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TECHNICAL BRIEFS
609 Improved Form of a Fracture Mechanics Based Failure Probability Model for Brittle Materials
Rentong Wang, Noriko Katsube, and Robert R. Seghi
613 The Tallest Two-Segment Column
C. Y. Wang
615 The Fault in the Stress Analysis of Pseudo-Stress Function Method
B. X. Xu and M. Z. Wang
617 Inaccuracy in the Detection of Molecules Using Two Microcantilever-Based Methods
Cheng Luo
620 Buckling Mode Localization in Restrained Columns Under Cyclic Loading
Edmundo Corona
623 Synthesis and Experimental Validation of a Delayed Reference Controller for Active Vibration Suppression in
Mechanical Systems
P. Gallina and A. Trevisani
ERRATA
628 Erratum: “Size-Dependent Eshelby’s Tensor for Embedded Nano-Inclusions Incorporating Surface/Interface
Energies” †Journal of Applied Mechanics, 2004, 71„5…, pp. 663–671‡
P. Sharma and S. Ganti
629 Erratum: “Analytical Solution of a Dynamic System Containing Fractional Derivative of Order One-Half by
Adomian Decomposition Method” †Journal of Applied Mechanics, 2005, 72„2…, pp. 290–295‡
S. Saha Ray and R. K. Bera
Journal of Applied Mechanics Copyright © 2005 by ASME JULY 2005, Vol. 72 / 461
ceramic FGM, the local response is effectively that of a graded r
plastic material for which an additional length scale corresponding r = G , = G , 共6兲
关e兴共n−1兲/n 关e兴共n−1兲/n
to the plastic zone size exists.
The goal of the present work is to investigate in detail the where e = 冑2ijij / 3 is the equivalent strain and the “stiffness”
spatial distribution of the displacements and stresses near the tip parameter
of a crack embedded in a plastic 共ductile兲 FGM. Of particular
2 o
interest are the development of higher-order terms, their depen- G= 共7兲
dence on material gradient and the interaction between the mate- 3 共␣o兲1/n
rial gradient length scale and the plastic zone size. Section 2 of is a combination of the various material parameters entering the
this paper presents the problem formulation. For mathematical constitutive relation Eq. 共2兲. In the present work, in order to keep
simplicity, a crack in an unbounded radially varying plastic FGM the problem mathematically tractable, we allow the material prop-
under mode 3 loading is considered. Despite the limited applica- erties to vary radially except for the hardening exponent n which
bility of a radial gradient and mode 3 loading, this particular prob- is taken to be constant. Therefore, the radially varying FGM can
lem allows us to study the competition between the plasticity and be generated by variations of the material parameters ␣, o, and
intrinsic gradient length scales in a tractable way. The leading o, and can be expressed collectively as a radial variation of the
term of the near-tip solution is derived in Sec. 3. Section 4 pre- modulus G defined in Eq. 共7兲, i.e., G = G共r兲. Using the constitutive
sents a solution for the second-order term for both the homoge-
equation 共6兲, the equilibrium relation Eq. 共1兲 can be written in
neous and graded plastic cases. A comparison of these two solu-
terms of the strains as
冋 册
tions allows us to investigate in Sec. 5 the relationship between
the two length scales involved in this problem. 1 1 r r
关nr2 + 2兴 + 共1 − n兲r + + 关r2 + n2兴
r r r r
2 Problem Formulation
A semi-infinite, stationary crack embedded in a functionally
+ n关r2 + 2兴
r
r
+ n关r2 + 2兴
r rG⬘
r G
再 冎
= 0, 共8兲
冉 冊
Amazigo 关9兴 using a hodograph transformation technique. We use
ij 3 e n−1
Sij here a different approach based on the following assumed sepa-
= ␣ 共2兲
o 2 o o rable form of the displacement field near the crack tip:
is used, where ␣ is a nondimensional amplification factor, n is the
hardening exponent, ij are the components of strain, and o is the
w共r, 兲
rP
⬇A
r
rP
冉冊 p+1
f共兲 as r → 0, 共11兲
strain at the initial yield strength o. In Eq. 共2兲, e denotes the von
Mises equivalent stress given by where the power p denotes the strain singularity and must be
greater than −1 to ensure a bounded displacement at the crack tip,
e = 冑 23 SijSij , 共3兲 while A is a nondimensional amplification factor. In Eq. 共11兲, r p
denotes the load-induced length scale 共plastic zone size兲 and is
where Sij are the components of the deviatoric stress tensor. In the used in this study to normalize all length parameters. An expres-
above equations, repeated indices imply summation and the indi- sion for r p based on the leading terms of the elastic and plastic
ces i and j range from 1 to 3. Gradation of the material into a asymptotic solutions is provided at the end of this section.
plastic FGM can be achieved by allowing a spatial variation in Combining Eqs. 共11兲, 共5兲, and 共8兲 leads to
any or all of ␣, n, o, and o.
In the simpler antiplane shear setting, the stress–strain relation r P r G⬘共r/rF兲
1 + 2 = 0, 共12兲
takes the form rF r P G共r/rF兲
=
o o 2
␣ 冋
r r 3 3共r2 + 2兲
2o
册 共n−1兲/2
,
where rF denotes the intrinsic material length scale associated
with the material gradient 共see Sec. 4.1兲, and 1 and 2 are given
by
=
o o 2
冋
3 3共r2 + 2兲
␣
2o
册 共n−1兲/2
, 共4兲
1 = 关n共p + 1兲2 f 2 + 共f ⬘兲2兴f ⬙ + 共p + 1兲关共p + n兲 + 共p + 1兲共1 − n兲兴
⫻共f ⬘兲2 f + 共p + n兲共p + 1兲3 f 3 ,
where r = rz and = z are the only nonzero components of the 2 = 关n共p + 1兲3 f 3 + n共p + 1兲共f ⬘兲2 f兴, 共13兲
strain tensor and are related to the out-of-plane displacement w by
with f ⬘ = df / d and f ⬙ = d f / d . In Eq. 共12兲, the term 1 would
2 2
共e兲elastic ⬇
K3
冑2r = 冑 J
r
, as r → 0, 共14兲 G⌳1共r,,n兲 + ⌳2共r,,n兲rG⬘ = 0, 共18兲
where ⌳1 and ⌳2 are differential operators that depend only on the
共 兲plastic ⬇
e o
冉
J
冑3 ␣ o o I n 冊 −p/n
p/n
r , as r → 0, 共15兲
angle 共Eqs. 共12兲 and 共13兲兲. Expressing G as
G = G0 + 共r兲, 共19兲
with ln denoting a known function of the exponent n 共Eq. 共3.25兲 where G0 is the material property at the crack tip 共with G0 ⬎ 0兲
and Fig. 2 in 关13兴兲. In Eq. 共14兲 and Eq. 共15兲, J denotes the value and 共0兲 = 0, the leading orders of the equilibrium equation are
of the J-integral 关14兴 recast as
J= 冕冉 ⌫
Wn1 − ij
u j
x1
冊
ni ds 共16兲
G0⌳1 = 0,
⬘共r兲
⌳1 + r ⌳ = 0. 共20兲
as the contour ⌫ is shrunk to the crack tip in the FGM case 关15兴. 共r兲 2
Equating the asymptotic expressions of Eqs. 共14兲 and 共15兲 yields A variable separable solution is possible in the graded case only
the following estimation of the plastic zone size: when
rP = 冉 冊
J 3
o o
共n+1兲/共n−1兲
共␣oIn兲2/共n−1兲 . 共17兲 r⬘共r兲
共r兲
= c ⇒ 共r兲 = G1
r
rF
冉冊 c
, 共21兲
G共r兲 = G0 + G1 冉冊 r
rF
+ ¯. 共22兲
冉冊 冉冊
Fig. 2 Variation with respect to n of the exponent of the first
w共r, 兲 r p+1
r q+1
„p, dotted curve… and second „q, symbols… asymptotic terms,
⬇A f共兲 + B g共兲 as r → 0, 共23兲
rP rP rP including the purely plastic and elastic-plastic solutions ob-
tained by †13‡
where A and B are nondimensional amplitude factors, p and q are
the exponents for the leading and second terms, respectively 共with
冉 冊冉 冊
q ⬎ p兲. Substituting Eq. 共23兲 into Eq. 共8兲 yields, for the two lead- c
ing orders, G1 rP
␥=c . 共27兲
G0 rF
Ar3p−11 = 0,
The parameter ␥ plays a critical role in this asymptotic study, as it
Br2p+q−13 = 0, 共24兲 allows us to quantify in a simple unified fashion the combined
effect of the nature, amplitude and extent of the material gradient
where the first equation is identical to that used to derive p and f, 共through the exponent c, the ratio G1 / G0, and the ratio rF / r P,
and respectively兲.
3 = 关n共p + 1兲2 f 2 + f ⬘2兴g⬙ + 2关n共p + 1兲共q + 1兲fg + f ⬘g⬘兴f ⬙ + 共1 − n兲 Three separate cases must be considered for the solution of Eq.
共26兲 based on the sign of .
⫻共p + 1兲f f ⬘共2q + 1兲g⬘ + 共1 − n兲关共p + 1兲fg⬘ + 共q + 1兲gf ⬘兴共2p Case (i)  ⬍ 0 共q ⬎ p + c兲:
+ 1兲f ⬘ + 兵共p + 1兲2 f 2 + nf ⬘2其q共q + 1兲g + 2兵共p + 1兲共q + 1兲fg Asymptotically, Eq. 共26兲 reduces to 2 = 0. Since 2 depends
only on f 关Eq. 共13兲兴, this would require f to make 1 and 2
+ nf ⬘g⬘其p共p + 1兲f + n兵共p + 1兲2 f 2 + f ⬘2其共q + 1兲g + 2n兵共p + 1兲 vanish simultaneously. Such a solution is not possible and no
⫻共q + 1兲fg + f ⬘g⬘其共p + 1兲f . 共25兲 separable solution can exist for the second term in this case.
Case (ii)  ⬎ 0 共q ⬍ p + c兲:
The eigenvalue problem for q and g共兲 is completed with the In this case, the coefficient of 2 does not contribute asymp-
boundary conditions 关g共0兲 = g⬘共兲 = 0兴 and a normalization condi- totically to the solution and hence the function g must satisfy
tion 关chosen here to be g⬘共0兲 = 1兴 and can be solved numerically, 3 = 0. The solution to the FGM case is thus identical to the ho-
leaving the amplitude B undetermined by this asymptotic analysis. mogeneous case described in Sec. 4.2 up to the second term 共i.e.,
The variation of q with respect to n 共for 1 艋 n 艋 10兲 is shown as q = qh兲. It is possible that the third-order term may be affected, but
open circles in Fig. 2, which also contains the elastic-plastic and this is beyond the scope of this work.
purely plastic solutions obtained by Aravas and Blazo 关13兴. As can Case (iii)  = 0 共q = c + p兲:
be seen in Fig. 2, the second asymptotic term is singular for n In this particular case, the FGM solution for the second-order
⬎ 3.5. The value of q obtained for the homogeneous case is de- term is different from the homogeneous one. Unlike in the homo-
noted by qh in the remainder of the paper. As discussed in the next geneous case where q was the solution of an eigenvalue problem,
section, qh plays a key role in the determination of the region of q is now fully determined by the values of the “material” expo-
validity of the asymptotic solution for the FGM case. nents n and c, as
4.3 FGM Case. Let us now turn our attention to the q = c + p, 共28兲
asymptotic solution for the mode 3 fracture problem in a radially
with p = −n / 共n + 1兲. This FGM case presents another distinguish-
varying FGM with properties described by Eq. 共19兲 and Eq. 共21兲.
We again seek solutions for the displacement field of the form of ing feature: the amplitude parameter B appearing in the second
term of the near-tip expansion Eq. 共23兲, which was left undeter-
Eq. 共23兲 with q ⬎ p. Substituting Eq. 共23兲 into Eq. 共8兲 and rewrit-
mined in the homogeneous case, is now fully determined. Only the
ing the boundary and normalization conditions, we obtain the fol-
amplitude of the first term 关denoted by A in Eq. 共23兲兴 is left
lowing boundary value problem for g:
undetermined by the analysis and can be related to the value of the
3 + m 冉冊 r
rP

2 = 0,
J-integral. As indicated earlier, this separable solution is only
valid for a limited range of c values: 0 ⬍ c ⬍ cmax = qh − p. Indeed,
when c exceeds cmax, we revert to case 共ii兲 discussed above, and
g共0兲 = g⬘共兲 = 0, g⬘共0兲 = 1, 共26兲 the second term of the asymptotic expansion in the FGM case is
given by that of the homogeneous problem. In that case, the gra-
where  = c − 共q − p兲, 2 and 3 have been defined in Eq. 共13兲 and dient may affect only the third or higher-order terms in the expan-
Eq. 共25兲, and m = ␥ A / B with sion. This result is consistent with the comments made earlier in
1
Corresponding author.
Contributed by the Applied Mechanics Division of THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF 2 Mechanical System With Delay
MECHANICAL ENGINEERS for publication in the ASME JOURNAL OF APPLIED MECHANICS.
Manuscript received by the Applied Mechanics Division, December 1, 2003; final A schematic of the turning process in three-dimensional 共3D兲
revision, October 29, 2004. Associate Editor: I. Mezic. Discussion on the paper space, and a 2D projection of the same on the x-y plane, are
should be addressed to the Editor, Professer Robert M. McMeeking, Journal of Ap- shown in Fig. 1. The derivation below is that of Stépán 关1兴. Intro-
plied Mechanics, Department of Mechanical and Environmental Engineering, Uni- duce a “long” discrete time delay 1 = 2 / ⍀, where ⍀ is the speed
versity of California - Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-5070, and will be
accepted until four months after final publication in the paper itself in the ASME of workpiece rotation in rad/ s. This is the time period of one
JOURNAL OF APPLIED MECHANICS. revolution. Also introduce a “short” continuous delay h = 2L / ⍀D,
Journal of Applied Mechanics Copyright © 2005 by ASME JULY 2005, Vol. 72 / 475
Fig. 1 Simple model for tool vibrations
冕
0
k1
ẍ共t兲 + 2nẋ共t兲 + 2nx共t兲 + W共兲x共t + 兲d
m −h
PROPOSITION 1. In the large roots of Eq. 共6兲, ␣ ⬍ 0 and ␣
= O共ln 兲.
冕
−1
k1 Proof. If, in the large roots, ␣ is not large 关i.e., is bounded or
− W共1 + 兲x共t + 兲d = 0, 共2兲 O共1兲兴 then Eq. 共8兲 gives the contradiction  = O共1兲. If ␣ is large
m −1−h
and positive, then Eq. 共7兲 gives the contradictory ␣ = o共1兲. There-
where n = 冑k / m is the natural angular frequency of the tool, fore, ␣ is large and negative. Then Eq. 共7兲 implies, in the
= c / 2冑mk is the damping ratio, k1 is the slope of the Fx versus f asymptotic limit, that cos  = 0, which gives sin  = ± 1. By Eq. 共8兲
curve2 at f = f 0, and W共兲 with 苸 关−h , 0兴, is the stress distribution we can show that, for integer N Ⰷ 1
function over the tool-chip contact region.
When W共兲 = ␦共兲, there is only the long discrete delay 1, and
on suitable rescaling of time, Stépán obtains
␣ ⬃ − ln 冉 冊
兩a兩
冉
and  ⬃ 2N +
sgn共a兲
2
. 冊 䊏
 − a e−␣sin  = 0. 共8兲
We assume a is nonzero and O共1兲 compared to 兩兩, and that 
艌 0 共− gives another solution兲.
2
Here f is the chip thickness, and Fx is the x component of the cutting force. Fig. 3 Regions considered in the complex plane
must let = −2. Then Eqs. 共12兲 and 共13兲, on dividing by 2 and ẋ共t兲 + a1x共t兲 + a2x共t − 1/冑2兲 + a3x共t − 1兲 + a4 x共t − s兲cos s ds
dropping smaller terms, give 0
a4␣ + a1␣2 − a12 + a1 + ␣3 − 3␣2 + ␣ = o共1兲, 共24兲  = 共2N − 1/2兲 + o共1兲 and ␣ = − ln  + ln兩a3兩 + o共1兲,
for large integer N. 䊏
a4 + 2a1␣ + 3␣2 − 3 +  = o共1兲. 共25兲 We now find two correction terms in a formal series. The pro-
In region 1, the largest term ␣3 is unbalanced in Eq. 共24兲. In cedure is somewhat more complicated than before.
The second largest terms in Eqs. 共22兲 and 共23兲 are of
region 2, the leading terms in Eqs. 共24兲 and 共25兲 give ␣3 ⬃ 3␣2 冑
and 3␣2 ⬃ 3, which have no nonzero solutions. O共−共1−1/ 2兲兲 compared to 3. This suggests a formal series in
冑
Now we drop the right half of region 3, as follows. By Lemma powers of N−共1−1/ 2兲. However, there are terms of O共−1兲 , O共−2兲,
1, Eqs. 共22兲 and 共23兲 hold in this region. Since ␣ ⬎ 0 in the right etc., whose powers are not integer multiples of 1 − 1 / 冑2, and so
冑 冑
half, we have 0 ⬍ e−␣ ⬍ e−␣/ 2 ⬍ 1. This leaves the largest term 3 the formal series should have mixed powers of N−共1−1/ 2兲 and N−1.
unbalanced in Eq. 共23兲. We therefore anticipate a series of the form
We next consider regions 4 and 5. Here, ␣ ⬍ 0 共and large兲, so
冑
e−␣ Ⰷ e−␣/ 2, which in turn is much greater than both ␣ and  as 1 2 11 12
 = 共2N + 1/2兲 + 共1−1/冑2兲
+ 2共1−1/冑2兲
+ ¯ + + 2 + ¯
well as algebraic powers thereof. Hence, retaining only the terms N N N N
containing e−␣ in Eqs. 共20兲 and 共21兲, we get
+ mixed powers.
a4 sin 1 cos  − a4␣ cos 1 cos  − a4 cos 1 sin  + a3␣2 cos  Note, however, that the first mixed power is of the form
+ 2a3␣ sin  − a32 cos  + a3 cos  = DST, 共26兲 1 1 1
and 冑2 ⫻ N Ⰶ N ,
N1−1/
a4␣ cos 1 sin  − a4 cos 1 cos  − a4 sin 1 sin  − a3␣2 sin  and so if we retain only the first two small corrections, then we
have the somewhat simpler expression
+ 2a3␣ cos  + a3 sin  − a3 sin  = DST.
2
共27兲
1 2
In region 4, the quadratic terms in ␣ and  dominate in Eqs. 共26兲  = 共2N + 1/2兲 + + + h.o.t. 共34兲
共1−1/冑2兲 2共1−1/冑2兲
and 共27兲, giving 共since a3 ⫽ 0兲 N N
− ␣2 sin  + 2␣ cos  + 2 sin  = DST, 共28兲 where “h.o.t.” stands for higher order terms. Note that 1 / 冑2
冑 冑
⬇ 0.7 and so 共roughly兲 N−共1−1/ 2兲 ⬇ N−0.3. Similarly, N−2共1−1/ 2兲
␣2cos  + 2␣ sin  − 2cos  = DST. 共29兲 ⬇ N−0.6 Ⰷ N−1Ⰷ “mixed powers.”
For analytical convenience, we take the leading order solution
Multiplying Eq. 共28兲 with sin , Eq. 共29兲 with cos , and subtract- for ␣ as ␣ = −ln  + z, where z Ⰶ ln  and express the correction z
ing, we find in a series as
e−␣/ 2sin共/冑2兲
冑
− − ae−␣sin  = 0. 共40兲
⑀
Fig. 5 Characteristic roots of Eq. „19… for a1 = a2 = a3 = a4 = 1 Remark 2. The above two equations each have three terms.
However, there are regimes of root magnitudes for which, in each
equation, two of the terms are much bigger than the third. Our
z1 z2 analytical search for roots will focus on these regimes. In what
z = ln共a3兲 + 共1−1/冑2兲
+ 2共1−1/冑2兲
+ h.o.t. 共35兲 follows, we adopt the following convention. If the mth and nth
N N terms, with m = 1,2,3 and n = 1,2,3, are negligible compared to the
Substituting ␣ in Eqs. 共22兲 and 共23兲 and dividing throughout by other terms in Eqs. 共39兲 and 共40兲, respectively, then we refer to it
3, we get as “Case 共m , n兲.” The large root asymptotics developed in the
冉冑 冊 冉 冊
previous section correspond to Case 共2,2兲.
 冑 冑2兲 ln  Remark 3. The leading order solution of Eq. 共19兲 given by Eq.
− 1 + a3e−zsin共兲 + a2sin e−z/ 2−共1−1/ +O = 0,
2  共33兲 also represents roots of Eq. 共38兲, under Case 共2,2兲. Substitut-
ing Eq. 共33兲 in Eq. 共40兲, the first and third terms turn out to be of
共36兲 冑
O共N兲 while the second term is of O共N1/ 2 / ⑀兲. Hence, the second
a3e−zcos共兲 + a2cos 冉冑 冊

2
冑
e−z/ 2−共1−1/
冑2兲
+O 冉 冊
ln 

= 0.
term is negligible for
冑
N Ⰷ N1/ 2/⑀, i.e., N Ⰷ ⑀−共2+
冑2兲
.
共37兲 Alternatively, the asymptotic expressions of Eqs. 共34兲 and 共35兲,
for the roots of Eq. 共19兲, are based on the correction term being
Substituting Eqs. 共34兲 and 共35兲 in Eqs. 共36兲 and 共37兲, followed by
expanding and collecting terms finally gives3 o共1兲. For Eq. 共38兲, viewed as a special case of Eq. 共19兲 共with a2
= 1 / ⑀兲, substitution of 1 found in Sec. 5 in the series solution for
1 = 2共−2+
冑2兲/2 共−2+冑2兲/2
a2a−1/
冑2
cos 冉
共4N + 1兲
冑 , 冊 , i.e., Eq. 共34兲 gives the first correction term to be
冉 冊
3
2 2 冑2兲/2 共−2+冑2兲/2 −1/冑2
2共−2+ a 共4N + 1兲
冋 冊册
.
冉
cos
共4N + 1兲 ⑀N 共1−1/冑2兲
2 冑2
2 = 2 2 2 2a22a−3 2共1 − 冑2兲sin
1 冑 冑 冑
8 冑2 , 冑
For the above to be o共1兲, we require N Ⰷ ⑀−共2+ 2兲, matching the
冉 冊
above.
冑2兲/2 共−2+冑2兲/2 冑2 共4N + 1兲 The asymptotics developed below are therefore for N smaller
z1 = 2共−2+ a2a−1/
3 sin
冑 , 2 2 than the above estimate. How much smaller is a somewhat tricky
issue as discussed later.
z2 = −
1
82
冉
2 2 2a22a−3 2共1 − 冑2兲cos
冑 冑 冑 共4N + 1兲
冑2 冉 冊冊 .
By remark 2, our analytical search for the roots will concentrate
on regimes where two of the three terms in each equation, i.e.,
Eqs. 共39兲 and 共40兲, are much larger than the third one. Accord-
Figure 5 shows some of the characteristic roots of Eq. 共19兲 ingly we have nine different possibilities, one of which, Case 共2,
obtained numerically using the Newton-Raphson method along 2兲, has been dealt with in the previous section. Here, we check the
with the asymptotic approximations, which are in good agree- remaining possibilities one by one for the existence of roots and
ment. obtain expressions for them.
Remark 1. The smaller characteristic roots of DDEs can be PROPOSITION 6. Case 共1,1兲 yields a set of solutions for Eqs. 共39兲
found using Padé approximants 共关24,25兴兲. These, along with the and 共40兲.
asymptotics above, can give all the roots. The procedure requires Proof. Equations 共39兲 and 共40兲 simplify to
arbitrary precision arithmetic 共in, e.g., MAPLE兲. See the Appendix.
e−␣/ 2cos共/冑2兲
冑
These can be found using the Galerkin projection technique 关26兴. = − ae−␣cos  + ST, 共41兲
⑀
e−␣/ 2sin共/冑2兲
6 Asymptotics on Coefficients 冑
In the above DDEs the term with the largest delay essentially = − ae−␣sin  + ST, 共42兲
⑀
determined the large roots. For DDEs with multiple delays, how-
ever, if the coefficients of delayed terms have disparate magni- where “ST” stands for an asymptotically smaller term. Squaring
Eqs. 共41兲 and 共42兲 and adding, in the asymptotic limit we get
冑
3
Our calculations were done using MAPLE 6 共Windows兲, which, for these irrational e − 2␣
= a2e−2␣ . 共43兲
powers, needs a little patience. We found it useful to do the expansion one term at a ⑀2
time. For each term, we divided by the 共known兲 largest surviving power of N, and
then asked for the limit as N → ⬁. Hence, to leading order we have
冋 冉 冑 冊册
We proceed to a correction term. We add corrections 1 and ␣1
冑 冑2兲  to the leading order solutions for  and ␣, i.e., in Eqs. 共44兲 and
2a−共1+ 2兲⑀−共2+ 1 + cos = 0. 共45兲, respectively. We substitute ␣ and  in Eqs. 共39兲 and 共40兲,
2+ 2
expand in a Taylor series about ␣1 = 1 = 0, drop quadratic and
which requires cos共 / 2 + 冑2兲 = −1, giving higher order terms, and solve for 1 and ␣1 to get
冑
⑀2+ 2a1+
冑2
兵共4N + 2兲 cos关共2 + 冑2兲共2N + 1兲兴 + 2 ln共a⑀兲sin关共2 + 冑2兲共2N + 1兲兴其
1 = ,
− 3 + 2冑2
冑
⑀2+ 2a1+
冑2
兵共4N + 2兲 sin关共2 + 冑2兲共2N + 1兲兴 − 2 ln共a⑀兲cos关共2 + 冑2兲共2N + 1兲兴其
␣1 = .
− 3 + 2冑2
sin2共/冑2兲
冑 冑2␣
Since we are interested in N Ⰶ ⑀−共2+ 2兲 for this case we find, self- e−
consistently, that 1 = o共1兲 and ␣1 = o共1兲. This concludes Case = a2e−2␣ + ST. 共49兲
⑀2
共1,1兲.
Remark 4. In the above, we established the range of  共or Also, Case 共2,1兲 implies for Eq. 共39兲 that cos共 / 冑2兲
equivalently N兲 over which the asymptotic expressions hold, i.e., = o共1兲, when sin2共 / 冑2兲 ⬃ 1. In that case, Eq. 共49兲 simpli-
 Ⰶ ⑀−共2+冑2兲. In what follows, such sharp estimates on  may not fies to Eq. 共43兲 which has Eq. 共44兲 as the leading order
always be easily obtainable. Sometimes, for simplicity, we will fix solution for ␣. Substituting Eq. 共44兲 for ␣ in Eq. 共47兲, we
 at some ⑀-independent range of magnitudes and take the limit as require in the asymptotic limit
⑀ → 0. Eventually, numerics will bear out the final analytical ap-
proximations.
LEMMA 2. If r is an irrational number and either sin = 0 or
cos = 0, then sin共r兲 ⫽ 0 and cos共r兲 ⫽ 0.
sin共/冑2兲 + sin  = 2 sin 冉 2 + 冑2
4
冊 冉
 cos
2 − 冑2
4
冊
 = 0,
Proof. sin = 0 requires = n, for some integer n. However, which contradicts our prior conclusion that cos共 / 冑2兲 = 0
sin共r兲 = 0 requires r = m, for some integer m. Simultaneous sat- in the asymptotic limit4 共by Lemma 2兲.
isfaction of both the above requirements imply, contradictorily,
that r = m / n. Similar contradictions arise for the other cases. 䊏 Thus, Case 共2,1兲 gives no roots. 䊏
PROPOSITION 7. Case 共2,1兲 can be eliminated. PROPOSITION 8. Cases 共3,1兲, 共1,2兲, and 共3,2兲 can also be elimi-
Proof. From Eqs. 共39兲 and 共40兲, we have nated.
Proof. The proof resembles that of Proposition 7 and is not
␣ = − ae−␣cos  + ST, 共46兲 given here to save space. 䊏
PROPOSITION 9. The three Cases 共m , 3兲 m = 1, 2, 3 lead to one
set of solutions for Eqs. 共39兲 and 共40兲.
e−␣/ 2sin共/冑2兲
冑
= − ae−␣sin  + ST. 共47兲 Proof.
⑀
1. For Case 共1,3兲, from Eqs. 共39兲 and 共40兲 we get
Squaring and adding, we get in the asymptotic limit
e−␣/ 2cos共/冑2兲
冑
sin2共/冑2兲
冑2␣
e− = − ae−␣cos  + ST, 共50兲
+ ␣2 = a2e−2␣ . 共48兲 ⑀
⑀2
e−␣/ 2sin共/冑2兲
There are three possibilities now: ␣ Ⰷ 1 , ␣ = O共1兲, and ␣ Ⰶ −1. 冑
= + ST. 共51兲
⑀
1. If ␣ Ⰷ 1, the right-hand side 共RHS兲 of Eq. 共48兲, i.e., a2e−2␣
= o共1兲. However, in the LHS, ␣2 Ⰷ 1 while the first term is Note that Case 共m , 3兲 implies that  Ⰷ ae−␣兩sin 兩. Accord-
positive, giving a contradiction. ingly, we have two subcases, in the asymptotic limit, viz.,
2. If ␣ = O共1兲, the first term remains unbalanced in Eq. 共48兲 sin  = 0 and sin  ⫽ 0.
unless sin2共 / 冑2兲 Ⰶ 1. However, Case 共2,1兲 implies for Eq.
共39兲 that cos2共 / 冑2兲 Ⰶ 1 as well, giving a contradiction be-
cause sin2共.兲 + cos2共.兲 = 1. 4
Note that we have considered  fixed as ⑀ → 0. An argument allowing  to grow
3. If ␣ Ⰶ −1, then ␣2 Ⰶ e−2␣ and Eq. 共48兲 simplifies to as ⑀ → 0 can be developed, but is trickier and avoided here.
Digits used 6 8 10
asymptotic limit, to
␣ ± ae−␣ = 0.
when cos共 / 冑2兲 = 0 giving Eqs. 共52兲 and 共53兲 as the solu-
tions again.
Fig. 6 Roots of Eqs. „39… and „40… for a = 1 and ⑀ = 0.05. Plus 3. For Case 共3,3兲, we get from Eqs. 共39兲 and 共40兲
signs: Newton-Raphson. Circles: asymptotic, Case „1,1…. Tri-
angles: asymptotic, Case „m , 3…. Rectangles: asymptotic, Case
e−␣/ 2cos共/冑2兲
冑
„2,2….
␣=− + ST, 共56兲
⑀
delay has a small coefficient兲, the large root asymptotics are useful Retaining terms up to p10, we obtain the Padé approximant of
only for extremely large roots. For such cases, determining the order 共5,5兲. We seek the zeroes of this approximant. The numera-
remaining roots using the Padé approximant is impractical and tor is of the form 兺k=0
5
ck pk, where c0 is
alternative asymptotic expansions have been developed. This
study provides practical insight into the location of characteristic 6 688 184 704 014 240 − 1 634 855 556 025 440冑6
+ 2 840 749 923 049 920冑2 − 3 855 543 089 257 440 冑3,
roots of DDEs on the complex plane, and may be useful for fur-
ther theoretical studies as well.
共A2兲
and the other coefficients are comparably lengthy. The first few
roots of the numerator polynomial give good approximations to
Table 2 First six roots of Eq. „5… for a = 1 the first few roots of Eq. 共A1兲. However, the accuracy of the Padé
roots increase with the digits of precision used in the floating
No. Padé approximant Newton-Raphson point arithmetic. Results for the smallest root of Eq. 共A1兲, which
1 is 1.044 643 69, are given in Table 1.
−0.3181+ 1.3372i −0.3181+ 1.3372i
2 In practice, to find several roots of a DDE, high order Padé
−2.0623+ 7.5886i −2.0623+ 7.5886i
3 −2.6532+ 13.9492i −2.6532+ 13.9492i
approximants need to be used. The numerator polynomial then
4 −3.0202+ 20.2465i −3.0202+ 20.2725i involves long/large coefficients. We therefore numerically evalu-
5 −3.2878+ 26.5805i −3.2878+ 26.5805i ate the coefficients of the Taylor series at the start, before Padé
6 −3.4997+ 32.8805i −3.4985+ 32.8807i approximants are calculated. Moreover, many floating point digits
are needed for accurate results.
For the three examples studied in this paper, we used 650 digits
Table 3 First six roots of Eq. „4… for p = 2 , = 0.1
of precision 共numerical inaccuracies were observed with our pre-
No. Padé approximant Newton-Raphson vious choice of 540 digits; no optimization was done on number
of digits兲 and took a Padé approximant of order either 共21, 21兲 or
1 −0.44008 −0.44008 共22, 22兲 depending on the number of real roots obtained. Results,
2 −0.5762+ 2.4326i −0.5762+ 2.4326i in Tables 2–4, show good agreement.
3 −3.7516+ 8.5961i −3.7516+ 8.5961i
4 −4.8189+ 15.095i −4.8190+ 15.095i
5 −5.4984+ 21.4961i −5.4984+ 21.4962i References
6 −6.0014+ 27.8552i −6.0014+ 27.8553i 关1兴 Stépán, G., 1997, “Delay Differential Equation Models for Machine Tool Chat-
ter,” Dynamics and Chaos in Manufacturing Processes, F. C. Moon, ed.,
Wiley, New York, pp. 165–191.
关2兴 Olgac, N., Elmali, H., Hosek, M., and Renzulli, M., 1997, “Active Vibration
Table 4 First six roots of Eq. „19… for a1 = a2 = a3 = a4 = 1 Control of Distributed Systems Using Delayed Resonator With Acceleration
Feedback,” ASME J. Dyn. Syst., Meas., Control, 119, pp. 380–389.
No. Padé approximant Newton-Raphson 关3兴 Santos, O., and Mondié, S., 2000, “Control Laws Involving Distributed Time
Delays: Robustness of Implementation,” Proc. Amer. Control Conf, Chicago,
1 −0.1639+ 2.4749i −0.1639+ 2.4749i IL, IEEE, Piscataway, NJ, pp. 2479–2480.
2 −2.3946+ 8.2369i −2.3946+ 8.2369i 关4兴 Insperger, T., and Stépán, G., 2000, “Remote Control of Periodic Robot Mo-
3 −2.8736+ 13.6232i −2.8736+ 13.6232i tion,” Proc. Thirteenth Sympos. on Theory and Practice of Robots and Ma-
4 nipulators, Zakopane, pp. 197–203.
−2.6442+ 20.2466i −2.6442+ 20.2466i 关5兴 Batzel, J. J., and Tran, H. T., 2000, “Stability of The Human Respiratory
5 −3.2404+ 27.0141i −3.2404+ 27.0141i Control System. I: Analysis of a Two-Dimensional Delay State-Space Model,”
6 −3.8715+ 32.8327i −3.8703+ 32.8338i J. Math. Biol. 41, pp. 45–79.
关6兴 Szydlowski, M., and Krawiec, A., 2001, “The Kaldor-Kalecki Model of Busi-
484 / Vol. 72, JULY 2005 Copyright © 2005 by ASME Transactions of the ASME
Fig. 3 „a… Composite element showing directional damage—
normal to stress direction. „b… Continuity distribution „solid
curve… in damaged state ⌿„n̄ , t… mapped onto unit circle.
f ijkl共n̄兲 = nin jnknl − 6 共␦ijnknl + ␦ikn jnl + ␦iln jnk + ␦ jkninl + ␦ jlnink
1
冕
space. These conditions are seen to be met in Eq. 共5兲 of 关9兴,
1 defining ⌽. In addition to an accompanying discussion in 关9兴, a
o共t兲 = ⌿共,t兲d
2 − related discussion on thermodynamic dissipativity is given in 关14兴.
The distribution of continuity ⌿共n̄共兲 , t兲 of a composite element
冕 冕
evolves in time. Its rate of change is obtained by differentiating
1 1
2C共t兲 = ⌿共,t兲cos 2d 2S共t兲 = ⌿共,t兲sin 2d 共4兲 as,
−
−
冕 冕
+ ˙ 4S共t兲sin 4 + ˙ 6C共t兲cos 6 + ˙ 6S共t兲sin 6 + ¯
1 1
4C共t兲 = ⌿共,t兲cos 4d 4S共t兲 = ⌿共,t兲sin 4d 共10兲
−
−
where, looking ahead to applications, we have extended the ex-
Although the frame indifferent representation 共1兲–共3兲 is gener- pansion to include terms in 6.
ally applicable, we adopt the simple Fourier series form 共4兲 and Differentiating 共5兲 and making use of the damage evolutionary
共5兲 in the remaining development and in subsequent applications. law 共7兲, we write
冕
A ⌬
3 Flow and Damage Evolutionary Laws ˙ o共t兲 = − d
2 −
⌿ 共,t兲
m
冕
关7,8,14兴, Binienda et al. 关9兴 and 关15兴 with appropriate modifica-
tions. Thus, A ⌬
˙ 2C共t兲 = − cos 2d
⌿ 共,t兲
m
˙ ij 3 p−1 ⌫ij 1 −
= ⌽ 共6兲
冕
˙ o 2 o op
A ⌬
˙ 2S共t兲 = − sin 2d
⌬ ⌿ 共,t兲
m
⌿̇共,t兲 = − A m 共7兲 −
⌿ 共,t兲
冕
˙ ij is the creep deformation rate, ⌽ and ⌫ij are as defined in 关9兴. A ⌬
o is a reference stress, ˙ o, p, A, , and m are material constants ˙ 4C共t兲 = − cos 4d 共11兲
−
⌿ 共,t兲
m
and ⌬ is the isochronous damage function 共defined below兲.
Note that the coupling in 共6兲 and 共7兲 is through a scalar o,
冕
which from the first of 共5兲 is seen to represent the average of A ⌬
˙ 4S共t兲 = − sin 4d
⌿共n̄共兲 , t兲 over the unit circle c. This is consistent with the ex- ⌿ 共,t兲
m
−
perimental results of Trampczynski et al. 关17兴, directed to aniso-
冕
tropic deformation and failure of metals, that suggest creep rate
may be more dependent on a measure of total damage 共or, for A ⌬
˙ 6C共t兲 = − cos 6d
example, its average o over c兲, than on its detailed directional −
⌿ 共,t兲
m
冕
the composites of interest here ultimately requires additional
experimentation. A ⌬
˙ 6S共t兲 = − sin 6d
If only the first term o is retained in the expansion 共4兲 then 共6兲 −
⌿ 共,t兲
m
and 共7兲 are identical to Eqs. 共2兲 and 共3兲 in 关9兴. Reduction to full
isotropy reduces 共6兲 and 共7兲 to the “⌽ − ⌬” forms introduced by Integration of 共10兲 and 共11兲 over the unit circle c and time t yields
Leckie and Hayhurst 关18兴 as a multiaxial generalization of the the current continuity distribution ⌿共n̄共兲 , t兲. In many structural
Rabotnov/Kachanov equations of continuum damage mechanics applications the stress components are referred to a global coor-
共CDM兲, cf. Rabotnov 关19兴. dinate system; these can be transformed readily to the local fiber
The isochronous damage function ⌬ is taken as coordinates as illustrated in the following applications.
冏 冏
we consider damage evolution under constant transverse stress. In
the coordinates of Fig. 2共b兲 the stress components are 22 = o 共the ˙ p
= 共14兲
reference stress兲 with 11 = 33 = 12 = 13 = 23 = 0. Using 共8兲 we ˙ TN o共t兲o 兩兩
have
as shown in 关8兴. ˙ TN is the creep rate for the undamaged material
N共兲 = 具22n2n2典 = o cos2共兲 and S共兲 = 0 共12兲 共o = 1兲 under the reference stress o. Taking = o and p = 6.5 in
From 共9兲 the isochronous damage function ⌬ is 共14兲 and integrating, we calculate the creep strain 共t兲 in 0 艋 t
艋 tF. This is plotted nondimensionally as / ˙ TNtF versus t / tF in
⌬共兲 = cos2共兲 共13兲 Fig. 4共e兲. We observe measurable acceleration of creep rate as
For the sake of this and subsequent calculations we chose the indicated by the ratio ˙ 共tF兲 / ˙ 共0兲 ⬇ 3.3. Thus, there is a theoretical
following values of the material parameters in the flow law 共6兲 correlation relating an increase in creep rate 共by about ⫻3兲, a
and damage evolutionary law 共7兲: A = 1, = 6, m = 4, and p = 6.5. corresponding decrease in o 共to ⬇0.8兲, and a loss of load carry-
These values are chosen for convenience and to match those de- ing capacity normal to the loading direction 共viz., Fig. 4共c兲兲.
termined experimentally for a model PMC in 关8,9兴. Whether this correlation exists in reality must be shown by ex-
The results are shown in Fig. 4. Figure 4共a兲 depicts the undam- periment 共both macroscopic and microscopic兲. A precise definition
aged state at t = 0 with the continuity distribution ⌿ = 1; Fig. 4共b兲 of failure is left for future study. Presently, we shall view elemen-
shows partial damage at a later time t ⬎ 0 and Fig. 4共c兲 is the tal failure as the calculated loss of load carrying capacity across
distribution at t = tF when the interfacial tangent planes normal to any interfacial tangent plane.
the loading direction 2 have totally lost load carrying capacity 共for In contrast to Fig. 4, Fig. 5 shows isotropic damage evolution as
reference in subsequent calculations tF will generally designate modeled in Binienda et al. 关9兴 or, equivalently, the present model
the time under constant tensile stress o at which failure occurs on reduced to a single term o in the expansion 共4兲. Again, the stress
initial damage caused by longitudinal shear. Fig. 10 Thin tube under tension/torsion reinforced with two
Figure 9 shows the result of a variation on the previous loading. fiber families ā and b̄ at ±. „a… Definition of coordinate axes
Here, after applying longitudinal shear for t = 50tF, a tensile stress „1,2,3…. „b… Definition of fiber coordinate axes „1⬘ , 2⬘ , 3⬘…. Fiber
22 = o is applied. The continuity distribution is identical to Fig. direction 1⬘. „c… Unit circle c viewing back along 1⬘ direction.
