of C.H. Gary (1972) 1231 [12'p
1811 is presented here.
Radio noise, generated by a corona streamer, is caused by
the movement of space charges in the electric field of the
conductor, As a source of radio noise, the streamer is
usually represented as a current generator.
Figure 2.20 Coaxial cylinder Geometry.
Let us consider an element consisting of a cylindrical

conductor having a radius r, and located coaxially within a
cylinder of radius R, representing zero potential.
Suppose that a space charge of density qo per unit length is

placed within this coaxial element. Let the space charge be
in the form of an infinitely thin cylinder of radius p
(Figure 2.20).
If the centre conductor is connected to ground, it will be
at zero potential and carry a charge q induced by the
presence of q,, .
In this electrical state, the radial electrostatic field is
given by Gauss's theorem:
at a point of radius r e S e p
at a point of radius p C S C R
Integrating in order to obtain the potential difference
Since V, - V, = 0, the charge per unit length induced on the

centre conductor is
Now assume that the cylindrical space charge q, uniformly

expands at velocity dp/dt. his expansion results in the
rate of change dq/dt of the induced charge, and represents
the injected current.
To locate this current
Substituting for
where C = capacitance per unit length of the coaxial cage

then
It should be noted that this current is the product of two

terms:
one which depends on the cage geometry
and the second,
which solely depends on the characteristics of the space

charge, that is to say, its quantity and the law of its
movement.
Next, the excitation function will be defined from the
second term of the product.
Because of the internal characteristics of the electrical

field within the zone of the ionized air, in the
neighbourhood of the conductor, the function
presents an impulse form of very short duration.
This impulse function can be described by a Fourier

.
spectrum, F (B)
On the other hand, the character of the space charge is such

that the impulses f(t) are pseudo-periodically repeated.
Experience shows that the successive impulses all have the
same form, but fluctuate in amplitude and time intervals
around stable average values. Under these conditions, the
Fourier spectrum of a single impulse is replaced by the
spectral density G(&). Without going into the theory of
stationary random signals, let us merely recall that the
spectral density defines an energy. The RMS of g(0) of the
pseudo-periodic signal contained within an infinitely small
frequency interval dB is directly related to G(&) , according
to Parseval" theorem, by
Consequently if the original signal passes through a
measuring device tuned to the frequency b,, and with a
"quadratic equivalentg8bandwidth of B Hz, the RMS value of
the measured signal is
Let n be the number of discrete uncorrelated corona sources

per unit length of conductor and let Gi be the spectra1
density of the source i; then the resultant RMS value of all
the sources per unit length of conductor is
This quantity I' is called the excitation function.
The random aspect of the I' function is due to the inherent

nature of the space charges. It is introduced to take into
account the measuring system and, in particular, the
bandwidth of the receiver with a square-law detector.
In practice, it must be remembered that the magnitude that

can be measured is the current, and not the excitation
function. In a general case I' represents an important
parameter in the calculation and has to be derived from
experimental measurements of high frequency current and
capacitances, as achieved in the corona cage, for example.
2.4.3 TEST CAGE MEASUREMENT O F RADIO NOISE CURRENT
The radio frequency current produced by corona generation

and gap discharges may be measured using a corona cage and
suitable radio noise meters in one of two ways, The current
can be measured from the centre corona cage to ground or
measured directly from the conductor under test using a
coupling capacitor as shown below in figure 2.21.
Figure 2-23. Corona cage circuit used for radio noise

measurements.
A blocking filter is used to offer a high impedance at the

frequency at which the radio noise current is to be
measured. At measuring frequencies it thus isolates the
conductor under test from external supply noise and it
prevents the noise generated on the conductor under test
from being fed back into the supply.
If the impedance of the coupling circuit is not close to the
surge impedance of the conductor under test, or if the
conductor length is long compared to the wave length of the
frequency being measured, special consideration must be
given to reflections of the travelling current waves at the
terminations, This may result in a correction factor which
must be applied to the measured current to obtain the total
current produced by corona generation on the conductor,
2.5 MEASURING RADIO NOISE
In this section we look at two methods used in measuring radio

noise, namely a quasi-peak detector and a fast data acquisition
system. Basic knowledge of the internal operation of these
instruments are valuable tools.
A definition of radio interference is given followed by a

discussion on basic known methods that could be used to
characterize (fingerprint) corona and gap produced radio noise.
2.5.1 RADIO INTERFERENCE (RI)
Radio noise is rather a general terminology, which by

definition refers to "any unwanted disturbance within the
radio frequency band, such as undesired electric waves in
any transmission channel or devicett [l2 "IEEE Standard
Definitions of Terms Related to Overhead-Power-Line Corona
and Radio Noisew]. The generality of the terminology becomes
even more evident when one considers that the radio
frequency band extends from 3 kHz to 30 000 MHz 1181.
As already explained, the discharge process is pulsatory in

nature, producing pulses of current and voltage on the
transmission line conductors. These pulses are characterized
by rise and decay time constants which may be in the order
of hundredths of a microsecond and repetition rates which
may be in the kHz range. Consequently, the frequency spectra
of those pulses can cover a considerable portion of the
radio frequency band.
Radio interference (RI) is used when we refer to a specific

frequency range, in our case 50 to 500 Khz.
The term radio influence voltage (RIV) refers by definition

to the radio frequency voltage, which appears on conductors
of electrical equipment or circuits, as measured using a
radio noise meter as a two-terminal voltmeter in accordance
with NEMA 107-1964, "Methods of measurement of radio
influence voltage (RIV) of high voltage apparatusw.
2.5.2 RADIO NOISE MEASUREMENT USING A QUASI-PEAK (CISPR)

DETECTOR
The working of the quasi-peak detector as explained by

Comber and Juette 118 p 1491 is presented below.
A radio noise meter is basically a calibrated radio receiver

which functions as a radio-frequency voltmeter. The block
diagram seen in figure 2.22 below illustrates the signal
processing chain.
For the example illustrated, widely separated pulses (1)

enter the meter via the radio frequency (RF) input. Each
pulse may be considered as a generator of a spectrum of
frequency components. The RF amplifier amplifies a
relatively narrow portion of this spectrum, determined by
the bandwidth of the amplifier. The output of the amplifier
is a train of modulated, oscillatory pulses (2), the
oscillation frequency being the tuning frequency of the
meter. The envelope of the pulses will have a peak
amplitude A which is proportional to the bandwidth of the
amplifier, and a width W which is inversely proportional to
the bandwidth (W is defined as the width of a rectangle
having the same area and height as the pulse envelope).
RF INPUT
t (1)
RF INPUT
RF
l AMPLIFIER I
(2)
RF OUTPUT
n
t
_ INTERMEDIATE
DETECTOR STAGE
DETECTOR OUTPUT
WEIGHTING CIRCUIT
OUTPUT
Figure 2.22 Signal processing of a radio noise meter.
In the mixer the pulse oscillation frequency is converted to

an intermediate frequency (IF). The pulses then pass
through the IF amplifier whose output is again a train of
oscillatory pulses. At this stage, the width and peak
amplitude of the pulses are determined by the narrowest
bandwidth of the circuit.
The pulses then enter the detector which rectifies the

pulses (3) and filters out the high frequency components
leaving the monopolar envelopes of the pulses (4) which are
applied to the weighting circuits, These circuits, often
considered parts of the detector, determine whether the
voltmeter reads the peak of the envelope, the average of the
envelope or some intermediate quasi-peak value (5).
Generally, an automatic gain control is provided to lower

the gain of the IF amplifier for large signals (noise
levels) so that the deflection of the voltmeter is
proportional to the logarithm of the input signal amplitude.
The voltmeter is calibrated to indicate the rms value, in
microvolts or decibels above one microvolt, of a sinusoidal
input signal whose frequency is equal to the tuning
frequency of the meter. For example, suppose a certain
noise input results in a meter deflection X when the meter
is tuned to 1 MHz. If now the noise is replaced by a 1 MHz
sinusoidal voltage adjusted to yield the same meter
deflection X , then the original noise level would be defined
to be the rms value of the sinusoidal voltage, and the meter
scale would be marked accordingly.
The most important detector used for the measurement of

radio interference is the quasi-peak detector. This was
originally designed in order that the meter indication for
a particular noise could be related to the B@annoyancegt
effect that the noise would have when interfering with radio
reception.
Figure 2.23 Quasi-peak detector weighting circuit.
The response of the circuit, as seen in figure 2.23, is

determined by the charge and discharge time constants, RC
and RIC respectively. If R, is infinite then C can only
discharge through its own leakage resistance, and the output
would effectively be the peak of the input pulse train. In
practice R, is some finite value such that RIC is of the
order of several seconds. The annoyance value of any noise,
however, is dependent not only on the peak value but also on
the repetition rate of noise pulses. This was first found
to be true for audible noise by U Steudel (1933) and
reported by AH Davis (1938) who, in discussing sound level
meters suitable for measuring repetitive type noise, stated
that the meter 18must have an appropriate leak, for the
loudness of a slow series of repetitions is less than that
of a rapid series.81 This concept of a "leaking peakw meter
was carried over into the design of radio noise meters, the
end product being the quasi-peak detector circuit.
Present day standards call for quasi-peak time constants:
- ANSI standard: Charge time of RC is 1 msec. Discharge

time of R,C is 600 msec.
- CISPR standard: Charge time of RC is 1 msec. Discharge
time of R,C is 160 msec.
Due to the inertia of the voltmeter movement, the meter

reading does not follow the quasi-peak detector output, V,,
but responds to the average value of this output.
2.5.3 RADIO NOISE MEASUREMENT USING A FAST DATA ACQUISITION

SYSTEM
Radio noise, being in the kHz to MHz frequency range, has to

be sampled at a very high sampling rate (at least four times
the noise signal's frequency) to get a representative
sample. A full 50 Hz cycle (20 ms period) of the RIV signal
has to be sampled to successfully study the corona noise
(different corona modes occur during the 50 Hz cycle).
To look at frequencies of up to 500 kHz, we need to sample

at 2 MHz (we are sampling at 3 MHz). In order to capture a
full 50 Hz cycle, sampled at 3 MHz, we need approximately 60
kByte memory to store the 60 000 binary bytes (points).
A schematic diagram of the fast data acquisition system
developed by the centre for electrical services at
Stellenbosch, to accomplish the above, can be seen in figure
2,24.
A trigger unit is used to supply 3 MHz bursts, at a 25 Hz

repetition rate, in phase with the 50 Hz supply voltage,
This ensures that all the samples are captured from the same
starting point, i.e. at the beginning of the 50 Hz supply
cycle.
The bandpass filter allows the signal to be free of unwanted

frequencies (in our case outside the 50 to 500 kHz band laid
.
down by Eskom) The circuit diagram of the bandpass filter
(fourth order) with frequency band of 50 to 500 kHz, as
designed by SED, can be seen in appendix A.
A variable RF amplifier is used to amplify the signal so

that the full range of the analog to digital converter input
is utilised (in our case 0 to 2 Volt) to ensure maximum
sensitivity.
The fast video analog to digital converter (8 bit

resolution) is controlled to sample at 3 MHz by a
transputer, which stores the captured data into a memory
bank. The data can then be accessed by a slower computer for
analysis purposes.
The program used to control the whole process allows the

data to be captured, displayed on the computer monitor, and
stored to disc in the form of a binary data file for later
use.
R I V INPUT t
I FILTER I
l
W
AMPLIFIER
7 JTER
H*RO
DRIVE
Figure 2.24 Schematic diagram of a fast data acquisition

system.
3 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM
It has been found that the presence of sugar cane fires under
transmission lines has an effect on discharges and causes an
increase in radio noise. The sugar cane fire leads to possible
flashovers between phases and phase to ground causing unwanted
power line outages,
The effect of fires on the flashover voltage of power lines has

been investigated in Brazil [24], Mexico [25], Canada [26],
U.S.A. [27], Australia [22] and South Africa [l].
It has been suggested that the insulation strength of power

lines is impaired by the following conditions that prevail
during fires:
- reduced air density due to the heating of the air