8共a兲 at t = 50tF. The final distribution after exposure to 22 = o is
shown in Fig. 9. In this case failure occurs in a time period t
⬇ 0.15tF following the stress change, only 15% of that corre-
冤 冥
sponding to Fig. 8共b兲. This illustrates the anisotropy induced, in
cos2 + sin 2 − sin 2 + cos 2 0
this case, by the initial longitudinal shear loading. What was origi- 2
nally a plane of isotropy 共i.e., the 2–3 plane兲 becomes anisotropic. ij⬘ = .
− sin 2 + cos 2 sin2 − sin 2 0
2
0 0 0
4.3 Tension/Torsion of Thin Tubes With Two Families of 共20兲
Fibers at ±. Here we consider thin-walled tubes reinforced by
two distinct families of fibers designated by the unit vectors ā and Viewing back along the 1⬘ axis 共the fiber direction兲 we observe
the unit circle c in Fig. 10共c兲. Its defining unit vector n̄ is
b̄ in Fig. 10共a兲; the fibers make angles ± with the tube axis. We
conjecture that each fiber family incurs damage as in the case of a n̄共兲 = 共0,cos ,sin 兲 共21兲
single fiber family, i.e., by the presence of tensile stress and lon- in 共1⬘ , 2⬘ , 3⬘兲 components.
gitudinal shear stress normal and parallel to their respective fiber- Returning to 共8兲, we have
matrix interfaces.
The tube is loaded by an axial force F and a torque T generating N共, 兲 = 具2⬘2⬘n2⬘n2⬘典 = 具 sin2 − sin 2典cos2 共22兲
the state of stress and
S共, 兲 = 兩1⬘2⬘n2⬘d1⬘兩 = − 冏
2
冏
sin 2 + cos 2 兩cos 兩 共23兲
冤 冥
0
where, again, all components are referred to the 共1⬘ , 2⬘ , 3⬘兲 sys-
ij = 0 0 共19兲 tem. Note that in 共23兲, d1⬘ ⬅ a1⬘ = 1 for + and d1⬘ ⬅ b1⬘ = 1 for
0 0 0 −. The damage function ⌬共N , S兲 is obtained by introducing 共22兲
and 共23兲 into 共9兲, thus
at a typical wall element. The components 共19兲 refer to the coor-
dinate system 共1,2,3兲 in Fig. 10共a兲.
⌬共, 兲 =
1
o
冋
冏
具 sin2 − sin 2典cos2 + ␣ − sin 2
2
冏 册
We adopt an additional fiber related coordinate system
共1⬘ , 2⬘ , 3⬘兲 as in Fig. 10共b兲 that is formed by rotation of ± about + cos 2 兩cos 兩 共24兲
the 3 axis. The 1⬘ axis coincides with the fiber direction; it aligns
with the ā fibers under rotation and with the b̄ fibers under 共24兲 holds independently for each fiber family; ā with + and b̄
rotation −. The stress components referred to the 共1⬘ , 2⬘ , 3⬘兲 with −.
system are In applications, the independent continuity distributions
⌿A共 , t兲 and ⌿B共 , t兲 evolve according to 共4兲–共11兲 with 共24兲. Each Fig. 12 ⌿̄o versus t / tF. Dotted curve relates to continuity dis-
distribution has a damage evolutionary equation identical to 共7兲. tributions of Fig. 11; solid curve relates to continuity distribu-
Referring to 共4兲, the lead terms in each of the expansions ⌿A共 , t兲 tions of Fig. 14.
and ⌿B共 , t兲 are oA共t兲 and oB共t兲. From 共5兲 these represent the
current averages of the distributions over their respective unit
circles c. For an arbitrary composite volume V, we consider the distributions at failure 共t ⬇ 1.9tF兲 are given in Fig. 14. Whereas the
volume average b̄ family has failed, the ā fibers remain partially damaged as in
⌿̄o共t兲 =
1
V 冉冕
VA
oA共t兲dV + 冕
VB
oB共t兲dV 冊 共25兲
Fig. 13.
The time variation of the deformation/damage coupling quan-
tity ⌿̄o共t兲 is shown in Fig. 12 共solid curve兲. Its value is ⌿̄o
Applying 共25兲 to a homogeneous 共continuum兲 element in which ⬇ 0.95 at the stress change 共t = 0.9tF兲 and ⌿̄o ⬇ 0.86 at failure 共t
VA = VB = V / 2, we have ⬇ 1.9tF兲.
We are interested in the shear strain in the tube over 0 艋 t
⌿̄o共t兲 = 2 共oA共t兲 + oB共t兲兲
1
共26兲
艋 1.9tF. In particular, our interest is in the calculated acceleration
The average 共26兲 replaces o共t兲 as the coupling variable in a flow
law analogous to 共6兲 for the two-fiber-family representation, cf.,
Robinson 关16兴.
We are now in a position to calculate the damage response of
thin-walled tubes with ± fibers to a general tension/torsion load-
ing using 共4兲–共11兲 with 共24兲. However, we shall consider only a
special case that relates to experiments proposed in 关9兴. We con-
sider a tube with fiber directions = ± / 4 共±45° 兲 under forward
and reverse torsional 共shear兲 loading, viz., 共 , 兲 = 共0 , ± 兲.
First, we consider a tube subjected to positive torque T produc-
ing a state of shear stress ⬅ 12 = o; with 11 = 22 = 33 = 13
= 23 = 0. These are components relative to the 共1,2,3兲 axes in Fig.
10共a兲. The damage distributions at failure 共t ⬇ tF兲 are calculated
using 共4兲–共11兲 with 共24兲 and are shown in Fig. 11 for each of the
fiber families. The ā fibers remain undamaged while the b̄ fibers
show a loss of load carrying capacity on interfacial planes normal Fig. 13 Damage of tube under reversed twist history. Continu-
to their associated 2⬘ direction. The failure time tF is consistent ity distributions for both fiber families „solid curves… at t
with earlier results in that the b̄ fibers experience a transverse = 0.9tF, under negative twist „ = −o… just prior to twist reversal.
tensile traction o; the ā fibers have zero transverse traction. As
identified earlier, the coupling term in the flow law for two fami-
lies of fibers 共cf. Robinson 关16兴兲 is ⌿̄o共t兲 in 共26兲. The time varia-
tion of ⌿̄o共t兲 in this application is shown as the dotted curve in
Fig. 12; it is seen that ⌿̄o ⬇ 0.91 at t = tF.
Next we consider a stress history where a tube is subjected to a
negative torque −T prior to the application of positive torque T as
considered above. The state of shear stress under the negative
twist is = −o. This is held for a selected time t = 0.9tF after
which the shear stress is changed to = o. The partial damage
distributions at the stress change 共t = 0.9tF兲 for both fiber families
are shown in Fig. 13; the b̄ fibers are yet undamaged. Following
the stress change, failure is calculated to occur at t ⬇ 1.9tF when
Fig. 14 Damage of tube under reversed twist history. Continu-
the load carrying capacity of the b̄ fiber family becomes exhausted ity distributions for both fiber families „solid curves… at failure,
across planes normal to their 2⬘ direction. The final continuity after final positive twist „ = o…. Failure time is t É 1.9tF.
冏 冏
关17兴 may be required to justify coupling in 共6兲 and 共7兲 being based
␥˙ p
solely on the leading scalar term o in the expansion 共1兲 共or 共4兲兲.
= 共27兲
␥˙ o ⌿̄o共t兲o 兩兩 Experiments of this kind are under definition by the authors. If
experimental verification of a scalar coupling in 共6兲 and 共7兲 were
where ␥˙ o denotes the shear rate for the undamaged 共±45 deg two- not established, the same general representation holds but at the
family兲 composite element with ⌿̄o = 1 and = ± o. expense of considerable complexity.
Taking = ± o and p = 6.5, 共27兲 is integrated to determine ␥共t兲 The specification of a general “failure” criterion for an aniso-
in 0 艋 t 艋 1.9tF. This is plotted nondimensionally in Fig. 15 as tropically damaged composite element is not straightforward. In
␥ / ␥˙ otF versus t / tF. Negative shear strain accumulates prior to the terms of model development and verification, correlation with
stress change at t = 0.9tF, it then reverses and accelerates as failure micro-structural examination is critical, however, a macroscopic
approaches. The extent of acceleration is characterized by the ra- failure criterion is needed in structural applications, e.g., should
tio ␥˙ 共1.9tF兲 / ␥˙ 共0.9tF兲 ⬇ 2.4. structural failure be based on total loss of load carrying capacity
Here again, a hypothetical correlation exists relating the accel- in any orientation, on some average measure over the unit circle c,
on detection or calculation of accelerated creep rate, etc.? This
eration of creep rate 共by a factor of 2–3兲, a decrease of ⌿̄o 共to topic is left for future study.
⬇0.86兲 and a total loss of carrying capacity on interfacial planes
normal to the loading direction. As indicated earlier, verification
of this correlation in a real composite material needs to be estab- Acknowledgment
lished by experiment. The application considered here involving This work is based heavily on the research of the late Professor
reversed twisting of a tubular specimen having fibers at ±45 deg E. Turan Onat. The writers respectfully dedicate this publication
provides a useful vehicle for experimental verification. to the memory of Professor Onat. The writers acknowledge earlier
Consider experiments of this kind generating a shear strain-time support on this subject by the National Science Foundation under
response as in Fig. 15. Loading continues until the creep rate is Grant No. 0001634
observed to increase by ⬇2 – 3 times. The “failure” time is noted
and the specimen is unloaded, dissected and examined microstruc-
turally. The proposed model infers that the b̄ fibers should appear References
critically damaged 共cf. Fig. 1共a兲兲 on interfacial planes normal to 关1兴 Grobstein, T. L., 1989, “The interface in tungsten fiber reinforced niobium
their associated 2⬘ 共in plane兲 direction. The ā fibers are expected metal matrix composites,” NASA TM-102122, National Aeronautics and
Space Administration, Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, OH.
to show lesser damage, cf. Fig. 14. A sequence of tests of this 关2兴 Grobstein, T. L., 1989, “Creep behavior of tungsten fiber reinforced niobium
kind, involving various degrees of creep rate acceleration, other metal matrix composites,” NASA TM-102307, National Aeronautics and
stress histories, etc., serve as a comprehensive assessment of the Space Administration, Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, OH.
present model. 关3兴 Shewmon, P. G., 1963, Diffusion in Solids, Material Science and Engineering
Series, McGraw–Hill, New York.
关4兴 Hull, D. and Rimmer, D. E., 1959, “The growth of grain boundary voids under
5 Summary and Conclusions stress,” Philos. Mag., 4, pp. 673–687.
关5兴 Chuang, T-J. and Rice, J. R., 1973, “The shape of intergranular creep cracks
A phenomenological creep damage model is formulated that growing by surface diffusion,” Acta Metall., 21共12兲, p. 1625.
allows for an anisotropic distribution of damage in composite ma- 关6兴 Cocks, A. C. F. and Ashby, M. F., 1982, “On creep fracture by void growth,”
Prog. Mater. Sci., 27, pp. 189–244.
terials having long or continuous fiber reinforcement. Faithful rep- 关7兴 Robinson, D. N., Binienda, W. K., and Miti-Kavuma, M., 1992, “Creep and
resentation of anisotropic damage distribution is important for ac- creep rupture of metallic composites,” J. Eng. Mech., 118共8兲, pp. 1646–1660.
curately predicting stress redistribution in damaging structures 关8兴 Robinson, D. N., Binienda, W. K., and Ruggles, M. B., 2003, “Creep of poly-
and thereby accurately estimating lifetime. An earlier constitutive mer matrix composites. I: Norton/Bailey creep law for transverse isotropy,” J.
Eng. Mech., 129, pp. 310–317.
model by the writers allowed for anisotropic damage growth rate 关9兴 Binienda, W. K., Robinson, D. N., and Ruggles, M. B., 2003, “Creep of poly-
but, resting on a scalar damage state variable, failed to account for mer matrix composites. II: Monkman-Grant failure relationship for transverse
anisotropic distributions of damage. Here, in effect, a vectorial isotropy,” J. Eng. Mech., 129, pp. 318–323.
468 / Vol. 72, JULY 2005 Copyright © 2005 by ASME Transactions of the ASME
case of thermoviscous fluids, particularly monoatomic gases, a ut = 共1 + 兲uzz + G + 2Nz , 共12兲
complicated mutual interaction between temperature and velocity
fields, particularly monoatomic 共see Müller and Ruggeri 关20兴, pp. 1
1–61兲. Thus, because of the linear nature of the problem presented Nt = Nzz , 共13兲
here, this work should be considered as only a first approximation
to a more complex problem.
ptt + pt = zz . 共14兲
2 Mathematical Analysis Where G is the Grashof number and  viscosity ratio
Consider the one-dimensional unsteady flow of a laminar, in- vg␣共w* − *0兲 vc p U20
compressible, micropolar fluid past a vertical flat plate in the xy G= , p= , C= ,
U30 v 2 c p
plane and occupy the space z ⬎ 0, with the z axis in the vertical
direction. The plate initially at rest and at constant temperature ⬁
which is the free stream temperature is moved with a velocity U20 2
= = C p, = . 共15兲
U0eit in its own plane along the z axis, and its temperature is v 2+
subjected to a periodic heating of the form 共w − ⬁兲eit, where The boundary conditions are
w ⫽ ⬁ is some constant. The basic equations of continuity, mo-
mentum, angular momentum and energy governing such a flow, N共0,t兲 − 2u共0,t兲
u共0,t兲 = eit, 共0,t兲 = eit, = ,
subject to the Boussinesq approximation, are z z2
*
vi,i = 0, 共2兲
u共⬁,t兲 = 0, 共⬁,t兲 = 0, N共⬁,t兲 = 0. 共16兲
v̇i* = − P,i* + 共 + r兲ⵜ2vi* − 关1 − ␣共* − ⬁* 兲兴g␦i1 + 2rN,i* + tki,k , To solve the nonlinear systems, 共12兲–共14兲 with the boundary con-
共3兲 dition 共16兲, We assume that
u共z,t兲 = U共z兲eit ,
j *N * = ␥ ⵜ 2N * , 共4兲
冑 冉冑 冊
tt* + t* = 共10兲
c p zz 共1 + 22兲 ⫿
r1,2 = P ,
Note that the term *tt
in Eq. 共10兲 is necessary to ensure finite 2
speed of propagation. We shall use the nondimensional quantities.
G共P2 − i共 1+ − P兲兲
1
v v * − *0 U20
z* = z, u* = U0u, t* = 2 t, = , N* = N. G1 + iG2 = ,
共1 + 兲关2 p24 + 2共 1+ − p兲 兴
1 2
U0 U0 w* − *0 v
共11兲
2共2 + 兲共 + iG兲
Then the governing Eqs. 共6兲, 共7兲, and 共10兲 for the flow, angular S1 + iS2 = . 共25兲
共1 − 兲
velocity and heat conduction, after suppressing the primes, be-
come From Eq. 共23兲, we find that
冏 冉 冊冏
共28兲
for G1 = 0 and G2 = G / . Also in the classical case for Newtonian
fluid 共 = 0, p = 1, and = 0兲 becomes a singular case and the so-
兩 ␦ *兩 =
1
m2
− 共G3 + G4兲
1
−
1
冉
m2 共r1 + ir2兲
1 1
− 共S3 + iS4兲 2 − 2
m2 m3
冊 .
lution for the velocity in the this case for p = 1 has to be obtained 共36兲
directly in the form
We can now calculate the skin-friction and heat transfer coeffi-
冉 共1 − i兲Gz
冊 冑/2 cients in terms of the Nusselt number at the wall of the plate:
冏 冏
u共z,t兲 = 1 + eit−共1+i兲z . 共29兲
2 冑2 u
w = = 兵− m + 共G1 + iG2兲关m − 共r1 + ir2兲兴 + 共s1 + is2兲共m
We notice that this is the same result as obtained by Puri and z z=0
Kythe 关5兴. The velocity field based on Fourier’s heat law is ob- − m1兲其exp共it兲, 共37兲
tained by setting  = 1 in the above expressions. However, taking
 = 1, is a singular case. The directly obtained singular solution for
the velocity field is given by
−共r1+ir2兲z
Nu−1 = − 冏 冏
z z=0
= 共r1 + ir2兲exp共it兲. 共38兲
u = 共z,t兲 = 兵e −m2z
− 共G3 + iG4兲共e −m2z
−e 兲 − 共S3 + iS4兲z共e −m2z
−e −m3z
兲其e −iwt
. 共30兲
Where 3 Discussion
The oscillatory nature of the flow generates waves in the both
m2 = 共1 + i兲冑, m3 = 共1 + i兲冑/3,
1
2 temperatures, velocity fields and the angular velocity. Although
these waves decay rapidly, it is of some interest to understand
their structure.
GP2 + iG共p − 0.5兲
G3 + iG4 =
2共2 p24 + 2共p − 0.5兲2兲 3.1 Wave Structure and Thermal Waves. In the temperature
field the behavior of the thermal waves can be obtained from the
共 − G/2兲 + i共 + G/2兲 solution 共24兲. From this solution we can conclude that the thermal
S3 + iS4 = waves exhibit one type of dispersive wave trains with a wave
4冑/3 front at z = t / r2, is the angular frequency, r1 the attenuation
For the singular case of p = 1, = 0,  = 1 Re u it is given by coefficient, and r2 is the wave number, then phase velocity V is
冉 冑 冊再 冉 冊
defined as
冑
z z冑
Re u = exp − 共1 − G3 − zS3兲cos t − + 共G4
2 2 V = /r2 = 共39兲
冉 冑 冊冎
,
2p共冑1 + 22 + 兲
z
+ zS4兲sin t − + exp共− zr1兲共G3cos共t − zr2兲 from Eq. 共25兲, one can solve for in terms of r2 and get
2
− G4sin共t − zr2兲 + exp共− z冑/3兲兵zS3cos共t − z冑/3兲
冑2r22
= 共40兲
冑p共p + 4r22兲 .
− zS4sin共t − z冑/3兲其. 共31兲
The group velocity is the velocity with which energy propagates
The standard definition of the displacement thickness ␦* is
and is defined by
␦* = 冕冉 冊 1−
u
Uf
dz, 共32兲 Vg =
d
=
2冑2共1 + 22兲
dr2 冑p共 + 冑1 + 22兲3/2
,
冕
⬁
兩 ␦ *兩 = udz, 共33兲 Vg = V ⇒ There is no dispersion 共41兲
0
Normal dispersion means that waves appear to emanate from the
this formula can also be obtained by imparting to the entire sys- front and disappear in the rear. Anomalous dispersion means that
tem a negative velocity equal to the velocity of the plate. Using waves appear to emanate from the rear and disappear in the front.
共−1兲G2关 p共1+兲−1兴
G2 + S2 1+ + 2共1 + 兲共2 + 兲G兵p224 − 2关1/共1 + 兲 − p兴2其
tan ⌿1 = = . 共42兲
G1 + S1 − 1 共 − 1兲G3 p + 2共1 + 兲共2 + 兲共p224 − 2共1/共1 + 兲 − p兲2兲
For p = 1, this reduces to the classical case 关⌿1 = 0 at 2 + 共G omitted because in this case m1 = m2 = 冑 / 2.
+ 4 / 2兲 − G / 2 = 0兴. The second wave train at the phase lag Equation 共29兲 which describes the classical case in Newtonian
zr2 − ⌿2, where fluid 共 = 0, P = 1, = 0兲, the above three waves trains coalesce
G2 p共1 + 兲 − 1 into one with a wave front at z = t冑2, and a phase lag of
tan ⌿2 = = . 共43兲 关共z / 冑2 − 兲 / 兴 for a fluid layer at a distance z from the plate,
G1 p共1 + 兲
where
In this case we note ⌿2 = 0 when P共1 + 兲 = 1,  ⫽ −1. The third
wave train at z = t冑共2 + 兲 and the phase lag of 共z冑 / 2 + 
Gz
tan = , 共45兲
− ⌿3兲, where Gz + 2冑2
共1 − 兲 + 2G
tan = . 共49兲
G共1 − 兲 − 2
The group velocity of this wave is given by
1
Vg = , 共50兲
2冑共2 + 兲
is very small, then the speed phase of the thermal waves is
huge, and this wave decays very fast.
3.4 Velocity Field. From Fig. 1 we can observe that as 
increases the momentum boundary layer thickens/increases. Also,
as  increases the Re u increases.
The same trend can be observed in Fig. 2 for 兩u兩. On the other
hand from this figure notice that as  increases, the peak velocity
Fig. 1 Behavior of Re u versus z for p = 1, = 1000, t = 0.1, decreases.
= 0.005, G = 5.0 and  = 0, 5, 13.5 and 50 The effect of on both Re u and 兩u兩 is found to be very small,
Fig. 3 Behavior of Re u versus z for p = 1.0, = 10.0, t = 0.1, Fig. 6 Behavior of 円u円 versus z for p = 1, = 1000, t = 0.10,
= 0.005,  = 0.2, and G = ± 5 = 0.005,  = 0.2 and G = ± 5
0.0 0.540 302 31 0.399 696 78 0.390 290 47 0.380 839 93 0.371 363 39 0.361 878 05 0.342 945 01 0.333 527 00 0.305 626 80
0.001 0.540 302 31 0.399 672 58 0.390 269 61 0.380 822 95 0.371 350 82 0.361 870 43 0.342 948 88 0.333 537 40 0.305 659 88
0.005 0.540 302 31 0.399 612 28 0.390 224 52 0.380 795 21 0.371 342 56 0.361 883 78 0.343 011 81 0.333 628 28 0.305 846 85
0.01 0.540 302 31 0.399 619 37 0.390 254 75 0.380 851 23 0.371 427 03 0.361 999 36 0.343 197 53 0.333 852 98 0.306 203 66
0.0 0.540 302 31 0.666 394 57 0.663 149 05 0.659 236 60 0.654 687 94 0.649 533 27 0.637 524 03 0.630 727 22 0.607 502 80
0.001 0.540 302 31 0.666 418 77 0.663 169 90 0.659 253 58 0.654 700 51 0.649 540 89 0.637 520 17 0.630 716 82 0.607 469 73
0.005 0.540 302 31 0.666 479 07 0.663 214 99 0.659 281 33 0.654 708 78 0.649 527 54 0.637 457 23 0.630 625 94 0.607 282 76
0.01 0.540 302 31 0.666 471 99 0.663 184 77 0.659 225 31 0.654 624 31 0.649 411 96 0.637 271 51 0.630 401 24 0.606 925 94
Fig. 8 Behavior of 円N円 versus z for p = 1, = 1000, t = 0.1, Fig. 10 Behavior of 円N円 versus z for p = 1, = 10, t = 0.1,
= 0.005, G = 5 and  = 2.5, 5, 13.5, and 50 = 0.005,  = 0.2, and G = ± 5
Acknowledgment
The authors are grateful to Prof. P. Puri, Dept. of Mathematics,
University of New Orleans, New Orleans, LA, for his comments
and valuable suggestions on the original manuscript. The authors
also greatly appreciate the Associate Editor Prof. Bassam Younis
Fig. 11 Behavior of Re N versus z for p = 1, = 1000, t = 0.1, for his encouragement and useful discussion during the revision of
= 0.005,  = 0.2, and G = ± 5 this paper.
References
关1兴 Maxwell, J. C., 1867, “On the Dynamical Theory of Gases,” Philos. Trans. R.
Soc. London, 157, pp. 49–88.
关2兴 Ackerman, C. C., Bertman, B., Fairbank, H. A., and Guyer, R. A., 1966,
“Second Solid Helium,” Phys. Rev. Lett., 16, pp. 789–791.
关3兴 Puri, P., and Kythe, P. K., 1998, “Stokes’ First and Second Problems for
Rivlin—Ericksen Fluids With Nonclassical Heat Conduction,” ASME J. Heat
Transfer, 120, pp. 44–50.
关4兴 Kythe, P. K., and Puri, P., 1988, “Unsteady MHD Free-Convection Flows on a
Porous Plate With Time-Dependent Heating in a Rotating Medium,” Astro-
phys. Space Sci., 143, pp. 51–62.
关5兴 Puri, P., and Kythe, P. K., 1995, “Nonclassical Thermal Effects in Stokes’
Second Problem,” Acta Mech., 112, pp. 1–9.
关6兴 Puri, P., and Jordan, P. M., 2002, “Some Recent Developments in the Unsteady
Flow of Dipolar Fluids,” Developments in Theoretical and Applied Mechanics,
XXI, pp. 499–508.
关7兴 McTaggart, C. L., and Lindsay, K. A., 1985, “Nonclassical Effects in the
Benard Problem,” SIAM J. Appl. Math., 45, pp. 70–92.
关8兴 Joseph, D. D., and Preziosi, L., 1989, “Heat Waves,” Rev. Mod. Phys., 61, pp.
41–73.
关9兴 Joseph, D. D., and Preziosi, L., 1990, “Addendum to the Paper Heat Waves,”
Rev. Mod. Phys. 62, pp 375–391.
关10兴 Puri, P., 1973, “Plane waves in Generalized Thermoelasticity,” Int. J. Eng.
Sci., 11, pp. 735–744.
关11兴 Puri, P., and Jordan, P. M., 1999, “Stokes First Problem for a Dipolar With
Fig. 12 Behavior of 円N円 versus z for p = 1, = 1000, t = 0.1, Nonclassical Heat Conduction,” J. Eng. Math., 36, pp. 219–240.
= 0.005,  = 0.2, and G = ± 5 关12兴 Eringen, A. C. J., 1966, “Theory of Micropolar Fluids,“ J. Math. Mech., 16,
pp. 1–18.
关13兴 Peddieson, J., and McNitt, R. P., 1970, “Boundary Layer Theory for Micropo-
lar Fluid,” Recent Adv. Engng. Sci., 5, pp 405–426.
increases, the amplitude of the angular velocity profiles decreases. 关14兴 Willson, A., 1970, “Boundary Layers in Micropolar Fluid,” Proc. Cambridge
It is obvious that the effect of increasing values of G results in Philos. Soc., 67, pp. 469–481.
a decreasing angular velocity distribution across the boundary 关15兴 Soundalgekar, V. M., and, Takhar, H. S., 1977, “MHD Forced and Free Con-
layer as seen in Fig. 9. On the other hand for small 共 = 10兲 the vective Flow Past a Semi-Infinite Plate,” AIAA J., 15, pp 457–485.
关16兴 Lukaszewicz, G., 1999, Micropolar Fluids-Theory and Applications,
influence of G on 兩N兩 is negligible as shown in Fig. 10. For large Birkhauser, Boston.
= 1000, the influence of G is negligible in both Re N and 兩N兩 共see 关17兴 Kim, Y. J., and Fedorov, A. G., 2003, “Transient Mixed Radiative Convection
Figs. 11 and 12兲. Flow of a Micropolar Fluid Past a Moving, Semi-Infinite Vertical Porous
Plate,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 46, pp. 1751–1758.
3.6 Temperature Fields. Typical variations of the tempera- 关18兴 Kim, Y. J., 2001, “Unsteady MHD Micropolar Flow and Heat Transfer Over a
ture profiles along the spanwise coordinate are the same that was Vertical Porous Moving Plate With Variable Suction,” Proceedings 2nd Inter-
national Conference on Computational Heat and Mass Transfer, COPPA/
presented by Puri and Kythe 关5兴, therefor it is omitted here. UFRJ- Federal University of Rio de Janerio, Brazil, October, 22–26.
关19兴 Puri, P., and Jordan, P. M., 1999, “Wave Structure in Stokes’ Second Problem
4 Conclusions for a Dipolar Fluid With Nonclasical Heat Conduction,” Acta Mech., 133, pp.
145–160.
Based on the analysis given above, we now state the following: 关20兴 Müller, I., and Ruggeri, T., 1993, “Extended Thermodynamics,” Springer
Tracts in Natural Philosophy, Vol. 37, C. Truesdell, ed., Springer-Verlag, New
共1兲 There are three cases of unique solution u共x , t兲. These cor- York, p. 230.
关21兴 Ahmadi, G., 1976, “Self-Similar Solution of Incompressible Micropolar
respond to the nonsingular case of  ⫽ 0, 1, the singular Boundary Layer Flow Over a Semi-Infinite Plate,” Int. J. Eng. Sci., 14, pp.
case of  = 0, and the case  = 1. 639–646.
Journal of Applied Mechanics Copyright © 2005 by ASME JULY 2005, Vol. 72 / 493
tractive for constructing elasticity solutions due to the axisym-
metry which simplifies the analysis. Furthermore, a prerequisite to
obtaining elasticity solutions for shell buckling such as the one by
Kardomateas 关3兴, is the existence of three-dimensional elasticity
solutions to the pre-buckling problem. Elasticity solutions for
monolithic homogeneous orthotropic cylindrical shells have been
provided by Lekhnitskii 关8兴. Recently, elasticity solutions for
sandwich shells were obtained by properly extending the solutions
for monolithic structures 关9兴. The latter is the pre-buckling solu-
tion needed to formulate the bifurcation problem in the elasticity
context.
As far as shell theory, there are but few studies reported in the
literature that deal with sandwich shell analyses 关10–12兴. The
comparison to shell theory predictions will be based on the for-
mulas presented in Smith and Simitses 关13兴 and Simitses and
Aswani 关14兴 and specialized to an infinite length cylinder, whose
behavior is similar to that of a sandwich ring.
Formulation
By considering the equations of equilibrium in terms of the
second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, subtracting these at the per-
turbed and initial conditions, and making order of magnitude as-
sumptions on the products of stresses and strains/rotations, based
on the fact that a characteristic feature of stability problems is the
shift from positions with small rotations to positions with rota-
tions substantially exceeding the strains, Kardomateas 关3兴 ob-
tained the following buckling equations: Fig. 1 Definition of the geometry and the loading
1
共rr − r0z + rz
0
兲 + 共r −
0
z + 0z兲
r r ments on the relative magnitudes of the rotations, Kardomateas
关3兴 obtained the following boundary conditions on a surface
+ 共rz − 0zz + zz
0
兲 which has outward unit normal 共ᐉ̂ , m̂ , n̂兲:
z
1 共rr − r0z + rz
0
兲ᐉ̂ + 共r −
0
z + 0z兲m̂
+ 共rr − + rz
0
+ 0zr − 2r0z兲 = 0, 共1a兲
r + 共rz − 0zz + zz
0
兲n̂ = p共zm̂ − n̂兲, 共2a兲
1 共r + rr
0
z − rz
0
r兲ᐉ̂ + 共 + r0z − 0zr兲m̂
共r + rr
0
z − rz
0
r兲 + 共 + r0z − 0zr兲
r r
+ 共z + rz
0
z − zz
0
r兲n̂ = − p共zᐉ̂ − rn̂兲, 共2b兲
+ 共z + rz
0
z − zz
0
r兲
z 共rz + r0r − rr
0
兲ᐉ̂ + 共z +
0
r − r0兲m̂
1
+ 共2r + rr
0
z −
0
z + 0z − rz
0
r兲 = 0, 共1b兲 + 共zz + 0zr − rz
0
兲n̂ = p共ᐉ̂ − rm̂兲. 共2c兲
r
For the lateral bounding surfaces, m̂ = n̂ = 0 and ᐉ̂ = 1. These con-
1 ditions will also be used when we impose traction continuity at
共rz − rr
0
+ r0r兲 + 共z − r0 +
0
r兲 the core/face sheet interfaces.
r r
Pre-buckling State. The problem under consideration is that of
+ 共zz − rz
0
+ 0zr兲 a sandwich hollow cylinder deformed by uniformly distributed
z external pressure, p 共Fig. 1兲 and of infinite length 共generalized
1 plane deformation assumption兲. Then, not only the stresses, but
+ 共rz − rr
0
+ r0r兲 = 0. 共1c兲 also the displacements do not depend on the axial coordinate.
r Alternatively, this is the assumption we would make if the cylin-
In the previous equations, 0ij and 0j are the values of stresses der were securely fixed at the ends. An elasticity solution to this
and rotations, respectively, at the initial equilibrium position 共pre- problem was provided by Kardomateas 关9兴. The solution is an
buckling state兲, and ij and j are the corresponding values at the extension of the classical one by Lekhnitskii 关8兴 for a homoge-
perturbed position 共buckled state兲. neous, orthotropic shell and was provided in closed form. All
The boundary conditions associated with Eq. 共1兲 were obtained three phases, i.e., the two face sheets and the core were assumed
from the traction 共stress resultant兲 relationships in terms of the to be orthotropic. Moreover, there were no restrictions as far as
second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, and by further considering the individual thicknesses of the face sheets and the sandwich
the fact that because of the hydrostatic pressure loading, the mag- construction could be asymmetric.
nitude of the surface load remains invariant under deformation, In this configuration, the axially symmetric distribution of ex-
but its direction changes 共since hydrostatic pressure is always di- ternal forces produces stresses identical at all cross sections and
rected along the normal to the surface on which it acts兲. By writ- dependent only on the radial coordinate r. We take the axis of the
ing these equations for the initial and the perturbed equilibrium body as the z axis of the cylindrical coordinate system and we
position and then subtracting them and using the previous argu- denote by R1 and R2 the inner and outer radii. Let us also denote
冤 冥冤 冥冤 冥
共i兲
⑀rr ai11 ai12 ai13 0 0 0 共i兲
rr = C1共 f 2兲 共R2 − f 2兲k f2
k f2
共i兲 共i兲
⑀ ai12 ai22 ai23 0 0 0
共11
f2
− k f212
f2
兲
共i兲
⑀zz ai13 ai23 ai33 0 0 0 共i兲
zz − C2共 f 2兲 共R2 − f 2兲−k f2 . 共7b兲
= , 共i = f 1,c, f 2兲 k f2
␥共iz兲 0 0 0 ai44 0 0 共iz兲
共i兲 共i兲
Finally, the conditions of tractions at the lateral surfaces
␥rz 0 0 0 0 ai55 0 rz 共traction-free inner surface and pressure, p, at the outer兲 give
␥r共i兲 0 0 0 0 0 ai66 r共i兲
C1共 f 1兲Rk1f1−1 + C2共 f 1兲R−k
1
f1−1 = 0, 共8a兲
共3兲
where aiij are the compliance constants 共we have used the notation C1共 f 2兲Rk2f2−1 + C2共 f 2兲R−k
2
f2−1 = − 1. 共8b兲
1 ⬅ r, 2 ⬅ , 3 ⬅ z兲. The six linear Eqs. 共6兲–共8兲 can be solved for the six constants
Let us introduce the following notation for constants which C共i兲 共i兲
1 , C2 , 共i = f 1 , c , f 2兲. Other details of the solution can be found in
enter into the stress formulas and depend on the elastic properties: Ref. 关9兴.
ai132 ai232 Perturbed State. In the perturbed position we seek plane equi-
i11 = ai11 − ; i22 = ai22 − 共i = f 1,c, f 2兲, 共4a兲
ai33 ai33 librium modes as follows:
i12 = ai12 −
ai13ai23
ai33
共i = f 1,c, f 2兲; ki = 冑 i11
i22
; 共i = f 1,c, f 2兲.
ui共r, 兲 = Ui共r兲cos n ;
wi共r, 兲 = 0,
vi共r, 兲 = Vi共r兲sin n;
i = f 1,c, f 2 . 共9兲
共4b兲 Substituting these in the strain versus displacement
Then, the pre-buckling stresses in each of the phases, i.e., for ui 1 vi ui wi
共i兲 共i兲 共i兲
i = f 1, c, f 2, are ⑀rr = , ⑀ = + , ⑀zz = , 共10a兲
r r r z
0共i兲
rr 共r兲 = p共C1共i兲rki−1 + C2共i兲r−ki−1兲, 共5a兲
1 ui vi vi ui wi vi 1 wi
0共i兲
共r兲 = p共C1共i兲kirki−1 − C2共i兲kir−ki−1兲, 共5b兲 ␥r共i兲 = + − , 共i兲
␥rz = + , ␥共iz兲 = +
r r r z r z r
0z共i兲共r兲 = rz
共i兲
共r兲 = r0共i兲共r兲 = 0, 共5c兲 共10b兲
0共i兲
zz 再
共r兲 = p − C1共i兲
共ai13 + ai23ki兲
ai33
rki−1 − C2共i兲
共ai13 − ai23ki兲
ai33
r−ki−1 .冎 and rotation versus displacement relations
2r共i兲 =
1 wi vi
r
−
z
, 2共i兲 =
ui wi
z
−
r
,
共5d兲
Furthermore, the pre-buckling radial displacement is found to vi vi 1 ui
be 2z共i兲 = + − 共10c兲
r r r
u0共i兲共r兲 = p 冋 C1共i兲
共i11 + kii12兲 k
ki
ri − C2共i兲
共i11 − kii12兲 −k
ki
r i 册 , 共5e兲 and then using the stress-strain relations in terms of the stiffness
constants, ciij
冤 冥冤 冥冤 冥
the other displacements being zero, i.e., v 共r兲 = w 共r兲 = 0. 0共i兲 0共i兲
共i兲 共i兲
rr ci11 ci12 ci13 0 0 0 ⑀rr
The constants C共i兲 共i兲
1 , C2 are found from the conditions on the 共i兲 共i兲
cylindrical lateral surfaces 共traction free兲 and the conditions at the ci12 ci22 ci23 0 0 0 ⑀
interfaces between the phases of the sandwich structure. Specifi- 共i兲 共i兲
zz ci13 ci23 ci33 0 0 0 ⑀zz
cally, the traction conditions at the face-sheet/core interfaces give = , i = f 1,c, f 2
two equations 关9兴 共iz兲 0 0 0 ci44 0 0 ␥共iz兲
共i兲 共i兲
rz 0 0 0 0 ci55 0 ␥rz
C1共 f 1兲共R1 + f 1兲k f1−1 + C2共 f 1兲共R1 + f 1兲−k f1−1
r共i兲 0 0 0 0 0 ci66 ␥ r
= C1共c兲共R1 + f 1兲kc−1 + C2共c兲共R1 + f 1兲−kc−1 共6a兲
共10d兲
and
the buckling Eqs. 共1兲 result in the following two linear homoge-
C1共c兲共R2 − f 2兲kc−1 + C2共c兲共R2 − f 2兲−kc−1 neous ordinary differential equations of the second order for Ui共r兲,
= C1共 f 2兲共R2 − f 2兲k f2−1 + C2共 f 2兲共R2 − f 2兲−k f2−1 . 共6b兲 Vi共r兲, where i = f 1 for R1 艋 r 艋 R1 + f 1; i = c for R1 + f 1 艋 r 艋 R2 − f 2
and i = f 2 for R2 − f 2 艋 r 艋 R2.
冋冉 冊 册
The displacement continuity at the face-sheet/core interfaces
共i兲 0共i兲
gives another two equations 共i兲 c11 共i兲 共i兲 U i
c11 Ui⬙ + U⬘ − c66 + n2 + c22
共11
f1
+ k f112
f1
兲 共11
f1
− k f112
f1
兲 r i 2 r2
冉 冊
C1共 f 1兲 共R1 + f 1兲 k f1
− C2共 f 1兲 共R1 + f 1兲 −k f1
0共i兲
k f1 k f1 共i兲 共i兲 nVi⬘
+ c12 + c66 −
共c11 + kcc12兲 共c11 − kcc12兲 2 r
冉 冊
= C1共c兲 共R1 + f 1兲 − kc
C2共c兲 共R1 + f 1兲 −kc
0共i兲
kc kc 共i兲 共i兲 nVi
− c22 + c66 + =0 共11a兲
共7a兲 2 r2
and and
FACE SHEETS
Boron/epoxy 221.0 20.7 3.29 5.79 0.45 0.23
Graphite/epoxy 181.0 10.3 5.96 7.17 0.49 0.28
Kevlar/epoxy 75.9 5.52 1.89 2.28 0.47 0.34
CORE
Alloy foam 0.0459 0.0459 0.0173 0.0173 0.33 0.33
共isotropic兲
冉 共i兲
c66 +
2
冊 冉
0共i兲
rr
冊共i兲
Vi⬙ + c66 0共i兲
+ rr −
0共i兲
2
+
0共i兲
rrr
2
⬘ Vi⬘
r
共 j兲
c11 U⬘j +
共 j兲
c12
r
共c兲
共U j + nV j兲 = c11 U⬘c +
共c兲
c12
r
共Uc + nVc兲 共13a兲
冋冉
共i兲
冊 册
共i兲 2
0共i兲
0共i兲
rrr ⬘ Vi and
冉 冊 冉 冊
+ − c66 + c22 n + + 0共 j 兲 0共 j 兲
2 2 r2 rr rr V j + nU j
冊 冋冉
共 j兲 共 j兲
冉 冊 0共i兲 0共i兲
c66 + V⬘j − c66 −
共i兲 共i兲 rr nUi⬘ 共i兲 共i兲 2 2 r
冉 冊 冉 冊
− c12 + c66 − + − c66 + c22 + 0共c兲 0共c兲
2 r 2 rr rr Vc + nUc
册
共c兲 共c兲
0共i兲
= c66 + V⬘c − c66 − . 共13b兲
rrr ⬘ nUi 2 2 r
+ = 0. 共11b兲
2 r2 Displacement Continuity:
The associated boundary conditions are as follows: U j = Uc ; V j = Vc , 共13c兲
共a兲 At the inner and outer bounding surfaces, we have the fol-
lowing two traction conditions at each of the surfaces: where j = f 1 at r = R1 + f 1 共inner face-sheet/core interface兲 and j
= f 2 at r = R2 − f 2 共outer face-sheet/core interface兲.
共 j兲
共 j兲 c12
c11 U⬘j + 共U j + nV j兲 = 0 共12a兲 Solution of the Eigen-Boundary-Value Problem for Differential
r Equations. Equations 共11兲–共13兲 constitute an eigenvalue problem
and for differential equations, with p the parameter 共two point bound-
0共i兲 0共i兲
ary value problem兲. An important point is that rr 共r兲, 共r兲 and
冉 共 j兲
c66 +
0共 j 兲
rr
2
冊 冉
+ pj 共 j兲
V⬘j − c66 −
0共 j 兲
rr
2
冊
+ p j V j + nU j
r
= 0,
0共i兲⬘
rr 共r兲 depend linearly on the external pressure, p 共the param-
eter兲 through expressions in the form of Eqs. 共8兲 and this makes
共12b兲 possible the direct application of standard solution techniques.
With respect to the method used there is a difference between
where j = f 1 and p j = 0 at r = R1 共inner bounding surface兲 and j the present problem and the one for the homogeneous orthotropic
= f 2 and p j = p at r = R2 共outer bounding surface兲. body solved by Kardomateas 关3兴. The complication in the present
共b兲 At the face-sheet/core interfaces, we have the following four problem is due to the fact that the displacement field is continuous
conditions at each of the interfaces: but has a slope discontinuity at the face-sheet/core interfaces. This
Traction Continuity: is the reason that the displacement field was not defined as one
Table 2 Critical pressure in N / m2. Geometry: f = 0.1 in., c = 1.0 in. and B = 3 in.
function but as three distinct functions for i = f 1, c, and f 2, i.e., the is reached, the traction boundary conditions, Eqs. 共12兲, which
two face sheets and the core. Our formulation of the problem ought to be zero, are calculated. Multi-dimensional Newton–
employs, hence, “internal” boundary conditions at the face-sheet/ Raphson is then used to develop a linear matrix equation for the
core interfaces, as outlined above. Due to this complication, the two increments to the adjustable parameters, y 5 and y 3, at R1.
shooting method 关15兴 was deemed to be the best way to solve this These increments are solved for and added and the shooting re-
eigen-boundary-value problem for differential equations. A special peats until convergence. For the integration phase, we used a
version of the shooting method was formulated and programmed Runge–Kutta driver with adaptive step size control. The method
for this problem. In fact, for each of the three constituent phases produced results very fast and without any numerical complica-
of the sandwich structure, we have five variables: y 1 = Ui, y 2 = Ui⬘, tion.
y 3 = Vi, y 4 = Vi⬘, and y 5 = p. The five differential equations are: y ⬘1
= y 2, the first equilibrium Eq. 共11a兲, y ⬘3 = y 4, the second equilibrium
Results, Comparison with Shell Theory and Discussion
Eq. 共11b兲 and y ⬘5 = 0.
The method starts from the inner boundary r = R1 and integrates As an illustrative example, consider a sandwich ring with the
the five first order differential equations from R1 to the inner face- following geometry: core, c = 25.4 mm 共1 in.兲, face sheets f 1 = f 2
sheet/core interface R1 + f 1 共i.e., through the inner face sheet兲. At = f = 2.54 mm 共0.1 in.兲 and width B = 76.2 mm 共3 in.兲. This value
the inner bounding surface, R1, we have three conditions, the two for B was chosen in order to assume that buckling is in the plane
traction boundary conditions, Eqs. 共12兲, and a third condition of of the ring and not out of the plane. Note that the sandwich is
共abritrarily兲 setting U f1 = 1.0, therefore we have two freely speci- symmetric about its midsurface. The total thickness of the ring is,
fiable variables. The freely specifiable starting values at R1 are thus, h = 2f + c = 30.48 mm 共1.2 in.兲, and is kept constant. The
taken as the y 5 共pressure兲, and the y 3 共V f1兲 and these are taken as mean radius, R0, is chosen in such a manner that the ratio R0 / h
the values from the shell theory 共described later兲. Then, the three ranges from 15 to 120.
boundary conditions at r1 allow finding the starting values for y 1, Material properties for the face sheets and the core are given in
y 2 and y 4. Once we reach the inner face-sheet/core interface, R1 Table 1. The core is isotropic alloy foam and the face sheets are
+ f 1, the tractions from the inner face-sheet side are calculated; boron/epoxy or graphite/epoxy or kevlar epoxy unidirectional
these should equal the tractions from the core side, according to with 0 deg. orientation with respect to the hoop direction. Note
the boundary conditions on the face-sheet/core interface, Eqs. again that 1 is the radial 共r兲, 2 is the circumferential 共兲, and 3 the
共13a兲 and 共13b兲. This allows finding the slopes of the displace- axial 共z兲 direction.
ments, y 2 = U⬘c and y 4 = V⬘c , for starting the shooting into the core Notice also that by referring to Eq. 共1兲, the compliance con-
共notice that the other three functions, y 1 = Uc, y 3 = Vc, and y 5 = p are stants for each orthotropic phase are
continuous according to Eq. 共13c兲, and their values at R1 + f 1 have 1 1 1 1 1
already been found at the end of the integration step through the a11 = ; a22 = ; a33 = ; a44 = ; a55 = ;
inner face sheet兲. The next step is integrating the five differential E1 E2 E3 G23 G31
equations from R1 + f 1 to R2 − f 2, i.e., through the core. In a similar 1
manner, once we reach the outer face-sheet/core interface, R2 a66 = ,
G12
− f 2, the tractions from the core side are calculated; these should
equal the tractions from the outer face-sheet side, per Eq. 共13a兲 21 31 32
and 共13b兲, and this allows finding the slopes of the displacements, a12 = − ; a13 = − ; a23 = − .
y 2 = U⬘f2 and y 4 = V⬘f2, for starting the shooting into the outer-face E2 E3 E3
sheet 共again, the other three functions are continuous and their Since the shell is considered to be very long, the buckling
values at R2 − f 2 have already been found at the end of the inte- analysis reduces to that for a ring 关12兴. If the transverse shear
gration step through the core兲. The third step is the integration effect is neglected, the expression for the pressure becomes 共clas-
through the outer-face sheet. Once the outer bounding surface, R2, sical兲
Table 4 Critical pressure in N / m2. Comparison with homogeneous: f = 0.1 in., c = 1.0 in., and B = 3 in.
冋
共EI兲eq = w E f
f3
6
+ 2E f f
f c
+
2 2
冉 冊 2
+ Ec
c3
12
册. 共15a兲
C= 冕 A
KGdA, 共16b兲
1 Introduction tions associated with the decay lengths 共2兲 and 共3兲 mentioned
above in the absence of surface loads; an accurate resolution of
Consider a straight tube constructed of elastic, anisotropic lay- the three-dimensional zone 共1兲 lies outside the range of any shell
ers of constant but possibly different thicknesses. If the tube is theory 共despite many claims to the contrary in the literature兲. 共For
under surface loads and any combination of end loads and dis- references to work on this latter problem, see, for example, the
placements 共compatible with overall equilibrium and no rigid- book edited by Ladevèze 关6兴 or an earlier review paper by Sim-
body displacement兲, then, as Ladevèze and Simmonds 关1,2兴 have monds 关7兴 where citations of relevant papers by Friedrichs and
shown 共within the framework of linear elasticity兲, the solution of Dressler, Goldenveiser, Green, Gregory and Wan, Ladevèze, and
the governing equations may be decomposed exactly into a beam- others are given.兲 In particular, for the two extreme cases of 共A兲
like part and a decaying part. We shall refer to these two compo- end loads only or 共B兲 kinematic end conditions only, we develop
nents as a Saint-Venant 共SV兲 part and a decaying 共D兲 part, respec- conditions on the data that insure decaying solutions. Moreover,
tively. we show that these data may be decomposed into a set that, to
As ⬅ h / R, the constant thickness of the tube divided by some lowest order, i.e., to within a relative error of O共1/2兲, determines
typical radius of the cross section, approaches zero, the D part of the MB solution and a complementary set that subsequently de-
the solution displays three characteristic decay lengths: 共1兲 a very termines the EZ solution. We note that, except in relatively long
tubes, the MB solution may well be as important in the interior of
short length, O共h兲, associated with a three-dimensional edge ef-
the tube as the beamlike solution.
fect; 共2兲 a moderately short length, O共冑hR兲, associated with the
bending edge effect of classical 共first-approximation兲 shell theory;
and 共3兲 a very long length, O共R冑R / h兲, associated with the 2 Geometry
semimembrane-inextensional bending 共MB兲 behavior of the shell. In a fixed Euclidean frame 兵i , j , k其, let 共r , , x兲 denote a set of
共We note that each of these decay lengths also depends strongly circular cylindrical coordinates with associated orthonormal base
on the ratios of various anisotropic elastic coefficients.兲 vectors 关er共兲 , e共兲 , k其. We take the vector representation of the
Ladevèze et al. 关3兴, using the linear first-approximation shell reference surface of the tube to be
theory of Sanders 关4兴 and Koiter 关5兴, have analyzed the beamlike
behavior of an elastic tube of arbitrary anisotropy and cross sec- T:x = R关xk + r共y兲兴, r 苸 S, 0 艋 x 艋 l, 0 艋 y 艋 2 . 共1兲
tion. Some corrections and extensions are presented in the Appen- Here, 2R is the circumference of T, and x and y are, respectively,
dix. In the present paper, we examine the complementary solu- dimensionless distances along and around T. Differentiation with
respect to x and y will be denoted by a prime 共⬘兲 and a dot 共 兲, 쎲
1
respectively. Thus, with r ⬅ 兩r兩 denoting dimensional radial dis-
Some of this work was performed while JGS was a visitor at ENS de Cachan.
Contributed by the Applied Mechanics Division of THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF
tance, we have
MECHANICAL ENGINEERS for publication in the ASME JOURNAL OF APPLIED MECHANICS.
冕冑
y
1 − r·2共兲d
Manuscript received by the Applied Mechanics Division, February 6, 2004; final
r = r共y兲er共兲 and = ± , 共2兲
revision, July 29, 2004; associate Editor: E. Arruda. Discussion on the paper should
0
r共兲
be addressed to the Editor, Prof. Robert M. McMeeking, Journal of Applied Mechan-
ics, Department of Mechanical and Environmental Engineering, University of
California–Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-5070, and will be accepted until
where the ⫾ sign allows for the possibility that S might not be
four months after final publication in the paper itself in the ASME JOURNAL OF AP- star shaped with respect to the chosen axis of T. 共If T is a circular
PLIED MECHANICS. cylinder, r = 1 and y = .兲 Finally, we let
500 / Vol. 72, JULY 2005 Copyright © 2005 by ASME Transactions of the ASME
= 共r ⫻ r 兲 쎲 k
쎲 쎲쎲
共3兲 K x = − W ⬙, K = − W⬘ + 共3/4兲V⬘ − 共1/4兲U ,
쎲 쎲
3 Governing Equations 共Analogous stress-stress function relations exist, but are not
When convenient, we use Cartesian tensor notation, with x needed in what follows.兲
Let hRT denote the net traction acting on the material to the
= x1 and y = x2. Thus, let hN␣, h2M ␣, 共 / Ē兲E␣, and
left of any cross section of the tube and let hR2M denote the net
共 / hĒ兲K␣, ␣ = 1, 2, denote, respectively, the 共modified, symmet- moment with respect to the centroid 共r = 0兲 of the cross section.
ric兲 stress resultants, stress couples, extensional strains, and bend- Then
ing strains of the linear shell theory of Sanders 关4兴 and Koiter 关5兴,
冕
2
where is some measure of the stress level in the tube and Ē is T= Nx共x,y;兲dy
some nominal Young’s modulus. In component form, with the 0
notation
and
冕
T␣ = 兵Tx,T,Ty其, 共4兲 2
the equilibrium and compatibility conditions of the Sanders- M= 关r共y兲 ⫻ Nx共x,y;兲 − M x共x,y;兲t共y兲兴dy, 共19兲
Koiter theory are 0
N⬘x + 关N − 共1/2兲 M兴 = 0, 쎲
共5兲 where
Nx = Nxk + 关N + 共3/2兲 M兴t − 共M⬘x + 2M 兲n 쎲
共20兲
N⬘ + Ny + 关3/2M ⬘ + M y兴 = 0,
쎲 쎲
共6兲
is the effective dimensionless axial stress resultant in the Sanders-
− 共M ⬙x + 2M ⬘ + M y 兲 + Ny = 0,
쎲 쎲쎲
共7兲 Koiter theory. 共See Budiansky and Sanders 关11兴, Eq. 15.兲 The
beamlike 共SV兲 solutions developed by Ladevèze et al. 关3兴, in the
K⬘y − 关K + 共1/2兲E兴 = 0, 쎲
共8兲 absence of surface loads, satisfy the global beam equations
T = T共0兲 and M = M共0兲 − xk ⫻ T共0兲 共21兲
− K⬘ + Kx + 关共3/2兲E⬘ − Ex兴 = 0,
쎲 쎲
共9兲
as well as all the local field equations 关providing certain negligible
共E⬙y − 2E⬘ + Ex 兲 + Kx = 0.
쎲 쎲쎲
共10兲 terms of O共兲 are added to the stress-strain relations兴. The decay-
These equations have been written in a form that displays the ing EZ and MB solutions we now develop satisfy all the local
static-geometric duality of Goldenveiser 关8兴 and Lure 关9兴. This field equations to O共1/2兲 plus the global conditions T = M = 0.
duality implies that the equilibrium Eqs. 共5兲–共7兲 go over into the
compatibility conditions 共8兲–共10兲 if the variables below on the left 4 Edge-zone (EZ) Solutions
are replaced by those on the right To extract these from the field equations, we scale certain of the
variables as follows:
N̂␣:K␣, M ␣:− Ê␣ . 共11兲
Here, we have introduced the “hat” notation x = 1/2x̄, 共N,K兲 = 1/2共N̄,K̄兲, 共Nx,Ky兲 = 共N̄x,K̄y兲
共22兲
T̂␣ = e␣eT = 兵Ty,− T,Tx其, 共12兲 共U,V兲 = 3/2共Ū,V̄兲, W = W̄,
where e␣ is the two-dimensional alternator. where an overbar indicates that a variable is a function of x̄, y, and
To complete the set of field equations, we must add constitutive
only. Then, we set 共兲 / x̄ = 共兲# and assume that differentiation
relations. To exploit fully the economy offered by the static-
geometric duality, we follow McDevitt and Simmonds 关10兴 and with respect to x̄ and y does not change orders of magnitude.
write these in the form Thus, Eqs. 共5兲–共10兲, 共13兲, 共14兲, 共17兲, and 共18兲 assume the forms
is the dual of −A␣, C␣ ⬅ C␣ is the dual of x + N̄ y = O共 兲, 共25兲
* *
where A␣ − M̄ ## 1/2
C␣, and
K̄#y − K̄ = O共1/2兲,
쎲
共26兲
= 共1/2兲共A␣
* *
K␣K + C␣N̂␣K + C␣K␣N̂
Substituting Eq. 共47兲 into Eq. 共50兲 and noting that C2222 = C*2222,
共A1111N̄y − C1111K̄x兲## + K̄x = O共1/2兲. 共34兲 we have
Noting that C1111 = Cⴱ1111, we introduce the complex-valued un-
known Ñx = 关M共C2222Ñx + A2222
䊊䊊 *
K̃y兲 兴 + O共1/2兲. 쎲 쎲
共52兲
The dual of Eq. 共52兲 follows readily as
N̄y ⬅ N̄y + i冑A1111
ⴱ
/A1111K̄x 共35兲
and constant K̃y = 关M共C2222K̃y − A2222Ñx兲 兴 + O共1/2兲.
䊊䊊 쎲 쎲
共53兲
i If we set
¯2 = 共36兲
Ñx = Ñx + i冑A2222 ˜ 2 = C2222 − i冑A2222A2222
.
冑 ⴱ
A1111A1111 + iC1111
*
/A2222K̃y and *
,
Then Eqs. 共33兲 and 共34兲 may be combined as 共54兲
N̄## −
¯ 2共y兲N̄y = O共1/2兲. 共37兲 then Eqs. 共52兲 and 共53兲 may be combined into the single complex-
y
valued equation
Ignoring the O共 兲 term, we write the general solution of Eq.
1/2
共37兲 as Ñx =
˜ 2共MÑx兲 + O共1/2兲.
䊊䊊 쎲 쎲
共55兲
To O共 兲, Eq. 共55兲 admits homogeneous solutions of the form
1/2
N̄y = C̄±共y兲兵exp关±
¯ 1/2共y兲x̄兴其# , 共38兲
where the complex-valued function C̄± will be determined from Ñx = C̃± exp共±
˜ x̃兲⍀共y兲, 共56兲
the boundary conditions by combining them with the MB solu- where the C̃± are complex-valued constants and ⍀ is a real-valued
tions that we determine next. 共If ⬍ 0, 1/2 is imaginary.兲 function satisfying the differential equation
2⍀ = 共M⍀ 兲 = 关共y兲⍀ 兴 + 关共y兲⍀ 兴
쎲 쎲 쎲쎲 쎲쎲 쎲 쎲
共57兲
5 Semimembrane-Inextensional-Bending (MB) Solu- and auxiliary condition
tions
⍀共y + 2兲 = ⍀共y兲. 共58兲
To obtain equations for the MB solutions, we scale certain vari-
ables as follows: Note from Eqs. 共57兲 and 共58兲 that if ⫽ 0, then 兰20⍀dy = 0.
Since ⍀ is 2-periodic, Eqs. 共57兲 and 共58兲 represent a standard,
1/2x = x̃, 共N,K兲 = 1/2共Ñ,K̃兲, 共Ny,Kx兲 = 共Ñy,K̃x兲, U = 1/2Ũ, self-adjoint eigenvalue problem which, if is suitably smooth and
共39兲 nonvanishing on 关0 , 2兴 共as we shall assume兲, admits a countable
⬁
set of real-valued eigensolutions, 兵2n , ⍀n其n=0 , where 0 = 0 ⬍ 1
where a tilde denotes that a variable depends on x̃, y, and only.
⬍ 2 ⬍ ¯ and the ⍀n satisfy the orthonormality condition
Then, with 共兲 / x̃ = 共兲 and the assumption that differentiation with
䊊
冕
2
respect to x̃ does not change orders of magnitude, Eqs. 共5兲–共10兲,
共13兲, 共14兲, 共17兲, and 共18兲 take the form ⍀m共y兲⍀n共y兲dy = ␦mn, m,n = 0,1,2,…, 共59兲
0
Ñx + Ñ = O共1/2兲
䊊 쎲
共40兲 where ␦mn is the Kronecker delta. The two eigenfunctions corre-
sponding to = 0 have the explicit forms
Ñ + Ñy + M̃ y = O共1/2兲,
䊊 쎲 쎲
共41兲 0 1
⍀0 = 1/冑2 and ⍀0 = c쎲r共y兲. 共60兲
− M̃ y + Ñy = O共1/2兲,
쎲쎲
共42兲
Here, c is a constant vector perpendicular to k satisfying c쎲I쎲c
= 1, where
K̃y − K̃ = O共 兲,
䊊 쎲 1/2
共43兲
冕
2
I = 共1/兲 r共y兲r共y兲dy = IT . 共61兲
− K̃ + K̃x − Ẽx = O共 兲,
䊊 쎲 쎲 1/2
共44兲
0
冕
M̃ ␣ = A␣ 2
r共y兲dy = 0. 共62兲
䊊
Ẽx = Ũ , Ũ + Ṽ = O共 兲,
쎲 䊊 1/2
Ṽ + W̃ = O共兲,
쎲
共48兲 0
K̃x = − W̃ , 䊊䊊
K̃ = − W̃ + 共3/4兲Ṽ − 共1/4兲Ũ ,
䊊쎲 䊊 쎲 The nondecaying solutions associated with the eigenfunctions
共60兲 are the Saint-Venant 共beamlike兲 solutions discussed in 关3兴
共49兲 and the Appendix.
K̃y = − 共W̃ − Ṽ兲 . 쎲 쎲
冕
2 We now determine the MB solution explicitly. Setting = 0 and
关s,sញ 兴x ⬅ 共F · Vញ − Fញ · V兲xdy, 共65兲 C̃− = C̃, we have, by Eqs. 共54兲, 共56兲, 共71兲, and 共A5兲
0
⬁
then, for any two states s and sញ satisfying the field Eqs. 共5兲–共10兲
the Betti reciprocity principle in the Sanders-Koiter theory implies
F̃共0,y;0兲 = Ñx共0,y;0兲 = 兺 RC̃ ⍀ 共y兲 = F̂共y兲,
1
n n 共75兲
that
where from the orthogonality condition Eq. 共59兲
关s,sញ 兴a = 关s,sញ 兴x, 0 艋 a ⬍ x. 共66兲
冕
2
That is, 关s , sញ 兴x is a constant. RC̃n = F̂共y兲⍀n共y兲dy ⬅ F̂n . 共76兲
0
Next, from Eqs. 共40兲, 共57兲, 共75兲, and the second part of 共A5兲, the
7 End-Loaded, Semi-Infinite Tube condition that Ñ must approach zero as x̃ → ⬁ is
We consider first a semi-infinite tube. Of the various combina- ⬁
tions of kinematic-kinetic end conditions that might be imposed in
accordance with Eq. 共A7兲, the dimensionless form of the external
S̃共0,y;0兲 = Ñ共0,y;0兲 = 兺 R共˜ C̃ 兲M关⍀ 共y兲兴/
1
n
쎲
n n = Ŝ共y兲.
virtual work, we confine ourselves to two extreme cases: 共A兲 F
共i.e., F, Z, and M x兲 prescribed and 共B兲 V 共i.e., V, Z*, and Ey兲 共77兲
prescribed.
To obtain from Eq. 共77兲 a second relation for C̃n to complement
7.1 Case A: End Loads Prescribed. In Eq. 共66兲 let s be a Eq. 共76兲, note by Eqs. 共57兲 and 共59兲, and an integration by parts
linear combination of rapidly decaying edge-zone 共EZ兲 solutions that
冕 冕
and slowly decaying semimembrane-inextensional-bending 共MB兲 2 2
solutions. For sញ we merely take the rigid-body solution − 共M⍀m兲⍀ndy =
쎲 쎲
共M⍀m兲 ⍀ndy = m
쎲 2
␦mn .
쎲
共78兲
ញ = D + R ⫻ 共r + xk兲,
U Fញ = 0, Zញ = Zញ* = Mញ x = Eញy = 0, 共67兲
0 0
冕
2
Since s comprises exponentially decaying solutions whereas the
components of sញ have, at most, algebraic growth, lim 关s , sញ 兴x = 0, so − R共
˜ C̃n兲 = 共1/n兲 Ŝ共y兲⍀n共y兲dy ⬅ Ŝn .
쎲
共79兲
x→⬁ 0
that at a = 0, Eq. 共66兲 reduces to
˜ = ˜␣ + i˜
It now follows from Eqs. 共76兲 and 共79兲 that, with
冕 冕 冋 册
2 2
关s,sញ 兴0 = − D쎲 F̂共y兲dy − R쎲 关r共y兲 ⫻ F̂共y兲兴dy = 0, ˜␣F̂n + Ŝn
0 0 C̃n = F̂n + i 共80兲
˜
共68兲
and, from the second part of Eq. 共54兲
再冎
where, here and henceforth, a hat 共ˆ兲 is used to denote a prescribed
variable. As D and R are arbitrary, Eq. 共68兲 yields the familiar ˜␣
requirement that, modulo a rigid body movement and in the ab- 冑2 = ± 冑冑A2222A2222
* 2
+ C2222 ± C2222 . 共81兲
˜
sence of surface loads, the total edge force and moment must
vanish for exponential decaying solutions to exist. Next, we determine the edge-zone 共EZ兲 solution. To satisfy
To determine the decaying solutions themselves, we introduce Eqs. 共73兲 and 共74兲, we insert the real part of Eq. 共38兲 into Eq. 共25兲
the scaled EZ 共¯兲 and MB 共˜兲 variables defined in Eqs. 共22兲 and integrate either once or twice with respect to x̄, and discard 共non-
共39兲 and take F̂ in the form decaying兲 functions of integration. With C̄− ⬅ C̄, the resulting ex-
F̂ = F̂共y兲k + 1/2Ŝ共y兲t共y兲, 共69兲 pressions for M̄ x and M̄ #x evaluated at x̄ = 0 and inserted into Eqs.
共73兲 and 共74兲, yield
where 兰20F̂dy = 兰20r ⫻ F̂dy = 0 and where the normalizing stress
measure introduced at the beginning of Sec. 3 is chosen so that RC̄共y兲 = Ẑ共y兲 共82兲
and
max 兵兩F̂共y兲兩,兩Ŝ共y兲兩,兩Ẑ共y兲兩,兩M̂ x共y兲兩其 = 1. 共70兲
0艋y艋2
− R关C̄共y兲1/2共y兲/
¯ 兴 = M̂ x共y兲 − M̃ x共0,y;0兲 ⬅ ⌬M̂共y兲. 共83兲
Note that Eq. 共A14兲 implies that S̄ = O共 兲 and S̃ = O共 兲 3/2 1/2
Because the MB solution can be determined first,
whereas, Eq. 共A13兲 implies that F̄ = O共3/2兲 and F̃ = O共1兲. By Eqs. M̃ x共0 , y ; 0兲—and hence ⌬M̂共y兲—is known. Thus, with 1 /
¯ ⬅ ¯␣
共A6兲, the boundary conditions take the form
+ i¯
F̃共0,y;兲 = F̂共y兲 + O共3/2兲 ⇒ F̃共0,y;0兲 = F̂共y兲, 共71兲
C̄ = Ẑ共y兲 + iD̂共y兲, 共84兲
S̃共0,y;兲 = Ŝ共y兲 + O共兲 ⇒ S̃共0,y;0兲 = Ŝ共y兲, 共72兲 where
冋 册
1
D̂ = 共85兲
1 ⌬M̂共y兲 ¯ and
− Ẑ共y兲 if 共y兲 ⬍ 0
¯␣ 冑兩共y兲兩 ⬁
再冎
n
1
冑2 ¯␣
冑冑A1111A1111 where C̃*n ⬅ 冑A2222 / A*2222C̃n. The duals of Eqs. 共76兲 and 共79兲,
= ± * 2
+ C1111 2
± C1111 . 共86兲
¯ namely,
冕
2
7.2 Case B: End Displacement and Rotation Prescribed. IC̃*n = F̂*共y兲⍀n共y兲dy ⬅ F̂*n 共100兲
To guarantee decaying solutions, we need conditions on the pre- 0
scribed kinematic variables. However, we may deal with these
and
later because the forms we have assumed for the EZ and MB
冕
solutions decay automatically, regardless of the boundary 2
conditions. I共
˜ C̃*n兲 = 共1/n兲 Ŝ*共y兲⍀n共y兲dy ⬅ Ŝ*n ,
쎲
共101兲
Let the prescribed kinematic boundary conditions have the form 0
冋 册
共91兲
冦
1 ⌬Êy共y兲
¯␣Ẑ*共y兲 − if 共y兲 ⬎ 0
Ēy共0,y;兲 + Ẽy共0,y;兲 = Êy共y兲 ⇒ Ēy共0,y;0兲 = Êy共y兲 − Ẽy共0,y;0兲, ¯ 冑共y兲
冋 册
D̂* = 共106兲
共92兲 1 ¯ ⌬Êy共y兲
− Ẑ*共y兲 + if 共y兲 ⬍ 0
where the last two boundary conditions are the duals of Eqs. 共73兲 ¯␣ 冑兩共y兲兩
and 共74兲. Note that the prescribed axial and tangential end dis-
placements determine the membrane-inextensional bending (MB) and where ¯␣ and ¯ are given by Eq. 共86兲. 共Note that ¯␣ and ¯ are
solution to lowest order. their own duals.兲
Because in the second and third part of Eq. 共18兲, and Eq. 共A5兲,
the static-geometric duality 共11兲 imply that
F* = Ky + 共Ey兲 = 关M共V兲兴
쎲쎲 쎲
共93兲 8 Decay Conditions on Kinematic End Data for a
and Semi-Infinite Tube
To develop these, we consider 关ŝ − sSV , sC兴x, following earlier
− S* = − K + 兵关共− E⬘y + 2E 兲兴 + 共3/2兲E其 = M共U 兲, 共94兲
쎲 쎲 쎲
x→⬁
Note that the dual of Eq. 共69兲 is
冕
2
F̂* = F̂*共y兲k − 1/2Ŝ*共y兲t共y兲. 共97兲 关ŝ − sSV,sC兴0 = 关FC · 共VSV − V̂兲兴0dy = 0. 共108兲
0
To satisfy Eqs. 共95兲 and 共96兲, we use the duals of Eqs. 共75兲 and
共77兲 to conclude that But, by 共A82兲
冕 冕
2
2
+ 共0兲兴 + TSV共0兲쎲 共AT · FC兲0dy = F̂l共y兲⍀n共y兲dy ⬅ F̂ln . 共118兲
0 0
冕
2
and
+ MSV共0兲쎲 共BT · FC兲0dy. 共109兲
0
R关
˜ C̃cn sinh共n
˜ 1/2l兲 + C̃sn cosh共n
˜ 1/2l兲兴
冕
2
By Eqs. 共107兲, 共A85兲, and 共A86兲, the last line of Eq. 共109兲 van-
ishes. Furthermore, linearity implies that the canonical solution = 共1/n兲 P̂l共y兲⍀n共y兲dy ⬅ P̂ln .
쎲
共119兲
for F can be put in the form 0
FC = TC共0兲 · F
= TC共x,y;兲 + MC共0兲 · F
= CM共x,y;兲. 共110兲 ˜ = ˜␣ + i˜, as before, and use
To solve these equations, we set
the identities
Thus, because TC共0兲 and MC共0兲 can be prescribed
independently—by Eq. 共21兲 the overall equilibrium equations are cosh关n共˜␣ + i˜兲1/2l兴 = cosh共n˜␣1/2l兲cos共n˜1/2l兲
always satisfied—Eqs. 共108兲 and 共109兲 yield the desired kinematic
boundary conditions for the exact beamlike Eqs. 共21兲, 共A72兲, and + i sinh共n˜␣1/2l兲sin共n˜1/2l兲 ⬅ Jn + iKn
共A76兲 共120兲
冕
2
and
WI共0兲 + w共0兲 = = TC共0,y;兲 · V̂共y兲dy
F 共111兲
0 sinh关n共˜␣ + i˜兲1/2l兴 = sinh共n˜␣1/2l兲cos共n˜1/2l兲
and
+ i cosh共n˜␣1/2l兲sin共n˜1/2l兲 ⬅ Hn + iIn .
冕
2
共121兲
⌽I + 共0兲 = = CM共0,y;兲 · V̂共y兲dy.
F 共112兲
0 Then, with
In particular, the vanishing of the beamlike solutions associated C̃cn = F̂0n + iÂcn and C̃sn = Ŝ0n + iÂsn , 共122兲
with ŝ, which in the present case mean that the right sides of Eqs.
共111兲 and 共112兲 vanish and TSV共0兲 = MSV共0兲 = 0, implies that the it may be verified that Eqs. 共116兲–共119兲 lead to the simultaneous
prescribed data at x = 0 and x = ⬁ produce decaying solutions only. equations
Without going into detail, we note that sC may be constructed 共˜␣In + ˜Hn兲Âcn + KnÂsn = 共˜␣Hn − ˜In兲F̂0n + JnŜ0n − Ŝln 共123兲
C + sC 共where “R” stands for “residual,”兲 subject
by setting sC = sSV R
to the boundary conditions coming from Eqs. 共A6兲, 共A7兲, and and
共A20兲, namely,
and 共124兲
ZR* 共0,y;兲 = − ZSV These may be solved in specific cases with no difficulty.
* 共0,y兲, ERy 共0,y;兲 = − y 共0,y兲,
ESV 共114兲
where the terms on the right of Eqs. 共113兲 and 共114兲 are the
Saint-Venant solutions associated with TC共0兲 and MC共x兲. One 10 Conclusions
then sets sRC = s̄RC + s̃RC and proceeds as in Case B of Sec. 7. We have shown how to decompose the linear Sanders-Koiter
equations applied to a fully anisotropic 共21 constant兲 tube of ar-
9 End-loaded Tube of Length Rl bitrary cross section into an exact beamlike 共or Saint-Venant兲 so-
The exact, beamlike part of the solution is governed by Eqs. lution plus edge-zone and membrane-bending solutions given ex-
共21兲, 共A55兲, 共A59兲, 共A60兲, 共A72兲, and 共A76兲. To compute the EZ plicitly to within a relative error of O共1/2兲. For the two extreme
and MB stress solutions, we need only modify the MB solution case of 共A兲 edge loads only and 共B兲 edge kinematic constraints
coming from Eq. 共56兲 by setting only, we give conditions on the end data that insure decaying
⬁
solutions 共i.e., beamlike solutions vanish identically兲.
Aside from a rigid body movement, the beamlike solution turns
Ñx = 兺 R关C̃ c
n cosh共n
˜ x̃兲 + 共C̃sn/
˜ 兲sinh共n
˜ x̃兲兴⍀n共y兲, out to have a relatively large inextensional component, unless the
1
combined dimensionless material constant ⌫* given in Eq. 共A37兲
共115兲 vanishes.
where the superscripts “c” and “s” identify the associated hyper-
bolic functions cosh and sinh. In place of Eq. 共76兲, we now have, Appendix: Elaboration of Saint-Venant (Beamlike) So-
with F̂0 denoting the value of F prescribed at x = 0, etc., lutions
冕
2 In the Sanders-Koiter theory, the virtual work identity for a tube
RC̃cn = F̂0共y兲⍀n共y兲dy ⬅ F̂0n 共116兲 of arbitrary cross section extending from x = a to x = b, under edge
0 loads only, has the dimensionless form
and in place of Eq. 共79兲
冕
b
冕
2 兩EVW兩ba = IVWdx, 共A1兲
RC̃cn = 共1/n兲 Ŝ0共y兲⍀n共y兲dy ⬅ Ŝ0n ,
쎲
共117兲 a
0 where
+ 关共M ⬘x + 2M 兲W − M xW⬘兴其dy 쎲
共A2兲 共A12兲
Note that if we introduce the definitions 共A5兲 into the equilibrium
and
Eqs. 共5兲 and 共6兲 and use Eq. 共7兲 to eliminate Ny, the two resulting
冕
2 equations take the forms
IVW = 共NxEx + 2NE + NyEy + M xKx + 2MK + M yKy兲dy. F⬘ + S쎲 − 2关M共M兲兴쎲 = 0 共A13兲
0
and
共A3兲
S⬘ + M共M y兲 = 0. 쎲
共A14兲
Here, the stress resultants and couples satisfy the equilibrium Eqs.
共5兲–共7兲 whereas the displacements are arbitrary 共but sufficiently Analogous expressions can be written down for the compatibility
smooth兲; EVW and IVW are mnemonics for external and internal equations.
virtual work. We now modify, extend, and correct parts of the analysis in 关3兴
To put these equations in a form that better reflects the comple- concerning SV solutions by assuming that all stress resultants and
mentary aspects of the Saint-Venant 共SV兲, the edge zone 共EZ兲, and couples are, at most, linear in x. In fact, as we shall see, all
the membrane-inextensional 共MB兲 solutions, we first use the unknowns are also, at most, linear in . Indeed, ignoring terms in
strain-displacement relations 共17兲 to write the stress-strain relations that are of the same order as the inher-
ent, unavoidable errors implies that the extensional strains and the
W = 共Ey − V 兲 and W⬘ = 关共E⬘y − 2E 兲 + U 兴,
쎲 쎲 쎲쎲
共A4兲 stress couples are independent of . Thus, we assume that
0 1 0 0 1
then introduce these expressions into Eq. 共A2兲, integrate by parts, F = F共y兲 + xF共y兲, S = S共y兲 + 关共y兲 + x共y兲兴,
and finally set
共A15兲
0 1
F ⬅ Nx − 共 M x兲 , 쎲쎲
S ⬅ N + 兵关共M ⬘x + 2M 兲兴 + 共3/2兲 M其 쎲 쎲
M ␣ = M ␣共y兲 + xM ␣共y兲.
共A5兲 共Here, and until further notice, we drop the tag SV to avoid a
cluttered notation.兲 From Eqs. 共A13兲 and 共A14兲, these assump-
Z ⬅ 1/2共M ⬘x + 2M 兲, 쎲
Z* ⬅ 1/2共2E − E⬘y 兲. 쎲
共A6兲 tions require that
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
In Eq. 共A6兲, Z is the effective Kirchhoff-transverse shear stress
F = − S 쎲, 쎲 = 2关M共M 兲兴쎲 ⇒ = c + 2M共M 兲, c = constant
resultant at a section x= constant 共the true shear stress resultant
being M ⬘x + M 兲, and Z* is the kinematic dual of Z. Thus, Eq. 共A2兲
쎲
共A16兲
can be rewritten as
1 1 1 1 1 1
冕
2 쎲 = 2关M共M 兲兴쎲 ⇒ = c + 2M共M 兲, c = constant 共A17兲
EVW = F · Vdy, 共A7兲 1 0
0
= − M共M y兲, 쎲
共A18兲
where F and V are defined in Eq. 共63兲. and
On any cross section of the tube, the dimensionless force T and
1
moment M 共acting about the centroid r = 0兲 are given by Eq. 共19兲.
M共M y兲 = 0. 쎲
共A19兲
Using r쎲 = t = n ⫻ k, t쎲 = n, the periodicity of all functions defined
over the tube’s cross section, and integration by parts, we have We further assume that the kinematic duals of F and S have the
form
冕
2
0 0 1
共 M x兲쎲쎲kdy = 0, 共A8兲 F* = F*共y兲, S* = 关*共y兲 + x*共y兲兴. 共A20兲
0
These assumptions imply the following duals of Eqs.
冕 冕 冕
2 2 2 共A16兲–共A19兲
r ⫻ 共 M x兲쎲쎲kdy = M xr쎲쎲 ⫻ kdy = M xtdy, 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 − * = 2关M共E兲兴* ⇒ − * = c* + 2M共E兲
쎲
共A21兲
共A9兲 1 1 1 1 1
− * = 2关M共E兲兴 ⇒ − * = c* + 2M共E兲
쎲 쎲
共A22兲
and
冕 冕
1 0
2 2
− * = M共Ex兲, 쎲
共A23兲
共Zt兲 dy = 0,
쎲
r ⫻ 共Zt兲 dy = 0.