- reduction of gap clearance by the conductive flame
- the effect of smoke and cane particulates.
The increase in radio noise during fires was first mentioned

by Bird [22] who also suggested that this phenomenon could be
used to detect the onset of flashover due to fires.
It was found in Natal [l] that other bursts of noise occurred

when fires were present. This was attributed to heavy insulator
pollution, rain, and in one case faulty equipment in an
interconnected substation.
The three main contributors to radio noise on the affected 275

and 400 kV transmission lines in Eastern Natal are sugar cane
fires, heavy rain, and insulator pollution.
All three these conditions have to be simulated under
controlled laboratory conditions. The equipment developed must
be adaptable to simulate grass fires as well.
The maximum design voltage gradient for the affected lines are
given as [l]:
- 37 kV/m phase to phase and 33 kV/m phase to earth for a 2 7 5

kV transmission line
- 4 4 kV/m phase to phase and 47 kV/m phase to earth for a 400
kV transmission line.
The simulation is done using a corona test cage, inside a

controlled environment where these three conditions are
simulated. Suitable environmental monitoring and radio noise
measuring instruments are used to obtain the necessary data.
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss:
- what has to be simulated

- how it is being simulated
- what has to be environmentally monitored and how
- the measuring circuits needed to obtain the necessary data
- commissioning and theoretical simulation of the measuring
circuits
- test procedures used.
3.2 WHAT HAS TO BE SIMULATED
The three main sources of radio noise on the affected 275 and
4 0 0 kV transmission lines in eastern Natal and the line
parameters under normal conditions have to be simulated and are
discussed below.
3.2,1 NORMAL FAIR WEATHER CONDITIONS
Sources of radio noise under normal fair weather conditions

are :
the partial breakdown of the air surrounding the

conductors caused by the surface condition of the
conductor (metal protrusions on the conductor causes a
high voltage gradient at those points and leads to glow
type corona)
the presence of airborne substances such as insects, dust,
pollen, marine salt, spider webs, vegetation, bird
droppings, other nonmetallic materials and the presence of
wind
the air density, humidity, atmospheric pressure and
temperature
metal fittings (suspension clamps, dead-end clamps, yokes,
guard rings and horns, spacers etc)
clean or dry insulators
faulty substation equipment.
3.2.2 RAIN
Rain is one of the main causes of radio noise on

transmission lines'due to:
- water droplets that collect on the conductor surface

during a storm. This modifies the electric field
significantly, thus creating a large number of corona
noise sources
- discharges that may occur when a raindrop passes the
conductor, initiating a discharge from the conductor to
the rain particle
- discharges that may occur on the surface of clean
insulators when damp or wet: the existence of drops of
water produce radio noise due to surface discharges. This
interference is generally greater than that with dry
insulators.
Water droplets can form on the surface of a conductor or

insulator due to fog, leading to similar conditions as
above.
Rain in general cleans dirty conductors and insulators, thus

reducing radio noise due to pollution.
3.2.3 SUGAR CANE FIRES
Burning of sugar cane fields is done just before harvesting

to ease the process and reduce the trash content of the
cane. This is usually done early morning when the dewpoint
is high and very little wind is present. The cane has a
water content of approximately 60%. Methane gas is produced
by the burning process.
Flames reach meters into the sky with temperatures as high

as 1000 degrees C. The fire produces its own wind which
twirls up towards the conductors. The flames at times pass
between conductors and earth wires causing flashovers
between phases and phase to earth. The 'temperature at the
conductors has been estimated [l] to be as high as 250
degrees C.
The chemical basis of sugar cane is a carbon composite (a

conducting medium) and contributes to the large plumes of
smoke and floating particles forming. This may lead to
flashovers between conductors.
~ a d i o noise produced by sugar cane fires has a short
duration. Frequency spectrum measurements on a 275 kV
(horizontal, twin @zebraIg bundle) line in Natal [l]
indicated that a 10 to 20 dB increase in carrier noise in
the 50 to 150 kHz frequency range may be caused by a cane
fire under a line.
3.2.4 POLLUTED INSULATORS
The pollution from sugar cane burning, forest and veld

fires, industrial pollution, and marine salts build up on
the lines during periods of low rainfall and decrease
insulator strength. With the addition of moisture (dew, fog)
the insulator surface becomes conductive and discharges are
produced which can eventually cause a flashover.
Radio noise produced by insulator pollution in Natal is very

high and can mask out all the other sources of noise. Field
test data obtained in Natal [l], shows that the radio noise
from damp polluted insulators masked out all the other noise
produced in the frequency bandwidth of 50 to 150 kHz.
3.3 HOW IT IS BEING SIMULATED
The design and construction methods used to simulate, under

laboratory conditions, the normal line parameters and the three
main contributors to the increase of power line radio noise,
are discussed below.
Eskom (EI) suggested that a voltage gradient range of 12 to 36

kV/cm be looked at, treating 24 kV/cm as the normal operating
voltage gradient of the transmission lines.
To obtain these voltage gradients, a single conductor in a

cylindrical geometry corona test cage is used. (Eskom suggested
a single NHare*lconductor with a diameter of 14.25 mm)
The basic corona cage used was obtained from UCT. This test
cage was designed using the corona cage at Eskom as a model,
to operate at voltages below 150 kV. In figure 3.1 the basic
cage size and construction can be seen,
Figure 3.1 Basic corona cage obtained from UCT.
Using GaussfS law we find that for a conductor of radius 0.7125

cm and cylindrical corona cage of radius 75 cm, the voltage
gradient E in kV/cm at the conductor surface for this geometry
is given by
substituting r and R we get

thus
At a supply voltage of 150 kV, the voltage gradient at the

surface of the conductor is approximately 45 kV/cm. We thus
need a supply voltage range from 40 to 120 kV to give us the
desired voltage gradient range of 12 to 36 kV/cm on the
conductor surface,
3.3.1 NORMAL FAIR WEATHER CONDITIONS
The conductor under test was strung in the centre of the

test cage and supported at both ends by using five standard
glass insulators, a metal fixing plate, and corona dome
(used to minimize the field strength at the ends caused by
sharp curves and fittings), as seen in figure 3.2 below.
c o r o n a dome
//
Figure 3.2 Support system for the strung conductor at both
ends of the test cage.
The radio noise due to metal protrusions, caused mainly
during stringing of a line, reduces as the line ages (ionic
bombardment erodes away the metal protrusions). In the
laboratory the conductor under test is sandpapered with fine
water emery to get rid of most of these metal protrusions.
The effect of natural, nonmetallic, airborne substances

could cause a short noticeable increase in the radio noise
[18]. For this study the phenomenon is assumed to occur
mainly due to sugar cane fire smoke.
The air density, humidity, atmospheric pressure, and

temperature have an effect on the radio noise and will be
monitored using suitable instruments during all the
simulation tests for purposes of repeatability.
Metal fittings also have an effect on the radio noise.

During insulator pollution simulation the effect of the line
fittings is taken into account. In general it is treated as
background noise.
The radio noise from clean and dry insulator strings is

ignored for this study and treated as background noise.
Faulty substation equipment can produce spurts of radio

noise. This noise usually masks out all other noise [l]. For
our study we ignore this phenomenon.
3.3.2 RAIN
Rain rates of at least P mm/min has to be simulated,

according to Eskom (EI).
One meter of the conductor under test is covered with the
desired rain rate by regulating the pressure of the water
supply from the university mains to a rain nozzle situated
above the conductor. A schematic diagram can be seen in
figure 3.3.
Using a T650025 nozzle supplied by Unijet, and setting the

water supply pressure to 40 psi, we get a rain rate of 1
mm/min, which is more than ample for our tests. (The rain
rate was tested in practice by placing a rain meter directly
under the conductor)
It was found that a variation of rain rates above 1 mm/min

does . not have a noticeable effect on the radio noise
produced. The conductivity of the water could play a role
but was ignored for this study.
The effect of rain on clean insulators was left out for the
purpose of this study.
r a i n nozzle
n
Figure 3.3 Schematic diagram of rain simulation in the test

cage.
The structure as seen in figure 3.4 has been designed and

constructed to simulate the sugar cane fire.
flames
S
I corona
cage
damping
1 conductor
fan heater
flap \
control burner smoke &

panel particle
generator
Figure 3.4 Sugar cane fire simulator.
The first section seen in figure 3.4 is the air supply fan
with speed control used to generate a controllable air
In the heater section three 9 kW heater elements are used to

preheat the air.
The gas burner was constructed as seen in figure 3.5 by

forming a ring with 12 mm copperpipe and brazing on six 6 mm
copperpipe gas injector pipes with 1 mm nozzles. Three of
the nozzles focus in the front of the converging tube while
the other three focus at its end (The nozzles where focused
using high pressure water). A round copper plate with a hole
in its centre is brazed to the back of the three inner
nozzles and bent up at the sides, thus forming an air scoop
that converges the incoming air into a stream that moves
through the centre of the nozzlesf focus points. It prevents
backflash of the flame occurring. Metal plates are welded on
the sides of the converging tube and bent up experimentally
to help force air into the converging tube, thus helping to
form the air gas plasma, The burner is built into a metal
frame structure enclosed with 3 mm steel plates. The gas is
regulated, using a normal gas regulator ("Little Red
Devil"). An infrared detector placed at the burner as a
flame detector, with solenoid operated gas valve and control
circuit, was installed as a safety feature. A lighter to
ignite the burner was constructed using a 12 mm copper pipe
filled with waste rag on its one end and wetted with
paraffin. Tests done proved that a flame plasma of
approximately 1000 degrees C is formed, which is considered
to be representative of a typical sugar cane flame.
burner
r
metal p l a t e
flame
. . . . . . . __II_
. . plasma
Figure 3.5 Gas burner theory and construction idea.
The smoke and particle plume is simulated in the next stage

as seen in figure 3.4. The flame plasma flows through the
centre of a 5 mm thick inner cylinder with holes drilled
into its sides. A choking flap at the end of the cylinder is
used so that the flame can either flow undisturbed through
the cylinder or be forced out through the holes at the
sides. The area between the outer expanded metal cylinder
and the centre cylinder is filled with 20 kg of damp sugar
cane, forming a coaxial tube of sugar cane. When the choking
flap is closed, the flames forced through the holes in the
centre cylinder and the amount of the flame plasma that
leaks around the centre cylinder causes the sugar cane tube
to start to smoulder, thus leading to the production of the
desired smoke and particle plume (Similar to a smouldering
cigar).
The flame plasma, smoke and particle plume are then directed
to the conductor under test by the directing plate into the
enclosed test cage. The temperature of the smoke and
particle plume can be controlled by switching on or off the
gas flame and by controlling the air supply.
The structure seen in figure 3.6 has been constructed to

measure the corona current and to provide a controlled zone.
The basic corona cage from UCT, with a diameter of 1.5 m and
an active length of 1 m, was adapted and modified to
minimise any obstruction to the flow of the flame plasma and
smoke plume by replacing the centre test cage with one where
the top and bottom sections where removed, leaving us with
1 m of cage on either side.
The cage was enclosed with galvanized sheets and painted