쎲
共A10兲
0 0 and
1
Thus, we may write Eq. 共19兲 in the formally simpler form M共Ex兲 = 0. 쎲
共A24兲
*
M y = − C2222 S. 쎲
共A26兲 ⬅ 兵⌫,⌫*其b, 共A37兲
1 in the notation of Eq. 共53兲 of 关3兴. 共Things obviously simplify
Thus, Eqs. 共A25兲 and 共A26兲 are consistent if and only if a = 0 and tremendously if ⌫ = ⌫* = 0.兲
0 If we substitute the second part of Eq. 共64兲, the first and second
S has the periodic form parts of 共A15兲, 共A27兲, and Eqs. 共A31兲 and 共A37兲 into Eq. 共A11兲,
0 note that 2A쎲k = r ⫻ t = −共r쎲n兲k, where A is the area enclosed by
S = b − b쎲s, 共A27兲 the cross section of the tube, and take
0 0
where b and b are unknown constants and, as in Eq. 共48兲 of 关3兴 c = −共1 / A兲兰20M dy in Eq. 共A16兲 to avoid any dependence in Eq.
冕 冕
y 2 共A38兲 and 共A39兲 below, we find that
s= r共兲d + 共1/2兲 yr共y兲dy. 共A28兲 T共0兲 = 2dk + I쎲b 共A38兲
0 0
and
1 0
共Note that 兰20sdy = 0.兲 Because Ex = −A2222S쎲 = A2222b쎲r, to within M共x兲 = 共2Ab + m쎲b兲k + B⌫b − k ⫻ I쎲共d + xb兲. 共A39兲
a permissible relative error of O共兲, Eq. 共A24兲 is also satisfied.
Thus,
Next, the consistency of Eqs. 共A17兲 and 共A18兲 requires that
1 0 1 1 0 1 d = 共1/2兲T, b = 共1/2A兲关M̄ − m쎲I−1쎲T共0兲兴, b = 共1/兲I−1쎲T共0兲,
M共2M + M y兲 = − c ⇒ 2M + M y = c共r쎲n兲 + c t,
쎲 쎲
쎲 共A29兲 共A40兲
where c is a constant vector and where we have used it in the and
second part of Eq. 共A12兲. But, by Eqs. 共14兲, 共A16兲, 共A15兲, 共A20兲,
and 共A27兲 d + xb = 共1/兲H쎲关M共x兲 − 共B⌫/兲I−1쎲T共0兲兴. 共A41兲
1 0 0 0
where T ⬅ k쎲T共0兲, M̄ ⬅ k쎲M共0兲 = k쎲M共x兲, and, as in Eq. 共63兲 of
*쎲
2M + M y = 4C̄1222 b쎲r + 共A2222
* *
F* + C2222 F兲쎲 , 共A30兲 关3兴,
where, as in 关3兴, 2C̄*1222 ⬅ C*1222 + C*2212 and, again, O共兲 terms
冕
2
have been neglected. Because the integral of the right side of Eq. m = 共1/兲 s共y兲r共y兲쎲n共y兲dy. 共A42兲
1 0
共A30兲 from y = 0 to 2 vanishes, c = 0. Moreover, because the From Eq. 共A5兲, Nx = F + O共兲 and N = S + O共兲 for SV solutions,
0
so that in view of Eqs. 共A15兲, 共A16兲, and 共A20兲, the strain-stress
right side of Eq. 共A30兲 must be periodic and of the form c쎲t, F relations 共13兲 for SV-solutions may be given the simplified, ex-
and its dual must have the forms plicit forms
冥冤 冥
0
0 0
F = d + d쎲r + e쎲s, 共A31兲
冤冥冤
Ex A2222 − 2A2212 − C2222 F共y兲 − xS쎲共y兲
0 0
E = − A1222 2A1212 C1222 S共y兲 .
*
F* = d + d 쎲r − e 쎲s, * *
共A32兲
Ey A1122 − 2A1112 − C1122 0
where F*共y兲
*
C2222 e − *
A2222 e* =− *
4C̄1222 b 共A33兲 共A43兲
and d, d, d*, and d* are unknown constants. However, as the tube By Eqs. 共A27兲, 共A31兲, 共A32兲, 共A35兲, and 共A36兲, these expressions
can undergo no dislocations, become
冕 冕
2 0 2 0 Ex = A2222关d + r쎲共d + xb兲兴 − 2A1222共b + s쎲b兲 − 共B⌫*/兲C2222r쎲H쎲b
F*共y兲kdy = r ⫻ F*共y兲kdy = 0. 共A34兲 共A44兲
0 0
See Eqs. 共20*兲 and 共22*兲 of 关3兴. Because 兰20rsdy = Bk ⫻ 1, where E = − A1222关d + r쎲共d + xb兲 + ⌫s쎲b兴 + 2A1212共b − s쎲b兲
B is the area swept out by s共y兲 as y goes from 0 to 2 and 1 is the − ⌫*C1222g쎲I쎲b 共A45兲
two-dimensional identity tensor in the cross-sectional plane, Eq.
共A34兲 implies that and
− 共2/A2兲C1222
* *
m쎲I−1 + 4C1212 M共h兲兴, where ⬅ k쎲 and C and C are, respectively, a constant vector
and tensor. By the third part of 共A40兲,
共A54兲
B1 = t关共2/A兲C1212
*
共1/A − /兲k + 共2/兲C1222
*
HT쎲M共r兲兴. k쎲B = B11共y兲k − 共1/兲共2A1222s + r쎲C + C兲쎲H. 共A64兲
The final ingredient in the expression for the external virtual Still to be determined are C, C, A, B11 ⬅ k쎲B쎲k, and t쎲B.
work 共A7兲 is the dimensionless displacement. To put this into a Next, inserting Eqs. 共A35兲, 共A38兲, 共A39兲, and 共A47兲 into the
useful form, we first set third strain-displacement relation Ey = v쎲 + kw, we have
0 0 0 0 0
U = U共y兲k + 关V共y兲 − xU쎲共y兲兴t共y兲 + 共y兲关V쎲共y兲 − xU쎲쎲共y兲兴n共y兲 A1122关d + 共d + xb兲쎲r + ⌫b쎲s兴 − 2A1112共b − b쎲s兲 + ⌫*C1122b쎲I쎲g
0 0 0
− k ⫻ I쎲共d + xb兲兴其. 共A65兲
where U = c1 − c1쎲r and V are inextensional displacements with V Thus,
chosen so that, by the third part of Eq. 共18兲 and Eq. 共A32兲
A = kk쎲A + 共1/2兲A1122rk + 共1/A兲A1112rm쎲I−1 − 共B/2兲共⌫A1122
0
关M共V兲兴쎲 = d*쎲r − e*쎲s. 共A56兲 + ⌫*C1122兲ts쎲H쎲I−1 + 共1/兲共A1122⌫ + 2A1112 + ⌫*C1122兲tv쎲I−1
With the aid of Eqs. 共A35兲 and 共A40兲 the 2-periodic solution of + tA 共A66兲
this equation may be verified to be and
冕
0 y
V = − c2r共y兲쎲n共y兲 + c2쎲t共y兲 − ⌫*t共y兲쎲 n共兲G共兲d쎲T共0兲, B = k关B11共y兲k − 共1/兲共2A1122s + r쎲C + C兲쎲H兴 − 共1/A兲A1112rk
0 + 共1/兲A1122ts쎲H + tB, 共A67兲
共A57兲 where k쎲A, B11, the constant vectors A, B, and C, and the con-
where c2 and c2 are constants associated with a rigid body move- stant tensor C are yet to be determined. However, the terms aris-
ment, G쎲 = g, and, as in Eq. 共54兲 of 关3兴, ing from A and B, representing rigid body movements, may be
absorbed into the constant c2 in Eq. 共A57兲 and so ignored.
冕 冕 Finally, we use the second part of Eq. 共17兲, Eq. 共A35兲, the third
y 2
v= s共兲d + 共1/2兲 ys共y兲dy, 共A58兲 part of 共A40兲, and Eqs. 共A45兲, 共A55兲, 共A59兲, and 共A67兲 to write
0 0
v⬘ = t共y兲쎲w⬘共x兲 + 2A쎲共y兲⬘共x兲 + A1122b쎲s = 2E − u쎲 ,
the constant term in the above equation being chosen so that
共A68兲
兰20vdy = 0.
Thus, the inextensional component of U has the form where, as in Eq. 共62兲 of 关3兴,
− k쎲A쎲쎲T共0兲 − B11
쎲
共y兲M̄ . 共A70兲 A.1 The Generalized Displacement-rotation
To determine , we integrate both sides of Eq. 共A70兲 from y Following the definition given by Ladevéze 关13兴, we first use
= 0 to 2. Noting Eqs. 共A40兲, and 共A47兲, we find that Eqs. 共65兲 and 共A8兲 to set
冕
⬘ = 共2/A兲共2A1212b − A1222d兲 2
冕 冕 冕
2 2 2 where
冕
stdy = − I, sP쎲dy = − 共/2兲m, ssdy ⬅ J, 2 0
ញ ⬅ 关A
= 共y;兲 · V共x,y;兲 − A
= T共y;兲 · F共x,y;兲兴dy
0 0 0 T
W
冕
2 0
冕
sgdy = 兩关J + 共B/兲 k ⫻ H兴쎲I ,
2 −1
共A75兲 2 0
0 = 关共A + A1兲T • V − F • 共AI + A兲 + 3/2共Z*A − ZA*兲
0
冕 冕
2 2
s共A쎲兲Tdy 쎲k ⬅ D, 쎲
sB11 dy ⬅ D, + 2共Eyà − M xÃ*兲兴dy 共A85兲
0 0
and
冕
we obtain an expression of the form 2 0
ញ ⬅
⌽ 关B
= 共y;兲 · V共x,y;兲 − B
= T共y;兲 · F共x,y;兲兴dy
T
⌫ ⬅ w⬘ + k ⫻ = ⌳TT쎲T共0兲 + ⌳TM쎲M共x兲. 共A76兲
0
When we impose the conditions that ⌳TT = ⌳TTT and ⌳TM = ⌳TMT,
冕
2 0
we find that C = −共2B / 兲A2222H, D = 0, and C = D = 0. Thus, in
= 关共B + B1兲T • V − F • B + 3/2共Z*B − ZB*兲
view of Eq. 共A62兲
0
⌳TT = 共1/2兲A2222kk + 共1/A兲A1222共km쎲I−1 + I−1쎲mk兲
+ 2共EyB̃ − M xB̃*兲兴dy. 共A86兲
+ 共4/兲A1212I −1
쎲 关J + 共 + 2A 兲mm兴쎲I
2 2 −1
Noting that 关sSV , sSV兴x = 0 and following the same arguments as
+ 共1/兲A1122I−1쎲J쎲I−1 + 共2/兲共⌫A1222 + ⌫*C1222兲I−1쎲关J in关14兴, we can show that
+ 共B/兲2k ⫻ I−1 ⫻ k兴쎲I−1 共A77兲 ញ = W + w = W
ញ SV and ⌽
ញ = ⌽ + = ⌽
ញ SV
W I I = . 共A87兲
and
Thus, by Eqs. 共A55兲 and 共A59兲, we also have
⌳TM = − 共2/兲关共/A兲2A1212m쎲I−1k + 共B/兲A1212H2兴.
ញ = −1共W
⌫ ញ ⬘+k⫻⌽
ញ 兲 = ⌫SV ញ = −1⌽
and ⍀ ញ ⬘ = ⍀SV ,
共A78兲
共A88兲
Note that the last three lines of Eq. 共A77兲 define a shear coeffi-
cient tensor as opposed to a shear coefficient scalar that one often so that the beamlike strain-stress relations Eqs. 共A72兲 and 共A76兲
sees introduced in theories for isotropic shear deformable beams. developed for the special class of Saint-Venant solutions are exact
Returning to Eq. 共A70兲 and equating similar terms, we obtain for any solution of the shell equations.
Journal of Applied Mechanics Copyright © 2005 by ASME JULY 2005, Vol. 72 / 511
Pugno in 关10兴. The method described assumes, as previously done displacement, E the Young’s modulus, and I the moment of inertia
in 关10兴 and according to 关7兴, that the cracks open and close con- of the beam. ki is the nonlinear concentrated rotational stiffness 共a
tinuously instead of instantaneously, as suggested by the experi- function of the rotations q⬘共z±i 兲兲 of the crack placed at zi 共the
ments. As a consequence, the cracks are not considered to be symbol prime denotes the derivation with respect to z兲. We will
either fully open or fully closed, but the intermediate configura- discuss the form of the nonlinear stiffness in the next section,
tions with partial opening have also been taken into account. according to the experimental evidence.
The period of the response is not assumed a priori equal to the Equation 共1兲 can be formally solved by applying the Fourier
period of the harmonic excitation, as classically supposed 共ab- trigonometric series searching a solution in the form
sence of subharmonic components兲. This has allowed us to cap- +⬁
ture the complex behavior of the highly nonlinear structure, e.g.,
兺 ck共z兲e
1 ik/⌰t
q共z,t兲 = , 共2兲
the occurrence of period doubling. 冑2 k=−⬁
A pioneer work on period doubling was written in 1978, when
Mitchell Feigenbaum 关11兴 developed a theory to treat its route where ck共z兲 are unknown functions and P̃ = ⌰2 / = ⌰P is the
from the ordered to chaotic states. Even if oscillators showing the
period of the response, assumed a priori to be different from the
period doubling can be of different nature, as in mechanical, elec-
period P of the excitation 共describing a so-called complex behav-
trical, or chemical systems, these systems all share the character-
ior, thus we call ⌰ complexity index兲. On the other hand, if the
istic of recursiveness. He provided a relationship in which the
details of the recursiveness become irrelevant, through a kind of period of the response tends to infinite, i.e., ⌰ → ⬁ 共nonperiodic
universal value, measuring the ratio of the distance between suc- response, i.e., chaotic deterministic behavior兲, it is well-known
cessive period doublings, the so called Feigenbaum’s delta 关12兴. that Eq. 共2兲 becomes formally a Fourier transform, i.e.
冕
His understanding of the phenomenon was later experimentally +⬁
1
confirmed 关13兴, so that today we refer to the so-called Feigen- q共z,t兲 = eitQ共z, 兲d , 共3兲
baum’s period doubling cascade. However, even if the period
冑2 −⬁
doubling has a long history, only recently it has been experimen- where Q共z , 兲 is the new unknown function. Thus, an approxima-
tally observed in dynamics of cracked structures 关9兴. The aim of
tion of the continuum spectrum in the response q共z , t兲 of Eq. 共3兲 is
our study is the understanding of such phenomenon that, accord-
represented by the discrete spectrum of Eq. 共2兲 if a sufficiently
ing to our model, seems to be ruled by the breathing of the cracks
during the oscillation of the structure. large complexity index ⌰ is considered. In addition, instead of the
In addition to the super-harmonics, the analysis has systemati- continuum approach of Eq. 共1兲, a discretization of the system
cally emphasized a presence of an offset 共zero frequency compo- could also be considered. These discretizations allow an easier
nent兲 in the structural response also for weak nonlinearities. Fur- solution of the problem, as we will point out in the next section.
thermore, subharmonic components appear in the response of the
structure for stronger nonlinearities, leading, in particular condi- 3 Theoretical Discrete Approach
tions, to the period doubling.
The differential nonlinear equations governing the oscillations By discretizing the structure with the finite element method 关8兴,
of the continuum structure, discretized by the finite element Eq. 共1兲 can be rewritten as
method, have been analyzed by means of the Fourier transforms
or Fourier trigonometric series coupled with the harmonic balance
关M兴兵q̈其 + 关D兴兵q̇其 + 关K兴兵q其 + 兺 关⌬K
m
共m兲
兴f 共m兲共兵q其兲兵q其 = 兵F其, 共4兲
approach. This allows us to obtain a nonlinear system of algebraic
equations, easy to be solved numerically. In the numerical ex- where 关M兴 is the mass matrix, 关D兴 the damping matrix, 关K兴
amples, the phenomenon of the period doubling is discussed, with + 兺m关⌬K共m兲兴 the stiffness matrix of the undamaged beam, and
an eye to the phase space trajectories. 关⌬K共m兲兴 is half of the variation in stiffness introduced when the
mth crack is fully open 共see the Appendix and 关8兴兲. 兵F其 is the
2 Theoretical Continuum Approach vector of the applied forces 共with angular frequency 兲 and 兵q其 is
Let us consider a multicracked cantilever beam, clamped at one the vector containing the generalized displacements of the nodes
end and subjected to a dynamic distributed force p 共with rotating 共translations and rotations兲. According to this notation, f 共m兲共兵q其兲 is
frequency 兲. Modeling the breathing cracks as concentrated non- between −1 and +1 and models the transition between the condi-
linear compliances 共or stiffnesses兲 共in 关14兴 linear stiffnesses are tions of mth crack fully open and fully closed. Assuming that this
assumed兲, the equation of the motion of each integer beam seg- transition is instantaneous and hence takes place discontinuously,
ment, is the classical equation of the beam dynamics. Further- f 共m兲共兵q其兲 is a step function and has the sign of the curvature of the
more, the boundary conditions between two adjacent segments are corresponding cracked element. With this simple model of crack
represented by the continuity of the transversal displacement and opening and closing, f 共m兲共兵q其兲 can thus only be equal to −1 or +1.
of its second and third spatial derivatives 共proportional to the On the other hand, in the present investigation as in the previous
bending moment and to the shearing force respectively兲, as well 关8兴, f 共m兲共兵q其兲 is assumed to be a linear function of the curvature of
as by the compatibility with the crack. This implies that the dif- the corresponding cracked element. In other words, the cracks are
ference in the rotations between the two adjacent sections must be not considered fully open or fully closed, as the intermediate con-
equal to the rotation of the connecting concentrated nonlinear figurations with partial opening are also taken into account. Thus,
stiffness. The problem formally can be written as the stiffness varies continuously between the two extremes of un-
2q共z,t兲 4q共z,t兲 damaged or totally damaged beam 共fully open cracks兲, rather than
A + EI = p共z,t兲 for zi ⬍ z ⬍ zi+1; stepwise. The solution for the elements of the 兵q其 vector 苸L2 共i.e.,
t 2
z4
兩qi兩2 can be integrated according to Lebesgue兲 can be found by
means of Eq. 共3兲, or by the approximation of Eq. 共2兲, that for our
whereas for z = zi :
discrete system can be rewritten as
兺 冉A sin j ⌰ t + B cos j ⌰ t冊 ,
q共zi−兲 = q共zi+兲, q⬙共zi−兲 = q⬙共zi+兲, q共zi−兲 = q共zi+兲, q⬘共zi+兲 − q⬘共zi+兲 N
qi = 共5兲
EIq⬙共zi±兲 ij ij
= 共1兲 j=0
ki关q⬘共zi±兲兴
in which the complexity integer ⌰ must be a positive integer, to
where is the density, A the cross-section area, q the transversal take into account not only the super-harmonics 共and offset兲 but
冕
⬁ ˜ /2
+P ics of the same order must be “balanced”兲, which leads to N
兺 共兩A 兩
2
ij
2
+ 兩Bij兩2兲 = 兩qi共t兲兩2dt, 共6兲 different systems of nonlinear algebraic equations. We find the
P̃ ˜ /2
j=0 −P following solution:
冤 冥再 冎
obviously implies j 2 2 j
关K兴 − 关M兴 − 关D兴
⌰2 ⌰ 兵A j其
lim Aij = lim Bij = 0. 共7兲 j j 2 2 兵B j其
j→⬁ j→⬁ 关D兴 关K兴 − 2 关M兴
⌰ ⌰
冋 册再 冎
The last relationships allow us to consider a finite number N in
Eq. 共5兲, large enough to provide a good approximation. The func- 关⌬K共m兲兴 关0兴 兵C共jm兲其
tion f 共m兲共兵q其兲 is considered linear versus the curvature of the cor- = 兵F j其 − 兺m 关0兴 关⌬K共m兲兴 兵D共jm兲其
, 共15兲
responding cracked element, i.e.,
where j = 0 , 1 , … , N and for each vector we have 兵V j其T
q mk − q mh = 兵V1j , V2j , … , 其T. In addition
f 共m兲共兵q其兲 = max = ⌳m共qmk − qmh兲, 共8兲 Fij = F␦ j⌰␦ip , 共16兲
兩qmk − qmh兩
p being the node position corresponding to the point where the
where the numerator represents the difference in the rotations at sinusoidal force is applied.
the ends of the corresponding cracked element and the denomina- Each system can be solved numerically using an iterative pro-
tor is the maximum absolute value that can be reached by this cedure interrupted by an appropriate convergence test when the
difference: consequently, the generic component of function relative j error for the 兵A j其 and 兵B j其 vectors becomes lower than a
兵g共m兲其 = f 共m兲共兵q其兲兵q其 共that appears in Eq. 共4兲兲 can be expressed as specified value; it is a function of the kth iteration and has been
冐再 冎 再 冎 冐 冒 冐再 冎 冐
defined as
gi共m兲 = ⌳m共qmk − qmh兲qi . 共9兲 兵A j其 兵A j其 兵A j其
e jk = − . 共17兲
The same concepts argued for the qi components can be now 兵B j其 k 兵B j其 k−1 兵B j其 k−1
共m兲
applied to the gi , ensuring that they can be developed in a trigo- The procedure consists in determining the unknowns Aij and Bij.
nometric Fourier series and can thus be put in the approximate It is very interesting to note that, assuming the coefficients
共m兲 共m兲
form Cij , Dij to be zero at the first step, implies to force also the
subharmonic components to be zero 共see Eq. 共15兲兲. So, differently
兺 冉C 冊
N from the super-harmonic analysis 关8兴, we have to start with non-
共m兲 共m兲
gi共m兲 = 共m兲
ij sin j t + Dij共m兲cos j t , 共10兲 zero values for the coefficients Cij , Dij . To obtain good initial
j=0 ⌰ ⌰ values for these coefficients, we have considered as a zero step a
super-harmonic analysis 共⌰ = 1兲; in this case, we can determine
with 共m兲 共m兲
the unknowns Aij and Bij starting with zero coefficients Cij , Dij
and, by Eqs. 共13兲 and 共14兲, we have their initial values for the
冕 冉 冊
˜P
2 subharmonic analysis. The solution thus obtained is used to deter-
Cij共m兲 = gi共m兲共t兲sin j t dt, 共11兲 mine the known vector of the right hand-side of Eq. 共15兲. The
P̃ 0
⌰
procedure is repeated until the desired precision is achieved and
coefficients Aij and Bij are found, while Eq. 共5兲 is used to deter-
冕 冉 冊
˜P mine the components of the approximate vector, which satisfies
2
Dij共m兲 = gi共m兲共t兲cos j t dt. 共12兲 the nonlinear Eq. 共4兲, giving an approximated solution of the con-
P̃ 0
⌰ tinuum system described in Eq. 共1兲.
Inserting relation 共9兲, in its explicit form according to Eq. 共5兲 for 4 Period Doubling Cascade
the degrees of freedom i, mh, and mk, into Eqs. 共11兲 and 共12兲 and We can consider two different numerical examples: a weakly
developing the integrals, gives the following expressions: nonlinear structure and a strongly nonlinear one. Only in the latter
case, the so-called period doubling phenomenon, experimentally
⌳m observed by Brandon and Sudraud 关9兴, clearly appears. The beam
Cij共m兲 =
2 j 兺 兵共Amk j1 − Amh j1兲Bij2 + 共Bmk j1 − Bmh j1兲Aij2其 here considered is the same as that described in the mentioned
1,j 2:j 1+j 2=j
experimental analysis. It is 270 mm long and has a transversal
⌳m rectangular cross section of base and height, respectively, of 13
+
2 j 兺 ± 兵共Amk j1 − Amh j1兲Bij2 − 共Bmk j1 − Bmh j1兲Aij2其, and 5 mm. The material is 共UHMW兲-ethylene, with a Young’s
1,j 2:j 1−j 2=±j modulus of 8.61⫻ 108 N / m2 and a density of 935 kg/ m3. We
共13兲 have assumed a modal damping of 0.002. It is discretized with 20
finite elements. We have found that a complexity index ⌰ = 4 and In the weakly nonlinear structure of Fig. 1共a兲, the response
N = 16 give a good approximation. For larger values of ⌰ and N, converges and it appears only weakly nonlinear, as depicted in
substantially coincident solutions are obtained. The first natural Fig. 1共b兲. The relative errors, shown in Fig. 1共c兲, tend to zero or
frequency of the undamaged structure is f u = 10.6 Hz. by definition are equal to 1 if related to the harmonic components
For each of the two considered structures 共Figs. 1共a兲 and 2共a兲兲 identically equal to zero. The harmonic components in the struc-
it is shown the time history of the applied force and of the free- tural response are the zero-one 共presence of a negative offset in
end displacement 共Figs. 1共b兲 and 2共b兲兲, the relative errors as func- the displacement of the free-end, downward in Fig. 1共a兲兲 and the
tions of the iteration number 共Figs. 1共c兲 and 2共c兲兲 and the zero-, super-harmonic ones 共Fig. 1共d兲 and Table 1兲. No subharmonic
sub-, and super-harmonic components for the free-end displace- components can be observed. The corresponding phase diagram of
ment 共Figs. 1共d兲 and 2共d兲兲. In Tables 1 and 2, the frequency com- the response is shown in Fig. 1共e兲. Due to the weak nonlinearity
ponents are considered separately as sin and cos components. the trajectory in the phase diagram is close to an ellipse. The
In a hypothetical linear structure, the structural response is lin- diagram is nonsymmetric as the spatial positions of the cracks
ear by definition with obviously only one harmonic component at 共placed in the upper part of the beam兲. The trajectory is an unique
the same frequency of the excitation. closed curve since here the period of the response is equal to the
period of the excitation. An increasing of the nonlinearity will The corresponding phase diagram of the response is shown in
distort the trajectory as we will show in the next example. Fig. 2共e兲. The trajectory is a unique closed curve since the re-
In the strongly nonlinear structure of Fig. 2共a兲 the response sponse is still periodic; it is composed by multiple cycles since
converges 共Fig. 2共c兲兲 and the nonlinearity increases, as depicted in here the period of the response is not equal to the period of the
Fig. 2共b兲. The harmonic components in the structural response are excitation. The distortions in the trajectory are consequences of
the zero one, the super harmonic as well as the subharmonic ones the presence of the super- or subharmonics, as well as the multiple
共Fig. 2共d兲 and Table 2兲. It should be emphasized that a strong cycles emphasize the presence of the subharmonics 共four cycles
presence of the component causes the period doubling of the re- are due to the component / 4兲, i.e., the presence of a complexity
sponse, i.e., the / 2 component. The free-end vibrates practically with associated route to chaos. Also in this case, the diagram is
with a period doubled with respect to the excitation. A non- nonsymmetric as the spatial positions of the cracks.
negligible component at / 4 is observed too, representing a route An extensive parametrical investigation can be found in the
to chaos through a period doubling cascade. companion paper.
0 0 ⫺0.5472 0.5472
/4 0 0 0
/2 0 0 0
3 / 4 0 0 0
⫺50.7971 ⫺0.1414 50.7973
5 / 4 0 0 0
3 / 2 0 0 0
7 / 4 0 0 0
2 0.0039 0.1688 0.1689
9 / 4 0 0 0
5 / 2 0 0 0
11/ 4 0 0 0
3 0.0745 ⫺0.0008 0.0745
13/ 4 0 0 0
7 / 2 0 0 0
15/ 4 0 0 0
4 0.0001 0.0035 0.0035
5 Conclusions quence, for this case, it can be easily caught using classical Fou-
The proposed approach extends the theory proposed by Pugno rier series 共⌰ = 1兲 with N ⬎ 1 共and large enough, in the sense that
et al. 关8兴 to 共offset and兲 subharmonic components. We have dem- Response共N兲 ⬵ Response共N⬘ ⬎ N兲兲. If the nonlinearity becomes
onstrated that our approach corresponds to an approximated solu- stronger, offset, and super-harmonic components, as well as sub-
tion of the continuum spectrum of the response of the continuum harmonic ones, can be observed in the structural response. As a
system. The method has allowed us to catch complex phenomena, consequence, in this case, it can be caught using a complex index
i.e., transition toward deterministic chaos, like the occurrence of a ⌰ larger than 1 共⌰ ⬎ 1 and N Ⰷ 1 large enough, in the sense that
period doubling, as shown in the numerical examples and experi- response共⌰ , N兲 ⬵ response共⌰⬘ ⬎ ⌰ , N⬘ ⬎ N兲兲. Theoretically, val-
mentally observed in the context of cracked beam by Brandon and ues of ⌰ tending to infinity 共Fourier series become Fourier trans-
Sudraud 关9兴. In this analysis, of crucial importance appears the forms, with theoretically N tending to infinity too兲 allow us to
complexity index ⌰. For higher values of ⌰ we have to increase catch a route to chaos through a period doubling cascade, that here
also N 共e.g., N ⬇ ⌰2兲, so that the complexity of the numerical would imply a nonperiodic dynamic response. These consider-
simulations considerably increases. On the other hand, larger val- ations are summarized in Table 3.
ues of ⌰ allow us to catch higher structural complexity, as em-
phasized by multiple cycles of the trajectory in the phase space
diagrams.
From the reported numerical examples 共for an extensive nu-
merical parametrical investigation see the companion paper兲, we
can affirm that if the nonlinearity is zero, the structural response Acknowledgment
共i.e., Eq. 共5兲兲 can be obviously caught with N = ⌰ = 1. If a weak The authors would like to thank Ing. Alberto Zunino for his
nonlinearity is considered, only offset and super-harmonic com- contribution to the numerical simulations and Prof. Marco Gilli
ponents can be observed in the structural response. As a conse- for the helpful scientific discussions.
Table 2 Structure II—Zero- „offset…, sub- and super-harmonic sin- and cos-components †mm‡,
for the free end displacement „i.e., A20j , B20j, for j = 0, 1,…, 16…
0 0 ⫺3.2415 3.2415
/4 0.5278 ⫺0.5708 0.7774
/2 9.9741 7.6932 12.5964
3 / 4 ⫺0.0201 ⫺1.0667 1.0669
⫺30.2576 ⫺0.3138 30.2592
5 / 4 0.151 0.3043 0.3397
3 / 2 0.2172 ⫺0.0064 0.2173
7 / 4 ⫺0.1981 ⫺0.2078 0.2871
2 ⫺0.1384 0.3512 0.3775
9 / 4 0.421 0.1979 0.4652
5 / 2 ⫺0.1315 ⫺0.3162 0.3425
11/ 4 ⫺0.5769 0.1225 0.5898
3 0.5754 0.1795 0.6027
13/ 4 1.7804 ⫺2.4618 3.0382
7 / 2 0.6258 ⫺0.296 0.6923
15/ 4 ⫺0.038 ⫺0.7144 0.7154
4 ⫺0.0078 0.0539 0.0545
冋 册
The cracked element is shown in Fig. 3. T
Neglecting shear action 共Euler beam兲, the strain energy of an −1 −l 1 0
关T兴 = . 共A10兲
element without a crack can be obtained as 0 −1 0 1
冕
l
1 1 Applying the theorem of Enrico Betti 共1823–1892兲, the stiffness
W 共0兲 = 共M + Pz兲2dz = 共M 2 + P2l3/3 + MPl2兲, matrix of the undamaged element can be written as
2EI 0
2EI
关Ke兴 = 关T兴关C共e0兲兴−1关T兴T , 共A11兲
共A1兲
or
where E is the Young’s modulus of the material constituting the
冤 冥
finite element, I = bh3 / 12 is the moment of inertia of its cross 12 6l − 12 6l
section, having base b and height h, and M and P are the gener-
EI 6l 4l2 − 6l 2l2
alized forces acting at the ends of the finite element of length l. 关Ke兴 = 3 , 共A12兲
The additional energy due to the crack is l − 12 − 6l 12 − 6l
冕
a 6l 2l2 − 6l 4l2
共1兲
W =b 关关KI2共x兲 + KII2 共x兲兴/E⬘ + 共1 + 兲KIII
2
共x兲/E兴dx, 共A2兲 while the stiffness matrix of the cracked element may be derived
0 as
where E⬘ = E for plane stress, E⬘ = E / 共1 + 兲 for plane strain and 关Kde兴 = 关T兴关Ce兴−1关T兴T , 共A13兲
is the Poisson’s ratio. KI,II,III are the stress intensity factors for
opening, sliding and tearing-type crack, of depth a, respectively. In order to evaluate the dynamic response of the cracked beam
Taking into account only bending when acted upon by an applied force, it is supposed that the crack
冕
does not affect the mass matrix. Therefore, for a single element,
a
the mass matrix can be formulated directly
W 共1兲 = b 关关KIM 共x兲 + KIP共x兲兴2 + KIIP
2
共x兲兴/E⬘dx, 共A3兲
冤 冥
0 156 22l 54 − 13l
2
with ml 22l 4l 13l − 3l2
关M e兴 = 关M de兴 = , 共A14兲
KIM = 共6M/bh2兲冑aFI共s兲 420 54 13l 156 − 22l
− 13l − 3l2 − 22l 4l2
KIP = 共3Pl/bh 兲冑aFI共s兲,
2
where m is the mass for unity length of the beam.
Assuming that the damping matrix 关D兴 is not affected by the
KIIP = 共P/bh兲冑aFII共s兲 共A4兲 crack, it can be calculated through the inversion of the modeshape
where s = a / h and matrix 关兴 relative to the undamaged structure
FI共s兲 = 冑2/共s兲tan共s/2兲 关D兴 = 共关兴T兲−1关d兴关兴−1 , 共A15兲
⫻兵0.923 + 0.199关1 − sin共s/2兲 兴其/cos共s/2兲 4
where 关d兴 is the following matrix:
Journal of Applied Mechanics Copyright © 2005 by ASME JULY 2005, Vol. 72 / 519
frequency f of 25 Hz 共to compare with the first natural frequency
of the undamaged structure, f u = 10.6 Hz兲. The parameters of the
simulations are summarized in Table 1. The numerical responses
in terms of the normalized amplitude of Eq. 共1兲 as a function of
the crack depth are presented in Fig. 2. Figure 2共a兲 considers the
frequency components j = 0 , 1 , 2 , 3, as well as Figs. 2共b兲–2共d兲, re-
spectively, the components groups j = 5 – 8 ; j = 9 – 12− j = 13– 16. It
is very interesting to note that the first symptom of the presence of
Fig. 1 The considered nonlinear system and the main param- a crack, i.e., of the nonlinearity, is the offset 共j = 0, 0-frequency兲 in
eters numerically investigated Fig. 2共a兲, as well as the super-harmonic components, i.e., j
= 8共2兲, j = 12共3兲, and j = 16共4兲, which are also present for
small crack depths. As a consequence, we can affirm that the
nonlinearity implies a natural rupture of the symmetry of the prob-
lem 共i.e., an offset兲. A rather considerable presence of sub-
Table 1 One crack „localized at one-half of the total length of harmonic components arises after a threshold value of crack
the beam…—Numerical simulations by varying the crack depth depth, which is around one-half of the total height of the beam.
„A… For this excitation frequency 共around twice the first natural fre-
quency兲, the component of period doubling 共 / 2兲 and its mul-
One crack—a1 variable tiples 共3 / 2 , 5 / 2 , 7 / 2兲 are clearly prevailing.
d1 = 135 mm; F = 5N; f = 25 Hz
Fig. 2 One crack „localized at one-half of the total length of the beam…—Numerical simulations by varying the crack depth „a… „AI….
„b… „AII…. „c… „AIII…. „d… „AIV….
Fig. 3 One crack „localized at one-third of the total length of the beam…—Numerical simulations by varying the crack depth „a…
„BI…. „b… „BII…. „c… „BIII…. „d… „BIV….
rameters of the simulations are summarized in Table 3. The nu- eters of the simulations are summarized in Table 4. The numerical
merical responses in terms of the normalized amplitude of Eq. 共1兲 responses in terms of the normalized amplitude of Eq. 共1兲 as a
as a function of the crack position, are presented in Fig. 4. These function of the excitation frequency are presented in Fig. 5. The
diagrams clearly show that some particular crack positions, corre- most interesting result is that a particular harmonic component
sponding to a linear behavior, can be identified along the beam.
These positions correspond to inflexion points in the beam elastic
line, where the curvature is zero. In these positions the crack does Table 4 One crack—Numerical simulations by varying the am-
not breath, so that it does not introduce a nonlinear behavior. For plitude of the excitation „D…
our cases, the inflexion point is between one-half and one-third of
the beam length, starting from the clamp. Another inflexion point One crack—f variable
is clearly shown at the free-end of the beam: A crack placed in the a1 = 4.25 mm; d1 = 90 mm; F = 2N
extreme finite element does not change the linear behavior of the
structure. This phenomenon can be used to detect the crack posi- f 关Hz兴 Case
tion. A real structure can be, in fact, monitored by varying the 2.0 D1
excitation 共typically in terms of frequency兲. A linear behavior, 2.5 D2
corresponding to a particular value of the excitation frequency, 3.3 D3
implies a crack in the inflection point of the elastic line corre- 4.0 D4
5.0 D5
sponding to that frequency. In the case considered in Fig. 4, the 5.5 D6
nonlinearity vanishes around the inflexion point corresponding to 6.5 D7
the second modal shape 共consider that the first natural frequency 8.5 D8
11.0 D9
of the undamaged structure is around one-half of that of excita- 12.0 D10
tion兲. In addition, Fig. 4 clearly shows that the nonlinearity in- 13.0 D11
creases if the distance between crack and clamp decreases, as 14.5 D12
15.0 D13
previously observed combining simulations A and B. As a matter 17.0 D14
of fact, the sub-harmonic components can become predominant 18.0 D15
with respect to the super-harmonic ones. 19.0 D16
19.5 D17
23.0 D18
2.4 Parametrical Simulations by Varying the Excitation 25.0 D19
Frequency (D). These numerical simulations consider one crack 30.0 D20
with a depth of a1 = 4.25 mm. They are indicated by the letter D. 34.0 D21
38.0 D22
Referring to Fig. 1, the coordinate of the crack is d1 = 90 mm, the 49.8 D23
force amplitude is F = 2N with a variable frequency f. The param-
becomes predominant in relation to its own resonance. This means the letter F. Referring to Fig. 1, the coordinates of the cracks are
that the component of frequency mf 共m = j / ⌰兲 becomes predomi- d1 = 90 mm and d2 = 180 mm, the force amplitude is F = 2N with a
nant when the frequency of the excitation satisfies: frequency f of 19 Hz. The parameters of the simulations are sum-
marized in Table 6. The numerical responses in terms of the nor-
f0 malized amplitude of Eq. 共1兲 as a function of the crack depth are
f⬇ 共2兲
m presented in Fig. 7. According to these diagrams, the nonlinearity
f 0 being the first natural frequency of the damaged structure 共in seems to be less sensitive with respect to the crack depth a2. This
3
the present case it is around 9.5 Hz兲. Therefore, the 4 compo- simply means that the predominant crack is the first one, since it is
closer to the clamp. The trend changes only for very high depths
nent, for example, goes into resonance around f ⬇ 4 / 3 ⫻ 9.5 Hz
1 a 2.
⬇ 13 Hz, as well as the 2 component goes into resonance around
f ⬇ 2 ⫻ 9.5 Hz⬇ 19 Hz, according to the numerical results of Fig.
5共a兲. This phenomenon has been observed for all the frequency
components. 2.7 Parametrical Simulations Considering Two Cracks
and Varying the Position of the Excitation (G). These numerical
2.5 Parametrical Simulations by Varying the Excitation simulations consider two cracks, both of depth a1 = a2 = 4.25 mm.
Amplitude (E). These numerical simulations consider one crack The simulations are indicated by the letter G. Referring to Fig. 1,
with a depth of a1 = 4.25 mm. They are indicated by the letter E. the coordinates of the cracks are d1 = 90 mm and d2 = 180 mm, the
Referring to Fig. 1, the coordinate of the crack is d1 = 90 mm, the
excitation frequency is f = 12 Hz and the force amplitude F is
variable. The parameters of the simulations are summarized in
Table 5. The numerical responses in terms of the normalized am-
plitude of Eq. 共1兲 as a function of the frequency of the excitation Table 5 One crack—Numerical simulations by varying the am-
are presented in Fig. 6. The results show that the stable solution is plitude of the excitation „E…
the trivial one of linearity with respect to the force amplitude. The
existence of this linear solution appears rather obvious, as sug- One crack—F variable
gested by the motion equation reported in the companion paper a1 = 4.25 mm; d1 = 90 mm; f = 12 Hz
共Part I兲.
F 关N兴 Case
2.6 Parametrical Simulations Considering Two Cracks
and Varying the Depth of One of them (F). These numerical 2.0 E1
1.0 E2
simulations consider two cracks, one of depth a1 = 4.25 mm and 0.5 E3
the other of variable depth a2. The simulations are indicated by
a2 关mm兴 Case
0.00 F1
1.00 F2
2.00 F3
2.20 F4
2.40 F5
2.60 F6
2.80 F7
3.00 F8
3.20 F9
3.40 F10
3.60 F11
Fig. 6 One crack—Numerical simulations by varying the am- 3.80 F12
plitude of the excitation „E… 4.00 F13
4.20 F14
4.25 F15
4.40 F16
Fig. 7 Two cracks—Numerical simulations by varying the depth of one crack „a… „FI…. „b… „FII…. „c… „FIII…. „d… „FIV….
Fig. 8 Two cracks—Numerical simulations by varying the position of the excitation „a… „GI…. „b… „GII…. „c… „GIII…. „d… „GIV….
Journal of Applied Mechanics Copyright © 2005 by ASME JULY 2005, Vol. 72 / 527
Previous work done on the application of this theory to the Carini and Genna 关1兴 provide several functionals of the type 共1.5兲
equations of structural dynamics 关1,6,7兴 has never been concerned for the structural dynamics equations, based on different choices
with the discretization of functionals F and G to obtain known of the bilinear functional. In view of our purpose and of the pre-
time integration methods; here, we focus our attention on New- ceding observations, here we will make reference only to a par-
mark’s method 关8兴. This family of time integration algorithms was ticularization of one of them 共called Ga1 in 关1兴兲, namely to a two-
originally derived in a sort of “empirical” way, but has subse- field, time continuous functional, i.e., one in which displacement
quently been given a variety of theoretical fundaments, both as a and velocity are independent variables, and the initial conditions
Taylor-series expansion and as a recurrence equation deriving 共2.2c兲 and 共2.2d兲 are prescribed in strong form. By setting x
from the discretization of a Galerkin-type weak form 共see 关9兴 for = 兵u共t兲 , 共t兲其 as the real unknown vector, whereas y = 兵us共t兲 , s共t兲其
a review of this field兲. Some special cases of the Newmark family contains the corresponding auxiliary unknowns, functional G of
have also been obtained and discussed in 关10兴 by starting from a Eq. 共1.5兲 then reads
Hamilton approach and without using shape functions. Owing to
the absence of classical extremum principles governing the initial- G关x,y兴 = G关u共t兲, 共t兲,us共t兲, s共t兲兴
value structural dynamics problem, Newmark’s method 共as well
冕
⌬t
as all the existing others兲 has never been derived from the station- = 关u共t兲 − us共t兲兴关m˙ 共t兲 + c共t兲 + ku共t兲 − f共t兲兴dt
arity of a functional. 0
Here, we wish to show how the theory developed in 关1兴, briefly
冕
⌬t
summarized here above, does indeed allow one to recast New-
mark’s method into a rigorous variational framework, which + m关共t兲 − s共t兲兴关共t兲 − u̇共t兲兴dt 共2.3兲
0
might prove useful from both the theoretical and the practical
viewpoints. For instance, the availability of functionals might al- where, without altering the starting problem, we have inserted the
low the derivation of new algorithms in which some desirable mass coefficient m into the second integral, for dimensional con-
feature—energy conservation in the nonlinear range is the first sistency.
which comes to the mind—is prescribed a priori as a constraint in The possible discretization leading to Newmark’s Eqs. 共2.1兲 is
the stationarity process. suggested by the inspection of the stationarity conditions of func-
We first discuss how to derive Newmark’s method from the tional 共2.3兲 with respect to the auxiliary unknown functions us and
discretization of extended functionals of the type 共1.5兲. Next, we s, and by their comparison with the target Eqs. 共2.1兲. The follow-
will illustrate, by means of examples, some ways to exploit the ing requirements are obtained, with specific reference to the dis-
new theoretical framework available, in order to obtain new time cretization of functional 共2.3兲:
integration algorithms, some of which appear to have an accuracy
far superior to that of the basic Newmark method. 1. the shape functions, approximating the real displacement
and velocity fields, can be taken as linear functions of time,
each starting from the respective initial values;
2 Discretization of Extended Functionals to Obtain the 2. the test functions 关the discretization of the auxiliary dis-
Newmark Method placement and velocity fields us共t兲 and s共t兲兴 must exhibit
The equations describing the Newmark method are 关8兴 coupling between the unknown coefficients of us and those of
s, and there is no need for their continuity over time steps;
⌬t2 3.  and ␥ must appear in the definition either of the shape or
un+1 = un + ⌬tn + 关共1 − 2兲an + 2an+1兴 共2.1a兲
2 of the test functions; the calculations are simpler, and more
similar to others of analogous approaches 关9兴, if one lets
n+1 = n + ⌬t关共1 − ␥兲an + ␥an+1兴 共2.1b兲 them appear in the test functions only; and
u, , and a indicating displacement, velocity, and acceleration 4. the forcing term must be discretized as a linear function of
fields, respectively, and ⌬t = tn+1 − tn denoting the considered time time.
step. From here on, for simplicity and without loss of generality,
Thus, we are led to writing the following sets of approximating
we will always set tn = 0 and tn+1 = ⌬t.
functions 共where a superimposed hat indicates unknown constant
A first important observation is that, owing to the mutual inde-
coefficients兲.
pendence of the algorithmic parameters  and ␥, in order to obtain
these equations variationally one must take a two-field approach
• Main unknowns 共shape functions兲:
in writing the equations of motion, in which the velocity is treated
as an independent variable. Therefore, we write the equations of ûn+1 − un
motion, for simplicity in terms of a single degree of freedom, for u共t兲 = un + t; 共2.4a兲
⌬t
0 艋 t 艋 ⌬t, as
m˙ 共t兲 + c共t兲 + ku共t兲 − f共t兲 = 0; 共2.2a兲 ˆ n+1 − n
共t兲 = n + t 共2.4b兲
⌬t
共t兲 − u̇共t兲 = 0; 共2.2b兲
• Auxiliary unknowns 共test functions兲:
共0兲 − n = 0; 共2.2c兲 us共t兲 = Uu共t, , ␥兲ûs + U共t, , ␥兲ˆ s;
− u共0兲 + un = 0 共2.2d兲 s共t兲 = Vu共t, , ␥兲ûs + V共t, , ␥兲ˆ s 共2.5兲
where m indicates the mass, c the damping, and k the elastic where Uu, U, Vu, and V are functions of time to be iden-
stiffness. In the classical Newmark approach, Eq. 共2.2a兲, evalu- tified.
ated at time t = tn+1 and in which ˙ 共t兲 is replaced with a共t兲, is • Forcing term:
combined with Newmark’s update Eqs. 共2.1兲, in order to obtain
displacements, velocities, and accelerations at the end of the time f n+1 − f n
f共t兲 = f n + t 共2.6兲
step. ⌬t
Turning now to the issue of choosing a functional to be dis-
cretized, in order to obtain Newmark’s method, observe that for- The primary unknown coefficients ûn+1 and ˆ n+1 are computed by
mulas 共2.1兲 define time continuous displacements and velocities. plugging Eqs. 共2.4兲–共2.6兲 into functional 共2.3兲 and solving its sta-
冕
⌬t
sibility of using slightly different strategies altogether, there are
multiple ways to obtain time integration schemes sharing exactly
Uudt = ⌬t; 共2.7a兲
the same features and the same algorithmic properties with New-
0
mark’s method. The path indicated in this section, albeit possibly
冕
⌬t the simplest one, is not unique. We have indeed found other ways
Uutdt = ␥⌬t2; 共2.7b兲 to derive Newmark’s method from the discretization of extended
0
functionals, but here we do not expand further on this aspect for
the sake of brevity.
冕
⌬t
⌬t2
U dt = ; 共2.8a兲
0
2
3 Examples of Application of the New Theoretical
冕
⌬t Framework
U tdt = ⌬t3; 共2.8b兲 Here, we wish to illustrate, by means of some examples, how
0 the availability of a functional governing the problem under study
冕
⌬t
can help in obtaining numerical methods with possibly improved
features. Indeed, the possibility of working with test and shape
Vudt = 0; 共2.9a兲 functions which have the same “dignity” 共as hinted in the Intro-
0
duction兲 allows one to start from the already excellent Newmark
冕
⌬t family of algorithms and try to improve on them in a rather simple
way, reasoning by analogy.
Vutdt = 0; 共2.9b兲
We will present three methods. First, we will just increase the
0
number of unknown parameters in the basic discretization defined
冕
⌬t by Eqs. 共2.4兲, 共2.6兲, and 共2.12兲. Then, in the second method we
V dt = − ⌬t; 共2.10a兲 will maintain the same number of unknowns, but we will modify
0
the discretization of the main unknowns according to the sugges-
tion provided by Eqs. 共2.12兲. In both these methods we will search
冕
⌬t for maximum accuracy. In the third one, we will illustrate the
⌬t2
V tdt = − 共2.10b兲 effects of preconditioning kernels S共·兲 on the stability of the re-
0
2 sulting algorithms. Both linear and nonlinear examples will be
shown.
Since we have eight conditions to identify the unknown functions
Uu, U, Vu, and V, the simplest possible choice, among the infi-
nite ones, is to define them as all linear in time: 3.1 A Modification of Newmark’s Method by Increasing
Uu = k1 + k2t; U = k3 + k4t; Vu = k5 + k6t; V = k 7 + k 8t the Number of Unknowns. The simplest idea which comes to
mind, in order to improve the accuracy of Newmark’s method
共2.11兲 starting from the theory proposed, is to modify the discretization
Thereafter, one can compute all the coefficients ki, thus coming to defined by Eqs. 共2.4兲, 共2.6兲, and 共2.12兲 by increasing the number
the following test functions to be plugged into functional 共2.3兲: of unknown parameters. This could be done in several ways, as
冋 册
long as the main unknown parameters are as many as the auxiliary
t ones, in such a way as to maintain the uncoupling of the station-
us共t兲 = 4 − 6␥ + 6共2␥ − 1兲 ûs
⌬t arity equations 共see also 关1,4,5兴兲 and being thus able to solve for
the main unknowns only. An improved algorithm, at least in terms
+ 关2共3 − 1兲⌬t − 3共4 − 1兲t兴ˆ s 共2.12a兲 of accuracy, is defined by the following approximation:
tions of motion 共2.2兲 in weak form. + 关2共3 − 1兲⌬t − 3共4 − 1兲t兴ˆ s 共3.2a兲
In conclusion, essential requisites to obtain the Newmark
method from a variational formulation are 共i兲 the two-field and
time continuous approach, and, at least when starting from func- s共t兲 = ˆ s + b̂st 共3.2b兲
tional 共2.3兲, 共ii兲 the linear approximations for both the main un-
known fields and the forcing term, and 共iii兲 the coupling between Here, b̂ and b̂s represent two new unknown parameters; the values
the two test functions in terms of unknown parameters. Even
though we have been able to obtain several particular Newmark of the main unknowns ûn+1, ˆ n+1, and b̂ are obtained by solving
algorithms 共with fixed values of  and ␥, or, for instance, for an the stationarity equations of functional 共2.3兲 with respect to ûs, ˆ s,
undamped motion兲 by means of different, often simpler choices, and b̂s. The cost, with respect to what is required by the standard
Newmark method, is of course significantly higher. iliary velocity and displacement—suggests a way to increase the
Appendix A reports the amplification matrix1 of this family of polynomial order of the main unknowns, from what is required in
methods, as well as of those defined in the next two sections. Newmark’s method 共Eq. 共2.4兲兲, without increasing the number of
The family of algorithms generated by means of Eqs. 共3.1兲 and unknowns. Among various ways of proceeding, we have found the
共3.2兲 requires ␥ = 1 / 2 for second-order accuracy. If  = 1 / 6 it is following one to furnish interesting results:
possible to get third-order accuracy only in the undamped case,
which is, however, an improvement with respect to Newmark’s • main unknowns 共shape functions兲
method, which never does go beyond second-order accuracy. We
have also found that, by adding only one unknown to the basic ûn+1 − un ˆ n+1 − n 2
u共t兲 = un + t + 共h1␥ + h2兲 t;
Newmark discretization, the resulting algorithms tend to become ⌬t ⌬t
unstable, or to acquire poor characteristics in terms of energy 共3.3a兲
dissipation. The special case defined by Eqs. 共3.1兲 and 共3.2兲 is
indeed the best we could obtain, and some results of its applica- ˆ n+1 − n
tion are shown in Figs. 1 and 2, together with those given by the 共t兲 = n + t 共3.3b兲
algorithm illustrated in the next section. ⌬t
Only switching to the even more expensive choice of four un- • auxiliary unknowns 共test functions兲 as in Eqs. 共2.12兲.
known parameters for both shape and test functions it is possible
to significantly improve in all respects on the basic scheme. In any Here, we have introduced a coupling between the unknown veloc-
event, the availability of the framework developed in this work ity and displacement similar to that already necessary in the test
allows one to easily generate new families of algorithms which functions only to obtain the standard Newmark method, and have
could also be tailored to suit several specifications 共accuracy, sta- also introduced Newmark’s algorithmic parameters  and ␥ into
bility, energy dissipation兲, by following standard techniques. the shape functions; h1 and h2 are further algorithmic parameters.
In Eqs. 共3.3兲 the number of main unknown coefficients is the
3.2 A Modification of Newmark’s Method With the Same same—two—as in the basic Newmark method, which leaves this
Unknowns. The observation of the most characteristic feature of modification roughly as expensive as the basic Newmark scheme.
Eqs. 共2.12兲—the coupling between the discretizations of the aux- Even though the approach illustrated in this paper seems to imply
the doubling of the unknown variables, with respect to what is
1
required by a standard approach 共i.e., one simply defined by Eqs.
The amplification matrix A of a time integration algorithm relates quantities at 共2.1兲兲, it is possible to show that, both for the standard Newmark
the end of one step to quantities at the beginning of the next one, under initial
conditions only 共i.e., without considering forcing terms兲, as follows: case 共as obvious兲 and for the “improved” one illustrated in this
冋 册 冋册冋 册冋 册
section, even in the multi-degrees of freedom 共DOF兲 case, the
un+1 un A11 A12 un main computational cost entailed at each integration step corre-
=A =
n+1 n A21 A22 n sponds to the solution of a linear system of equations whose size
is equal to the number of degrees of freedom of the system. Ap-
pendix B, in which, for the sake of clarity and completeness, we discretization, modifies Newmark’s method, as obtained in Sec. 2.
report the calculations required by our approach for a general, For the sake of simplicity, we set m = 1, c = 0, and k = 2 in Eq.
multi-DOF system, will also sketch one possible way to illustrate 共2.2a兲, and rewrite Eqs. 共2.2a兲 and 共2.2b兲 in the following, handier
this assertion. matrix form:
We have optimized the resulting family of algorithms in terms
冤 冥
of accuracy only, with the following results: ␥ = 1 / 2 is required for d
冋 册冋 册
2
second-order accuracy regardless of the value of all the other pa- dt u共t兲 f共t兲
rameters; if  = 1 / 6 and h2 = 3共1 − h1兲 then, in the undamped case = 共3.4兲
d 共t兲 0
only, the algorithm is fourth-order accurate. With these parameters − 1
its accuracy is anyway far superior to that of the basic Newmark dt
method, as shown by the numerical results of Figs. 1 and 2, which and, as done before, we assume to satisfy a priori the initial con-
refer precisely to this set of parameter values, for all the three ditions 共2.2c兲 and 共2.2d兲. With the aim of writing down an ex-
methods considered 共basic Newmark, “augmented” Newmark as tended functional of the type 共1.4兲, the simplest possible symmet-
in the previous section, and “improved” Newmark as defined ric kernel S共·兲 is the following linear one:
冋 册冋 册
here兲.
Figure 1 refers to the undamped case and Fig. 2 to a damped 2ᐉ 1 ᐉ 2 us共t兲
one; in both cases it is apparent that the “improved” algorithm is S共y兲 = S共us, s兲 = 共3.5兲
quite effective; the “augmented” one, more expensive, is affected ᐉ2 ᐉ3 s共t兲
by a significant numerical damping, even though its phase error is where the constants ᐉ1, ᐉ2, and ᐉ3 are free algorithmic parameters.
smaller than that of the basic Newmark method. With this set of The extended functional of the type 共1.4兲, with the choice 共3.5兲
parameters, the ‘‘improved’’ method is unconditionally stable, for the kernel, reads:
冕
whereas, interestingly, the basic Newmark is only conditionally
⌬t
stable. We finally observe that, with the chosen set of parameters,
the added quadratic term in the discretization of the displacements F关x,y兴 = F关u共t兲, 共t兲,us共t兲, s共t兲兴 = 共u − us兲共˙ + 2u − f兲dt
关Eq. 共3.3a兲兴 turns out to be exactly the time integral of the linear 0
冕 冕
term in the velocity. ⌬t ⌬t
1
+ 共 − s兲共 − u̇兲dt − 共u − us兲关2ᐉ1共u − us兲
0
2 0
冕
3.3 Effects of Preconditioning Kernels: An Example for
⌬t
the Linear Case. We now consider the effect of the inclusion of a 1
kernel S共·兲 into an extended functional governing problem 共2.2兲. + ᐉ2共 − s兲兴dt − 共 − s兲关ᐉ2共u − us兲 + ᐉ3共 − s兲兴dt
2 0
Our purpose is to see how the inclusion of a kernel, in the basic
extended functional, this time keeping otherwise fixed the adopted 共3.6兲
By adopting the discretizations 共2.4兲, 共2.6兲, and 共2.12兲, and com- Finally, we have checked the influence of coefficient ᐉ3 only for
puting the stationarity conditions of functional 共3.6兲 with respect ᐉ1 = ᐉ2 = 0. For ᐉ3 ⬍ 0 and ᐉ3 ⬎ 2 there is unconditional instability,
to all the unknown coefficients, we obtain a whole family of time while for 0 艋 ᐉ3 ⬍ 0.746 one has conditional stability, with critical
integration schemes, which, of course, reduces to Newmark’s one time step increasing with ᐉ3. The choice 0.746艋 ᐉ3 ⬍ 2, with ᐉ1
for the choice ᐉ1 = ᐉ2 = ᐉ3 = 0. It is quite cumbersome to examine = ᐉ2 = 0, yields unconditional stability with numerical damping.
the algorithmic features of this family in terms of all its free Only for ᐉ3 = 2 unconditional stability with no numerical damping
parameters. Therefore, here we show only some results for the is found 共Fig. 3共c兲兲.
special case  = 1 / 6, ␥ = 1 / 2. In the linear case, such as that gov- These are indeed surprising results, since the adopted discreti-
erned by Eqs. 共2.2兲, the analysis of the algorithm can be per- zation, if plugged into the no-kernel functional 共2.3兲, with 
formed in a standard way, by writing down in explicit form the = 1 / 6, ␥ = 1 / 2, gives rise to a conditionally stable algorithm. In
amplification matrix and computing numerically 共analytical calcu- this case, unlike what was found in 关1兴 with reference to a wholly
lations are too complex兲 the spectral radius 共i.e., the maximum different discretization, it turns out that the addition of a kernel
eigenvalue of the amplification matrix兲, the numerical damping, can yield unconditional stability, where the no-kernel approach,
and the phase shift 共i.e., the relative error between the numerical keeping fixed all the other ingredients, leads to conditional stabil-
and the exact time periods of the motion兲, as described, for in- ity; by selecting a careful combination of coefficients ᐉi one can
stance, in 关11兴. also control numerical damping.
Any choice of parameters ᐉ1, ᐉ2, and ᐉ3 yields second-order Figure 3共d兲 shows the influence of coefficient ᐉ3, with ᐉ1 = ᐉ2
accurate algorithms; this can be checked analytically, from the
coefficients of the amplification matrix, reported in Appendix A. = 0, on the phase shift 共T̄ − T兲 / T 共T being the exact time period of
All the other results, part of which are summarized in Fig. 3, have the motion, and T̄ the computed one兲 of the solution, which is
been obtained numerically. slightly worse than that of the basic Newmark scheme for small
Coefficient ᐉ1 must be non-negative in order to guarantee some time steps, and much better for large ones.
stability. If 0 艋 ᐉ1 ⬍ 0.157, with ᐉ2 = ᐉ3 = 0, one has conditional The same kernel discussed here has similar effects also on the
stability, with critical time step increasing with ᐉ1; if ᐉ1 艌 0.157 Central Difference method, another special case of Newmark’s,
unconditional stability with numerical damping is obtained 关Fig. with  = 0, ␥ = 1 / 2, therefore explicit. Here, for example, any
3共a兲兴. choice ᐉ1 = ᐉ2 = 0, 0.2艋 ᐉ3 艋 2 makes the new algorithms, obtained
Coefficient ᐉ2 must be nonpositive to guarantee stability; its by means of the inclusion of a constant kernel, unconditionally
inclusion has almost negligible effects on all the algorithmic prop- stable and, for ᐉ3 = 2, with zero numerical damping as well. In this
erties 共it adds an almost negligible amount of numerical damping, case, however, the modified algorithms should be implicit, even
and alters very slightly both the phase shift and the stability though we have not checked this analytically 共we have obtained
limit—see Fig. 3共b兲兲. only the relevant amplification matrix兲.
共modified Duffing兲 equation: The resulting functional, associated with Eq. 共3.7兲, reads
therefore:
ü共t兲 + cu̇共t兲 + u 共t兲 = f共t兲 ⬅ − cos t − c sin t + cos t
3 3
共3.7兲
F关x,y兴 = F关u共t兲, 共t兲,us共t兲, s共t兲兴
冕 冕
where everything is intended to be nondimensional, and which, if
⌬t ⌬t
coupled with the initial conditions
= 共˙ + c + u3 − f兲dt + 共 − s兲共 − u̇兲dt
u共0兲 = 1; 共3.8a兲 0 0
冕
⌬t
1
u̇共0兲 = 0 共3.8b兲 − 共u − us兲关ᐉ1共u − us兲 + ᐉ2共 − s兲兴dt
2 0
has the trivial exact solution
冕
⌬t
1
u共t兲 = cos t 共3.9兲 − 共 − s兲关ᐉ2共u − us兲 + ᐉ3共 − s兲兴dt 共3.12兲
2 0
Such a problem has been considered in 关12兴 for c = 0.05; it was
observed that the solution 共3.9兲, if computed numerically, is un- and the discretization is again given by Eqs. 共2.4兲, 共2.6兲, and
stable, regardless of the adopted integration method and of the 共2.12兲. Here, we show the results obtained for ᐉ1
chosen time step. By unstable solution here we mean that the = −1.352 21, ᐉ2 = 0, ᐉ3 = 0; some comments about the influ-
motion described by Eq. 共3.9兲, if computed by numerical integra- ence of the parameter choice for this problem will be given
tion of Eq. 共3.7兲, no matter how small is the adopted time step, is later.
always abandoned after some cycles, with the computed solution
going towards one of several others, which seem to exist for Eq. We have adopted  = 1 / 6 and ␥ = 1 / 2 in all the methods, which,
共3.7兲, and to powerfully attract the numerical solution; by chang- for this problem, are all conditionally stable 共in the usual sense兲.
ing details of the integration scheme one or another of them can Figure 4 shows time histories, as computed numerically using
be reached. the described methods, for c = 0.05 and ⌬t = 0.5 共i.e., ⌬t / T
The methods we have compared are: = 0.078 75, T being the time period of the exact solution of Eq.
共3.7兲兲. As expected, none of the employed methods could remove
1. the basic Newmark’s method as given by Eqs. 共2.1兲, coupled the numerical instability, as each algorithm, after following the
with Eq. 共3.7兲 evaluated at tn+1, with  = 1 / 6, ␥ = 1 / 2; exact solution 共3.9兲 for some cycles, goes in its own way towards
2. the method arising from the procedure discussed in Sec. 2. different time histories. Methods 1 and 2 共Figs. 4共a兲 and 4共b兲兲 do
Recall that such a procedure yields exactly Newmark’s not yield the same result, even though they coincide in the linear
method in the linear case, but in the nonlinear one, in gen- case. The use of an exact integration of the forcing term 共method
eral, it does not; now, we must rewrite functional 共2.3兲, ac- 3, Fig. 4共c兲兲 improves only marginally the stability of the solution.
cording to the formal structure of Eq. 共1.5兲, accounting for When using the ‘‘improved’’ Newmark scheme with this time step
the new problem under study, i.e.: 共result not illustrated in Fig. 4兲 an explosive instability of the
solution is obtained, which could be removed only by reducing
G关x,y兴 = G关u共t兲, 共t兲,us共t兲, s共t兲兴 the time step.
冕
⌬t This suggests that the accuracy of the algorithm is less of a
= 关u共t兲 − us共t兲兴关˙ 共t兲 + c共t兲 + u共t兲3 − f共t兲兴dt factor, in controlling how long the numerical solution of problem
0
共3.7兲 can stay on the right one 共3.9兲, than its numerical damping.
冕
Indeed, both methods 3 and 4 are affected by a verifiably smaller
⌬t
error than both 1 and 2 in the linear case; nevertheless, it appears
+ 关共t兲 − s共t兲兴关共t兲 − u̇共t兲兴dt 共3.10兲 that their energy behavior, for this specific problem, is quite far
0 from optimal 共recall, however, that method 4 has been “designed,”
to be discretized as in Eqs. 共2.4兲, 共2.6兲, and 共2.12兲; in the linear case, with accuracy only as a target兲.
3. the same as in point 2 above, but exploiting the formal struc- Our choice of parameters ᐉ1, ᐉ2, and ᐉ3, for the kernel 共3.11兲 in
ture of functional 共3.10兲 to integrate the forcing term ana- method 5, allows the algorithm to stay on the exact solution for a
lytically. By this we mean that, instead of adopting the dis- much longer time than the others 共Fig. 4共d兲兲.
cretization 共2.6兲, we put into functional 共3.10兲 the analytic It must be said that this behavior is not strictly associated with
expression for the forcing term f共t兲 as defined by Eq. 共3.7兲 the use of this specific kernel, but that the kernel itself just acts as
and then, adopting the discretization defined by Eqs. 共2.4兲 a further ingredient which 共i兲 changes the conditioning of the re-
and 共2.12兲, we compute the relevant integrals in closed form. sulting algorithm, as discussed in 关1,13兴, and 共ii兲 can control the
Such a procedure cannot be applied in general, of course, numerical damping, as shown in Sec. 3.3 for the linear case. In
but it may be useful to distinguish between two different this last respect, it is worth observing that the “good” result of Fig.
sources of error: that due to the discretization, and the 4共d兲 is obtained for a value of ᐉ1 which would lead to an unstable
quadrature one introduced when approximating the forcing algorithm, with this time step, in the linear case. Here, the ten-
term. The availability of a functional allows one to mitigate dency of the numerical solution to abandon the exact one of Eq.
this last error by adopting better quadrature formulas than 共3.9兲 is due to numerical errors usually associated with some en-
that implied by Eq. 共2.6兲; ergy loss at each step; if the algorithm is tuned in such a way as to
4. the ‘‘improved’’ Newmark method already illustrated in Sec. compensate this loss, by adding some small artificial amount of
3.2 for the linear case, obtained now by starting from func- energy 共therefore being intrinsically unstable兲, it might cause the
tional 共3.10兲, and adopting the discretization defined by Eqs. computed solution to stay on the exact, unstable one for a longer
共2.6兲, 共2.12兲, and 共3.3兲; time2. Therefore, for this problem the obvious conclusion is that
5. the method already illustrated in Sec. 3.3 for the linear case,
which makes use of the same formulation and discretization 2
This phenomenon, which we were unaware of, before finding it in our calcula-
as in method 2, but starts from a functional of the type 共1.4兲, tions, can be also obtained in the numerical solution of linear problems, when the
with the linear kernel physical damping and the spurious introduction or removal of energy by numerical
this specific choice of a kernel can do nothing good; nevertheless, volving accuracy order, stability range, dissipation/energy
it is quite reasonable to expect that other methods, specifically conservation properties. Specific constraints, deriving from the
tailored with respect to stability taking advantage of the available physical problem studied, may be included in the functional and
theoretical framework, might perform much better. thus be automatically incorporated into the final numerical algo-
rithm derived from the stationarity process. All these items are the
4 Conclusions subject of investigations under way.
We have illustrated a technique to obtain the Newmark method
by discretizing an extended functional. The required formulation Acknowledgment
is a time-continuous, two-field one, and the discretization is linear
in time for both the shape and the test functions, this latter being Work done within a research project financed by the Italian
not trivial at all. Ministry of Education, University, and Research 共MIUR兲. We
We have provided examples that illustrate some of the advan- wish to express our gratitude to Professor Angelo Carini, of the
tages coming from the availability of functionals for the structural University of Brescia, for several helpful discussions on the topic
dynamics problem with given initial conditions. For instance, the of this paper.
method of Sec. 3.2 exhibits an accuracy far superior to that of the
basic Newmark method, at a comparable cost, whereas the inclu-
sion of kernels, exemplified in the methods of Secs. 3.3 and 3.4, Appendix A
has proved to be an important factor in controlling the stability We report the coefficients of the amplification matrix A for the
and conditioning properties of the numerical algorithms. algorithms described in Secs. 3.1–3.3. Note that, for the sake of
The availability of a functional allows one to explore new ways brevity, here we have computed and written these results only for
for deriving time integration algorithms, and to better understand the special case with mass m = 1, i.e., only in terms of the damping
ratio = c / m and of the angular frequency = 冑k / m of the un-
their features. In particular, the knowledge of discretizations lead-
ing to the whole family of Newmark algorithms in the linear case
damped motion. The more general results holding for the case of
appears to be an important factor which facilitates the develop-
a non-unitary mass should be recomputed on the basis of what is
ment of new, more efficient, algorithms for many particular prob-
illustrated in the main text; nevertheless, the equations hereafter
lems, which might meet different requirements, for instance in-
reported allow one to easily check all the properties of the corre-
sponding algorithms.
schemes can influence each other in such a way as to produce stable but meaningless For the family of algorithms derived in Sec. 3.1, the coefficients
results. of matrix A have the following expressions:
E = − 3共4 − 1兲 共A3兲
N4 = 12 + ⌬t共12共− 1 + ␥兲 − 2⌬t共␥共6 − 3⌬t + h1兲
such that the discretization 共2.12兲 for the auxiliary unknown vec-
+ 共− 6 + 6⌬t + h2兲兲2 + ⌬t3共− 2 + ␥兲共␥h1 + h2兲4兲 tors can be written as
For the family of algorithms derived in Sec. 3.3, the coefficients us共t兲 = 共A + Bt兲ûs + 共D + Et兲v̂s ; vs共t兲 = v̂s 共A4兲
of matrix A turn out to have the following expressions:
Writing now the extended functional 共2.3兲, in which, for the time
C1 C2 C3 C4 being, only the discretization 共A4兲 of the auxiliary unknowns is
A11 = ; A12 = ; A21 = ; A22 = explicitly written out, but in which it is intended that also the main
D1 D2 D2 D1
unknowns are discretized according to Eqs. 共2.4兲, we obtain:
冕
where ⌬t
冕
+ ᐉ23共3 + 共− 2 + ᐉ1兲ᐉ1兲 − 2ᐉ2共− 1 + ᐉ1兲⌬t + ᐉ3关− 3共2 ⌬t
C2 = − 3⌬t共12 + ᐉ22⌬t2兲2 + 3共− 2 − ᐉ3 + 2共− 2 + ᐉ3兲ᐉ1兲⌬t3 where the symbol · indicates a vector dot product and, in the
second integral, we have introduced a non-singular mass-type ma-
⫻共12 + ᐉ22⌬t2兲2 − 3共− 2 + ᐉ3兲ᐉ1关ᐉ3共− 1 + ᐉ1兲 − 2共1
trix P, similarly to what done with reference to Eq. 共2.3兲. Here
+ ᐉ1兲兴⌬t 5 4
too, this corresponds simply to writing Eq. 共A2兲 premultiplied by
冕
⌬t
G Exploiting results 共A10兲 and 共A11兲, making use of the equa-
= A关Mv̇共t兲 + Cv共t兲 + Ku共t兲 − f共t兲兴dt tions of motion 共A1兲 written at time tn, setting an = v̇共tn兲, and go-
ûs 0 ing through all the calculations, one can rewrite Eq. 共A14兲 as
冕
⌬t follows:
+
0
B关Mv̇共t兲 + Cv共t兲 + Ku共t兲 − f共t兲兴tdt = 0 共A6兲
Pûn+1 = Pun +
⌬t
2
⌬t
Pvn + Pv̂n+1 −
2
 1
冉 冊
− ⌬t2Man
␥ 2
G
v̂s
= 冕 0
⌬t
D关Mv̇共t兲 + Cv共t兲 + Ku共t兲 − f共t兲兴dt + 冕0
⌬t
E关Mv̇共t兲 + 冉 冊 冉
 1
− ⌬t2M
␥ 2
v̂n+1 − vn
⌬t
冊 共A15兲
冕
⌬t If one now sets P = M into Eq. 共A15兲, as required to obtain New-
+ Cv共t兲 + Ku共t兲 − f共t兲兴tdt + P关v共t兲 − u̇共t兲兴dt = 0 mark’s equations, one arrives easily at the following:
0
共A7兲 冉 冊
ûn+1 = un + ⌬t 1 −

␥
vn +
⌬t
␥
v̂n+1 +
1 
−
2 ␥
冉 冊
⌬t2an
i.e., a linear system of equations in the two unknown vectors ûn+1 共A16兲
and v̂n+1. Now, we need to reduce this system to one in a single an explicit relationship between ûn+1 and v̂n+1 which requires no
unknown vector 共instead of two兲, similarly to what is required by matrix inversion at all, and which, if reinserted into Eq. 共A12兲,
Newmark’s method. One way to do so starts by explicitly insert- provides the solution of the problem according to Newmark’s
ing the discretization of the main unknowns into the stationarity equations, through the solution of a linear system of equations in
Eqs. 共A6兲 and 共A7兲 and evaluating the integrals, thus obtaining v̂n+1 only.
冉 A⌬t B⌬t2
2
+
3
冊
Kûn+1 + g关v̂n+1,un,vn,f共t兲兴 = 0 共A8兲
If we now turn to the discretization 共3.3兲 of the main unknowns,
that, coupled with the same discretization 共2.12兲 of the auxiliary
ones, produces a modified Newmark scheme with superior prop-
erties with respect to the standard one 共at least in some cases兲, we
冋冉 D⌬t E⌬t2
2
+
3
冊 册
K − P ûn+1 + h关v̂n+1,un,vn,f共t兲兴 = 0 共A9兲
observe that the coefficient of vector ûn+1 remains exactly the
same as in the case of the basic Newmark scheme 共Eq. 共2.4兲兲.
Therefore, even though the functions g关v̂n+1 , un , vn , f共t兲兴 and
where h关v̂n+1 , un , vn , f共t兲兴 in Eqs. 共A8兲 and 共A9兲 are no more defined as
in Eqs. 共A10兲 and 共A11兲, the matrices of coefficients of vector
g关v̂n+1,un,vn,f共t兲兴 = 共M + ␥C⌬t兲v̂n+1 + 共1 − ␥兲⌬tKun ûn+1 in Eqs. 共A8兲 and 共A9兲 remain unaltered, and the result 共A14兲
+ 关共1 − ␥兲C⌬t − M兴vn + ⌬t共1 − ␥兲fn − ⌬tfn+1 still holds.
If we wish to recover our improved Newmark method of Sec.
共A10兲 3.2, we must still set P = M in function 共A5兲, but now all the
simplifications allowed by the structure of Eqs. 共A8兲 and 共A9兲
h关v̂n+1,un,vn,f共t兲兴 = 共P − M兲 冉 ⌬t
2
− C⌬t2 v̂n+1冊 hold no more, and the simple result 共A16兲 cannot be written,
because, in Eq. 共A15兲, it is very unlikely 共we have not checked it,
冋 冉 冊 册
though兲 that only matrices P and M would appear.
1 Nevertheless, a result analogous to Eq. 共A16兲 can always be
+ P+ − K⌬t2 un
2 obtained, by just inverting matrix P, as already suggested, and as
冋 冉 冊 册
apparent from the examination of Eq. 共A14兲. In our case, since we
⌬t 1 must set P = M, and since quite often matrix M is diagonal, we
+ 共P + M兲 +  − C⌬t2 vn
2 2 can consider this step comparatively inexpensive, and the whole
冉 冊
procedure, even in the case of a non-diagonal mass matrix, is
1
− − ⌬t2fn + ⌬t2fn+1 共A11兲 certainly much less expensive than solving a coupled system in
2 both unknowns ûn+1 and v̂n+1. In this sense we have said, earlier
in this paper, that this new scheme has the same computational
Recalling the definitions 共A3兲, we can rewrite Eqs. 共A8兲 and 共A9兲
cost as the basic Newmark method.
as follows:
538 / Vol. 72, JULY 2005 Copyright © 2005 by ASME Transactions of the ASME
sis given here will enable the effects of hydrodynamic and devia-
toric stresses on the dynamic loading response of granular solids
to be systematically isolated and studied.
Finally, we note that the multiscale modeling approach formu-
lated in this paper can also be used to address other problems in
engineering science for which localized stress and thermal fluc-
tuations induced by the dynamic loading of heterogeneous mate-
rials is important. One obvious example is the synthesis of high
strength materials 共e.g., intermetallic alloys and ceramics兲 having
small grain crystal structures by shock compaction of nano and
micro-size grains 关20,21兴. For this application, localized heating
and phase change occurring near intergranular contact surfaces is
essential for obtaining densely consolidated product material. Our
modeling approach can be readily applied to such problems with
slight modifications to its constitutive theory.
The outline of this paper is as follows. We first briefly describe
both the bulk compaction and grain scale heating models, high-
lighting modifications that account for grain scale compressive
heating and phase change. We then give numerical predictions for
both subsonic and supersonic steady compaction waves, charac-
Fig. 1 An illustration of multiscale features for the shock com- terizing the duration and amplitude of hot-spot temperatures in-
paction of a granular solid duced by these waves. Lastly, we give predictions showing the
influence of key model parameters on compaction wave structure,
and compare our predictions to those obtained by mesoscale simu-
= 1.5 kJ/ 共kg K兲. It is the relative rates of localized inelastic heat- lations.
ing, thermal diffusion, and chemical reaction that determine if
sustained combustion will occur. Prior modeling has focused on
identifying hot-spot temperatures and sizes needed for ignition 2 Bulk Scale Compaction Model
and sustained combustion of high-explosives independent of the
The unsteady, one-dimensional, bulk hydrodynamic compac-
dynamic bulk material response 关9,10兴. While useful, such analy-
tion model used in this work is a limiting form of the multidimen-
sis does not provide a fully coupled description of hot-spot cre-
sional model recently formulated by the lead author to investigate
ation, growth, and decay due to bulk deformation within the con-
the combined effects of hydrodynamic and deviatoric loading
text of an engineering scale model. The primary objective of this
关19兴. The hydrodynamic model equations are given in conserva-
work is to predict and resolve the temperature field in the vicinity
tive form by
of intergranular contact surfaces for shock compaction of HMX as
part of an ongoing effort to develop coupled bulk-localization w f共w兲
models that accurately describe transition to detonation in ener- + = g共w兲, 共1兲
t x
getic solids. The model accounts for key mechanisms that influ-
ence hot-spot evolution, in an albeit simple manner, with the ex- where
ception of combustion which will be addressed by subsequent
work.
A secondary objective of this work is to report preliminary
冋 冉 冊
w = , u, e +
2
册
u2
, ,
˜, n
T
, 共2兲
冋 册
able grains 共⬇500兲, attempting to resolve the stress and tempera-
ture fields within grains; they can provide useful information 共1 − 兲 T
g共w兲 = 0, 0, 0, 共Ps − 兲, ⌳, 0 共4兲
about grain scale hot-spot fluctuations, especially in the absence c
of experimental data, but are computationally expensive, with fine
and
scale structure difficult to numerically resolve, and are impractical
冦 冧
to apply to engineering scale systems. The comparisons given in 1
this paper are a first step in assessing the merits of our localization 共f −
˜ 兲 if f ⬎
˜,
⌳=
˜ 共5兲
strategy based on such simulations.