with a corrosion resistant paint to prevent rust occurring
under the harsh conditions it will be subjected to. The
flame and smoke plasma enters the cage from below and leaves
via the stack. The sides are closed with heat resistant
plastic sheeting (commonly known as vlVlamvaslt) which can
withstand a temperature of 300 degrees C. A water draining
system was installed to allow drainage of the water produced
during the rain tests,
Where the conductor enters the cage, corona rings were
fitted to minimise the field at this point.
Figure 3.6 Enclosed corona cage.
3.3.4 POLLUTED INSULATORS
For the pollution tests, two tests capable of producing

repeatable results are used:
- the steam fog test, where 4 standard glass discs and line
fittings are fitted between the conductor and the cage as
shown in figure 3.7. The top three insulators are shorted
out, by soldering a copper braiding across the insulator
from cap to pin, A pollution layer is applied to the
fourth insulator, in accordance to the IEC recommendation
507 (Artificial pollution tests on HV insulators)[28].
The steam needed to do a steam fog test is obtained by

using three kettle heater elements electrically connected
in star to a 380 volt 3 phase supply, which is placed
inside a metal container with water which has an external
top up water supply. A lid is used on top of the container
to cut off the steam supply when necessary.
conductor
and
line f i t t i n g s
steam
l----l corona
cage
Figure 3.7 Mounting of insulators in test cage.
- the salt fog test is done in accordance to the IEC

recommendation 507 (Artificial pollution tests on HV
insulators)[28]. The salt fog chamber at Stellenbosch
University is used to perform the test.
3.4 WHAT HAS TO BE MONITORED ENVIRONMENTALLY AND HOW
Temperature, atmosphericpressure,humidity, flowrate, pressure

difference, opacity, and particle content have to be monitored
and are measured at positions as shown in figure 3.8. The
circuits developed and instrumentation used are discussed
below.
L
aJ
f.'
aJ
E conductor
0
C
d
E
particle
content
atmospheric
pressure
Figure 3.8 Diagram of the positioning of the environmental

monitoring equipment.
3.4.1 TEMPERATURE
Temperatures T1 and T2 are measured inside the enclosure,

using a J-Type thermocouple with temperature range up to 760
degrees C maximum. This type of thermocouple should not be
used above its maximum temperature, due to an abrupt
magnetic transformation that can cause decalibration even
when returning to lower temperatures. The thermocouples are
connected to a multichannel digital display temperature
meter using its own internal reference junction and gives
the temperature in degrees C.
The flame temperature and the resulting hot air plume are
monitored using a thermal-video camera (Videotherm 94, Eskom
WCR), The camera detects thermal energy and transforms it
into a black and white television image. The relative
temperature of any object can be observed as shades of grey
- the warmer an object the lighter it appears. The
instrument has a temperature range of -30 to 1100 degrees C.
The emissivity of the reference object has to be taken into
account to obtain correct readings. An object with maximum
emissivity of 1 is called a black body, and is a good
absorber of radiation thus also a good emitter. An object
with an emissivity of zero is a perfect reflector, and is a
poor absorber of radiation thus also a poor emitter. The
emissivity of a fire at 1000 degrees C is given by the
manual of the apparatus as 0.75.
The ambient temperature T3 is measured in degrees C, using

a standard mercury ball glass thermometer, on the nearest
laboratory wall outside the enclosed test cage.
3.4.2 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
The atmospheric pressure h in cm Hg is obtained using a

Fortin barometer.
Typical values of h is given for the areas:
- Stellenbosch, 75.4 cm Hg
- Halfway house, 64 cm Hg
- Durban botanical gardens, 75 cm Hg
The following formula is used to obtain the atmospheric

pressure P, in kPa
where pHg = 13600 kg/m3 , g = 9.81 m/s2 and h is the measured

height of the column in mm.
3.4.3 HUMIDITY
An electronic humidity meter is used to measure the relative

humidity in % inside the cage. The instrument used is made
by Rotronic and the 4 to 20 mA output is taken to a Fluke
digital multimeter. The relative humidity in % is obtained
by substituting the mA reading into the following equation
R e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y ( % ) = (mA Reading) - 4.0

S . . (5)
0.16
The flowrate in the outlet stack is measured, using a Pitot

static tube connected to an electronic manometer where a
reading P, in Pascal is obtained. The barometric pressure h
in cm Hg obtained from the Fortin barometer and the
temperature T2 in degrees C is needed to calculate the
velocity V in m/s of the outlet gases and is given by the
following equation
isadvantages of Pitot static tubes are:
- due to the small pressure difference, they are only

suitable for high velocity gases
- they can measure the flow rate only at a particular
position in the cross-section of the pipe
- they become easily blocked when used with gases carrying
particles.
It was decided to use this method due to its availability
(Eskom, EI) and the fact that it does not obstruct the flow
of the gas in the outlet stack.
3.4.5 PRESSURE DIFFERENCE
The differential pressure between ambient and the inside of

the test cage is monitored using a water manometer. The
difference in height h in mm between the two columns can be
used to determine the pressure P, in kPa inside the test cage
and is described by the formula
where p,, = 1000 kg/m3 and g = 9.81 m/s2
3,4.6 OPACITY
A relative smoke density meter was developed (SED), to

measure the relative opacity of the sugar cane smoke plume
in %.
The instrument consists of an infrared transmitter, infrared

receiver, and metering circuit. The transmitter and receiver
units are mounted in line with each other on the ends of a
cylindrical tube. Holes were cut into the tube to let the
smoke through. The tube is positioned horizontally in the
outlet stack.
The instrument works on the principle that the density of

the smoke between the transmitter and receiver is
proportional to the amount of infrared light reaching the
receiver from the transmitter.
When no smoke is present the zero adjusting controls are
used to set the meter reading to 0 %. To calibrate the
instrument the gain adjusting control is used to set the
meter reading at 100 % when a maximum smoke density is
obtained. The gain control is then left at that position and
the instrument is thus calibrated relative to the maximum
smoke density (The instrument is not calibrated to an
outside known standard). The circuit diagram can be seen in
appendix B.
3.4.7 PARTICLE CONTENT
A particle sampler consisting of an air pump with protection

filters, control valve, an air flow volume meter that
measures in m3, air inlet cooler, and sampling head that uses
4.77 cm glass fibre filter discs was designed and built at
Stellenbosch using equipment obtained from the Environmental
Laboratory at Koeberg Power Station.
The sampling head, loaded with a fibre disc, is placed in

the outlet stack before a test. The air pump is started
during the test and the smoke and particles moving through
the stack are sucked towards the sampling head. The air
moves through the sampling head at a volume rate as seen on
the flow meter.
The glass fibre filter discs are weighed before and after
the test. Knowing the difference in weight and volume of air
sampled leads us to the particle content in mg/m3.
3.5 MEASURING CIRCUITS AND METHODS
The ac supply and measuring circuit layout can be seen in

figure 3.9. The capacitors shown with the broken lines were
calculated and measured as described in appendix C and are used
in the calculations that follow.
REGULATING
TRANSFORMER
1 I
r 4 p ~ e p ~ - l - .y -L-
IP~F-I- 44p~
t I -T- -T - -T- Il
r i t- = CORONA CAGE
I
Figure 3.9 Schematic diagram of ac voltage supply and

measuring circuits.
Eskom (EI) decided that two types of RIV measurements should

be taken :
- Quasi peak readings should be taken at two frequencies (200

and 500 kHz) as a function of the voltage gradient, using
the Siemens wStormeBgeratm detector. These measurements
should be done according to CISPR standards.
- The time domain measurements should be taken between
frequencies of 50 to 500 kHz, using a fast transputer
controlled data acquisition system developed by SED.
3.5.1 AC SUPPLY CIRCUIT
A variable ac voltage from 0 to 300 kV (rms) with power

rating of 50 kVA is available in the high voltage laboratory
at the University of Stelxenbosch in the form of a regulator
and test transformer as shown in figure 3.9, thus we have a
suitable voltage supply to perform the tests.
For steam fog pollution tests, however, a low source

impedance ac voltage supply is needed, A variable ac voltage
supply from 0 to 11 kV (rms) with power rating of 150 kVA is
available in the laboratory, by replacing the 300 kV
transformer with the 11 kV transformer in the circuit shown
in figure 3.9.
3.5.2 BLOCKING FILTER
The main purpose of the blocking filter is to, at the

measurement frequency, isolate the test circuit from noise
which may come from the high voltage supply circuit and
prevent noise generated by the process from circulating in
the supply circuit,
The above is achieved by placing a filter in the circuit as

seen in figure 3.9 using an inductor and capacitor in a
parallel configuration, tuned to resonate at the measurement
frequency. This gives a high impedance at that specific
frequency, thus causing minimum current flow.
The basic formula used for parallel resonance is given by

Using the formula above with a fixed inductance of 100 pH
the following theoretical capacitances are needed to tune
the circuit at the given frequency:
The inductor was designed using a computer package obtained

from SED. It was then constructed by turning 100 turns of 2
mm copper wire over a 5 cm diameter air core pvc pipe. The
inductor was then fine tuned by taking off windings until a
value of 100.07 pH was obtained. Aluminium end pieces are
used to connect the filter to the supply circuit, These
changed the inductance to 103.00 pH. The resistance of the
coil was measured as 0.1 $l. Two capacitor networks were
built and tuned to render a maximum parallel impedance at
the two measurement frequencies. It can be seen in figure
3.10 below.
W
0.1 OHM 103 uH
Figure 3.10 (200/500 kHz) Blocking filter.
The switch in figure 3.10 is used to select the filter to

block at 200 kHz when on, and 500 kHz when off.
The filter is designed to be used with the Quasi peak

measurement circuit and is not suitable to be used with the
Time domain measurement circuit. Using the blocking filter
with the Time domain circuit could emphasize the 200 or 500
kHz frequency component, depending on the blocking frequency
selected. The ideal would be to design a blocking filter
with an bandwidth of 50 to 500 kHz, which is no easy task.
3.5.3 DIRECT (RIV la)
As shown in figure 3.11, the radio noise current is measured

by means of a 300 Ci shunt at measuring point Rivl(a) The .
current waveform can thus be studied using a suitable
oscilloscope.
F R O M SUPPLY
AND FILTER
r---lmn
l I I CORONA CAGE I I I
I I I l I I
d
ANTENNA
t-300 OHM
RIVlCa)
DIRECT
Figure 3.11 Corona cage circuit for direct measurement of

the radio noise current.
There is, however, a large 50 Hz capacitive current

component. This component can be cancelled out by using a
differential operational amplifier circuit, taking the one
input across the shunt and the other inverting input from an
antenna. The antenna, as shown in figure 3.11, is tuned by
shifting its position relative to the supply to the same
phase angle as input one. The amplitude is trimmed down to
the same amplitude as input one. The 50 Hz capacitive
leakage current component is thus tuned out, leaving us with
the corona current component. The circuit needed to perform
this operation was developed (SED) and has a total gain of
10. The circuit diagram can be seen in appendix D .
3.5.4 QUASI PEAK (RIV lb,c)
As shown in figure 3.12, in the measurement of quasi-peak

radio interference an inductor is used to compensate for the
cage capacitance to ground. By forming a parallel resonant
tuned circuit, thus giving a maximum impedance at the
measuring frequency, it prevents the signal at that
frequency from being lost via the cage capacitance to
ground. In parallel to the inductor a capacitor (with a
value of at least ten times that of the cage to ground
capacitance) is placed in series with a shunt resistor. The
radio noise signal is monitored at points Riv l(b,c) using
a quasi-peak detector in accordance with the CISPR
regulations. The purpose of the capacitor resistor circuit
is to give a low impedance route for the signal to ground.
The basic formula used for parallel resonance is given by
Using the formula above, with a measured cage capacitance to

ground of 351 pF, the following theoretical inductances are
needed to tune the circuit at the given frequency:
- 200 kHz, L = 1,83 mH