This work is also a preliminary step in the development and 0 otherwise.
characterization of a comprehensive multidimensional model that These equations track the evolution of granular solid mass, linear
can be used to predict the combined 共hydrodynamic and devia- momentum, total energy, volume fraction 共兲, no-load volume
toric兲 loading response of granular solids. Though it is justifiable
fraction 共
˜ 兲, and grain number density 共n兲, respectively. The no-
to ignore deviatoric stresses for strong compaction waves because
load solid volume fraction is the equilibrium value of the solid
P Ⰷ 储储, where is the stress deviator, there exists ample experi-
mental data indicating that bulk shear can significantly affect ma- volume fraction in the absence of an applied load 共i.e.,  → 0 as
terial compaction for weaker waves by reducing the minimum → ˜ , where  is an intergranular stress兲, and is a measure of
pressure needed for the onset of inelastic volumetric deformation inelastic volumetric strain. The grain number density is related to
the solid volume fraction and grain radius, r, by n = / 共 3 r3兲,
4
共i.e., material crush-up兲; this process is commonly referred to as
shear enhanced compaction. Shear enhanced compaction is ob- assuming spherical grains. The assumption of spherical grains,
served in many types of porous solids including powdered metals while simplistic, results in a tractable model that allows us to
关12,13兴 and geological materials 关14,15兴. There also exists experi- estimate the number of intergranular contacts per unit volume
mental evidence that shear enhanced compaction may play a which is needed by the localization strategy outlined in Sec. 3.
prominent role in the ignition of energetic solids 关16–18兴; a de- Other granular solid variables in these equations have their usual
tailed discussion is given in Ref. 关19兴. Though an analysis of shear meaning: is density, u is particle velocity, P is pressure, and e is
enhanced compaction is beyond the scope of this study, the analy- internal energy. Quantities associated with the pure phase solid,
冋
⌿s共s,T兲 = cv 共T − T0兲 1 + 冉 g
s0
冉1−
s0
s
冊冊 冉 冊册
+ T ln
T0
T
kinetic energy from the total energy equation, and introducing the
Lagrangian derivative d / dt ⬅ / t + u / x, we obtain
冋冉 冊 冉 冊 册
de des dB
s N−1
s0 = + , 共11兲
+ t1 − 共N − 1兲 1 − −1 , 共6兲 dt dt dt
s0 s
where
from which the thermal and caloric equations of state can be ob-
tained:
共12兲
Ps共s,T兲 ⬅ s2 冏 冏
⌿s
s T
= cvg共T − T0兲 +
A
N
冋冉 冊 册
s
s0
N
−1 , 共7兲 and
dB  d
= 共 −
˜ 兲. 共13兲
dt dt
es共s,T兲 ⬅ ⌿s − T 冏 冏⌿s
T s
= cv共T − T0兲 − cvT0
g
冉
s0
1−
s0
s
冊 Equations 共12兲 and 共13兲 govern the evolution of thermal energy
for the pure phase solid and compaction potential energy for the
冋冉 冊 冉 冊 册
granular solid, respectively. Thermal energy evolution is affected
s N−1
s0 by both compaction and compression, denoted by de / dt and
+ t1 − 共N − 1兲 1 − −1 . 共8兲
s0 s de / dt, whereas compaction potential energy is affected only by
changes in the elastic component of solid volume fraction given
Here, A = t1N共N − 1兲s0 and N are the first and second Hayes pa- by d / dt共 −
˜ 兲. It is shown in Ref. 关26兴 that de / dt is the result of
rameters, respectively. Values for the parameters contained in Eqs. compaction induced dissipative processes that lead to an increase
共7兲 and 共8兲 are listed in Table 1. Expressions for  and f are based in granular solid entropy, whereas the compression energy is re-
on the quasi-static compaction data for granular HMX reported by coverable. It is important to note that while the bulk model does
Coyne et al. 关24兴, and Elban and Chiarito 关25兴, and are given by not attribute dissipation to specific processes, it can be easily cor-
冉冕 冊 冉冕 冕 冊
consistent localization strategies can be formulated in a manner
compatible with grain scale heating mechanisms that are believed L L r0
d d
important for a given problem. One such strategy is outlined in the sdx ⬅ sn c4 r2drdx ,
following section. dt 0
dt 0 0
0
sudx ⬅
d
dt
L
0
sncu4 冕 冊0
r0
r2drdx ,
冉冕 冊 冉冕 冊
关7兴 to account for compressive heating and phase change induced
冕
L L r0
by shock compaction. The localization strategy is consistent with d d
mesoscale simulations and grain contact mechanics which indi- sesdx = sn c4 r2êdrdx , 共15兲
dt 0
dt 0 0
cate that the applied bulk load is transmitted through the material
by intergranular contact 关28兴. This contact results in inelastic de- where ê is the specific internal energy of the solid within a local-
formation and friction near contact surfaces. As illustrated in Fig. ization sphere. Throughout this paper, variables labeled with a
2, we track the evolution of thermal energy within solid regions “hat” 共·ˆ兲 are associated with the localization sphere and vary not
surrounding intergranular contact surfaces referred to as localiza-
only with x and t but also with r. The left-hand side of this equa-
tion spheres. The number of localization spheres per unit volume,
tion is the evolution of bulk thermal energy. The right-hand side of
nc共x , t兲, is related to the number of contact points per grain, ␥, and
this equation is the evolution of integrated thermal energy at the
the grain number density by nc = 2 ␥n; the prefactor 1 / 2 appears
1
grain scale. It is important to note that bulk compression and
because each localization sphere involves contact between two expansion will cause the radius of both the spherical grains, R,
grains. The localization spheres are assumed to be evenly distrib- and the localization spheres, r0, to change. In this study, we as-
uted, and have radii r0, where r0 = R共 2 ␥兲 . The expression for nc
1 −1/3
sume that the rate of change of localization radius is small com-
can be combined with the expression for r0 to obtain nc pared to the compaction wave speed 共i.e., 共dr0 / dt兲 / D Ⰶ 1.0, where
= / 共 3 r30兲; thus, all solid mass is encompassed by the localiza-
4
D is compaction wave speed兲 and, thus, we take r0 to be constant
in our localization model. In particular, we take r0 = R0共 2 ␥兲
tion spheres. 1 −1/3
for
Many phenomenological strategies can be established to pre- subsonic compaction waves and r0 = Rsh 2 ␥ 共 兲
1 −1/3
for supersonic
scribe the partitioning of dissipated energy within a localization waves, where R0 is the ambient particle radius and Rsh is the
sphere based on the underlying physics. Because there exists un- shocked particle radius whose value is determined by Rankine–
certainty about stress and temperature distributions within the Hugoniot shock relations. We believe this assumption to be rea-
neighborhood of intergranular contact surfaces for real systems, sonable for all compaction waves studied in this work. With this
and their dependence-on loading rate, microstructure, etc., we
assumption, and using the definition of nc, Eq. 共15兲 reduces to
choose a simple, but plausible, strategy that uniformly deposits
bulk dissipated compaction energy 共given by de / dt兲 within ex-
冕
r0
des 3 dê
panding material volumes of radius rc共x , t兲 艋 r0 centered at the 共x,t兲 = 3 r2 共x,r,t兲dr. 共16兲
dt r0 dt
contact surfaces; this radius defines a localization center. The lo- 0
calization center should encompass all material involved in dissi- The evolution of thermal energy within a localization sphere is
pative heating due to friction and plastic deformation; thus, its given by
volume should increase due to plastic flow. The initial value for rc
is taken as the radius of the intergranular contact surface, a, at the dê 1 2 Ŝ Ŝ
onset of plastic deformation within the grain. This assumption is =− 共r q兲 + + , 共17兲
dt s0r2 r s0 s0
reasonable in that, prior to the onset of plastic deformation, most
dissipated energy will be due to intergranular friction and will, where q = −kT̂ / r is the conductive heat flux, Ŝ and Ŝ are the
thus, be localized near the contact surface within the region r volumetric heating rates due to inelastic compaction and compres-
⬍ rc共x , 0兲. We equate the volumetric rate of work done by the sion, respectively, and s0 is the initial solid density for subsonic
plastic flow stress PY to the bulk volumetric compaction induced waves and the shocked solid density for supersonic waves.
dissipated energy given by Eq. 共12兲; the following evolution equa- Though we assume that the localization sphere is incompressible
tion for rc results: throughout the compaction zone 共i.e., r0 = constant兲, bulk com-
冦冋 册
in mesoscale simulations. The sensitivity of the model to varia-
冧
3
r0 de tions in key parameters is then explored. Lastly, model predictions
s0 共x,t兲 for 0 艋 r 艋 rc共x,t兲, are compared to the predictions of Menikoff and Kober 关11兴 ob-
Ŝ共x,r,t兲 = rc共x,t兲 dt
tained by detailed mesoscale simulations.
0 for rc共x,t兲 ⬍ r 艋 r0 , The steady model equations describing compaction wave struc-
共18兲 ture are given by
de d 共1 − 兲
Ŝ共x,t兲 = s0 共x,t兲. 共19兲 = 共Ps − 兲, 共21兲
dt d vc
冋 册
strategy used by the lead author to predict experimentally mea-
sured sustained combustion thresholds for granular HMX due to ˆ cv␣ 2T̂ 2 T̂ Ŝ Ŝ
mild impact 关7兴. Nonetheless, this partitioning should be more = + + + , 共24兲
carefully scrutinized in the future based on numerically resolved qmv r2 r r s0qmv s0qmv
mesoscale simulations.
drc s de
We also account for the energetics of solid–liquid phase change = , 共25兲
as it may significantly affect hot-spot temperature. Further, HMX d 4ncr2c PY d
is known to undergo phase change prior to combustion. HMX where ␣ = k / 共s0cv兲 is the thermal diffusivity of the pure phase
0 0
melts near Tm = 520 K at atmospheric pressure Pm = 100 kPa; the solid. All remaining variables can be expressed as a function of
0
latent heat of fusion is qm = 220 kJ/ kg. An estimate for the varia-
the integration variables , ˜ , T̂, ˆ , and rc. To this end, the con-
tion in melt temperature with pressure can be determined by the
servation equations 共i.e., the first three components of Eqs.
Kraut–Kennedy relation 共a detailed discussion of the application
共1兲–共4兲兲 expressed in the steady frame are homogeneous ODEs
of this relation to HMX melting is given in Ref. 关29兴兲. For the
that can be directly integrated, and the initial conditions 共0兲
highest pressures considered in this work, Pm ⬇ 500 MPa, the melt
temperature increases to only Tm ⬇ 600 K. Thus, we assume iso- =˜ 共0兲 = 0, T0 = 300 K, and P0 = 0 Pa applied, to obtain the fol-
thermal phase change, and take lowing algebraic relations:
冦 冧
dT̂ v2 P D2
cv for T ⫽ Tm
0 v = − 0D, v 2 + P = 0D 2, e+ + = . 共26兲
dê dt 2 2
= 共20兲
Here, the notation subscript “0” refers to properties of the ambient
0 d
dt ˆ 0
qm for T = Tm state. These relations, together with the equations of state for the
dt pure phase solid, given by Eqs. 共7兲 and 共8兲, are sufficient to ex-
where 0 艋 ˆ 艋 1 is the liquid mass fraction. For simplicity, we press the bulk solid variables s = / , vs, and Ps = P / in terms
assume that the value of the specific heat cv is constant and the of and ˜ . The required mathematical operations are straightfor-
same for both the solid and liquid, and that the solid and liquid ward, and are omitted for brevity. Initial conditions for the re-
densities are equal; as such, we only describe leading-order effects maining integration variables are T̂共0 , r兲 = T0, ˆ 共0 , r兲 = 0, and
of phase change energetics.
rc共0兲 = 1.6R*Y / 共2E*兲 for an unshocked solid, where R* = R / 2,
and E* = E / 共2共1 − 2兲兲. Here, E, Y, and are the elastic modulus,
4 Analysis and Discussion yield strength, and Poisson’s ratio for the pure solid; we take R
Predictions are given for the bulk and grain scale response of = 25 m, E = 24 GPa, Y = 0.37 GPa, and = 0.2 which are repre-
inert HMX 共0 = 0.81兲 due to steady compaction waves. Though sentative of HMX. Initial conditions for a supersonic wave are
the analysis of steady waves is incapable of describing time- based on the shocked state rather than the ambient state. The
dependent phenomena associated with variable speed impact or shocked state is determined from the Rankine–Hugoniot relations
wave propagation through materials having spatially nonuniform given in vector form by 关w兴−+D = 关f共w兲兴−+, where w and f共w兲 are
porosity, it does provide a simple means of analyzing the more given by Eqs. 共2兲 and 共3兲, and the notation 关·兴−+ denotes a jump in
fundamental problem of dynamic compaction of spatially homo- the enclosed quantity across the shock. Because 关兴−+ = 关 ˜ 兴+ = 0
−
geneous materials by constant speed impact. To this end, the across the discontinuity, these relations reduce to the classical
model equations are expressed as a coupled system of partial dif- ones for a pure phase solid. These classical relations are combined
ferential equations 共PDEs兲 in a steady wave frame using the trans- with Eqs. 共7兲 and 共8兲 to obtain a single transcendental expression
formation = x − Dt and v = u − D, where D is the wave speed, and for sh which is solved numerically using a Newton–Raphson
and v are position and velocity measured relative to the wave. technique. With sh known, all remaining shocked solid variables
Equilibrium solutions of the steady equations are first analyzed to
identify compaction wave end states, and these end states are can be determined. Equation 共23兲 is integrated for T̂ ⫽ Tm 0
. Equa-
compared to experimental data. Next, the initial boundary volume tion 共24兲 is integrated through the melt region 共0 ⬍ ˆ ⬍ 1兲 for
problem 共IBVP兲 defined by the steady equations, the wave speed, 0
which T̂ = Tm .
P= 冉冊
D
0
2
共0 − 兲. 共27兲
For a given ambient state, the slope of this line in the P- plane is
dependent only on compaction wave speed D. The expression can
be combined with the integrated form of the energy equation to
obtain the Hugoniot curve for the granular solid: Fig. 3 Predicted and measured Hugoniot curves for granular
and solid HMX in „a… P- and „b… D-up planes. The PBX 9404
1
e − e0 = 2 P共0 − 兲. 共28兲 data is for a pressed mixture of 94% granular HMX and 6%
plastic binder.
This expression gives the mass specific work done in compressing
the granular material from its initial specific volume, 0, to its
final values P and . Again, not all of this work is recoverable due
nearly linear increase in wave speed over the range of impact
to internal dissipation. Using Eqs. 共7兲 and 共8兲, and the equilibrium
conditions considered in this work. The minimum predicted wave
conditions Ps = 共s , ,
˜ 兲 and ˜ = f共兲, compaction wave end
speed for the existence of a steady compaction wave is D
states are given by the intersection of the Rayleigh line and Hugo- = 290 m / s. This analysis demonstrates that the model reasonably
niot curve. The piston speed is then computed from the wave captures experimentally measured results.
speed and the equilibrium value of by u p = 共1 − / 0兲D. Finally, we remark that the Hugoniot curves depend on initial
Figure 3 summarizes predicted compaction wave end states in material density which is characteristic of materials with memory.
the P- and D-u p phase planes for granular HMX having 0 Dynamic loading of precompacted materials 共i.e., 0 ⬎ f 兲 exhibit
= f = 0.655, and compares these predictions to the experimental time-dependent, two-wave structures for a range of impact speeds
values reported by Sheffield 关30兴 and Sandusky and Liddiard 关31兴 共typically 10⬍ u p ⬍ 100 m / s兲 that depend on 0 which are similar
for granular HMX having similar initial densities. Also shown are to those in dynamically loaded solids possessing a Hugoniot elas-
the predicted shock Hugoniots for solid HMX and experimental tic limit. Such compaction waves consist of a lead viscoelastic
data for PBX 9404, a pressed plastic bonded explosive consisting precursor followed by a slower viscoplastic wave. The inelastic
of 94% granular HMX and 6% binder. The PBX data 关32兴 is component of solid volume fraction is constant through the pre-
included to illustrate that the shock Hugoniot for solid HMX is cursor 共˜ = 0兲, whereas it irreversibly increases through the vis-
approached by materials possessing a high granular HMX loading coplastic wave. Here, the meaning of the terms viscoelastic and
density. Several features are noteworthy. First, as seen in Fig. 3共a兲, viscoplastic are conventional 关23兴 in that the granular solid stress
the model reasonably describes the P- response of the initially depends on both volumetric strain and strain rate 共loading history兲
stress free material. Low pressure compaction of loose HMX
共0 = 0.79 cm3 / g兲 is largely inelastic resulting in a significant de- by its dependence on and ˜ , respectively. A consequence of this
modeling attribute is that experimentally observed features such
crease in material volume due to grain fracture and rearrangement,
as strain hardening, stress relaxation, and hysteresis can be pre-
and plastic deformation. The material stiffens as the grains con-
dicted; a recent discussion and analysis is given in Ref. 关33兴. We
solidate at higher pressure, and the granular material response
restrict our analysis in this paper to steady waves, though some of
tracks that of the pure phase solid. Second, the model accurately
these waves still retain features of unsteady two-wave structures.
describes the D-u p response as shown in Fig. 3共b兲. Weak impact
results in low pressure compaction waves that propagate at speeds 4.2 Compaction Wave Structure. Results for a typical sub-
much less than the ambient solid acoustic speed 共D ⬍ cs0 sonic and supersonic wave structure are presented in this section.
= 2767 m / s兲 due to internal dissipation. There is predicted a For both cases, the ambient stress free material has a solid volume
fraction of 0 = 0.81; thus, the material has been pre-compacted. dicted. Remnants of the viscoelastic precursor are evident in the
This value is chosen so that we can directly compare our model figure. To our knowledge, experimental evidence of such precur-
predictions to results of the mesoscale simulations performed by sors resulting from mild impact is lacking, possibly because of
Menikoff and Kober 关11兴 as discussed in Sec. 4.4. inadequate resolution, though mesoscale simulations clearly indi-
Figure 4 gives predictions for the variation in bulk quantities cate the presence of such waves 关11,34兴. A continuous, dispersed
through the compaction zone for u p = 106 m / s and D structure is predicted. All variables shown monotonically increase
= 748.2 m / s. Here, the head of the compaction wave is located at from their initial to final values through both the viscoelastic and
= 0 mm and its structure lies in the region ⬍ 0 mm. This piston viscoplastic regions of the compaction wave. As seen in Fig. 4共e兲,
speed is only slightly higher than that needed for a steady wave to a peak bulk temperature of approximately Ts = 306 K is predicted,
exists; at lower speeds, unsteady two-wave structures are pre- which is well below the ignition temperature of HMX 共Tig
⬇ 600 K兲, yet confined DDT experiments clearly indicate the on-
set of sustained combustion for piston speeds of this magnitude.
Thus, ignition models based on bulk temperature are too insensi-
tive to accurately predict combustion thresholds.
We now describe the predicted localized heating response of the
material. The number density of localization sites surrounding in-
tergranular contact surfaces, nc, increases as the material is com-
pacted 共see Fig. 4共f兲兲. The volumetric compressive and inelastic
heating rates within the vicinity of these localization sites, Ŝ and
Ŝ, respectively, are shown in Fig. 5. For this impact speed, com-
pressive heating is several orders of magnitude less than the maxi-
Fig. 6 Predicted variation in „a… grain radius, localization radii,
mum inelastic heating rate 共Ŝ ⬇ 1.28 GW/ cm3兲 and is thus in- and „b… grain temperature through the compaction zone for
consequential. The corresponding grain and localization radii, and 0 = 0.81, up = 106 m / s, and D = 748.2 m / s
grain scale temperature, are shown in Fig. 6. Inelastic heating
occurs within the spherical volume defined by the localization
center radius rc; as mentioned, this volume characterizes the mass spot temperature within the compaction zone, we perform a ther-
of plastically deformed material due to integranular contact near mal explosion analysis for a two-phase reacting system 共HMX
the surface located at r = 0 m. A measure of plastic strain for our → product gas兲. To this end, we use the rate expression for HMX
localization model is the fraction of solid volume affected by plas- combustion given in Ref. 关35兴, and assume 共1兲 a well-stirred re-
tic work, ⑀ pl = 共rc / r0兲3. For this simulation, ⑀ pl = 0.0089; thus, little actor, 共2兲 an incompressible solid, 共3兲 there is initially no gas
material is plastically deformed. The viscoelastic region of the present, and 共4兲 the solid and product gas are in thermal equilib-
wave 共for which ˜ = 0兲 induces a weak hot spot near the inte- rium. With these assumptions, a two-phase thermal explosion
granular contact surface which is rapidly quenched by thermal model can be expressed by
conduction prior to the onset of viscoplastic heating. More intense s0 + gg = s00 , 共29兲
precursor hot spots may be induced under different loading con-
ditions. Plastic work occurring within the viscoplastic region is s0es + ggeg = s0es0 , 共30兲
冉 冊
highly localized near the contact surface resulting in a peak hot-
spot temperature of 970.3 K. Temperatures of this magnitude may d T‡
trigger prompt combustion initiation consistent with DDT experi- = Z共1 − 兲exp − , 共31兲
dt T
ments. However, the hot-spot duration is short 共relative to the
compaction zone length兲 as it contains insufficient thermal inertia g g
to overcome conductive losses. A fully coupled thermochemical = =1− , 共32兲
analysis would be required to determine whether such a hot spot s0 + gg 0
will result in sustained combustion; nonetheless, the likelihood of
a thermal explosion occurring within the compaction wave trig- + g = 1, es = cvT + q, eg = cvgT. 共33兲
gered by our predicted hot-spot temperature is analyzed below Equations 共29兲 and 共30兲 are statements of mass and energy con-
based on a asymptotic analysis. Importantly, melting is shown to servation, respectively. Equation 共31兲 gives the evolution of reac-
reduce the predicted hot-spot temperature by 100.4 K based on an tion progress 共0 艋 艋 1, where = 1 is complete reaction兲 and Eq.
equivalent simulation without phase change. The melt region is 共32兲 relates the reaction progress variable to the solid volume
identified in Fig. 6共b兲. An estimate for the volume fraction of fraction . Equation 共33兲 gives the saturation constraint and equa-
liquid formed is given by l = 共rl / r0兲3, where rl is the liquid core tions of state for the solid and gas, respectively. Other variables in
radius. For this simulation, l ⬇ 0.0038Ⰶ ; thus, we are justified these equations are the gas-phase density and volume fraction, g
in ignoring the presence of a bulk liquid phase. and g. Constant parameters include the pre-exponential factor
To estimate the explosion length induced by the predicted hot- Z = 5.0⫻ 1019 s−1, activation temperature T‡ = 2.65⫻ 104 K, gas
lex ⬅ Dtex =
cvT2c D
ZT‡关q + 共cv − cvg兲Tc兴
exp冉 冊
T‡
Tc
. 共36兲
mate for volumetric plastic strain ⑀ pl = 共rc / r0兲3 = 0.812. All material An explosion length of lex Ⰶ 1 nm is predicted by Eq. 共36兲 indi-
within the localization sphere is simultaneously heated to tem- cating prompt initiation of sustained combustion. The phase
perature Tsh = 332.6 K across the shock. Subsequently, inelastic change front is evident near the exterior of the localization sphere.
heating causes the temperature near the contact surface to rapidly The volume fraction of liquid formed is l = 共rl / r0兲3 ⬇ 0.47.
increase to approximately 2700 K, while the temperature in the Also, gas phase products likely exist at elevated temperature due
grain interior gradually increases due to progressive spreading of
to sublimation and vaporization. Though ignored here, these re-
plastic deformation. Thermal conduction plays an insignificant
role at this impact speed resulting in long duration hot spots 共rela- sults suggest that multiphase fluid mechanics may play an impor-
tive to the wave thickness兲 that would rapidly induce combustion. tant role in hot-spot formation for strong impact.
within the range f = 0.655艋 0 艋 0.93. Here, it is understood that time rate of change of integrated total energy within the material
all material for which 0 ⬎ f has been pre-compacted and un- and is given by Pi = Psu p. Though not plotted here, the input
loaded resulting in a strain hardened granular solid of lower po- power varies from approximately Pi = 1.38 MW/ cm2 for 0
rosity than the uncompacted, virgin material. We take u p = 0.81 to Pi = 7.77 MW/ cm2 for 0 = 0.93. Interestingly, compac-
= 150 m / s for these simulations. There is predicted a nonlinear tion zone length reaches a maximum value near 6.4 mm for 0
increase in both compaction wave speed and solid pressure with = 0.66. A similar trend was predicted by Powers et al. 关8兴, for the
0 as seen in Figs. 12共a兲 and 12共c兲; the corresponding increase in dynamic compaction of granular HMX. While the origin of this
solid volume fraction is shown in Fig. 12共b兲. The material trend is unclear, it cannot be attributed to recoverable changes in
crush-up pressure increases with strain hardening resulting in volume fraction induced by strain hardening because, as opposed
greater elastic compaction, wave speeds, and input power for to our more physically realistic model, the model of Ref. 关8兴 does
fixed u p. The input power per unit cross-sectional area, Pi, is the not account for it; thus, this result is independent of key differ-
ences in our constitutive theories. The variation in volumetric occurring when the pressure reaches that needed for material
plastic strain ⑀ pl with 0 is shown in Fig. 12共e兲. Here, ⑀ pl de- crush-up; a detailed discussion of dynamic compaction for strain
creases with 0 though both the input power and compaction hardened material is given in Ref. 关7兴.
wave strength increase; a minimum value of ⑀ pl = 0.0112 is pre- When the governing equations are suitably scaled, an important
dicted for 0 = 0.93. The number density of intergranular contact parameter that appears is the ratio of time scales associated with
sites is large for densely packed material. As such, the applied the relaxation processes given by Eqs. 共21兲 and 共22兲, ⍀
load, assumed uniformly distributed between grains through their ⬅ c / 共s0D2
˜ 兲 关36兴. The value of this parameter can significantly
contact surfaces, results in much less localized plastic deformation affect compaction dynamics as illustrated in Fig. 13. Here, we
than for looser material. Figure 12共f兲 gives the variation in Ŝ take 0 = 0.81, u p = 106 m / s, and c = 100 kg/ 共m s兲, and vary
˜
within the compaction zone for several values of 0. The magni- by several orders so that ⍀ = 0.1, 1.0, and 1.0⫻ 104. For each of
tude of the inelastic heating rate increases with 0 to a maximum these cases, the final equilibrium state is the same 共 = 0.936, Ps
value of Ŝ = 10.4 GW/ cm3 for 0 = 0.93. The discontinuity seen = 130.45 MPa兲, as is the wave speed 共D = 748.2 m / s兲, because ⍀
in these plots is due to the abrupt onset of viscoplastic heating only controls that rate at which the compaction end state is ap-
Introduction the deformation is predicted even though the theory was not struc-
tured to capture this aspect of material response. In this paper, we
There are classes of quasi-brittle solids where cracks tend to
will examine the problem further, and we will provide a formal
follow tortuous paths when the local stress or strain conditions for method with theorems and associated proofs by which different
the crack propagation are satisfied. Examples are ceramics, where damage functions could consistently be developed leading to no
microcracks are intergranular, and concrete, where cracks emanate snapback in the solution.
from weak interfacial bonds, propagate through the mortar phase,
and go around aggregate particles that act as energy barriers. Dur- General Formulation
ing the process of microcracking, material grains are severed leav-
ing the strained solid as “damaged.” Such a process alters elastic It is assumed that damage remains distributed within the repre-
moduli and can lead to a strong material anisotropy. sentative volume element. This physically corresponds to the ex-
In the absence of any inelastic flow, which is assumed here, the istence of a multitude of microcracks uniformly distributed within
progressive damage can be modeled using damage mechanics the material element. It is further assumed that neighboring or
theories 共CDM兲 关1–4兴. Different theories of CDM have been pub- constraint equilibrium states exist for all irreversible processes.
lished to address diverse characteristics of material inelasticity For small, rate-independent and isothermal deformations, and in
associated with damage. One class of damage models that has the absence of any body couples, a thermodynamic potential can
be used to construct the general formulation. Adopting a stress
received great interest among researchers was published by Ortiz
space formulation in which only mechanical deformations are
关1兴 and Ju 关2,3兴 where a fourth-order damage representation was
considered, the Clausius–Duhem inequality yields:
employed. The basic approach by Ortiz, which was a stress-based
formulation, was further refined to capture the response of brittle Ġ −
˙ : 艌 0 共1兲
solids under proportional and nonproportional load paths 关5,6兴, to
model softening and localization phenomena 关7,8兴, to model load in which the thermodynamic state function is represented by
induced damage in ceramics 关9,10兴, and to model concrete inelas- G共 , k兲 as the Gibbs free energy 共GFE兲 and the strain tensor is
ticity using a strain-based formulation 关11兴. denoted by . The Cauchy stress tensor is identified as and k is
Yazdani et al. 关12兴 reported that a problem arose when a bilin- used as an internal variable accounting for the load induced dam-
ear damage function was used instead of the logarithmic one that age accumulation in the material. The symbol “:” indicates the
had been utilized in the original models. They reported that an tensor contraction operation. It is assumed that damage is irrevers-
apparent snapback was observed in the solution, for the uniaxial ible and that no healing takes place in the material, i.e., k̇ 艌 0. For
stress path, in the strain-softening regime regardless of the slope elastic-damaging processes, the total strain is obtained by the fol-
used. Although it is recognized that some physical damage pro- lowing constitutive relation as:
cesses do lead to localized deformations, the term apparent snap- 共,k兲 = C共k兲: 共2兲
back is used in this paper to refer to the development of an inter-
nal contradiction in the damage model itself where snapback in in which C represents the fourth-order compliance tensor for the
material. The dependence of C on k reflects the idea that damage
alters elastic properties and allows for the description of load-
induced anisotropy 关13,14兴. As was the case in the original dam-
1
To whom all correspondence should be addressed.
Contributed by the Applied Mechanics Division of THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERS for publication in the ASME JOURNAL OF APPLIED MECHAN-
age model by Ortiz 关1兴, it is assumed that no permanent deforma-
ICS. Manuscript received by the Applied Mechanics Division, May 7, 2004; final tion will arise due to the misfit of crack faces. The inclusion of the
revision, October 13, 2004. Associate Editor: Z. Suo. Discussion on the paper should inelastic damage strain tensor will not alter the results of this
be addressed to the Editor, Prof. Robert M. McMeeking, Journal of Applied Mechan- paper although appropriate relations including a corresponding
ics, Department of Mechanical and Environment Engineering, University of
California-Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-5070, and will be accepted until
evolutionary relation for the inelastic strain tensor must be added.
four months after final publication in the paper itself in the ASME JOURNAL OF The Clausius–Duhem inequality establishes two results. The first
APPLIED MECHANICS. one is the dissipation inequality,ds, given as
Journal of Applied Mechanics Copyright © 2005 by ASME JULY 2005, Vol. 72 / 553
G共,k兲
ds = k̇ 艌 0 共3兲
k
and, the second one is the statement that GFE is a potential for the
strain tensor as:
G共,k兲
共,k兲 = = C共k兲: 共4兲
To progress further, assume that the rate of the added flexibility
tensor is expressed as a linear form in k as Ċc共k兲 = k̇ R in which R
is a fourth-order damage response tensor. Integrating Eq. 共4兲 with
respect to and substituting back in Eq. 共3兲 yields:
ds = 冉 1
2
:R: −
Ai共k兲
k
冊
k̇ 艌 0 共4a兲
Fig. 1 Normalized damage function t„k… / ft vs normalized k / k*
for logarithmic and bilinear damage functions
= 冉 冊
1
E0
+ k 1共k兲 =
1
E0
冉 冊
+ k t共k兲 共9兲
From the structure of Eq. 共9兲 one can see that the initial slope of
the curve is given by E0. Furthermore, the right-hand side of Eq.
共9兲 is the product of two functions. One function, 共共1 / E0兲 + k兲, Fig. 2 Stress–strain curves for logarithmic and bilinear dam-
monotonically increases with k; the other function, t共k兲, first in- age functions for = 0.08, 0.10 „E0u / ft = e…
1 艋 lim 冉 xm⬘共x兲
m共x兲
冊艋 + ⬁ as x → 0+ and
lim 冉 xm⬘共x兲
m共x兲
冊= 0 as x → + ⬁ 共10兲
Fig. 3 Schematic representation of Eq. „14…
冕
⬁
THEOREM 1. Let m共x兲 be a model function. Then, for each triple
of positive values E0 , u , f t with f t ⬍ E0u, constants c1 and c2 can g共s兲ds = + ⬁. 共16兲
0
be found such that with:
The model function m共x兲 is then formulated and obtained as
共k兲 = c2m共c1k兲 共12兲
the constitutive relation
共k兲 c1c2m共c1k兲
m共x兲 = exp 冉冕 0
ln共x兲
g共u兲du 冊 共17兲
共k兲 = = 共13兲
1 c1 THEOREM 2. The function obtained from Eq. 共17兲 is a model
+k + c 1k function.
E0 E0
Proof. With the change of variable s = ln共u兲, we get
冉冕 冊 冉冕 冊
will display no snapback in the – space and will have a unique s=ln共x兲 x
maximum at the point 共 , 兲 = 共u , f t兲. g共ln共u兲兲
m共x兲 = exp g共s兲ds = exp du 共18兲
Proof. We assume that there is a unique positive constant k* u
s=0 1
associated with the uniaxial tensile strength, f t, and is determined
experimentally by k* = 共u / f t兲 − 1 / E0. To show that 共k兲 is a It is immediate from condition 共a兲 above on g共s兲 that m共x兲 defined
strictly increasing function, we recall the property 共a兲 of the model by Eq. 共16兲 is C共0 , ⬁兲 and that m⬘共x兲 is also C共0 , ⬁兲. By condi-
functions defined previously. Since m共x兲 is a model function and tions 共b兲 and 共c兲 listed above, lim m共x兲 = 0 as x → 0+ and m共x兲 will
constants c1 and c2 are positive, then 共k兲 is a strictly increasing be strictly increasing. By condition 共d兲, m共+⬁兲 = + ⬁ and part 共a兲
function of k and therefore snapback cannot occur. Now we need of the definition of model function is therefore satisfied. By dif-
to show that Eq. 共13兲 is initially strictly increasing, then strictly ferentiating Eq. 共16兲 one obtains
decreasing with maximum occurring at k* corresponding to xm⬘共x兲
= f t and = u. We first note that from Lemma 1, the stress func- = g共ln共x兲兲 共19兲
tion by Eq. 共13兲 is initially strictly increasing, then strictly de- m共x兲
creasing. To show the last part corresponding to the maximum, let so that conditions 共b兲 and 共c兲 on g共s兲 translate directly into part 共b兲
r* be a dimensionless parameter given by r* = E0k*. By solving the of the definition for a model function. QED
equation Example 1. Consider the function m共x兲 = ln共1 + x兲. This function
x*m⬘共x*兲 r* satisfies the definition of a model function as can be checked by
= 共14兲 direct computation. In particular, xm⬘共x兲 / m共x兲 is strictly decreas-
m共x*兲 1 + r*
ing on 关0 , + ⬁兲 and has the limits of one and zero as x approaches
we obtain a positive root x* by the definition of model function zero and +⬁, respectively. As noted in the proof of Theorem 1, the
and that x* satisfies the equation following equation:
xm⬘共x兲 x r* Conclusion
= = 共20兲
m共x兲 共1 + x兲ln共1 + x兲 1 + r* It was shown that if care was not taken, internal contradiction
within a class of continuum damage mechanics models could arise
has a unique positive root at x = x*. By letting r* = E0k*, c1 = E0 where a snapback in the stress–strain curve is observed. To avoid
= 共x* / r*兲, and c2 = u / ln共1 + x*兲, we obtain this problem, a formal method of specifying a family of damage
functions was presented with associated theorem and proofs. It
u
共k兲 = ln共1 + x*k/k*兲 共21兲 was shown that by establishing a set of functions identified as
ln共1 + x*兲 “model functions” possessing certain characteristics the formula-
and the corresponding expression for stress as tion could lead to the construction of a well behaved response in
the stress–strain space. A set of experimentally identifiable param-
u 1 eters is used to correlate model prediction to experimental data.
共k兲 = ln共1 + x*k/k*兲 共22兲 The approach was illustrated with two examples for a general
ln共1 + x*兲 共k + 1/E0兲
class of elastic-perfectly damaging behavior.
The stress–strain response is plotted in Fig. 4 for different values
of stiffness with curves showing no snapback behavior. For one
particular value of stiffness, Ortiz’s model is obtained. Appendix
Example 2. Lemma 2 in the Appendix provides some simple
ways of generating new model functions from any known model Proof of Lemma 1. The derivative can be written as a product
function. For example, starting with the model function ln共1 + x兲 of two terms:
of Example 1, it is immediate from Lemma 2 that
are all model functions, and each individual instance can be used
as m共x兲 for creating a damage function. For example, for case 共a兲
consider the function m共x兲 = ln共1 + x p兲 with p 艌 1. For a set of ex-
perimentally obtained values f t, u, and E0, and following the
steps stated in the proof of Theorem 1, we calculate dimensionless
quantity r* = 共E0u / f t − 1兲 and constants c1 and c2. The plot of this
family of stress–strain curves is shown in Fig. 5 for different
values of p and normalized initial slope E0u / f t = e. All curves are
well behaved showing no snapback characteristics. As p increases,
the curves start to merge, so that the curves are essentially iden-
tical for large p. This is characteristic of this particular model
function and may not be seen if other model functions are used.
Similarly, Fig. 6 shows stress–strain curves based on the model
function m共x兲 = 共ln共1 + x兲兲q for different values of q. No snapback
in the solution occurs. Other model functions could be developed Fig. 6 Normalized stress–strain curves in uniaxial tension
from Eq. 共17兲 resulting in well behaved stress–strain responses from Example 2. Model function „ln„1 + x……q with q = 1 „Ortiz…, 2,
following the steps outlined in this paper. 4, 8.
558 / Vol. 72, JULY 2005 Copyright © 2005 by ASME Transactions of the ASME
xx + yy = 4 Re关⌽共z兲兴 共3兲
and
yy − xx + 2ixy = 2关z̄⌽⬘共z兲 + ⌿共z兲兴 共4兲
In Eq. 共3兲, the symbol Re denotes the real part of the function
⌽共z兲. In Eqs. 共3兲 and 共4兲 and in what follows in this paper, the
prime next to a function denotes the derivative of that function
with respect to the variable in parentheses. A bar over a variable
or function denotes the complex conjugate of that variable or
function.
A combination of Eqs. 共2兲 and 共3兲 gives xx + yy = −P
= 4 Re关⌽共z兲兴. Consequently Re关⌽共z兲兴 is equal to −P / 4. Since Eq.
共2兲 shows that xx, yy, and xy are simple functions of the sine
and cosine of at r equal to R, as a trial, ⌽共z兲 was set at −P / 4 and
Fig. 1 Diagram showing the Cartesian, cylindrical, and angu- ⌿共z兲 was made a function of . Then ⌽⬘共z兲 became zero and Eq.
lar coordinates for the circular cross section 共4兲 became
2P iP
sin + cos = 2⌿共z兲 at r = R 共5兲
P P
yy = − + sin 共2兲
2 Use of the complex form of the sine function, 共ei − e−i兲 / 2i, and
of the cosine function, 共ei + e−i兲 / 2, gives
P
xy = cos − iP i 3iP −i
2 ⌿共z兲 = e + e at r = R 共6兲
4 4
The stresses in the infinite plane below the circular cross sec-
tion may be obtained from two stress functions ⌽ and ⌿ of the Since z = rei and the complex conjugate of z is re−i, ⌿共z兲 may be
complex variable z 关26兴. The complex variable z is x + iy, where x written as
and y have the orientation shown in Fig. 1. The variable z may − iPR 3iPR
also be written in polar coordinates as rei, where r is a radial ⌿共z兲 = + at r = r 共7兲
4z̄ 4z
coordinate. The radial coordinate r has a value of zero at the
center of the circular cross section and a value of R at the perim- Equations 共3兲 and 共4兲 can be combined to give
eter of the circle. yy + ixy = 2 Re关⌽共z兲兴 + z̄⌽⬘共z兲 + ⌿共z兲 共8兲
The stresses xx, yy, and xy are related to the two functions
⌽共z兲 and ⌿共z兲 by the equations 关26兴 Combining ⌽共z兲 equal to −P / 4 with Eqs. 共3兲, 共7兲, and 共8兲 gives
− P PR sin
yy = +
2 r
− P PR sin
xx = − at r = r 共9兲
2 r
As a check on the previously constructed functions ⌽共z兲 and
⌿共z兲, it can be seen that at r equal to R, Eq. 共9兲 is in agreement
with Eq. 共2兲. The stress yy from Eq. 共9兲 is shown in Fig. 3.
共10兲
Fig. 2 Diagram showing the slight rotation through an angle
of an elliptically shaped cross section embedded in an elastic In Eq. 共10兲, the functions ⌽共兲 and ⌿共兲 are related to two other
material matrix and under a remote applied tensile stress stress functions and and the mapping function 共兲 by 关26兴
⬁
⬘
a−1
f 1 − if 2 = 兺C e
−⬁
k
ik
共14兲 0 = a1⬘ +
共16兲
After expressing several functions in the form of Laurent series The boundary conditions used to evaluate ␣ and  in Eqs. 共15兲
关28,29兴, a series solution 关26兴 was used to find the two functions and 共16兲 are
0 and 0. It was found that 0 and 0 have dominant terms =
0
共17兲
consisting of in powers of 1 and −1.
To overcome the differences in form between , , 0, and 0, = 0 共18兲
and to retain the correct angular distribution of stresses in the
region exterior to the ellipse, and were left alone and 0 and In Eqs. 共17兲 and 共18兲 , refers to the stress for the ellipse interior
0
0 were multiplied by the constants ␣ and : at the outer perimeter of the ellipse and without the superscript
refers to the stress for the exterior of the ellipse.