- 500 kHz, L = 288.7 pH.
Two inductors were practically built and tuned, using an

impedance meter, to render a maximum parallel impedance at
the two measurement frequencies and can be seen in figure
3.12 below, A capacitance of 120 nF and a shunt resistance
of 50 R is used to measure the radio noise current at 200
and 500 kHz respectively. Their actual values are shown in
figure 3.12,
FROM SUPPLY
AND F I L T E R
I I CURON4 CAGE I I
I l I I I I
~r I I I I I I ,,
l I I I I I
I I I
l
Figure 3.12 Circuit used with quasi-peak measurements.
Looking at the actual values of the two inductors, a new

value for the measured cage capacitance to ground can be
calculated using equation 9 (p 114) as 377 pF.
3.5.5 TIME DOMAIN (RIV 2 )
In order to capture time domain radio noise for a 20 ms

period for frequencies from 50 to 500 kHz, a coupling
capacitor measuring circuit, connected directly to the
conductor, is used. As shown in figure 3.13, a line
impedance matching resistance is used to help match the
measuring circuit to the line impedance.
The line impedance for a "Harev1conductor in a cylindrical
corona cage is given by
if r = 0.7125 cm and R = 75 cm then
thus
A drain coil is used to eliminate the large 5 0 Hz leakage

component of the signal and the radio noise is measured
across the shunt resistor at point Riv 2 as shown in figure
3.13.
The signal obtained over the 50 fi shunt resistor is then fed

to the Transputer controlled data capturing system (figure
2.24 p 90).
Note that the (200/500 kHz) blocking filter is not suitable

for this type of measurement. It is however retained and set
to 500 kHz. The possible effect could be to emphasize the
500 kHz components of the generated noise. During the
Insulator pollution tests the blocking filter is left out of
the circuit.
A capacitive divider as measuring circuit was considered and
would in theory result to be a better measurement system
than the one selected above. There is however a practical
constraint in that the supply transformer cannot supply the
necessary capacitive current and the effect of the input
impedance of the measuring instrumentation.
FROM S U P P L Y
AND F I L T E R
CORONA CAGE
292.5 OHM
Figure 3.13 Circuit used with time domain measurements.
3.6 COMMISSIONING AND THEORETICAL SIMULATION OF MEASURING

CIRCUITS
The commissioning is done mainly by doing a frequency response

of the various measuring circuits using a test setup as seen
in figure 3.14 below.
oscilloscope 0 0
CH 2 Vout(f r o n o u t p u t o f circuit)
Figure 3.14 Schematic of commissioning test circuit.

During all tests the input voltage to the circuit under test
is kept constant at a peak voltage of 10 volt. The frequency
is varied from 5 0 kHz to 1 MHz. The input voltage, seen as Vin
in figure 3.14, is applied to the conductor in the centre of
the corona test cage. The output signal is taken from the
appropriate measuring points RIV la,lb or lc ext, as seen in
figure 3.9 p 110 to Vout as seen in figure 3.14.
A theoretical frequency response of the various measuring

circuits is done using a computer package called PSPICE.
The capacitances shown with broken lines in figure 3.9, can be

simplified to equivalent capacitances. This is shown in figure
3.15 below and are used in the theoretical calculations. Note
that the 340 pF cage to ground capacitance changes to 366 pF,
which is the new calculated value.
FROM SUPPLY
A N D FILTER
Figure 3.15 Equivalent capacitances used in theoretical

calculations.
The difference between the theoretical simulation and
practically measured frequency response of the circuits below
- especially at the higher frequencies - is due to the fact
that PSPICE does not take into account the variation of
resistance with frequency.
3.6.1 BLOCKING FILTER
The frequency response of the blocking filter (figure 3.10)

was tested using a 1 kn termination resistor, in accordance
with the test method used by E1 at their corona test cage,
and the test circuit (figure 3.14) discussed above. The
results can be seen in figure 3,16 below.
2 0 0 and 5 0 0 kHz blocking filter

frequency response Vin = 10 Vp
Frequency (kHz)
Figure 3.16 Measured frequency response of blocking filter.
An attenuation of 30 db for 500 kHz and 18 db for 200 kHz

was measured. Similar results was obtained with the filter
in its operational position as seen in figure 3.9 p 110.
3.6.2 DIRECT (RIV la)
The theoretically calculated and practically measured

frequency response of the direct measuring circuit (figure
3,11) over the 300 l2 shunt resistance as it is used in the
circuit in figure 3.9 can be seen in figure 3.17.
Direct ( 3 0 0 ohm) measurement circuit

\ I
Frequency (kHz)
-C Measured Calculated
Figure 3.17 Frequency response of corona cage direct

measuring circuit.
3.6.3 QUASI PEAK (RIV 1b,c)

frequency response of the 500 kHz case filter circuit
(figure 3.12) used for quasi-peak measurements as it is used
in the circuit in figure 3.9 are shown in figure 3.18.
Quasi peak measurement circuit

160
Frequency (kHz)
[ -'Measured 4 Calculated I
Figure 3.18 Frequency response of filter circuit used for

quasi-peak measurements.
The response in the 200 kHz case is similar.

3.6.4 TIME DOMAIN (RIV 2)
In accordance to the CISPR regulations, the impedance

between the measuring circuit and earth shall be between 260
to 340 52, with a phase angle not exceeding 20 degrees. The
coupling capacitor used has to have a capacitance of at
least five times that of the capacitance of the circuit
being tested.
The coupling capacitor used (figure 3.13 p 117) due to its -

-
availability is fixed at 9 nF, and is more than five times
the test circuit capacitance.
Two methods of connecting the 50 Hz drain coil (figure 3.13)

are theoretically compared and their frequency response can
be seen in figure 3.19.
Time domain circuit frequency response

Vin = 10 Vp, with drain coil placed
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Frequency (kHz)
above 292.5 ohm -t or below 1
Figure 3.19 Comparison between two 50 Hz drain coilmethods.

From figure 3,19 it can be seen that by connecting the drain
coil directly over the 50 R resistor, a 'more linear '
frequency response is obtained. However, it has the

disadvantage that the 292.5 R resistor (used for line
impedance matching) has to carry a large 50 Hz current
component and the circuit impedance and phase angle do not
fall within the CISPR specifications for the frequency range
50 to 500 kHz,
When connecting the drain coil between the coupling

capacitor and the 292.5 fl resistor to ground, the circuit is
more suited to be tuned at a specific frequency to fall
within the CISPR specifications. However, this is not suited
for a broadband linear frequency response.
Time domain measurement circuit

1
: : ~ 1 1 , , , , , , 1 ~
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Frequency (kHz)
-)- Measured -t Calculated
Figure 3 - 2 0 Frequency response of coupling capacitor circuit

used for time domain measurements.
Since we are interested in a broadband linear frequency
response, we connect the drain coil directly over the 50 fl
resistor.

frequency response of the coupling capacitor measuring
circuit used for time domain measurements is shown in figure
3.20 above.
The measured frequency response of the 50 to 500 kHz

bandpass filter as seen in appendix A used during the Time
domain measurements are shown in figure 3.21 below.
50 t o 500 kHz bandpass filter

frequency response
-
'O 1
-60 I t I I I
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Frequency (kHz)
Figure 3.21 Frequency response of 50 to 500 kHz bandpass

filter.
3.6.5 E-FIELD
The electrical field inside the cage was simulated using a

finite element computer program. From the equipotential plot
of electric field inside the corona cage, as seen in
appendix E, it appears that the use of an incomplete outer
cage does not influence the field in the vicinity of the
conductor under test,
3.7 TEST PROCEDURES TO SIMULATE ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
The test procedures used to simulate radio noise conditions

under normal, rain, fire, fire & smoke, smoke, and insulator
pollution conditions are discussed below.
- Clean conductor using methylated spirits and a clean rag

- Switch on air supply fan
- Take temp, atmospheric pressure, and humidity readings
- Perform test.
3.7.2 RAIN
- switch on water supply

- Set water regulator
- Make sure air supply fan is on
- Wait for 5 min to stabilize
- Take temp, atmospheric pressure, and humidity readings
- Perform test
- Switch off water supply and dry conductor with a clean
rag.
3.7.3 FIRE
- Enclose cage sides with ifVlamvaswand duct tape

- Start burner and air supply fan with damping flap open
- Wait for 5 min to stabilize
- Take temp, atmospheric pressure, and manometer readings
- Perform test
- Switch off burner.
3,7.4 FIRE AND SMOKE
- Fill smoke generator with 20 kg of wet sugar cane

- Start burner and air supply fan with damping flap closed
- Wait for 3 rnin
- Open damping flap and wait 2 min to stabilize
- Take temp, atmospheric pressure, flowrate, manometer,
and opacity readings
- Insert filter disc into particle sampler and take flow
reading
- Perform test
- Take out filter disc from particle sampler and take flow
reading
- Switch off burner
- The system can now be used for smoke simulation.
3.7.5 SMOKE
Close damping flap

Regulate air supply fan to desired level
Wait for 5 min to stabilize
Take temp, atmospheric pressure, flowrate, manometer,
and opacity readings
Insert filter disc into particle sampler and take flow
reading
Perform test
Take out filter disc from particle sampler and take flow
reading
Switch all equipment off and clean system.
3.7.6 INSULATOR POLLUTION
3.7.6.1 STEAM FOG TEST
* The insulator pollution application is done in

accordance with IEC recommendation 507 (Artificial
pollution tests on IN insulators)[28].
- Pollute glass insulator string of 3, using spray gun
to apply a mixture of distilled water, salt and
Kaolin, thus simulating a heavy pollution level
- Use one polluted insulator and determine the pollution
level by washing off a fixed area with a known
quantity of distilled water
- Enclose cage sides with Wlamvasm and duct tape
- Use one polluted insulator and determine times t, and t,
with steam supply on, by monitoring the leakage current
as shown in figure 3.22
- Install insulator string and line fittings in cage as
seen in figure 3.7 p 104
- Use one polluted insulator as the fourth insulator in
the string mentioned above
- Switch steam supply on
- Wait for t, min
- Take temp reading
- Take supply voltage up slowly to 7 kV
- Wait 3 min
- Take necessary data readings before time t, is reached
- Take voltage down to zero and switch off supply
- Remove all and clean system.
A
a
E
W
polluted H
insuiators
Figure 3,22 Circuit to check insulator conductance.
3.7,6.2 SALT FOG TEST
* The salt fog tests is done in accordance with IEC

recommendation 507 (Artificial pollution tests on HV
insulators)[28] using the salt fog chamber at US.
- Clean glass insulator string of 3, using WirnS1 and
water. Check that the insulator surface is clean by
poring water over the surface, if clean large wet areas
are formed on the insulator surface
- Mix salt and water solution to a desired degree of
conductivity, measure a sample of the solution in mS/cm
- Take temp reading (not to exceed 30 degrees Celcuis)
- Switch supply voltage of 22 kv on
- Start the salt fog generation process and set the flow
rate of the salt solution at 0.5 litre/minute and the
air pressure at 700 kPa to the fog generation nozzles
- Wait for a stabilization of the maximum leakage current
over the insulator surface, this is usually reached
after 20 minutes
- Take necessary data readings
- Switch supply voltage off
- Stop salt fog generation process
- Remove all and clean system.
3.8 PERFORMED TEST PROCEDURES TO OBTAIN DATA
The high voltage procedures used to perform the tests needed

to obtain the various data is discussed below.
3.8.1 DIRECT
- Supply on
- take voltage up slowly to max
- keep at max for 3 min
- bring voltage down in desired steps or to desired value
and take readings
- take voltage down to zero and switch off supply.
3.8.2 QUASI PEAK
- Supply on
- take voltage up slowly to rnax (120 kV)
- bring voltage down in steps of 10 kV (3 kV/cm) and take Q-
Peak readings (max, average and min)
3.8.3 TIME DOMAIN
- Supply on
- take voltage up slowly to max (100 kV)
- bring voltage down to 80 kV (24 kV/cm) and take all time
domain readings
4 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter the experimental results obtained are presented