␣a−1 To retain the correct angular distribution of the stresses outside
0 = ␣ a 1 + 共15兲
the ellipse, the parameters ␣ and  were made functions of at
each value of along the perimeter of the ellipse when satisfying
Eqs. 共17兲 and 共18兲. Since the stresses outside the ellipse are single
valued and continuous at the boundary, each ␣共兲, 共兲 set is
single valued and continuous, as well as the resulting stresses
inside that are derived from 0 and 0.
The results of calculating the stresses outside and inside ellipses
of various shapes are shown in Figs. 4–7. Figure 8 shows the scale
of shading used for the contours in Figs. 4–7.
4 Discussion
The result that the functions 0 and 0 for the interior of an
ellipse primarily consist of terms containing and −1 appears to
be a general case for regions of a shape that allow conformal
mapping onto a circular ring. For k greater than or equal to 2, the
coefficients ak in Eq. 共15兲 are given by 关26兴
k共20 − −2
0 兲ck − 共0 − 0 兲c̄k
2k −2k
ak = 共19兲
k2共20 − −2
0 兲 − 共0 − 0 兲
2 2k −2k 2
5 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
Support for part of this work from a National Research
Council-Air Force Research Laboratory Research Associateship
and from an American Society for Engineering Education Post-
doctoral Fellowship at the U.S. Army Research Laboratory is
gratefully acknowledged.
References
关1兴 Ohji, T., Kusunose, T., and Niihara, K., 1998, “Threshold Stress in Creep of
Alumina-Silicon Carbide Nanocomposites,” J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 81, pp.
2713–2716.
关2兴 Oh, S.-T., Sando, M., and Niihara, K., 1998, “Preparation and Properties of
Alumina/Nickel-Cobalt Alloy Nanocomposites,” J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 81, pp.
3013–3015.
关3兴 Davis, L. C., and Allison, J. E., 1993, “Residual Stresses and Their Effects on
Deformation in Particle-Reinforced Metal-Matrix Composites,” Metall. Trans.
A, 24, pp. 2487–2496.
关4兴 Kovalev, S., Ohji, T., Yamauchi, Y., and Sakai, M., 2000, “Grain Boundary
Strength in Non-Cubic Polycrystals with Misfitting Intragranular Inclusions,”
J. Mater. Sci., 35, pp. 1405–1412.
关5兴 Mizushima, I., Hamada, M., and Shakudo, T., 1978, “Tensile and Compressive
Stress Problems for a Rigid Circular Disk in an Infinite Plate,” Bull. JSME,
21, pp. 1325–1333.
关6兴 Wang, J., Andreasen, J. H., and Karihaloo, B. L., 2000, “The Solution of an
Fig. 8 Shading scale used for the stress contours in Figs. 4–7 Inhomogeneity in a Finite Plane Region and its Application to Composite
564 / Vol. 72, JULY 2005 Copyright © 2005 by ASME Transactions of the ASME
˙ r + ˙ + ˙ z = 0 共4c兲
Equations 共4a兲–共4c兲 produce the following differential equation:
dv v
+ +C=0
dr r
which defines the radial velocity field
b 1 b2 − r2
v共r兲 = − V + C
r 2 r
冉 冊 共positive outward兲 共5兲
冉 冊
axial direction 关9兴; hence, when a number of slices piles up to
build a long cylinder, no conflict among them arises and the plane b 1 b2 − a2
U = v共a兲 = − V + C
stress solution maintains its validity. On this basis, one can write a 2 a
b2 r2 − a2 a2 b2 − r2 Equations 共5兲 and 共6a兲–共6c兲 govern the motion of the only mecha-
r = − q 2 2 −p 2 共1a兲 nisms consistent with the assumptions, which are governed by the
b −a r 2
b − a2 r2
two parameters V and C. For von Mises’ materials the dissipation
共per unit volume兲, when expressed as an explicit function of strain
b2 r2 + a2 a2 b2 + r2
= − q + p 共1b兲 rates, reads
b2 − a2 r2 b2 − a2 r2
D̂ =
冑2
3 0
冑共˙ r − ˙ 兲2 + 共˙ − ˙ z兲2 + 共˙ z − ˙ r兲2 = 冑 32 0冑˙ r2 + ˙ 2 + ˙ z2
z = n 共1c兲
where equality holds because of constraint 共4c兲. Then, from Eqs.
where 共1a兲 and 共1b兲 are the plane stress components and 共6a兲–共6c兲 one obtains
冑 冑 冉 冊
F 20 b2 b3 1 2 b4
n= 共2兲 D̂ = V2 共7兲
共b2 − a2兲 4 − VC 4 + C 3 + 4
3 r r 4 r
is the axial force per unit cross section, defining the axial stress The kinematic theorem of limit analysis establishes
due to F.
Since shearing stresses vanish throughout, the von Mises yield ⌸=D 共8兲
criterion reads where
e = 1
冑2
冑共r − 兲2 + 共 − z兲2 + 共z − r兲2 艋 0 共3兲 ⌸ = 2bqV + 2apU + FC = 2b共q − p兲V + 共b2 − a2兲共n + p兲C
e being the effective stress and 0 the tensile yield strength. The 共9a兲
elastic limit is attained when Eqs. 共1a兲–共1c兲 fulfill condition 共3兲 as
is the external work and
an equality for some r in the interval a 艋 r 艋 b.
冕 冕冑 冉 冊
b b
2.2 Plastic Collapse. The kinematic theorem of limit analysis 4 b2 b3 1 2 b4
D = 2 D̂rdr = 0 V2 − VC + C 3 + rdr
关14兴 states that the ultimate load can be computed by equating the a
冑3 a
r4 r4 4 r4
work of external loads to the work plastically dissipated in the
motion corresponding to the collapse mechanism 共strictly speak- 共9b兲
ing, the equality involves powers rather than works, the mecha- is the amount dissipated by the material. In writing Eqs. 共9a兲 and
nism motion being defined in terms of velocities, but the termi- 共9b兲 the length H of the cylinder was assumed as unitary. The two
nology used often is preferred兲. For arbitrary mechanisms the parameters V and C must be selected so that, for the load condi-
procedure only provides upper bounds; however, the exact value tion considered, the external work 共9a兲 is positive.
is obtained when the actual collapse mechanism is employed. In The dissipation D is a positive homogeneous of degree one
the present case, this can be defined unambiguously because of function of V, C, and one can write
the conditions of polar symmetry, generalized plane strain, and
isochoric plastic flow, the latter imposed by the normality rule D D
D= V+ C
when the von Mises criterion is used. These conditions imply V C
Polar symmetry:
so that Eq. 共8兲 becomes
vr = v共r兲 v = 0, ˙ r =
dv
dr
˙ =
v
r
共4a兲
冉 2b共q − p兲 −
D
V
冊 冉
V + 共b2 − a2兲共n + p兲 −
D
C
C=0 冊
Generalized plane strain:
共10兲
˙ z = C 共const兲 共4b兲 This relation applies independently of the relative values of V and
Isochoric plastic flow: C. Hence
冕冑
b 2V 4 −C 4
D 2 r r
冉 冊
2b共q − p兲 = = 0 rdr
V 冑3 a b2 b3 1 b4
V2 4− VC 4 + C2 3 + 4
r r 4 r
共11a兲
D
共b2 − a2兲共n + p兲 =
C
b3 1
冉 冊
b4
冕冑
b −V + C 3 +
2 r4 2 r4
冉 冊
= 0 rdr
冑3 a b2 b3 1 b4
V2 4− VC 4 + C2 3 + 4
r r 4 r
共11b兲
The mechanism amplitude being arbitrary, different mechanisms
merely correspond to different ratios C / V. Let this ratio be repre-
sented by a dimensionless parameter , defined by the relation
V
C= 共12兲 Fig. 2 Hydrostatic pressure
b
then one can write
V2
b2
r
b3 1 2
冉 冊 冉冉 冊 冊
b4
4 − VC 4 + C 3 + 4 = V
r 4 r
2 b
r
2
1
4 1−
2
2
3 1
+ 2 2
4 b
first of Eqs. 共15兲. However, the distinction among internal and
external radii is of importance when the assumption is used for
moderately thick cylinders, as frequently done in the literature.
冉 冊
The cylinder being statically determinate, its elastic and col-
b2 b3 b2 1
lapse limits coincide and are obtained from condition 共3兲 imposed
2V 4 − C 4 = 2V 4 1 −
r r r 2 as an equality for the stresses above.
−V
b3 1
r
冉 冊 冉 冉 冊冊
b4
4 + C 3+ 4 =
2 r
V 3
b 2
b4
r
1
− 4 1−
2
3 No Internal Pressure
and Eqs. 共11a兲 and 共11b兲 become 3.1 Elastic Limit. The meaning of the results in the preceding
sections is better understood if the special case p = 0 is first con-
1 sidered. As for the elastic limit, observe that the von Mises effec-
冕 冑冉 冊
b 1− tive stress is maximum at the inner radius, where one has
V 2 2 dr
q−p= 0 共13a兲
兩V兩 冑3 1 2
3 r r 4 b2
a
1− + 2 4 r = 0, = − 2q , z = n
2 4 b b2 − a2
冉 冊
Then condition 共3兲 reduces to a quadratic equation that is easily
3 r4 1
冕 冑冉 冊
− 1− solved to give
冉冑 冉 冊 冊
b
V 2 b2 2 b4 2 dr
n+p= 0 2 2 1 b2 − a2 3 n 2
1 n
兩V兩 冑3 b − a 1 2
3 r r 4 q = 0 1− − 共16兲
a
1− + 2 4 2 b2 4 0 2 0
2 4 b
Equation 共16兲 expresses the pressure at the elastic limit as a func-
共13b兲 tion of the axial load. Particular cases worth mentioning are Pure
where the sign of V is dictated by the condition pressure: When n = 0 the solution reads
⌸=
2
b
关2b 共q − p兲 + 共b2 − a2兲共n + p兲兴V ⬎ 0 共14兲 n = 0, q = qe = 0
t
b
冉1−
1t
2b
冊 共17a兲
For any assigned value of , Eqs. 共13a兲 and 共13b兲 establish the Pure axial load: For q = 0 one obtains the obvious result
relations among q , p, and F at collapse. Closed-form expressions q=0 n = ne = ± 0 共17b兲
for the integrals on their right-hand sides are available, but do not
provide significant advantages with respect to numerical integra- Hydrostatic pressure: This condition implies 共see Fig. 2兲
tion, which is carried out easily by exploiting standard software, b2
such as MATLAB. F = − b 2q ⇒ n = − q
b − a2
2
2.3 Thin-Shell Approximation. For comparative small ratios As a consequence, at the elastic limit one has
冉 冊
t / b, t = b − a being the wall thickness, stresses are usually assumed
to be constant. This makes the cylinder statically determinate, and 2 t 1t 1
global equilibrium establishes
qHe =
冑3 0 b 1−
2b
, nHe = −
冑3 0 共17c兲
b a In writing the results above, use was made of the geometric rela-
= − q + p , z = n, r = 0 共15兲 tion
t t
If tubes are actually thin, often the further assumption a ⯝ b ⯝ R,
1
R = 2 共a + b兲 being the mean radius, is introduced when writing the
1 b2 − a2 t
2 b2
= 1−
b
1t
2b
冉 冊 共18兲
冕 冑冉 冊
b 1−
2 2 dr
q= ±
冑3 0 1 2
3 r r 4
共19a兲
a
1− + 2 4
2 4 b
冉 冊
3 r4 1
冕 冑冉 冊
2 b 4 − 1−
2 b 2 b 2 dr
n= ± 0 共19b兲
冑3 b2 − a2 1 2
3 2 r4 r
a
1− + 4
2 4 b
the sign being decided by condition 共14兲.
For particular values of the solution is easy. As it is immedi-
atly verified, = 2 implies
= 2: ⇒ q = 0 n = n0 = ± 0 共20兲
Fig. 3 Limit external pressure
and corresponds to collapse under 共tensile or compressive兲 axial
load alone. For the case = 0, which implies a plane strain situa-
tion 共no elongation in the axial direction兲, one obtains 3.3 Thin-Cylinder Approximation. By introducing expres-
2 sions 共15兲 written for p = 0 in condition 共3兲 and by enforcing it as
b
= 0: ⇒ q = qH = 0lg an equality, one obtains
冑3 a
2b2 b b2
q = 0
t
b
冉冑 冉 冊
1−
3 n
4 0
2
−
1 n
2 0
冊 共23兲
n = nH = − 0 2 2 lg = − 2 2 qH 共21兲
冑3 b − a a b − a Eq. 共23兲 is widely used to express the limit external pressure as
function of the axial load 关3,8兴. One has, in particular: Pure pres-
The first of these results is well known 关11兴. The second estab- sure:
lishes that this situation corresponds to hydrostatic pressure 共Fig.
2兲. t
0 = 0
qTS n=0 共24a兲
The case of pure external pressure is not equally straightfor- b
ward. The relevant value q of is obtained by solving Eq. 共19b兲,
Axial load only:
written for n = 0. Namely,
冉 冊
q=0 0 = ± 0
nTS 共24b兲
3 r4 1
冕 冑冉 冊
b − 1− Hydrostatic pressure: The thin-cylinder approximation implies in
2 b4 2 dr this case
2 4 r
= 0 ⇒ q
1 3 2r z
a
1− + 4 =−
nt 1
=
2 4 b qb 2
When 共19a兲 is evaluated for q, results turn out to be approxi- and from 共23兲 one obtains
mated to an excellent accuracy by the equation
冉 冊
2 t 1
冑3 0 b 冑3 0 共24c兲
TS TS
t t qH = nH =−
q = 0 1 + k
b b
A best fit over the interval 4 艋 b / t 艋 20 establishes k = 0.247 and, 4 General Loading
with a further slight approximation, one can write Fully analogous considerations apply when internal pressure
= q: ⇒ q = q 0 ⯝ 0
t
b
冉1+
1t
4b
冊 n=0 共22兲
also acts, and results are presented and discussed, omitting com-
putational details.
The elastic limit is evaluated straightforwardly by enforcing
The expression above is plotted in Fig. 3 共solid line兲. Comparison equality in Eq. 共3兲 at the inner radius r = a, where yielding always
with numerical results 共dots兲 shows that it is fully acceptable for initiates. Only, it must be noted that values for internal pressure
engineering purposes.
It is of interest to note that the same formula with k = 0.235 was
arrived at empirically on the basis of numerical solutions for long
cylinders, with no a priori enforcement of the generalized plane
strain constraint 关3兴. The difference in coefficient k affects the
result by ⬍0.4% already for b / t = 4, and the error diminishes rap-
idly with increasing slenderness.
The solutions for other values of are computed from Eqs.
共19a兲 and 共19b兲. In this way, interaction curves in the q-n plane
can be constructed. For some b / t ratios they are depicted in Fig. 4.
Dots indicate where the solution predicts V = 0, when the lateral
expansion caused by axial compression exactly compensates the
effect of external pressure and separate zones with different signs
in Eqs. 共19a兲 and 共19b兲. Fig. 4 External pressure versus axial load interaction curves
5 Conclusions Aknowledgment
This study proposes a procedure for the evaluation of the col- The authors wish to thank professor Carlo Lombardi of the
lapse load of cylindrical shells subject to pressure and axial force, Department of Nuclear Engineering of Politecnico di Milano for
accounting for possibly significant wall thickness. The result is encouragement, suggestions, and helpful discussion.
obtained by using the kinematic theorem of limit analysis, which
produces the exact result 共instead of a mere upper bound兲 pro-
vided that the collapse mechanism is identified without ambiguity. References
A crucial role to this end is played by the assumption of general- 关1兴 Carelli, M. D., 2003, “IRIS: A Global Approach to Nuclear Power Renais-
ized plane strain, imposing that axial strains are uniform without sance,” Nuclear News, 46共10兲, pp. 32–42.
preventing possible elongation of the tube. The assumption is rea- 关2兴 Haagsma, S. C., and Schaap, D., 1981, “Collapse Resistance of Submarine
Lines Studied,” Oil & Gas Journal, Feb. 2, pp. 86–91.
sonable for long cylinders under axially symmetric loading, since 关3兴 Tamano, T., Mimaki, T., and Yanagimoto, S., 1985, “A New Empirical For-
any attempt at possibly nonuniform longitudinal strains is con- mula for Collapse Resistance of Commercial Casing,” Nippon Steel Technical
trasted by the adjacent portions and received indirect corrobora- Report No. 26, pp. 19–26.
tion by numerical analyses performed on tubes of moderate 关4兴 Yeh, M. K., and Kyriakides, S., 1986, “On the Collapse of Inelastic Thick-
Walled Tubes under External Pressure,” ASME J. Energy Resour. Technol.,
length, with no a priori enforcement of the constant axial strain 108共1兲, pp. 35–47.
condition 关3兴. For the load conditions examined, the same results 关5兴 Tokimasa, K., and Tanaka, K., 1986, “FEM Analysis of the Collapse Strength
as in this study were obtained. of a Tube,” ASME J. Pressure Vessel Technol., 108共2兲, pp. 158–164.
Results are produced in parametric form, the parameter being 关6兴 Yeh, M. K., and Kyriakides, S., 1988, “Collapse of Deepwater Pipelines,”
ASME J. Energy Resour. Technol., 110共1兲, pp. 1–11.
the ratio among the radial and axial velocities in the motion asso- 关7兴 Assanelli, A. P., Toscano, R. G., and Dvorkin, E. N., 1998, “Analysis of the
ciated to the collapse mechanism. Despite the unfriendly aspect of Collapse of Steel Tubes Under External Pressure,” Computational Mechanics:
the equations, their numerical integration by means of standard New Trends and Applications, S. Idelshon et al., eds., CIMNE, Barcelona.
software is easy 共closed-form expressions for the integrals are 关8兴 Huang, X., and Mihsein, M., 2000, “Finite Element Prediction of the Ultimate
Collapse Strength of Casings,” Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., Part C: J. Mech. Eng.
available, but advantages with respect to numerical integration are Sci. 214, pp. 1515–1527.
questionable兲. In this way, families of limit interaction curves 关9兴 Timoshenko, S., and Goodier, J. N., 1951, Theory of Elasticity, McGraw-Hill,
共each referring to different radius-to-thickness ratios兲 can be pro- New York.
duced, which permit, for any of the load conditions considered, an 关10兴 2001 ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code, 2001, ASME, New York.
关11兴 Prager, W., and Hodge, Ph. G., Jr., 1951, Theory of Perfectly Plastic Solids,
easy assessment of the safety factor with respect to plastic col- Wiley, New York.
lapse and may provide a useful alternative to computation. For 关12兴 Mendelson, A., 1968, Plasticity: Theory and Application, MacMillan, New
specific, but important, situations the collapse limits are expressed York.
by simple formulas, such as Eq. 共22兲 for pure external pressure or 关13兴 Corradi, L., Luzzi, L., and Trudi, F., 2004, “Plasticity-Instability Coupling in
the Ultimate Behavior of Thick Tubes,” Int. J. Struct. Stab. Dyn., 5共1兲, pp.
Eqs. 共21兲 for the hydrostatic condition. 1–18.
Comparison to existing formulas, mostly based on simplifica- 关14兴 Koiter, W. T., 1960, General Theorems of Elastic Plastic Solids, Progress in
tions that consider the tube as a thin shell, shows that the more Solids Mechanics, 1, North-Holland, Amsterdam, pp. 165–213.
1 Introduction stan, and Grashof’s study 关2兴 of the frictional mechanics of belt
drives under steady operating conditions. A comprehensive review
Belt drives are widely used to transmit power between machine
of studies on belt-drive mechanics after Grashof and up to 1981 is
elements. Common applications include drives transmitting power
given by Fawcett 关3兴. The aforementioned studies of Euler and
from electric motors to rotational elements in home appliances
Grashof developed the classical creep theory of belt-drive opera-
such as washing machines, vacuum cleaners, and tape drives;
tion. In this theory, a Coulomb law governs the belt-pulley fric-
from gas engines to cutting elements in lawn and garden equip- tional contact, and the belt is treated as a string which adheres to
ment such as lawnmowers, rototillers, and snow blowers; and the pulley in an initial adhesion arc, and creeps against the pulley
from the crankshaft pulley to accessory pulleys in automobiles in a subsequent slip arc. Classical creep theory was reviewed by
and other transportation vehicles, where the accessories include Johnson 关4兴, and recently updated with new inertial effects by
alternators, air-conditioning compressors, and power-steering Bechtel et al. 关5兴 and Rubin 关6兴. Smith 关7兴 experimentally verified
pumps. The life of the belt drive in all these applications depends the existence and locations of the classically predicted stick and
critically on the tension magnitudes in the belt spans and the ex- slip zones using a very thin, data tape cartridge. Other studies
tent of belt creep on the pulley. have considered the mechanics of the belt drive with belt shear
Even in a belt drive transmitting a constant torque between effects, including Firbank 关8兴 and Gerbert 关9,10兴. Gerbert 关9,10兴
machine elements, the translating belt is subjected to cyclic ten- also included seating/unseating and radial compliance effects in
sion variations as its tension transitions from a larger to a smaller his analysis. Townsend and Salisbury 关11兴 derived the power loss
tension on the driver pulley, and then from a smaller to a larger expression and the efficiency limit of a belt drive assuming the
tension on each driven pulley, before returning again to the driver validity of the classical creep theory.
pulley. As a result, fatigue of the belt, and the subsequent perma- Much recent emphasis of belt-drive studies has been on the
nent set and loss of compliance, is a large consideration in belt- dynamic response of automotive serpentine belt drives to crank-
drive design. Additionally, the belt is subjected to sliding wear as shaft excitation. Serpentine belt drives include an automatic ten-
the belt creeps against the pulley during tension transitions. This sioner which attempts to take up belt slack in the drive system.
wear can have a detrimental effect on the belt’s friction character- These studies have considered both the rotational response of the
istics as the belt surface deteriorates, and can lead to gross slip pulleys and/or the transverse response of the axially moving belt,
and noisy operation. These considerations motivate the need for a and have simplified the belt-pulley contact to linear stretching and
thorough understanding of belt-drive mechanics, and the need for viscous damping models. Barker 关12兴 studied belt-drive tensions
belt-drive models which can accurately predict belt span tensions resulting from rapid engine acceleration, Hwang et al. 关13兴 studied
and belt creep. the periodic rotational response of the serpentine belt drive, and
The earliest studies of belt-drive mechanics include Leonard Beichman et al. 关14–16兴 studied the coupled rotational and trans-
Euler’s study 关1兴 of a belt wrapped around a fixed pulley or cap- verse response of a three-pulley prototypical serpentine belt drive.
Leamy et al. 关17,18兴 included a Coulomb dry friction damper to
the tensioner arm element, and also studied the serpentine drive’s
Contributed by the Applied Mechanics Division of THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERS for publication in the ASME JOURNAL OF APPLIED MECHANICS.
rotational response. Kraver et al. 关19兴 linearized the dry friction in
Manuscript received by the Applied Mechanics Division, November 4, 2003; final the tensioner arm and developed a complex modal approach to
revision, October 29, 2004. Associate Editor: M. P. Mignolet. Discussion on the analyze the drive’s rotational response. Most recently, Kong and
paper should be addressed to the Editor, Prof. Robert M. McMeeking, Journal of Parker 关20,21兴 have included bending stiffness in their analysis of
Applied Mechanics, Department of Mechanical and Environmental Engineering,
University of California—Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-5070, and will be
the belt spans and have found an alternate mechanism responsible
accepted until four months after final publication in the paper itself in the ASME for coupling rotational and transverse belt motions.
JOURNAL OF APPLIED MECHANICS. The two groups of studies reviewed above, namely belt-drive
570 / Vol. 72, JULY 2005 Copyright © 2005 by ASME Transactions of the ASME
mechanics studies and serpentine belt-drive dynamic response
studies, have had little connection to each other due to the lack of
dynamic excitation in the belt-drive mechanics studies, and the
lack of true frictional belt-pulley modeling in the serpentine belt-
drive studies. Leamy et al. 关22–24兴 attempted to bridge this gap by
studying simplified dynamic models for small 关22兴 and large
关23,24兴 rotational speeds. These studies considered individual pul-
leys only, and did not calculate the global response of the entire
belt drive. Furthermore, the case of medium rotational speeds was
not addressed.
Detailed modeling of the belt-pulley contact and the rotational
and transverse response of a two-pulley, spring-supported, belt
drive has recently been completed by Leamy and Wasfy 关25,26兴,
which does combine accurate belt-pulley contact mechanics with
serpentine belt-drive system response 关27兴. In the latter studies, a
dynamic finite element model of the belt drive was developed Fig. 1 Example two-pulley belt drive
using truss or beam elements for the belt, rigid constraints for the
pulleys, and a penalty formulation for modeling the belt-pulley
contact. No restrictions were made on the steady/unsteady char-
acter of the rotational speeds or accessory torques, and the result- governing equations, boundary conditions are specified based on
ing model was shown to be general enough to capture coupled the quasi-static assumption of a single span tension. In this way
pulley rotational and span transverse response. Although accurate the spans serve to connect the belt element domains. Although a
and effective, the finite element model has inherently two major two-pulley drive is explicitly considered, generalization to a drive
disadvantages: 共1兲 a large computational expense, which is par- consisting of any number of pulleys is straightforward.
ticularly inconvenient for parametric and sensitivity studies, and Considering a belt element in Fig. 2 for any pulley, the mass
共2兲 an inability to easily reveal underlying physical phenomena flow rate G of material is given by
due to the availability of only time-history data. G共s,t兲 = vA, 共1兲
As an alternative to the finite element model, this study presents
a closed-form analysis of the frictional contact and global behav- where v共s , t兲 denotes the belt velocity, 共s , t兲 the belt density, and
ior of belt drives for the practically important case of unsteady A共s , t兲 the belt cross-sectional area at location s and time t. Note
belt-drive rotational response. Use of a perturbation method ne- from Fig. 1 that each pulley is considered to have an arc measure
cessitates focusing on unsteady belt drives operating in proximity s originating at the trailing edge of the pulley. Conservation of
to a steady state, although validity criteria reveal that due to the linear momentum yields tension distribution equations along the
large tension differential required to initiate belt sliding, the valid contact arc,
range of operation states is large enough to include typical auto-
motive applications. The lone stick and sliding regions, their ten-
sion distributions, and their locations on the pulley are investi-
兺F C.V. =
t
共mv兲C.V. − 共mv̇兲in + 共mv̇兲out , 共2兲
gated using closed-form expressions ideally suited for parametric where the tangential component of 共2兲 yields
and sensitivity studies. The solution procedure is applied to an
example two-pulley drive and global response quantities are cal- T共s,t兲 G共s,t兲 v共s,t兲 G共s,t兲
+ f共s,t兲 = +G +v , 共3兲
culated and compared to the finite element model in order to s t s s
verify the analytical solutions. and where f denotes the friction force per unit length between the
belt and the pulley. The normal component of 共2兲 yields
2 Closed-Form Analysis: Governing Equations T共s,t兲 − G共s,t兲v共s,t兲
n共s,t兲 = , 共4兲
The analysis of the unsteady operation of a belt drive is pre- R
sented herein using a perturbation approach in which the relative
where n denotes the normal force per unit length. In the
belt motion 共as compared to the pulley motion兲 is assumed to be
following, 共3兲 and 共4兲 are specialized to driver and driven pulleys
similar to that of a steadily rotating belt-drive—i.e., where sliding
with introduction of GDR共s , t兲 , TDR共s , t兲 , vDR共s , t兲 and GDN共s , t兲 ,
is present, the two share the same direction of sliding, but do not
necessarily share the same extent of sliding and/or sliding magni- TDN共s , t兲 , vDN共s , t兲 representing mass flow, tension, and velocity
tude. During steady operation 共i.e., constant applied torque and along the driver 共 DR 兲 and driven 共 DN 兲 pulleys, respectively.
angular velocities兲, the belt slips in a single direction in a lone slip
zone at the trailing edge of the pulley 关4,7兴, as shown in Fig. 1. A
stick zone occupies the remaining portion of the belt-pulley con-
tact zone. The analytical solutions presented herein for unsteady
operation are developed based on an assumption of similar contact
behavior—single slip zone, single stick zone—which forms the
basis for an asymptotic perturbation procedure. Following devel-
opment of the perturbation solution, criteria are presented in Sec.
4 for assessing the appropriateness of this assumption based on a
candidate drive’s parameter space.
2.1 Element Conservation Equations. The equations gov-
erning the motion of a belt element in contact with any pulley
共driven or driver兲 are developed using a fixed element control
volume evaluated using conservation principles, resulting in a Eu-
lerian description of the belt kinetics. Belt strain and stress, as
well as material constitutive modeling, are developed using a La- Fig. 2 Belt element used to develop the belt-drive governing
grangian description of the belt. Following development of the equations
再
the fixed control volume shown in Fig. 3,
f共s兲 =
− n共s兲, slip zone共driver兲,
n共s兲, slip zone共driven兲,
兵 共9兲 r⫻F+M=
t
冕C.V.
共r ⫻ v兲dV + 冕 C.S.
共r ⫻ v兲v · dA,
冕
equations governing the tension distributions along the driver and
driven pulleys:
R共TL − TH兲 + M = − RGDN共s,t兲ds − I
˙ DN
t
TDR共s,t兲 TDR共s,t兲 − GDRvDR共s,t兲 GDR共s,t兲 vDR共s,t兲 Belt
− = + GDR
s R t s + R共GLDNvLDN − GH vH 兲,
DN DN
共18兲
G 共s,t兲
DR where I denotes the pulley’s mass moment of inertia about its axis
+ vDR , 共10兲 of rotation, M is the moment resisting the driven pulley motion,
s
and where subscripts L and H denote quantities evaluated for the
low- and high-tension spans. A second relation derives from belt
TDN共s,t兲 TDN共s,t兲 − GDNvDN共s,t兲 GDN共s,t兲
+ = length compatibility which equates the unstretched belt length cal-
s R t culated from the geometry of the deformed 共or operating兲 configu-
belt
vDN共s,t兲 GDN共s,t兲 ration to the known unstretched belt length Lref ,
冖
+ GDN + vDN . 共11兲
s s ds belt
= Lref , 共19兲
1+苸
2.3 Stress-Strain Relations. Using a Lagrangian description,
a differential belt element with undeformed length dsref has de- where the integral is taken over the entire belt length, ds is an
formed length, element of length in the deformed configuration, and strain is
discussed in Sec. 5. solution. Note that the spatial variation of the mass flow rate G on
Time-dependent consideration of each span is also required for the pulley contact arc has been neglected in the assumed expan-
unsteady operation. The rate of change of the span’s strain deter- sion 共25a兲 in order to simplify the analysis of the tension distri-
mines the rate of change of each span tension. Considering the top butions. This assumption is instead a fact for the steady analysis
span, the strain rate can be expressed as 关5兴, and thus for the O共0兲 analysis presented herein. Tension
苸̇ H =
dt
冉 冊
d L − L0
L0
=−
共1 + TH兲 dL0
L0 dt
, 共20兲
terms arising due to the spatial variation of G1 are expected to be
negligible for stiff belts, where stretching is minimal—evaluating
a mass conservation statement shows the spatial change in G1 is
where L denotes the span’s current length and L0 = L / 共1 + TH兲 inversely proportional to the belt stiffness. Analysis of the belt
denotes an equivalent unstretched length. Accounting for changes velocity is the primary concern of Sec. 4 and is computed directly
in L0 due to belt entering the span 共⌬L0兲in = vH
DN
/ 共1 + TH兲 · ⌬t and from the tension distributions without a need to restrict the func-
leaving the span 共⌬L0兲out = R / 共1 + TH兲 · ⌬t, the desired ex-
DR tional form of G.
pression for the time rate of change of the span tension can be
stated as 3 Analytical Solution Approach
The perturbation quantities are now introduced into the equa-
dTH 共1 + TH兲
= EA苸̇ H = 共RDR − vH
DN
兲, 共21兲 tions governing the tension distributions and are then separated
dt L0 into orders of .
while a similar expression can be stated for the low-tension span, 3.1 Ordered Equations. Substituting the expansions into the
dTL 共1 + TL兲 definition of the mass flow rate G共s , t兲, 共16兲 yields
= EA苸̇ L = 共RDN − vLDR兲. 共22兲
dt L0 ref ArefvDR
0 共s兲 ref Aref vDN
0 共s兲
0: GDR
0 = , GDN
0 = , 共26a兲
The global drive relations 共18兲–共22兲 apply to the two-pulley drive 1 + T0 共s兲
DR
1 + T0 共s兲
DN
mentum relation 共18兲 for each driven pulley, and by including a 1: 1 共t兲 =
GDR − ,
1 + T0 共s兲
DR
1 + TDR
0 共s兲
time-dependent span relation similar to 共21兲 for each additional
span.
ref ArefvDN
1 共s,t兲 0 T1 共s,t兲
GDN DN
DR共t兲 = DR
0
+ DR
1
共t兲 = steady + osc sin t TDR
0 共s兲 TDR DR DR
0 − G0 v0
0: − = 共GDR vDR共s兲兲, 共27a兲
s R s 0 0
= steady共1 + sin t兲, 共23兲
where for small oscillations about a steady speed, the small pa- TDN
0 共s兲 TDN DN DN
0 − G0 v0
rameter can be defined as = osc / steady. Other quantities in the + = 共GDN vDN共s兲兲, 共27b兲
s R s 0 0
problem can then be expanded in a classical perturbation approach
using this parameter. Following this approach, the driven pulley TDR vDR
1 共s,t兲 TDR DR DR DR DR
1 − G0 v1 − G1 v0 1
angular velocity is assumed to have the form 1: − = GDR
s R 0
s
DN = DN
0
共t兲 + DN
1
共t兲 + 2DN
2
共t兲 + O共3兲. 共24兲
vDR
0 GDR
1
Expanding all remaining response quantities results in the follow- + GDR + , 共28a兲
ing perturbed expressions for the mass flow rate, tensions, veloci-
1
s t
ties, span tensions, and slip arc magnitudes,
TDN
1 共s,t兲 TDN DN DN DN DN
1 − G0 v1 − G1 v0 vDN
1 vDN
0
GDR + = GDN + GDN
GDR 1 共t兲 + O共 兲, GDN GDN
1 共t兲 + O共 兲,
DR 2 DN 2
G = 0 + G = 0 + s R 0
s 1
s
共25a兲 GDN
1
+ . 共28b兲
T DR
= 0 共s兲
TDR + TDR
1 共s,t兲 + O共 兲,
2
T DN
= 0 共s兲
TDN + TDN
1 共s,t兲
t
+ O共2兲, 共25b兲 The tension and velocity boundary conditions 共5兲–共8兲 separate
into orders of readily at s = 0,
0 共s兲 + v1 共s,t兲 + O共 兲,
vDR = vDR 0 共s兲 + v1 共s,t兲
DR 2
vDN = vDN DN
0: = 兩TDN
0 共s兲兩s=0, T L0 = 兩TDR
0 共s兲兩s=0 , 共29a兲
0
TH
+ O共 兲, 2
共25c兲 DN
vH,0 = 兩vDN
0 共s兲兩s=0,
DR
vL,0 = 兩vDR
0 共s兲兩s=0 , 共29b兲
TL = T L0 + TL1 共t兲 + O共 兲,
2
TH = 0
TH + TH
1
共t兲 + O共 兲,
2
1: 1
TH 共t兲 = 兩TDN
1 共s,t兲兩s=0, TL1 共t兲 = 兩TDR
1 共s,t兲兩s=0 , 共30a兲
共25d兲
DN
vH,1 共t兲 = 兩vDN
1 共s,t兲兩s=0,
DR
vL,1 共t兲 = 兩vDR
1 共s,t兲兩s=0 , 共30b兲
vLDN = vL,0
DN
+ vL,1
DN
共t兲 + O共2兲, DN
vH DN
= vH,0 + vH,1
DN
共t兲 + O共2兲,
whereas the presence of in both the expansions for DR, DN
共25e兲 and in the expansions for tensions and velocities do not yet allow
O共兲 separation of the s = RDR and s = RDN boundary condi-
vLDR = vL,0
DR
+ vL,1
DR
共t兲 + O共2兲, DR
vH DR
= vH,0 + vH,1
DR
共t兲 + O共2兲, tions. Conservation of driven pulley angular momentum 共18兲
共25f兲 yields
DN
1
0 共vL,0 − vH,0兲,
DN DN
共31a兲
0 共s兲
TDN = 冉 0
TH −
GDN
0
2
1: R共TL1 共t兲 − TH
1
共t兲兲 + I 0 共vL,1 共t兲 − vH,1共t兲兲
= RGDN DN DN
共35b兲
t
which are those obtained in the steady case 关5兴. With functional
1 共vL,0 − vH,0兲, 共31b兲
DN DN
+ RGDN
forms now known for TDR0 共s兲 and T0 共s兲, the boundary conditions
DN
where the belt acceleration term at O共1兲 has been assumed neg- at s = RDR and s = RDN can be stated at O共0兲,
ligible compared to the pulley acceleration term. Exact compat-
0: 0
TH = 兩TDR
0 共s兲兩s=RDR, TL0 = 兩TDN
0 共s兲兩s=RDN , 共36兲
ibility 共19兲 separates into orders as
冖 0 共s兲兩s=RDR = RDR,
= 兩vDR 0 共s兲兩s=RDN = RDN .
= 兩vDN
DR 0 DN 0
ds vH,0 vL,0
:
0 belt
= Lref , 共32a兲
1 + T0共s兲 共37兲
The two boundary conditions 共37兲 yield the mass flow rates,
:
1
冖 T1共s,t兲ds
共1 + T0共s兲兲2
= 0. 共32b兲 GDR
0 =
Rref Aref
1+ TH
0 DR
0
, GDN
0 =
Rref Aref
1 + TL0
DN
0
, 共38兲
Finally, the time-dependent span relations separate into while substitution of 共34兲 and 共38兲 into 共33a兲 yields the fact that
the O共0兲 mass flow rates are equal as in the steady solution, i.e.,
0: 0 = 共1 + T H
0
兲共RDR
0
− DN
vH,0 兲/L0, 0 = 共1 + TL0 兲共RDN
0
GDR DN
0 = G0 = G0, and yields the driven pulley’s angular velocity,
− DR
vL,0 兲/L0 , 共33a兲 1 + TL0
DN
0
= DR
0
. 共39兲
1 + TH
0
1
dTH 1+ T H
0
TH
1
共t兲
1: = 共RDR
1
共t兲 − vH,1
DN
兲+ 共RDR
0 DN
− vH,0 兲, The slip arc metrics are given by solution of 共36兲,
L0 L0
冉 冊
dt
1 TH0
− G20/共ref Aref − G20兲
共33b兲 DR
0 = 0 =
DN
ln 0 . 共40兲
TL − G20/共ref Aref − G20兲
dTL1 1 + TL0 TL1 共t兲 The only remaining quantities to find are then TL0 and TH 0
using the
= 共RDN
1
共t兲 − vL,1
DR
兲+ 共RDN
0 DR
− vL,0 兲.
dt L0 L0 global drive relations. This is accomplished by solving 共31a兲 for
共33c兲 TL0 and substituting this result and 共35兲, 共38兲, and 共40兲 into 共32a兲.
Note that the quasi-static tension assumption invoked earlier is
3.2 0 Solution. The solution for the O共0兲 response quanti- exact for the O共0兲 tensions since they are independent of time,
ties now follows sequentially from the O共0兲 equations developed and so exact satisfaction of 共32a兲 is possible. Finally, a root solver
0
above. An expression for v0 can be obtained in terms of the mass can be used to solve the remaining equation for TH once the belt-
drive parameter space has been defined. This procedure is com-
flow rate G0 and the tension T0 from 共26兲:
pleted for an example drive in Sec. 5.