(sections 4.2 and 4.3). The environmentalconditions, presented
in the tables, can be interpreted as follows (position layout
of monitoring equipment can be seen in figure 3.8 page 105):
- T1, the inlet temperature of the cage in degrees C

- T2, the outlet temperature of the cage in degrees C
- T3, the ambient temperature of the laboratory in degrees C
- h(cm Hg), the ambient atmospheric pressure
- RH(%), the relative humidity inside the cage
- the particle content of the smoke plume in mg/m3
- Opacity(%), the opacity of the smoke in the outlet stack.
The flow rate in the outlet stack is omitted from the results
due to inaccuracy (possible reasons are given on page 107 in
.
section 3.4.4) During all the sample runs the pressure between
the inner cage and the atmospheric pressure of the laboratory
remained the' same.
4.2 QUASI PEAK DATA
Q-Peak data is obtained for the various environmental

conditions at 200 and 500 kHz (three runs a,b and c were done
for each condition) -
using the methods as described in
chapter 3 -and is presented below (sections 4.2.1 to 4.2.3).
The conductor surface gradient (electric field strength) is

varied from 12 kV/cm to 36 kV/cm in steps of 3 kV/cm. The Quasi
Peak readings are done according to CISPR standards and is
given as a minimum, average and maximum value in dB(pV, 25n).
dB (uV, 25 ohm) Gradient(kV/cm) dB (uV, 25 ohm)
Table 4,1 Q-Peak results under Normal conditions.

Q-PEAK(CISPR) vs CONDUCTOR GRADIENT
Normal at 200 kHz
~ i g u r e4 . 1 Q-Peak r e s u l t s under Normal c o n d i t i o n s a t 2 0 0 kHz.
Q-PEAK(CISPR) VS CONDUCTOR GRADIENT

Normal at 500 kHz
Average (abc)
Figure 4.2 Q-Peak r e s u l t s under Normal c o n d i t i o n s a t 500 kHz.

4.2.2 RAIN
dB (uV, 25 ohm) Gradient(kV/cm) dB (uV, 25 ohm)
64 64 64 59 59 59
65 65 65 36 60 60 60
65 66 65 61 61 60
Table 4.2 Q-Peak results under Rain conditions.

Average (abc)
Figure 4.3 Q-Peak results under Rain conditions at 200 kHz.

Rain at 500 kHz
100
90
-
E
I
0
80
70
60
Average (obc)
50
5 40
9 30
20
10
0
12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36
E (kV/crn)
Figure 4.4 Q-Peak results under Rain conditions at 500 kHz.

4.2.3 SUGAR CANE F I R E S
4.2.3.1 F I R E (HOT A I R )
25 ohm) Gradient(kV/cm) dB (uV, 25 ohm)

I
Table 4.3 Q-Peak results under Fire conditions.

Fire at 200 kHz
-W-
min
+
Average (abc)
+4+
max
Figure 4.5 Q-Peak results under Fire conditions at 200 kHz.

Fire at 500 kHz
-m-
min
+
Average (abc)
-m-
max
Figure 4.6 Q-Peak results under Fire conditions at 500 kHz.

4.2.3.2 SMOKE
dB (uV, 25 ohm) Gradient (kV/cm) dB (uV, 25 ohm)
78 77 76 70 72 71
79 78 77 36 71 73 72
79 79 78 72 74 74
Table 4.4 Q-Peak results under Smoke conditions.

Smoke at 200 kHz
100
90
80
Average (abc)
n 70
c
E
o 60
V)
50
40
q 30
20
10
0
12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36
E (kV/cm)
Figure 4.7 Q-Peak results under Smoke conditions at 200 kHz.
Q-PEAK(cISPR) VS CONDUCTOR GRADIENT
-I-
min
+
Average (abc)
+
max
Figure 4.8 Q-Peak results under Smoke conditions-at 500 kHz.

4.2.3.3 FIRE AND SMOKE
Table 4.5 Q-Peak results under Fire and Smoke conditions.

'Fire a i d Smoke at 2 0 0 kHz
+
min
+
Average (abc)
+
max
Figure 4.9 Q-Peak results under Fire and Smoke conditions at

200 kHz.

'Fire arid Smoke at 5 0 0 kHz
-m-
min
+
Average (abc)
-3+
max
Figure 4.10 Q-Peak results under Fire and Smoke conditions at

500 kHz.
4.3 TIME DOMAIN DATA
Time domain data is obtained for the various environmental

conditions at an electric field strength of 24 kV/cm - using
the methods as described in chapter 3 - and are presented below
.
(sections 4 3.1 to 4-3-31 The insulator pollution data is
presented in section 4.3.4.
The noise is sampled (at 3 MHz), for a 20 ms period in

synchronism with the supply voltage, and stored as 60 000
points. The interval between points is 333.3, nsec, The first
10 and the last 1000 points of the 60 000 points sampled were
found suspect to error. A test was performed where a 200 kHz
test signal is applied to the sampling instrument and captured.
The above suspicion was proved to be correct and the sample is
thus stored as 58990 points.
The scaling of the data in the figures can be seen in the top
left hand corner of each sample. Two y axis ranges can be seen
in the figures, (0 mV to 2000 mV) or (0 mV to 100 mV). Due to
the restriction of the analog to digital converter the ranges
should be read as (-1000 mV to 1000 mV) and (-50 mV and 50 mV)
respectively.
When interpreting the tables, nposl, for example, is read as:

Normal conditions, positive half cycle sample number one ".
The samples in the tables correspond directly to those in the
figures.
The main purpose of the Time domain data as presented below is

to give the reader a feeling for the captured data, and not to
represent the captured noise signal in fine detail.
4-3.1 NORMAL FAIR WEATHER CONDITIONS
(Time domain. Normal l
Table 4.6 Environmental results under Normal conditions.
Observations: The noise pulse level and rate is low.

An odd large noise pulse near the peak of the
positive half cycle can be detected now and then,
as seen in sample npos5.
This could possibly be due to a particle settling
on the conductor thus forming a discharge at that
point. The settled particle is usually burnt off
and the noise level returns back to normal.
Figure 4.11 Time domain results under Normal conditions
looking at the positive half cycle.
Figure 4.12 Time domain results under Normal conditions

looking at the negative half cycle.
4.3.2 RAIN
1 (Time domain, Rain) 1
Table 4.7 Environmental results under Rain conditions.
Observations: During the positive half cycle noise pulses occur

at random over an area around and near the peak,
These pulses are orders of magnitude larger than
those detected on the negative half cycle.
During the negative half cycle noise pulses of
small magnitude occur closely spaced over an area
near the peak. Note the shape which is formed by
the noise pulses. This shape is repeatable as can
be seen in samples rnegl to rneg6.
YHirrOmU Y b n 2 O M m U XPlin=l XII.x=24195 rwsl
Figure 4.13 Time domain results under Rain conditions looking

at the positive half cycle,
Figure 4.14 Time domain results under Rain conditions looking

at the negative half cycle.
4.3.3.1 FIRE (HOT AIR)
l (Time domain. Fire)
Table 4.8 Environmental results under Fire (Hot Air)

conditions.
Observations: During the positive half cycle large intermittent

noise pulses occur around and near the peak. These
pulses are far larger that those detected on the
negative half cycle.
During the negative half cycle a combination of
large and small pulses occur closely spaced over
an area near the peak.
Figure 4.15 Time domain results under Fire conditions looking
at the positive half cycle.
Figure 4.16 Time domain results under Fire conditions looking

4.3.3.2 SMOKE
(Time domain. Smoke) 1
Table 4.9 Environmental results under Smoke conditions.
Observations: During the positive half cycle a combination of

large and small close spaced intermittent noise
pulses occur around and near the peak. These
large and small pulses occur spaced over an area
near the peak. This phenomenon was not present
during all the tests. This could be explained by
the deterioration of the conductor under test. A
brown coloured "gooW covers the conductor with ash
particles stuck to 'it.
Figure 4.17 Time domain results under Smoke conditions looking
at the positive half cycle.
Figure 4.18 Time domain results under Smoke conditions looking

4.3.3.3 FIRE AND SMOKE
(Time domain, Fire and Smoke)
Table 4,10 Environmental results under Fire and Smoke

conditions.
Observations: During the positive half cycle a combination of

large and small close spaced intermittent noise
pulses occur around and near the peak. These
large and small pulses occur spaced over an area
near the peak.
Note that the particle content with the same
opacity measurement is in the order of ten times
smaller than that detected during the smoke
conditions. The difference is due to the extensive
heat from the fire vaporising all the moisture
from the sample taken.
Figure 4.19 Time domain results under Fire and Smoke
conditions looking at the positive half cycle.

conditions looking at the negative half cycle.
INSULATOR POLLUTION
The data obtained for the steam fog test can be seen in
figure 4.21. The samples are all taken during the same
pollution test run. The creapage length of the insulator is
calculated as 23 mm/kV. The ESDD (equivalent salt deposit
density) was determined as 0.4 mg/cm2.
Observations: Noise pulses mainly occur near the peak of the

positive half cycle. A burst of smaller pulses
leads up to a muc larger singular pulse.
The data obtained for the salt fog test can be seen in
figure 4.22. The samples are all taken during the same
i
pollution test run after the 20th minute. The creapage
length of the insulators are calculated as 22 mm/kV.
The following readings where taken:
- temperature of the test room, 20 degrees C

- conductivity of the salt solution, 128 mS/cm, which leads
to a salinity of approximately 112 kg/m3
- air pressure to the atomising nozzle, 700 kPa
- salt solution flowrate to the atomising nozzle, 0.5
litrelminute
- average surface leakage current, 0.7 ampere.
Observations: Noise pulses occur near both the positive and

negative peaks of the cycle. A burst of
smaller pulses leads up to a much larger
singular pulse. The amplitude of the noise
pulses are similar in the positive and
negative half cycles.
Figure 4.21 Time domain results for insulator pollution under
steam fog conditions looking at the complete 50 Hz
cycle.
Figure 4.22 Time domain results for insulator pollution under

salt fog conditions looking at the complete 50 Hz
cycle.
5 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter a short analysis and discussion of the

experimental results obtained in chapter 4 is presented.
Quasi-peak results are discussed in section 5.2 and a

comparison is done between results as obtain at Stellenbosch
to those at the corona test cage at Megawatt Park Eskom for a
single "Harew conductor under rain conditions.
The Power Spectral density of the captured Time domain results

are determined and discussed in section '5.3.
In section 5.4, a possible identification technique "Cluster

analysis" is presented which is proved to work well under
laboratory conditions.
Note that all the sugar cane fire tests are done far below the
flashover point for these conditions. This is done to ensure
that the measuring equipment is not damaged due to the
occurrence of a flashover. Closer to flashover point
conditions, higher noise values can be expected.
5.2 QUASI PEAK
The conductor noise under normal working conditions has a

starting gradient of 24 kV/cm and is in the order of 20 to 30
dB(pVr25R). It gradually climbs to the order of 40 to 50
dB(pV925n) at a gradient of 36 kV/cm. The noise level increases
radically when the conductor or supporting insulators are
polluted, producing intermittent positive pulses of high
magnitude. It is therefore important to clean the setup with
methylated spirits after each run.
The noise under various rain rates remain constant, and is in
the order of 30 to 40 dB(pV,25n) at a gradient of 12 kV/cm. It
gradually climbs to the order of 60 to 70 dB(pV,25n) at a
gradient of 36 kV/cm.
The noise produced by rain was found to be a good reference,

due to its repeatability. These results could also be used to
compare the corona cage results at Stellenbosch to those
obtained at Megawatt Park (the comparison method is discussed
later in this section).
The noise under fire (hot air) conditions has a starting

gradient of 21 kV/cm and is in the order of 15 to 20
dB(pV,25n). It is fairly intermittent at this point. It
suddenly climbs to the order of 60 to 70 dB(pV,2521) at a
gradient of 24 kV/cm where it stabilises before gradually
climbing to the order of 70 to 80 dB(pV,25n) at a gradient of
36 kV/cm.
The noise under smoke (50 deg C) conditions has a starting

dB (pV,25n) It is fairly intermittent at this point. It
gradually climbs to the order of 70 to 80 dB(pVf25n) at a
gradient of 36 kV/cm (the same order as fire). It was found
that the pollution left on the conductor after the completion
of the test caused a marked increase in the normal noise level.
After cleaning the conductor with methylated spirits the noise
level returned back to normal.
The noise under fire and smoke conditions has a starting

dB(pV,25R). It is fairly intermittent at this point. It
gradually climbs to the order of 70 to 80 dB(pVf 25n) at a
gradient of 36 kV/cm, the same order as that of fire or smoke
alone, It was found that the pollution left on the conductor
after the completion of the test caused a marked increase in
the normal noise level.
After cleaning the conductor with methylated spirits the noise
level did not return back to normal. The noise level only
returned back to normal when the conductor surface was cleaned
with water emery paper (could the conductor surface have been
damaged due to the high temperatures?).
From figures 5.1 and 5.2 below it is evident that:
- the interference is in the order of 20 dB(pV12513) above

normal in the presence of rain,
- the interference is in the order of 15 dB(pV125n) above rain
in the presence of a sugar cane fire,
- the 200 kHz results is 5 dB(pV,25n) higher than in the case
of the 500 kHz results.
Q - P E A K ~ I S P R ) v s CONDUCTOR GRADIENT
'N, R, F,'S and FS a t 2 0 0 kHz
+
Average N (abc)
-?E-
Average R (abc)
--Jt
Average F (abc)
-E-
Average S (abc)
-A7
Average FS (abc)
F i g u r e 5,1 Q-Peak r e s u l t s under Normal, R a i n , F i r e , Smoke and

F i r e & Smoke c o n d i t i o n s a t 200 kHz.
Q-PEAK(CISPR) v s CONDUCTOR GRADIENT

N, R, F, S and FS a t 5 0 0 kHz
+
Average N (abc)
+K+
Average R (abc)
*
Average F (abc)
-E-
Average S (abc)
-A7
Average FS (abc)
Figure 5.2 Q-Peak r e s u l t s under Normal, Rain, F i r e , Smoke and

F i r e & Smoke c o n d i t i o n s a t 500 kHz.
The Q-Peak data as presented in figures 5.1 and 5 . 2 can be
given in terms of the radio noise generation function
(discussed in section 2 . 4 . 4 ) .
Using the generation function
J? = i.-
2 a ~
C
. S m (l)
and the capacitance per meter between Corona cage and conductor
we find by substituting (2) into (1) that
The voltage measured at RIVl is given by
v, = i . 2
This leads us to the leakage current

Substituting (4) into (3) and taking logs on both sides gives
but
R,,, = 75 cm , ,X = 0.7125 cm ... (6)
substituting (6) into (5) gives
2010g(T) = 201og(-1v m + 75 1)
20log(ln( 0.7125
Z
thus
Now
Z = 25 ohm . . . (8)
substituting (8) into (7) gives
In order to compare the results obtained at Stellenbosch to

those at Megawatt Park, a total of 15.44 dB must be added to
the calculated Stellenbosch results (equation 9) due to the
following:
- the Q-Peak detector used at Stellenbosch was calibrated by

E1 and compared to the Q-Peak detector at the Corona test
cage at Megawatt Park, an instrumental error of 3 dB was
found, thus add 3 dB
- l dB has to be added for every 300 meters difference in
altitude1, thus add 5 dB,
- the cage geometry at Stellenbosch is incomplete, 2.00 m2 of
the complete cage area of 4.71 m2 is effectively used to
measure the noise signal, by using the formula
this leads to an addition of another 7.44 dB.
"erbal information obtained from Mr A C Britten, Eskom

160
The following graph compares the results obtained at Stellenbosch
to those at Megawatt Park for a single nHarew conductor under
rain conditions.

"Hare" conductor under rain at 500 kHz
Stellenbosch
Figure 5.3 A comparison between the Q-Peak results, under

rain conditions, obtained at Stellenbosch (US) to
those at Megawatt Park (EI).
From the above results it can be seen that the two corona cage
results (Stellenbosch and Megawatt Park) compare well and fall
within a few dB from each other.
5.3 POWER SPECTRAL DENSITY
To find the Power Spectral density, a typical noise pulse is

selected from the positive and negative half cycle Time domain
data (section 4.3). This is taken to represent the corona noise
pulses generated during a specific power line condition. The
selected noise pulse is buffered with zeros on both sides, thus
crudely windowing the data.
By looking at the Time domain results, it is difficult to

identify the frequency components of a noise signal. The signal
is thus converted to the frequency domain by applying a
discrete Fourier transform to the noise signal.
The Power Spectral density, a measurement of the energy at

various frequencies, is obtained by multiplying the discrete
Fourier transform of the noise signal with its complex
conjugate.
The above is obtained by applying the program as seen in

appendix F to the Time domain data in section 4.3 (using the
computer package Matlab 386). The results generated by the
program is given in figures 5.4 to 5.13 below. N o t e t h a t the
noise s i g n a l s c a p t u r e d a r e shown i n v e r t e d due t o the
o p e r a t i o n a l a m p l i f i e r s , i .e . p o s i t i v e g o i n g s i g n a l s s h o u l d be
n e g a t i v e g o i n g and v i c e v e r s a .
During all the Power Spectral density results, except those

done for insulator pollution, a peak exists at around 5 0 0 kHz.
This effect could be due to the presence of the 5 0 0 kHz
blocking filter in the circuit. The 5 0 0 kHz blocking filter is
left out of the circuit during the insulator pollution test
runs. The effect of this can be seen in figure 5.13.
Line traps exist on actual power line networks acting as

"blocking filters" at selected carrier frequencies, thus
similar effects could be present at those frequencies.
The noise signals measured during normal conductor conditions
were small in comparison to the other conditions and it is
therefore decided not to compute the Power Spectral density.
The Power Spectral density results seem to suggest that the

presence of a sugar cane fire could be detected in the
frequency range of 50 to 500 kHz. The most probable detection
frequency could be around 200 kHz. The response of the test
cage or powerline circuit should however be taken into account.
At this frequency the noise due to sugar cane fires are in the
order of 20 ~ B ( v ~higher
) than those during rain conditions.
The Power Spectral density results under insulator pollution

conditions form a peak round about 100 kHz and is orders of
magnitude larger than the results during all other
environmental conditions. These results are however for one
insulator string only and results should be applied
thoughtfully.
P o s l t v e cycle noise pulse (Raln)
0.0
0.6
0.4
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0 200 400 600 800 1000
N e g s r l v e cycle n o l s e pulse ( R a l n ]
0.05
0.04
0.02
0.01
*
-
0 0
>
-0.01
-0.02
-0.03
-0.04
-0.05
0 200 400 600 800 $000
Figure 5.4 Time domain results under Rain conditions, zooming

in on the positive and negative half cycle.
Power Spectral denslty or Posltlve cycle nolse pulse (Raln)
4 5 6
Froauency CH11
Power Spectral denslry of Negatlve cycle nolse pulse (Raln)

0 . OS
0.045
0.04
-
N
0.035
-c
"
0
>
,0 . 0 3
-
.-
C
0
g 0.025
-
EI
.L
d
0.02
a
Y1
g 0.015
P
0.01
0.005
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 E 9 10
Frequency (Hz) r 10"
Figure 5.5 Power Spectral density for Rain conditions,

positive and negative half cycle.
P o s l t v e c y c l e nolse p u l s e (Flre]
Negatlve c y c l e n o l s e p u l s e (FlreJ
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
-
*
0 0
-0.01
-0.02
-0.00
-0.04
-0.05
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Figure 5.6 Time domain results under Fire conditions, zooming

in on the positive and negative half cycle.
Power S p e c t r a l d e n s l t y o f P o s l t l v e c y c l e n o l s e p u l s e ( F l r e ]
0 i 2 3 4 5 6 7 B 9 10
Frequency (Hzl X jL15
Power S p e c t r a l d e n s l t y o r N e g a t l v e c y c l e n o l s e p u l s e ( F l r e ]
0.05 1
0
0 l 2 3 4 5 6 7 B 9 to
Frequency (Hzl X to"
Figure 5.7 Power Spectral density for Fire conditions,

P o s l t v e c y c l e n o l s e p u l s e (Smoke]
N e Q a t l v e c y c l e n o l s e p u l s e (Smoke]
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
-+
0 0
-0.01
-0.02
-0.03
-0.04
- 0 . OS
0 200 400 600 800 1000
PO I n t s
Figure 5.8 Time domain results under Smoke conditions,

zooming in on the positive and negative half
cycle.
Power S p e c t r a l d e n s l t y o f P o s l t l v e c y c l e n o l s e p u l s e (Smoke)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 B S 10
Frequency (Hz) X 10'
Power S p e c t r a l a e n s l L y o f N e g a t l v e c y c l e n o l s e p u l s e (Smoke)
0.05
0.045
0.04
-c 0 . 0 3 5
0
z
-
C
,0 . 0 3
-
U)
g 0.025
-
m
L
0.02
a
V)
t 0.015
.c
0.01
0.005
0
0 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 a 9 10
Frequency (Hz) X 10'
Figure 5.9 Power Spectral density for Smoke conditions,

P o s l t v e c y c l e n o l s e p u l s e [ F l r e & Smoke]
400 600
Polnts
N e g a t l v e c y c l e n o l s e p u l s e [ F l r e & Smoke)
0 . OS
400 600
Polnts

conditions, zooming in on the positive and
Power S p e c t r a l d e n s i t y o f P o s l t f v e c y c l e n o l o e p u l s e ( F l r e & Smoke)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10
Frequency ( H z ) X 10'
Power S p e c t r a l d o n s l t y o f N e g a t l v e c y c l e n o l s e p u l s s ( F l r e & Smoke)
o . 0 5 5
4 5 6
Frequency ( H z )
Figure 5.11 Power Spectral density for Fire and Smoke

conditions, positive and negative half cycle.
P o s l t v e c y c l e n o l s e p u l s e (Steam f o g t e s t )
BOO
Negatlve cycle nolse pulse ( s a l t fog t e s t )

1
0.0
0.8
0.4
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.0
-1
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Figure 5.12 Time domain results for polluted insulators under

steam and salt fog test conditions, zooming in on
the data.
F r e s u e n c y (HI) X 10'
Power S p e c t r a l d e n s i t y o f N e p o t l v e c y c l e noise p u l s e ( S a l t fop t e s t ]

500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
900
so
0
0 l 2 3 4 5 6 7 E 9 10
Frequency ( H z ) X lol
Figure 5,13 Power Spectral density for polluted insulators

under steam and salt fog test conditions.
5.4 "CLUSTER ANALYSIS" IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUE
Looking at the Time domain results in chapter 4 (fig 5.11 to

5.20), a visual difference exists in the density of the noise
pulses occurring for the various conditions (Normal, Rain,
Fire, Smoke and Fire & Smoke) .
To quantify this, equations2
~(posdata=
) ( p o s d ata)
is applied to the positive and negative half cycle data points

respectively and then plotted on a two dimensional plane as
seen in figure 5.14. It is evident from this analysis that a
clear difference exists between the various conditions as
simulated in the laboratory.
The identification technique above can be refined and then

applied on affected power lines as discussed below:
sample for a full 50 Hz cycle the typical noise signals

under various power line conditions,
apply equations (10) above on the positive and negative half
cycle data points respectively,
determine the most probable centre point for each power line
condition by using the method of "Dynamic AggregationN (as
seen in appendix G)3 ,
determine the different areas of probability for each power
line condition using the above calculated centre points as
100 % probability,
This approach was first suggested by Mr D M Weber,

University of Stellenbosch.
Refer to item 31 of bibliography obtained from Mr R
Herman, University of Stellenbosch.
- the above should be done during the field studies and would
result in a grid or overlay which defines the most probable
areas where the various power line conditions could exist,
- with this information a detection system could be developed
to discriminate between the various power line conditions.
Positive vs Negative cycle Comparing

Normal, Rain, Fire, Smoke and FirekSmoke
lb 2b 30 4b 50 60
Positive half cycle (VoltA2)
NORMAL
Figure 5.14 Results of the identification technique used to

discriminate between Normal, Rain, Fire, Smoke and
Fire & Smoke under laboratory conditions.
Two possible approaches to the design of the detection system

can be followed:
- a static identification system, where the identification

parameters found during the field studies are hardwired into
the system and used for the rest of its lifetime.
- a more dynamic identification system, where the
identification parameters found during the field studies are
used as input to a semi artificial intelligent program which
upgrades its knowledge after every noise signal sampled,
thus dynamically changing with the power line.
6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
It is evident from the above chapters that the following main

objectives have been met:
- a literature study has been conducted on the ac corona

discharge phenomenon, placing emphasis on power lines subjected
to conditions such as heavy rain, polluted insulators, and
fires (chapter 2) ,
- to develop an experimental setup to simulate sugar cane fires,
heavy rain, and insulator pollution under controlled laboratory
conditions (chapter 3),
- to develop and install environmental monitoring and noise
measuring instrumentation (chapter 3),
- to take Quasi-Peak readings at 200 and 500 kHz respectively
under the various above mentioned conditions (chapter 4 ) ,
- to take Time domain readings under the mentioned conditions
(chapter 4) ,
- to investigate the difference between the noise patterns
generated by conductor corona due to heavy rain, polluted
insulators, and the fire itself (chapter 5).
Looking at the Quasi-peak results it is evident that the presence

of sugar cane fires causes a marked increase in conductor corona
noise, which is in the order of 15 dB(pV,25n) above the radio
interference under rain conditions. Note that the corona noise
at 200 kHz is in the order of 5 dB(pV,25fl) higher than that at
500 kHz (section 5.2) .
The positive half cycle discharge pulses of the Time domain
results are orders of magnitude larger than that of the negative
half cycle discharge pulses and would thus be easier to detect
(section 4.3)-
This could possibly cause problems when samplingthe noise signal
and would result in using different gains when sampling the
positive and negative half cycles.
From the Power Spectral density results it looks evident that for
the laboratory setup the presence of sugar cane fires could be
detected in the frequency range of 50 to 500 kHz (section 5.3).
The most probable detection frequency could be around 200 kHz,

where the noise measured is in the order of 20 ~ B ( v ~higher
) than
during rain conditions, which corresponds to results obtained
during Quasi-peak tests.
The Power Spectral density results under insulator pollution

conditions form a peak around 100 kHz and is orders of magnitude
larger than results during all the other environmental
conditions.
The noise due to heavy insulator pollution would thus mask out
all the other sources of power line corona noise. Cleaning the
insulators would solve this problem (could be a good way of
warning when cleaning has to commence).
Looking at the results above, one would think of building a

detection system monitoring power lines at 100 and 200 kHz
respectively. This will signal the presence of sugar cane fires
when the noise level reaches beyond a predetermined value,
assuming that the insulator pollution level is kept low enough.
When insulator pollution reaches an undesired level, a warning
signal will be given.
The question is whether the above would work in the real world
of power line carrier noise?
Work on this subject has been done in Natal and it was found that
insulator pollution could be detected [l]. However, interpreting
their results representing the noise due to other environmental
conditions was found to be suspect as these were not sufficiently
monitored and documented.
A different approach to the problem of discriminating between the

various noise sources can be taken by using an identification
technique called fvClusteranalysism as discussed in section 5 . 4 .
This technique has proven to work well under laboratory
conditions, but the question is how it will perform on power
lines affected by sugar cane fires.
The final solution to the problem of detecting the presence of

sugar cane fires underneath power lines will be found in the
field studies. Each affected power line will have to be treated
as a separate entity, with its own characteristics.
These characteristics will have to be determined duringthe field

studies, placing emphasis on the corona noise produced due to:
- normal fair weather conditions,

- various levels of insulator pollution at different positions
on the power line,
- mist and saltfog conditions where applicable,
- rain occurring at various distances on the power line and the
lengths covered,
- sand or duststorms where applicable,
- sugar cane fires,
- sugar cane fire smoke,
- veld fires where applicable.
It is suggested that the final detection system used should
include the following features:
- be usable on any affected power line,

- be able to sample the noise signal at the correct sampling
frequency,
- be programable sothat various Signal Processingtechniques can
be applied to the sampled signal,
- have sufficient memory,
- have an output stating the power line conditions,
- be a stand alone unit fully PC interfaceable.
The following recommendations are made:
- an electron microscope study should be done on the size of the

sugar cane fire smoke particles so that the theory, as
discussed in section 2.3.3, could be applied to further the
understanding of the effect of the particles on the corona
phenomenon (see preliminary photo results in appendix H),
.-. an extensive field study on affected power lines should be
conducted, making sure the environmental and line conditions
present are well monitored, The noise signals sampled should
be done using suitable instrumentation,
- build a "Cluster analysisH identification system and install
it on a power line affected by sugar cane fires to find out
whether it works in practice,
- the Transputer controlled data capturing system, as designed
by the University of Stellenbosch, could be used during the
field studies. This instrument has all the properties needed
for a final detection system,
REFERENCES
Cowan, P M, et all, nosugarCane Fire Induced Transmission

Line ~lashovers~~
",Electron, Volume 8 No 1, SAIEE, January
1991.
Cobine, J D, 'tGaseousConductors", Dover Publications, 1958.

Peek, F W, loDielectric Phenomena in High Voltage
Engineering8I,McGraw-Hill, 1929.
Loeb, L B, "Electrical Coronas - Their Basic Physical
Mechanismt8
', California Press, 1963.
Meek, J M and Craggs, J D, "Electrical Breakdown of Gasest1,
John Wiley & Sons, 1978.
Nasser, E, ltFundementalsof Gaseous Ionization & Plasma
electronic^^^, Wiley-Interscience, 1971.
,
Raether, H, "Electron Avalanches and Breakdown in Gases8*
Butterworths, 1964.
Heyman, F G, 9tCoronaon Wires in Airn, The Transactions of
the SAIEE, November 1965.
Heyman, F G, "Corona on Conductor BundlesN, The Transactions
of the SAIEE, November 1966.
Gary, C and Moreau, M, "L'Effet de Couronne en Tension
Alternati~e~~,
Eyrolles, 1976.
Cunliffe, C 3, "Laboratory Investigations into the Radio
Interference Induced by Artificially Polluted 22 kV
Distribution Line Insulatorsw, M.Sc Thesis, University of
Cape Town, 1990.
University of Rome, IEEE/PES, Special Course, collection of
various papers by different authors, llCorona and Field
Effects of AC and DC High Voltage Transmission Linestt,
Istituto di Elttrotecnica, 1982.
Bird, J 0, "Engineering Sciencev1,Heinemann, 1987.
Beiser, A, nConcepts of Modern Physicsgv,
McGraw-Hill, 1983.
Davies, D A, "Waves, Atoms and SolidsH, Longman, 1986.
Kuffel, E and Zaengl, W S, ItHigh Voltage Engineering -
Fundementals", Pergamon Press, 1984.
Kind, D and Karner, H, "High Voltage Insulation Technology",
Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn, 1985.
18. Project U H V ,mTransmission Line Reference Book 345 kV and
abovegg,Electric Power Research Institute, 1979.
19. Oglesby, S and Nichols, G B, glElectrostaticPrecipitation!'
20, Sadurski, K, Eskom (EI) Report, "Lab Research Findings on

the Mechanism of Insulation Breakdownltf1989.
21, Davies, C N, "Aerosol Sciencew, Academic Press, 1966.
22. Bird, J T, "A Study of Transmission Line Outages due to Cane

Firesw, Bachelor of Engineering Thesis, University of
Queensland, Australia, 1978.
23. Gary, C H, "The Theory of the Excitation Function : A
Demonstration of its Physical Meaningw, Paper 71 TP 153-PWR.
24. Fonseca, J R , et all "Effects of Agricultural Fires on the
Performance of Overhead Transmission Lines", IEEE-PES Summer
Meeting, Paper 89 SM 791-5-PWRD, 1989.
25. Moreno, M, "Performance of External Insulation in the
l Presence of Flames due to Sugar Cane Burningw, CIGRE WG 33-
07/11, 1985.
26 Lanoie, R and Mercure, H P, "Influence of Forest Fires on

Power Line Insulationw, Sixth Internatial Symposium on High
Voltage Engineering, Paper 30.06, Mew Orleans, USA, 1989.
27. West, H J and MC Mullan, D W, "Fire Induced Flashover of EHV
Transmission line^'^, IEEE-PES Winter Meeting, Paper A 73047-
2, 1978.
28. IEC Publication 507, "Artificial Pollution Tests on HV

Insulators to be used on AC Systemsf1,1987.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. IEC Recommendation 815, "Guide for the Selection of

Insulators in Respect to Polluted Conditionsm, 1986.
2, IEC Publication 437, "Radio Interference Tests on HV
Insulatorsw, First Edition 1973.
3. Tompkins, A C, "The Design, Construction and Testing of a
Corona Cagew, Bachelor of Engineering Thesis, University of
Cape Town, 1986.
4. Britten, A C and Van der Westhuizen, C,"Eskomfs Corona Cage
as a Tool for Research into Corona Phenomena at High
Altitudesvf,Eskom.
5. Cowan, P M, Eskom (EI) Report, ItNatal Cane Fires
Transmission Line Induced Fault Researchtt,1989.
6. Kay, S M, "Modern Spectral Estimation Theory and
Applicationvv,Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
7. Soderstrom, T, "System Identificationw,Prentice Hall.
8. Moler, C, et all, "PC-MATLAB for MS-DOS Personal Computerst',
The Math Works, Inc, 1987.
9. Hilgarth, G, wHochspannungs-Techniktl, Teubner Struttgart,
1981.
10. ASTM Spesial Technical Publication 669, ItEngineering

Dielectrics Volume 1 Corona Measurements and
Interpretationuf,
Amirican Society for Testing and Materials,
1979.
11. Howatson, A M, "An Introduction to Gas Dischargestt,

Pergamon
Press, 1965,
12. Christophorou, L G, g8GaseousDielectrics IIIu, Pergamon
Press, 1982.
13. Growther, J A, "Ions Electrons and Ionizing Radiationtt,
Arnold, 1938,
14. Hirsh, M N and Oskam, H J, ttGaseousElectronics Volume 1
Electrical Dischargesw, Academic Press, 1978.
15. Gallagher T J and Pearmain, A J, "High Voltage Measurement
Testing and Designn, John Wiley & Sons, 1983.
16. Alston, L L, "High-Voltage ~echnology~~,
Oxford University
Press, 1968.
17. Wadhwa, C L, 8gElecricalPower Systems'~, Wiley Eastern
Limited, 1983.
18. Freeman, P J, "Electrical Power Transmission &
Distributionm, Harrap, 1974.
(
19. Jackson, J D, 18ClassicalElectrodynamicst1,John Wiley &

Sons, 1962.
20. Duffin, W J, "Electricity and Magnetism", McGraw-Hill, 1980.
21. Van Wagner, C E, "Fire Behaviour Mechanisms in a Red Pine
Plantation : Field and Laboratory Evidencett,U.S. Dept of
Agriculture, 1968.
22, Heyman, F G, Class Notes, ggElectrieseOntlading in Gassegv,
University of Pretoria.
23. Van der Merwe, G J, B Sc thesis, "WS Korona~erliese~~,
University of Stellenbosch.
24, Dettmer, R, 8tOccamand the Transputer"",Electronics & Power,
April, 1985.
25, Harley, R G, et all, "Transputers and Parallel Processing :
Applications to controltf,Electron, October, 1990.
26, Karlovitz, B, IgFlames Augmented by Electrical Powerm,
Combustion and Explosives Research, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
27. Gary, C H and Moreau, M, "Predetermination of the Radio-
Interference Level of High Voltage Transmision Lines - Part
I Preditermination of the Excitation FunctionN, Paper 71 TP
661-PWR.
28. Gary, C H and Moreau, M, "Predetermination of the Radio-
Interference Level of High Voltage Transmision Lines - Part
I1 Field Calculating Methodw, Paper 71 TP 662-PWR.
29. Newell, H H, et all, "Corona and RI Caused by Particles On
or Near EHV Conductors : I1 - Foul Weatherw, IEEE
Transactions On Power Apparatus and Systems, Volume Pas-87,
No 4, April 1968.
30. Looms, J S T, mInsulators for High Voltages'~, Peter
Peregrinus Ltd.
31. Colucci, E, et all, 8tImprovementsin Enells statistical
methods for load evaluationm, Enel - Italy.
APPENDIX A: ( 5 0 to 500 kHz) BANDPASS FILTER CIRCUIT
APPENDIX B: OPACITY METER C I R C U I T
TRANSMITTER
RECEIVER
POWER SUPPLY
L
V.
APPENDIX C: METHODS USED TO CALCULATE AND MEASURE THE
CAPACITANCES IN FIGURE 3.9 (PAGE 110)
The methods used to measure and calculate the capacitances are

described below using the symbols for the capacitances as seen
in figure 3.15 page 118,
The capacitances Cerl, Cer2 and Cci can be calculated using

equation 75 page 75 where the capacitance of the corona cage
Cerl and Cer2 has an effective length of 0.5 meters thus
Cerl = Cer2 = 12 10-l2 0.5 = 6 pf
and Cci has an effective length of 1 meter and thus leads to

a capacitance of
C c i = 12 pf
Note that the supply and blocking filter circuit is

disconnected for all the capacitance measurements.
The first capacitance measurement is done between the conductor

in the centre of the corona test cage to ground and is used to
calculate the capacitances Csl and Cs2. The capacitance Cco is
shorted out by grounding the centre cylinder of the corona test
cage. A value of 112 pf is measured.
The capacitance between the centre cylinder and the two outer
endrings of the corona test cage is taken to be negligible.
Using the above measured value and the calculated values of
Cerl, Cer2 and Cci the values of Csl and Cs2 are calculated as
The next capacitance measurement is done between the center

cylinder of the corona test cage to ground and is used to
calculate the capacitance Cco. A value of 351 pf is measured.
Using the measured value and the calculated values of Cerl,
Cer2, Cci, Csl and Cs2 the value of Cco is calculated as
APPENDIX D: (50 Hz) LEAKAGE CURRENT CANCELLING CIRCUIT
SIGNAL 1 F I N E G A I N ADJUST
(SOH2 + SIGNAL) FOR T O T A L AV = l 0
R7
COARSE N U L L I N G
I
SIGNAL 2 & VRI
( 5 0 H z ONLY)
10 TURN P O T
F I N E NULLING
10 TURN P O T
' l> 5 0 H z OF SIGNALS 1 AND 2 '

I MUST B E I N PHASE I
1 2) S I G N A L 2 H U S T B E BIGGER
THAN SIGNAL 1
I
L------------A
APPENDIX E: EQUIPOTENTIAL PLOT OF THE ELECTRIC FIELD INSIDE
THE CORONA TEST CAGE
APPENDIX F: COMPUTER PROGRAM USED TO FIND THE POWER SPECTRAL
DENSITY OF THE CAPTURED TIME DOMAIN NOISE SIGNALS
% load the data from data file and assign to the variable y
load filename.mat;
y = filename;
% remove the dc offset, and take the gain (Z) of the RF

amplifier into consideration
Z = ... ;
y = (y - mean (y)) ./ (2 * 128);
% one noise pulse of the data is preselected by the point

values of A and B
A = ;.m.
B = ..a ;
y = y (A : B);
% the noise pulse between A and B is buffered on both sides

with zerofs and placed in a new variable yn
X = 0 : 1023;
yn = X * 0;
C = round ((102412) - (B A)/2) ; -
yn ( C : C + (B -A)) = y ;
% plot out the noise pulse

meta filename.met
axis ([0 1023 -1/Z l/Z]);
plot (yn);
title (ffilenamef);
xlable ( Toints ) ;
ylable ( Volt ) ;
mata;
! gpp filename.met Idhpgl;
% apply a discreet fourier transform on the data
Y = fft (yn);
% set up a frequency axis between 0 and 1 MHz

f = 3 * 10A6 * (0 : 511) / 1024;
% find the Power Spectral density of the data

Pyy = Y .* conj (U);
% plot out the Power Spectral density result

meta filename.met
axis ( C O 1 * 10A6 0 153);
plot (f , Pyy (1 : 512));
title ( filename') ;
xlable ('Frequency (Hz)I);
ylable ('Power Spectral density (VoltA2)');
mata;
! gpp filename.met /dhpgl;
clear;
APPENDIX G: METHOD OF @wDYNAMICAGGREGATIONn
To determine the most probable centre point for each power line
noise condition the method of "Dynamic Aggregationw is used.
Plot out the calculated data points for the various power
line conditions.
Set arbitrarily the values for the centres of the various

power line conditions using the plotted data.
Aggregate the various calculated data points to the nearest

centre.
Calculate the centres of each power line condition.
* Repeat the steps and until the centres shift

A P P E N D I X H: ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (SEM) PHOTOS TAKEN O F
SAMPLED P A R T I C L E S DURING A SUGAR CANE F I R E

A Study Into The Effect of Sugar Cane Fires On Ac Corona Noise PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Study Into The Effect of Sugar Cane Fires On Ac Corona Noise PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A STUDY INTO THE EFFECT

Thesis presented in fulfilment o f t h e requirements forthe degree

Study leader: Mr J P Holtzhausen

I the undersigned hereby declare that the work contained in this

WALLACE L VOSLOO 15 January 1992

In sugar cane producing areas, it is accepted practice to burn

In areas waar suikerriet gekweek word, is dit aanvaarde praktyk

I wish to express my sincere thanks to the following persons:

LITERATURE STUDY ON THEORETICAL ASPECTS AFFECTING

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE DISCHARGE PHENOMENA . ... 3

2.2 THE PHYSICS OF DISCHARGES . . . . . . . . ... 6

2.2.1 BASICS . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 6

2,2.1.1 CLASSICAL GAS LAWS . . . . ... 7

2,2.2 ACTIVE PROCESSES IN CORONA DISCHARGES 18

2.2.2.1 IONIZATION, EXCITATION BY

2,2,3 THEORY OF GAS DISCHARGE . .....

2.2.3.1 DISCHARGES IN A UNIFORM-FIELD AIR

2.2.3.3.1 TOWNSEND MECHANISM ....

2.2.3.4 CORONA DISCHARGE ONSET

2.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING DISCHARGES . . . . . . . .

2.3.3.4 AC CORONA AND AEROSOL PARTICLES

3.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM .......... 91

3.2 WHAT HAS TO BE SIMULATED ........... 92

3.2.1 NO FAIR WEATHER CONDITIONS *

3.2.2 RAIN ..............

3.3.3 SUGAR CANE FIRES ........

3.4.5 PRESSURE DIFFERENCE . . . . . . . . . 108

3.4.6 OPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

3.4.7 PARTICLE CONTENT . . . . . . . . . . 109

3.5 MEASURING CIRCUITS AND METHODS . . . . . . . . 110

3.5.1 AC SUPPLY CIRCUIT . . . . . . . . . . 111

3.5.2 BLOCKING FILTER . . . . . . . . . . . 111

3.5.3 DIRECT (RIV l a ) . . . . . . . . . . . 113

3.5.4 QUASI PEAK (RIV lb. c) . . . . . . . . 114

3.5.5 TIME DOMAIN (RIV 2 ) . . . . . . . . . 115

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

4.2.1 NORMAL FAIR WEATHER CONDITIONS . 131

4.2.2 RAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

4.2.3 SUGARCANEFIRES . . . . . . . . . . 135

4.2.3.1 FIRE (HOT AIR) . . . . . . . . 135

4.3.1 NORMAL FAIR WEATHER CONDITIONS .. 142

4.3.2 RAIN . . . .. .. .. 144

4.3.3 SUGAR CANE FIRES . . , ..... .. 146

4.3.3.1 FIRE (HOT AIR) . .. .. . 146

4.3.4 INSULATOR POLLUTION . . ..... .. 152

5 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS . 154

5.1 INTRODUCTION .........,....... 154

5.2 QUASIPEAK . . .... .. . 154

5.3 POWER SPECTRAL DENSITY . . , . . . . . . . . . 162

5.4 "CLUSTER ANALYSIS" IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUE . . 174

6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............ 176

REFERENCES , , ............ ........ , 180

BIBLIOGRAPHY , ....,....,........... 182

APPENDIX A: (50 to 500 kHz) BANDPASS FILTER CIRCUIT

APPENDIX B: OPACITY METER CIRCUIT

Mr Pat Naidoo (Electrical Engineer of Eskom Natal) estimates that

Field research [l] indicated that the presence of sugar cane

The research at Stellenbosch is part of an Eskom project,

The objective of this research is to simulate sugar cane fires

The ability to discriminate between these sources is intended to

- a comprehensive literature study and summary of all factors

- experimental methods developed and used,

- experimental results obtained,