G0 3.3 1 Solution. Following a similar procedure to that devel-
v0共s兲 = 共1 + T0共s兲兲. 共34兲
ref Aref oped for O共0兲, the O共1兲 equations are solved sequentially. Re-
Substitution of 共34兲 into 共27兲 yields differential equations govern- arranging 共26b兲 for v1,
0 共s兲, T0 共s兲 in the slip zones. Solution
ing the spatial change of TDR DN
共1 + T0共s兲兲G1 + T1共s,t兲G0
of these equations and application of the s = 0 boundary conditions v1共s,t兲 = , 共41兲
ref Aref
共29a兲 yields the tension distributions,
the driver and driven tension equations 共28兲 can be expressed as
0 共s兲 = TL −
TDR 0
冉 GDR
0
2
共41兲 into 共28兲, solutions are found, and the O共1兲 s = 0 boundary
conditions 共30a兲 are applied. The resulting tension solutions are
共35a兲 given as
冉
1 共s,t兲 = TL共t兲 −
TDR 1 0 G1 − 共R/兲共ref Aref − G0 兲共G1 /t兲兲
ref Aref共2GDR DR 2 2 DR
2
2
2
冊 e共/R兲s
2
0 G1 − 共R/兲共ref Aref − G0 兲共G1 /t兲兲
ref Aref共2GDR DR 2 2 DR DR
+ 2 , 共42a兲
共ref Aref − GDR
0 兲
2
1 共s,t兲
TDN = 冉 1
TH 共t兲 −
0 G1 + 共R/兲共ref Aref − G0 兲共G1 /t兲兲
ref Aref共2GDN DN 2 2 DN
2
2
2
冊 e−共/R兲s
2
0 G1 + 共R/兲共ref Aref − G0 兲共G1 /t兲兲
ref Aref共2GDN DN 2 2 DN DN
+ 2 . 共42b兲
共ref Aref − GDN
0 兲
2
DR
1 冉
TL0 −
refAref −
GDR
0
2
GDR
0
2 冊 DR
e0 + TDR
1 共s = R0 ,t兲 = TH ,
DR 1
DN
1 冉
0
TH −
G0
ref Aref − G0
DN2
DN2
冊 DN
e−0 + TDN
1 共s = R0 ,t兲 = TL ,
DN 1
where A, B, and f are given in the Appendix. Following definition
of the belt-drive parameter space, particular solutions to 共47兲 are
found numerically with the resulting expressions being expressed
共43b兲 as
1 共s = R0 ,t兲
1
TH − TDR DR
d = 关− A − B · 关A兴−1 · B兴−1 · f, c = − 关A兴−1 · B · d.
DR
1 = ,
共 兲e DR
2 2
TL0 − 0 /共ref Aref −
GDR GDR
0 兲
0 共49兲
1 共s = R0 ,t兲
− TL1 + TDN DN
DN
1 = . 共44兲
共TH0 − GDN
0 /共ref Aref − G0 兲兲 e
2 2 DN
DN −0
4 Validity Criteria
A similar procedure for the velocity boundary conditions 共7兲 can
In this section, a criterion governing the validity of the solution
be pursued, but yields unnecessarily lengthy expressions for
approach is developed by requiring that in the slip zone, the belt
1 共t兲, G1 共t兲. Since the quantities of interest in this section of
GDR DN
velocity is always greater than the pulley surface velocity for the
the analysis are the tensions, a simpler, approximate approach is driven pulleys, and always less than the pulley surface velocity for
taken to determine the expressions for GDR 1 共t兲 and G1 共t兲 to be
DN
the driver pulley. A second criterion is developed by requiring the
used in the tension distributions. Decoupling ordered belt veloci- stick zone friction forces to be less than the maximum available
ties at s = RDR and s = RDN in a manner similar to that at s = 0, friction force. Together, the two criteria form the required condi-
共7兲 can be replaced with the approximate expressions tions on the solutions for the valid existence of a lone slip and
兩vDR共s,t兲兩s=RDR ⬵ 兩vDR stick zone.
0 共s兲兩s=R0 + 兩v1 共s,t兲兩s=R0
DR
DR DR First, the belt velocity in the pulley slip is accurately analyzed
= RDR
0
+ RDR
1
共t兲, 共45a兲 using the resulting tension distributions of Sec. 3. Recall that an
approximate mass flow rate at O共1兲, and thus belt velocity at
兩vDN共s,t兲兩s=RDN ⬵ 兩vDN
0 共s兲兩s=R0 + 兩v1 共s,t兲兩s=R0
DN O共1兲, was used in determining the tension distribution expres-
DN DN
sions. While this is expected to have very little effect on the ten-
= RDN
0
+ RDN
1
共t兲. 共45b兲 sion distributions calculated due to the small effect of inertial
Expressions for the mass flow rates at O共 兲 then follow from 共41兲 1 tensioning, it may have a significant effect on the calculation of
the difference between the belt’s angular velocity and the pulley’s
evaluated at s = RDR and s = RDN together with 共45兲,
angular velocity, this difference being an O共1兲 quantity.
Rref Aref DR
1
共t兲 − GDR
0 TH共t兲
1
1 共t兲 =
GDR , 4.1 Slip Zone Criterion. In what follows, the tensions 共Sec.
1 + TH
0
3兲 are used to determine the belt velocity in the driven pulley slip
zone. A reconstitution procedure is first performed in which all
Rref Aref DN
1
共t兲 − GDN
0 TL共t兲
1
response quantities are returned to their unperturbed values. Re-
1 共t兲 =
GDN . 共46兲
1 + TL0 constituting the driven pulley slip-zone tension using 共25兲, 共35兲,
and 共42兲, the tension takes the form
Unlike in the O共0兲 analysis, three quantities remain to be deter-
mined: TL1 共t兲, TH
1
共t兲, and DN
1
共t兲. O共1兲 conservation of angular TDN共s,t兲 = TH
e
共t兲e−共/R兲s + TG
e
共t兲, 共50兲
momentum 共31b兲 provides one relationship, while 共33b兲 and 共33c兲
provide the other two necessary relations. Together, these equa- where
TLe共t兲 = 冉 TL0 −
GDN
0
2 冊 冉
+ TL1 共t兲 −
DN 2 2
e
TH 共t兲 = TH
0
− 冉 GDN
0
2 冊 冉
+ TH
1
共t兲 −
DN 2 2
e
TG 共t兲 = 冉 GDN
0
2冊 +
0 G1 + 共R/兲共ref Aref − G0 兲共G1 /t兲兲
ref Aref共2GDN DN 2 2 DN
冕
t
=␣+ DN共兲d , 共52兲
0
⬘=0
共TLee⬘ + TG
e
兲Rd⬘ , 共53兲
The angular velocity of a belt segment in the driven pulley slip The total time derivative of u␣共␣ , t兲 as seen by an observer mov-
zone can now be developed using a rotating reference frame at- ing with the pulley is then given by a material derivative expres-
tached to the driven pulley, as shown in Fig. 4. Coordinate sion
denotes an Eulerian coordinate measuring angular position of the Du␣ u␣ 1 u␣ Du␣
belt segment in the slip zone—it does not convect with the rotat- = + , 共55兲
ing reference frame. Coordinate ␣ is a Lagrangian coordinate that Dt t R ␣ Dt
does convect exactly with the rotating reference frame and mea- such that
where the time derivative of 共52兲 gives / t = DN. The final 共i.e., e
dTG /dt 1 dTLe
relative to an inertial observer兲 angular velocity expression for a + ⬎ − DN共t兲TLe共t兲 ∀ t. 共60兲
e − 1 dt
belt segment in the driven pulley slip zone follows as
Evaluating this condition at the position of lowest expected veloc-
1 Du␣ ity 共 = 0兲 yields the requirement
DN共,t兲 = DN + . 共57兲
R Dt
dTLe
⬎ − DN共t兲TLe共t兲 ∀ t. 共61兲
An expression is still required for u0 / t. Using the boundary dt
condition that the belt is stuck to the pulley at the start of the slip
zone, DN共 = 0 , t兲 = DN共t兲, one finds Note that this criterion and its development are more general than
the analysis of Sec. 3 in that they are independent of the form of
the time rate of change of TLe—it holds for tension changes due to
u0
= − RDN共TLe + TG
e
兲, 共58兲 driver pulley harmonic excitation as well as tension changes due
t to acceleration and deceleration of the driver pulley, etc. For ex-
ample, one could propose a single slip zone and stick zone exists
such that the final expression for the driven pulley belt angular on either pulley during driver pulley acceleration and again find
velocity is that 共50兲 governs the tension distribution. Equation 共61兲 would
then determine the validity of this proposal in regards to the slip
DN共,t兲 zone.
After a similar analysis for the driver pulley, the following cri-
共1 − 共TLe + TG
e
兲兲DN + 共dTG
e
/dt兲 + 共/兲共dTLe/dt兲共e − 1兲 terion governs the validity of the proposed solutions in the driver
= .
1 − 共TLee + TG
e
兲 pulley slip zone,
共59兲 e
dTH
⬍ DR共t兲TH
e
共t兲 ∀ t. 共62兲
The first validity criteria on the solution can then be determined dt
by requiring the velocity of the belt to be greater than the driven
pulley velocity for all and t, insuring the friction force direction 4.2 Stick Zone Criterion. A second verification of the pro-
inherited from the steady solution is kinematically correct. This posed solutions arises from the requirement that the friction force
condition is met when DN共 , t兲 ⬎ DN共t兲, or when required to maintain the tension distribution in the stick zone not
steady osc EA A R M L T0 I
共rad/s兲 共rad/s兲 = osc / steady 共rad/s兲 共N兲 共kg/m兲 共m兲 共Nm兲 共m兲 共N兲 共kg-m2兲
120 1.885 0.016 100 80,068 0.1036 0.08125 45 0.5105 1.2 827 0.2
兩f共s,t兲兩 ⬍ n共s,t兲 ∀ s,t. 共63兲 Note that when the inertia of the belt is considered to be negli-
Equation 共3兲 can be solved for the friction force f共s , t兲, gible, as is the case in most belt drives, this criterion simplifies to
G 共vG兲 T dTL
⬍ DN共t兲TL共t兲 ∀ t, 共73兲
f共s,t兲 = + − , 共64兲
t s s dt
which involves derivatives of the mass flow rate G. This expres- which closely matches the slip zone criterion 共71兲 evaluated with
sion can be simplified using conservation of mass, negligible belt inertia.
冕 冕
A similar analysis of the driver stick zone yields the criterion
dV + v · dA = 0. 共65兲 dTH
t C.V. C.S.
⬍ DR共t兲TH共t兲 ∀ t. 共74兲
dt
For the fixed, non-deforming control volume of Fig. 1 this expres-
sion evaluates to 4.3 Summary of Validity Criteria. The validity criteria from
Secs. 4.1 and 4.2 can be summarized into two compact criteria,
共A兲 + 共G兲 = 0. 共66兲 dTH dTL
t s ⬍ DR共t兲TH共t兲, ⬍ DN共t兲TL共t兲 ∀ t, 共75兲
dt dt
Multiplying 共66兲 by velocity v and introducing v into the deriva-
tives results in where an assumption of negligible belt inertia has been made.
Note that for a given set of tensions TL and TH, drives operating at
G v v 共vG兲 lower oscillation frequencies and higher steady angular speed in-
= A + G − . 共67兲
t t s s creasingly satisfy the validity criteria.
Substitution of 共67兲 into 共64兲 then yields the expression
v v T
f共s,t兲 = A +G − , 共68兲 5 Validation Results for an Example Two-Pulley Drive
t s s
The solution procedure presented in Secs. 3.1–3.3 is applied to
which in the stick zones simplifies further since the stick zone predict response quantities for an example belt drive composed of
velocity v = RDN共t兲 is not a function of s, a single drive pulley powering a single driven pulley, although as
DN T earlier noted the procedure can consider any number of driven
f共s,t兲 = RA − . 共69兲 pulleys. The analytical results are then compared to a finite ele-
t s ment simulation of the same drive. The parameter space for the
Substituting 共4兲 and 共69兲 into 共63兲, the stick zone criterion can be example drive defined in Table 1 is based closely on that found in
restated as 关25兴 and is typical of an automotive application. An initial belt
冏 冏
tension T0, not previously defined, of 827 N is assumed. The belt
DN T spans are chosen to be of length 2R such that the belt reference
RA − ⬍ 共T − GRDN共t兲兲 ∀ s,t. 共70兲
t s R belt
length Lref in 共19兲 is 6R / 共1 + T0兲.
The tension distribution in the stick zone, by definition, is such As remarked in Sec. 3.2, the tensions TL0 and TH 0
can be found
that the tension at any location s is that of the low-tension span at from 共31a兲 and 共32a兲, completing the O共0兲 solution. The impor-
a previous instance of time. Therefore, tant O共0兲 response quantities for the example drive are given in
冏 冏
Table 2. The tensions TL1 and TH 1
follow from solution of 共47兲,
T 1 1 dTL completing the O共1兲 solution, and also appear in the table. The
=− , 共71兲
s R DN dt t=t⬘ full span tensions TL共t兲 and TH共t兲 are plotted in Fig. 5, as well as
the full pulley angular velocities in Fig. 6. Use of the tension and
where TL is evaluated at the previous time t⬘, i.e., the present time
angular velocity information in the table shows that this drive
minus the time for a belt element to have reached s starting from
meets the validity criteria 共75兲. It is noted from these results that
s = R. Since the right-hand side of 共70兲 can be considered rela-
the analytical solution predicts span tensions neither in-phase nor
tively constant in time due to the perturbation expansion about the
out-of-phase with the driver pulley excitation, but nearly out-of-
steady solution, 共70兲 must be satisfied at a point s which maxi-
phase with each other. Inspection of 共32b兲 shows that this is what
mizes the left-hand side, which is a function of nonconstant rates
is essentially required to satisfy exact compatability at O共1兲. The
of change. It is chosen to evaluate 共71兲 at a location s such that
兩dTL / dt兩t=t⬘ = 兩dTL / dt兩t=t, which is likely to yield the largest value growth and decay of the slip zones, as measured by DR 1 共t兲 and
of the left-hand side at all times t.1 The stick zone criterion can DN
1 共t兲, also show little phase correlation with the excitation
then be updated to source. Finally, for this parameter set, the analytical solution pre-
dicts the driven pulley angular velocity oscillations to be small
relative to the driver oscillations, and nearly out-of-phase with the
1
This statement would be exactly true if DN was constant. driver excitation source.
O共0兲
TL0 TH0 DR
0 DN
0 G0 DR
0
DN
0
O共1兲
TL1 共t兲 TH1 共t兲 DR
1 共t兲 DN
1 共t兲
共N兲 共N兲 共rad兲 共rad兲
1 共t兲
GDR GDN
1 共t兲 DR
1
共t兲 DN1
共t兲
共kg/s兲 共kg/s兲 共rad/s兲 共rad/s兲
In addition to the perturbation solution of Sec. 3, an in-house oscillations and is capable of simulating belt-drive performance
finite element code 关25兴, termed dynamic interaction simulator for a wide range of operating tensions, excitation frequencies, and
共DIS兲, was used to generate results for a similar two-pulley belt excitation amplitudes, although at a large computational burden.
drive. This finite element solution technique is not limited to small Some insight into the behavior of the solution is also lost in the
Fig. 5 Tension time histories in the low- and high-tension spans for the analytical and finite element solutions
Fig. 6 Pulley angular velocity time histories for the analytical and finite element solutions
冤 冥
the analysis of unsteady belt-drive operation. Response quantities L 0 0
predicted in closed form include the pulley tension distributions,
belt-pulley contact forces, and the slip zone metrics. Validity cri- A= 0 L 0
teria have also been presented which guide the usage of the de- 0 0 I
冤 冥
共1 + TH
0
兲RDR
0 R共1 + TH 兲
0 2
RDR
0 −
1+ TL0 1 + TL0
共1 + TL0 兲2RDR
0 共1 + TL0 兲RDR
0
B= − − R共1 + TL0 兲
共1 + TH 兲
0 2
1 + TH
0
2 2 2
− TL0 兲 2R3ref Aref DR共TH − TL兲
0 0 0
R3ref Aref DR
0
R3ref Aref DR
0
2R3ref Aref DR
0
共TH
0
−R+ R− 0 −
共1 + TH 兲
0 2
共1 + TH兲共1 + TL兲
0
共1 + TH兲 共1 + TL兲
0 2 0 共1 + TH兲共1 + TL兲
0 0
冤 冥
R共1 + TH
0
兲DR
0
R共1 + TL0 兲2
f= − DR
0
1 + TH
0
Journal of Applied Mechanics Copyright © 2005 by ASME JULY 2005, Vol. 72 / 581
is used to designate the position of the points occupied by free
space in the current configuration. Furthermore, let 共xi , t兲 be the
free charge per unit area on the surfaces S and define 共xi , t兲 to be
the electrical potential everywhere within the system such that it is
continuous everywhere in space. Note that we will consider only
the electrostatic limit so that t plays the role of a load parameter as
far as the electrical variables are concerned and no attempt will be
made to explore Maxwell’s equations relevant to the electrody-
namic limit. On the other hand, time may have a real meaning as
far as the deformation of material is concerned, as may be the case
in strain-rate-dependent response or in the acoustic limit where
inertia has to be included in the balance laws. To complete the
variables to be considered in the external work statement, we
include the velocity vi共xi , t兲 of material points, the surface traction
Ti共xi , t兲 defined as the force per unit area acting on S, and bi共xi , t兲,
which is the body force per unit volume acting at points in V.
Fig. 1 A dielectric body with body forces, surfaces tractions,
Note that the surface traction Ti and the body force bi arise from
and free charges
sources other than electrical effects and, therefore, do not repre-
sent the influence of charges interacting at a distance or electrical
fields exerting forces on charges. The surface traction Ti and the
ancy with experiment as far as the Maxwell stress is concerned
body force bi and any equivalent quantity defined in the current
may be compensated for by adjustment to the constitutive law for
state will be designated mechanical, though we do not make any
the material stress, presumably leading to nonlinear electrostric-
attempt to characterize how they may arise, whether they come
tive contributions. However, the structure just described is at the
about by gravitational effects or other sources of force in materi-
very least inconvenient due to the restrictions on the permitted
als. To attempt to do so in too fine a detail and make distinctions
Maxwell stress and due to the formalities used to construct the
between forces that arise by electrostatic effects and forces that
electric field.
arise from other effects would illuminate the arbitrariness in how
In the current paper, a different formulation of the problem is
the designations electrical and mechanical are utilized in our
presented, though one in which the basic physics is no different
scheme; e.g., consider a purely ionic solid pressing against an-
from that used in Refs. 关1,3兴. However, the structure of the electric
other purely ionic solid to produce supposedly mechanical traction
field is taken to have a simpler form than used in Refs. 关1,3兴 since
between them. Much of the traction between the two solids in this
we make no attempt to identify different contributions to it such as
case will in fact be electrostatic due to the repulsion of like atoms,
an external field, a depolarization field, or a local field. Instead, a
although some of it will also develop due to quantum exclusion
single electric field is utilized throughout and it is assumed to be
effects. However, in any macroscopic treatment of this problem,
connected to material strain and polarization by a constitutive law.
this interaction between the bodies when pressed together will be
Furthermore, no general prejudgment is made of the relationship
represented by elasticity and the tractions thereby designated to be
between the electrostatic forces 共i.e., the Maxwell stress or alter-
mechanical.
natively the electrostatic stress兲 and the electric field and polariza-
Consider the physical laws governing the electromechanical
tion. Instead, it is assumed that the electrostatic stress is measur-
fields in the material. In the quasi-static limit, Maxwell’s laws
able in experiments either directly through characterization of
state that the electric field must be curl-free and Gauss’ law states
stress and electric fields or through measurement of the constitu-
that the divergence of the electric displacement must be equal to
tive properties of the material. We note that our approach parallels
the volume density of free charge. Therefore,
that used by Landau and Lifschitz 关6兴 but we do not restrict our-
selves to infinitesimal elastic strains of isotropic materials and
piezoelectric materials. It is our belief that this formulation is E j
苸ijk = 0 ⇒ Ei = − 共1兲
more versatile than what has been presented in the past and that it xk xi
is more suitable for incorporation into modern methods such as
finite element analysis. Di
= q in V 共2兲
Balance of Energy for a Deformable Dielectric Material xi
Consider a system consisting of dielectric materials, perfect
conductors, and free space. In the current configuration, the sys- 储Dini储 = on S 共3兲
tem occupies the volume V as shown in Fig. 1. The system is Here, ni are the Cartesian components of the unit normal to the
considered to be isolated so that there is no interaction between surface S pointing from the “⫺” side of the surface out towards
electrical charges residing in the system and those outside. For-
the “⫹” side as shown in Fig. 1, and 苸ijk are the components of
mally, this implies that the volume of interest is shielded electri- the permutation symbol. Then the notation 储 储 represents the dif-
cally from its exterior or that the extent of the system is infinite,
ference or jump in the included quantity across the surface S such
since charges interact with each other over very long distances.
that
However, when practical calculations with approximations are at-
tempted, this formality can be ignored. The perimeter of the sys-
tem plus interfaces within it are designated S in the current con- 储Di储 = Di+ − Di− 共4兲
figuration. The internal interfaces separate the dielectric materials, Furthermore, the electric displacement can be decomposed into
the conductors, and free space from each other. In addition, sec- two parts such that
tors of dielectric with homogeneous or heterogeneous properties
may be separated by surfaces included within S, as may sectors of D i = 0E i + P i 共5兲
free space.
Let the free charge per unit volume within V be q共xi , t兲 where xi where 0 is the dielectric permittivity of free space and Pi are the
is the position of material points in the current configuration and t Cartesian components of the material polarization.
is time. Free charge may be placed in free space, in which case xi Conservation of mass implies that for a given material volume
冕 冕 冕 冕
V
冕 V
共bi + biE兲dV + 冕 S
共Ti + TiE兲dS =
d
dt
冕
V
vidV 共7兲
Note that this statement conforms to the usual definition of elec-
共14兲
冕V
苸ijkx j共bk + bEk 兲dV + 冕 S
苸ijkx j共Tk + TEk 兲dS =
d
dt
冕V
苸ijkx jvkdV
example, ⌬共qdV兲 is the work done by external agencies to bring
the charge ⌬共qdV兲 from infinity to the point where the potential is
. The interpretation of the mechanical work done by the body
共8兲 forces and surface tractions is obvious.
Based on the standard continuum mechanics results for the ma-
Here the components of the electrical body force and surface bEi terial time derivatives of field quantities and volume and surface
traction TEi have been introduced. These forces arise directly from elements 关7, pp. 211–213兴, it can be shown that
冉 冊 冉 冊
electric fields acting in the material and are in addition to the
mechanical body force and surface traction. Furthermore, it is d dq vk q q vk
assumed that the electrical body force can be derived from the 共qdV兲 = +q dV = + vk +q dV 共15兲
dt dt xk t xk xk
Maxwell stress tensor ijM such that
and
冉冐 冐冊
M
ji
biE = in V 共9兲
x j d dDi vk vi
共储Dini储dS兲 = + Di − Dj ni dS 共16兲
where the electrical body force is the effect of charges interacting dt dt xk x j
at a distance or, equivalently, the force per unit volume arising Then, applying these results along with the balance of linear mo-
from electric fields acting on charges. The traction relationship for mentum, Eqs. 共11兲 and 共12兲, we can write the work rate as
冕 冐 冐 冕冉
Maxwell stress is then
TiE = n j储 M dW dDi vk vi q q
ji 储 on S. 共10兲 = ni + Di − D j dS + + vk
Then, in order to satisfy the principle of conservation of linear dt S
dt xk x j V
t xk
冊 冕 冕冉 冊
momentum for a small surface element, the Cauchy stress in the
material, ij, must balance the total surface traction such that vk ji M
ji
+q dV − n j储 ji + M
ji 储vidS − + vidV
along with Eq. 共10兲 xk S V
x j x j
Ti + TiE = − n j储 ji储 ⇒ Ti = − n j储 ji + M
ji 储
where again Ti共xi , t兲 is the nonelectrical 共i.e., mechanical兲 surface
force per unit area acting on S. This statement has an equivalent
共11兲
+ 冕 V
dvi
dt
vidt 共17兲
meaning to Eq. 共10兲. The Cauchy stress difference across a surface Use of the divergence theorem for a collection of subvolumes
must balance both the electrical and mechanical surface tractions. whose union is V and which are separated by the interfaces that
Note, however, that the result in Eq. 共11兲 illustrates why it is collectively compose S gives
difficult, if not impossible, to separately measure the Cauchy and
Maxwell stresses, since it shows that any traction measured by
mechanical means 共i.e., by the only method available兲 is related to
their sum. Since there are no experiments that can separate the
dW
dt
=− 冕 冋冉 V
x i
dDi
dt
+ Di
vk vi
−
xk x j
Dj 冊册 dV
冕冉 冊
effects of the Cauchy and Maxwell stresses unambiguously
关1,3,6兴, it is generally more profitable to consider their sum and 2D i 2D i D i v k
+ + vk + dV
not to try to identify them separately. The sum will be termed the V
txi x k x i x i x k
冕 冕冉 冊
total true stress.
Next, application of Eqs. 共6兲, 共9兲, and 共11兲 within the principles ji M
ji
of conservation of linear and angular momentum and recognition + 关共 ji + M
ji 兲vi兴dV − + vidV
V
xj V
x j x j
that the resultant integrals must be valid for any arbitrary volume
yield
ji M
+
ji
+ bi =
dvi
in V 共12兲
+ 冕 V
dvi
dt
vidV 共18兲
x j x j dt
where Eq. 共2兲 has been used to dispose of the free charge density
and q. Equation 共18兲 simplifies to
冕冋 册
ji + M
ji = ij + ij in V
M
共13兲
dW dDi vi
Thus, for the balance of angular momentum to be satisfied, the = Ei ji − EiD j + EkDk␦ij 兲
+ 共 ji + M dV
total true stress must be symmetric. This requirement reflects the dt V
dt x j
冕
fact that moments due to mechanical body forces and inertia can
be assumed, as usual, to be second order 关7,8兴, but we must allow dvi
+ vidV 共19兲
for the possibility that electric effects induce first-order moments, V
dt
e.g., due to electric fields acting on dipoles in the material 关1,3兴.
Since only the total true stress in the material must be symmetric, where ␦ij is the Kronecker delta.
it is possible that both the Maxwell and Cauchy stress tensors can Note that in regions of space without material, the electric dis-
be nonsymmetric. placement is defined to be 关6兴
冕 冕 冕冋
sidered includes any surrounding space affected by the electric
dW d 1 d 1 dPi fields associated with the body or bodies. Specifically, dU / dt and
= oEiEidV + vividV + Ei dQ / dt are written as
dt dt 2 dt 2 dt
冕 冕 冕
V V V
+ 共 ji + M
ji −
ˆMji − Ei P j + Ek Pk␦ij 兲
vi
x j
dV 册 共23兲
dU d
=
dt dt V
udV +
d
dt V
1
2
oEiEidV +
d
dt V
1
2
vividV 共28兲
where and
ˆ ijM = o共EiE j − 21 EkEk␦ij兲
is thus the Maxwell stress at the specified electric field for free
space absent any material and the second integral on the right-
共24兲 dQ
dt
= 冕V
ṙdV − 冕 Se
q̂inidS 共29兲
hand side has been obtained from the second one on the right of where u is the internal energy per unit mass, ṙ is the heat input
Eq. 共19兲 by use of the first form of conservation of mass, Eq. 共6兲. rate per unit mass, and q̂i are the components of the heat flux
In the derivation of Eq. 共23兲, the fact that vector with the positive sense directed out of the external surface
冕冋 册 冕冋 Se of the system. Note that at all points interior to the system the
dEi vi Ei vi
o Ei − 共EiE j − EkEk␦ij兲 dV = oE i − ˆ ijM heat flux vector is taken to be continuous, eliminating the possi-
V
dt x j V
t x j bility of surfaces acting as sources of heat. Equations 共23兲 and
冉 冊册
共27兲–共29兲 can be combined and must hold for any arbitrary vol-
1 ume yielding a local form for the first law as
+ oE iE iv k dV 共25兲
xk 2
du vi dPi q̂i
has been used and the divergence theorem then provides = 共 ji + M
ji −
ˆMji − Ei P j + Ek Pk␦ij 兲 + Ei + ṙ −
x j xi
冕冋 冊册 冕
dt dt
V
oE i
Ei
+
1
t xk 2
冉
0E iE iv k dV =
V
oE i
Ei
t
dV
The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy pro-
共30兲
冕
duction rate must be equal to or exceed the rate of entropy input to
1 a region, i.e.,
− o储EiEi储nkvkdS 共26兲
冕 冕 冕
S
2
d ṙ q̂ini
The terms on the right-hand side of Eq. 共26兲 combine to give the sdV 艌 dV − dS 共31兲
dt
first term on the right-hand side of Eq. 共23兲. Note that in regions V V Se
of free space without material, the second and third integrals on where s is the entropy per unit mass of the material and is the
the right-hand side of Eq. 共23兲 are both zero 共given that the absolute temperature. Equation 共31兲 can be manipulated by appli-
Cauchy stress is zero there兲, indicating that the first integral gives cation of the divergence theorem to the last term on the right-hand
the rate of energy storage in space to permeate it with the electric side and then required to be valid for any arbitrary volume to yield
field. Thus the third integral on the right-hand side of Eq. 共23兲 is a local form of the second law as
the rate at which work is stored or dissipated in the material, other
than kinetic energy, which is, of course, accounted for by the first ds ṙ 1 q̂i q̂i
艌 − + 共32兲
integral. dt xi 2 xi
Finally, we note that Eq. 共23兲 can be converted to a principle of
virtual work; however, the details will not be emphasized here. Then, defining as the Helmholtz free energy per unit mass, we
Equation 共23兲 is valid for the isothermal response of any electro- have
mechanical material whether the behavior is reversible or dissipa- = u − s 共33兲
tive. However, the next section will focus attention on reversible
material response. and in combination with Eq. 共30兲–共33兲, Eq. 共32兲 can be rewritten
as
Conservative Materials
vi dPi d d
In this section we formally introduce the first and second laws 共 ji + M
ji −
ˆMji − Ei P j + Ek Pk␦ij 兲 + Ei − s −
x j dt dt dt
of thermodynamics for the electromechanical situation under con-
sideration. Ultimately, we will specialize the results to reversible q̂i
material behavior, i.e., conservative materials. In conservative ma- − 艌0 共34兲
xi
terials, the work done by external agencies that is not absorbed by
kinetic energy is stored in the material in the form of elastic dis- For a conservative electro-active material it is assumed that in
tortion, dielectric polarization, piezoelectric response, electrostric- general is a function of the deformation gradient, polarization,
tive behavior, electrostatic interactions, and any other recoverable and temperature, i.e., = 共Fij , Pi , 兲. Note that for material
冋 共 ji + M
ji −
ˆMji − Ei P j + Ek Pk␦ij 兲 −
Fik
F jk册vi
x j
be taken as the rotation invariant polarization ⌸i, which is inde-
pendent of the material stretch, and the strain measure will be
taken as the Green-Lagrange strain ij mentioned above and re-
冋
+ Ei − 册 冋
dPi
Pi dt
− s +
d q̂i
−
dt xi
册
艌 0 共38兲
peated below as
ij = 2 共FkiFkj − ␦ij兲
1
共46兲
Following the methods of Coleman and Noll 关9兴, we postulate that Using these polarization and strain measures, we find more con-
共38兲 must hold for every admissible process. First, consider pro- venient forms of Eqs. 共39兲 and 共40兲 to be
cesses where the deformation gradient, polarization, and tempera-
ture are spatially homogeneous but arbitrary functions of time.
Ei = Rij 共47兲
Such processes can be thought as being controlled by the appro- ⌸ j
priate applications of body forces, charge densities, and heat sup-
ply. For spatially homogeneous temperature distributions the last
term on the left-hand side of 共38兲 vanishes. If dPi / dt and d / dt ji + M
ji = FilF jm +  jikl PkEl + P jEi − PkEk␦ij + ˆ M
lm ji
are taken to be zero and vi / x j is arbitrarily chosen, then 共38兲 is
satisfied only if 共48兲
where
ji + M
ji −
ˆMji − Ei P j + Ek Pk␦ij = F jk 共39兲
Fik Rkn
 jikl = F jm Rln 共49兲
If d / dt and vi / x j are zero and dPi / dt is chosen arbitrarily, then Fim
共38兲 implies The derivative of the rotation tensor is given by 关10兴
Rik 1
Ei = 共40兲 = 关共Vmm␦ij − Vij兲共Unn␦kl − Ukl兲
Pi F jl
If vi / x j and dPi / dt are zero and d / dt is arbitrarily chosen, then − 共VmmRil − Fil兲共VnnR jk − F jk兲兴 共50兲
共38兲 yields
with
s=− 共41兲 = Det共Vkk␦ij − Vij兲 = Det共Ukk␦ij − Uij兲 共51兲
in which Vij is the left stretch tensor given by a polar decompo-
Finally, consider spatially homogeneous and time-independent sition in the form 关7兴
distributions of the deformation gradient and polarization, and
spatially inhomogeneous but time-independent distributions of Fij = VikRkj 共52兲
temperature. Such processes and Eq. 共38兲 then imply the heat Thus
conduction inequality
1
 jikl = V jm共Vnn␦mp − Vmp兲共Vqq␦ir − Vir兲共␦rk␦ pl − ␦rl␦ pk兲 共53兲
− q̂i 艌0 共42兲
xi
Furthermore, it can be shown that 关10兴
The requirements of objectivity 关7兴 place restrictions on the
forms that the constitutive laws can take. This leads us to con-  jikl PkEl + P jEi = ijkl PkEl + PiE j 共54兲
clude that the Helmholtz free energy per unit mass at fixed tem-
perature must have the form and this confirms that the total true stress ji + M
is symmetric as ji
required by conservation of angular momentum. In fact, as long as
= 共Uij,⌸i兲 共43兲 the free energy density is objective, then the law of conservation
of angular momentum, Eqs. 共8兲 and 共13兲, will be satisfied auto-
where ⌸i are the components of the rotation invariant polarization matically 关1兴.
defined as We note that Eqs. 共47兲 and 共48兲 are together equivalent to con-
⌸i = P jR ji 共44兲 cepts developed by Landau and Lifschitz 关6兴 who studied these
issues for infinitesimally strained isotropic elastic materials and
where R ji is the orthogonal transformation arising from polar de- piezoelectric systems through the use of a free energy. We believe
composition of Fij into a pure deformation and a pure rotation 关7兴 that we have therefore placed these ideas into a more general
as framework.
冉 冊 冉 冊
electric field and polarization modified by the effects of straining
and rotation of the material. Note that in the limit of zero strain, 2G 1
ij + ijM = 2Geij + B − ekk␦ij + ˜ − E iE j
this relationship is consistent with what is expected for isotropic 3 2
dielectrics since then the susceptibility is
1
1 − 共˜ + 2兲EkEk␦ij 共64兲
ij−1 = ␦ij 共57兲 2
˜ as identified for this situation by Landau and Lifschitz 关6兴. In Eq.
where ˜ is the isotropic susceptibility of the unstrained material. 共64兲, G is the shear modulus, B is the bulk modulus, and ˜ is the
The relationship in Eq. 共56兲 then becomes dielectric permittivity of the unstrained material such that
1 ˜ = 共1 + ˜兲o 共65兲
Ei = Pi 共58兲
o˜ so that the relationship between the electric displacement and the
The result for stress obtained from Eq. 共48兲 is electric field during infinitesimal straining is given by
ji + M 冉
ji = F jk
e o
− Rmn
kl 2
np
kl
RqpEmEq Fil 冊 Di = ˜Ei
Note that, as observed by Landau and Lifschitz 关6兴, the resulting
total stress in Eq. 共64兲 is symmetric and therefore the conservation
共66兲
where
+ o jiklRkmmnR pnElE p + ˆ M
ji 共59兲 ije = 2Geij + B −冉 2G
3
冊
ekk␦ij 共67兲
has been utilized and the inverse of Eq. 共56兲 has been used to
共60兲
冉 冊
ijes = ˜ −
1
2
1
EiE j − 共˜ + 2兲EkEk␦ij
2
共68兲
eliminate the polarization. In Eq. 共59兲, the term containing the However, there is no implication that the electrostatic stress and
derivatives of e can be considered to be the elastic stress and the the Maxwell stress are identical.
remainder of the right-hand side of the expression can be taken to
be the electrostatic stress as in the usage of Landau and Lifschitz
关6兴. However, this does not imply that the Maxwell stress and the Conservative Materials that Remain Dielectrically
electrostatic stress are identical, since the Cauchy stress, ij, can Isotropic During Straining
have a constitutive relationship that allows it to depend quadrati- Now return to the general case of arbitrarily large deformations
cally on the polarization independently of whatever electrical be- but assume that, upon straining, the susceptibility remains isotro-
havior is associated with the Maxwell stress. Because of the dif- pic and thus objectivity is assured. The susceptibility will be per-
ficulty of measuring the Cauchy and Maxwell stresses separately, mitted to depend on the material density and thus is given by
it is probably impossible to resolve this question experimentally.
Therefore, we will focus on the elastic stress ij = 共兲␦ij 共69兲
e Note that the material density obeys = o / Det共Uij兲, where o is
eji = F jk Fil 共61兲 the density of the material in the reference state. Thus the depen-
kl dence of the susceptibility on the density represents a contribution
and the electrostatic stress to the dependence of the Helmholtz free energy on the right
共71兲 where P is the polarization energy per unit mass of the material
and the term in parentheses in Eq. 共78兲 is clearly the dipole mo-
where is the possibly density-dependent dielectric permittivity ment per unit mass. This relationship for the stored energy of
given by polarization is often assumed to be the correct one for a linear,
isotropic, dielectric material 关1,3兴. The result for the electrostatic
= 共1 + 兲o 共72兲 stress from Eq. 共74兲 is then
so that
ijes = EiE j − 21 oEkEk␦ij = PiE j + ˆ ijM 共79兲
Di = Ei 共73兲
This is another form that can be found in the literature 关1,3兴 as an
To obtain Eq. 共71兲, use was made of the fact that ijklEkEl = 0. As expression for the Maxwell stress. The body force per unit volume
expected, the total true stress is symmetric, reflecting the fact that arising from this electrostatic stress in this material is given by
the balance of angular momentum is satisfied. From Eqs.
共70兲–共73兲 it can be seen that through measurement of the elastic es
ji Ei
response and the dielectric susceptibility, possibly a function of = qEi + P j 共80兲
x j x j
density, the properties of this type of material can be fully char-
acterized. The combined true stress can then be calculated for a where the free charge has been obtained from Eqs. 共2兲, 共5兲, and
given strain and electric field. When the susceptibility remains 共73兲. The expression in Eq. 共80兲, as a postulate for the electrical
isotropic during deformation, the electrostatic stress thus becomes body force per unit volume, has a provenance based on molecular
models for the electrical response of a lattice 关3兴 and therefore
冉 1 1 d
冊
ijes = EiE j − EkEk␦ij + 0EkEk␦ij
2 2 d
共74兲
lends credence to Eq. 共79兲 as an expression for the Maxwell stress
in this particular material. In this case, the body force is the effect
of the electric field acting on free charge plus the net force acting
Now we may explore the implications of different assumptions on induced dipoles because of a gradient in the electric field. The
of how the dielectric permittivity depends on the material density. latter effect is due to the different force magnitude on the positive
If we take the susceptibility to be independent of the density (or and negative charges of the dipole because of the different electric
equivalently that the stored polarization energy per unit current field acting upon them. However, as before there is no implication
volume is proportional to the square of the magnitude of the po- in our approach that the electrostatic stress in Eq. 共79兲 is the
larization vector but insensitive to the density, see Eq. 共55兲), the Maxwell stress, nor that the electrical body force is the expression
electrostatic stress from Eq. 共74兲 becomes given in Eq. 共80兲. As we have emphasized already, there is no
need to adopt any particular postulate for the electrical body force
ijes = 共EiE j − 21 EkEk␦ij兲 共75兲 and the Maxwell stress.
a form commonly seen in the literature as an expression for the A third possibility is that the isotropic susceptibility is inversely
Maxwell stress in a dielectric 关6兴. The body force per unit volume proportional to , which leads to an electrostatic stress given by
associated with the electrostatic stress given in Eq. 共75兲 is
ijes = 共EiE j − EkEk␦ij兲 + 21 oEkEk␦ij = PiE j − PkEk␦ij + ˆ ijM
es
ji E j 共81兲
= Ei = qEi 共76兲
x j x j
The body force per unit volume from this particular expression for
where Eqs. 共2兲 and 共73兲 have been used to establish the free the electrostatic stress in this particular material is given by
charge density. Thus the body force associated with this particular
electrostatic stress in this particular material is the load per unit es
ji P j
volume due to the electric field acting on the free charges, reflect- = qEi − Ej 共82兲
x j xi
ing the fact that an electric field applies a unit force on a unit
charge 关6兴. This would seem to be a reasonable choice as a pos- where, as before, the free charge has been obtained from Eqs. 共2兲,
tulate for the electrical body force and it is often seen as such in 共5兲, and 共73兲. These forms, Eqs. 共81兲 and 共82兲, as a postulate for
the literature. However, there is no implication in our approach the Maxwell stress and the electrical body force, seem to be ab-
that the electrostatic stress in Eq. 共75兲 is the Maxwell stress, nor sent from the literature. However, they can be rationalized as giv-
that the electrical body force is the expression given in Eq. 共76兲. ing a body force that accounts for the electric field acting on free
Indeed, there is no need to adopt any particular postulate for the charges but that also provides for an effect in which the gradient
electrical body force and the Maxwell stress, since the total true of dipole density produces a force opposite to the direction of the
stress is in equilibrium with the mechanical body force whatever gradient. The latter action can be understood as being due to the
the form of the electrical body force and the Maxwell stress and electric field in association with a surplus of positive charges over
this is all that is needed for a complete formulation of the behavior negative charges 共or the opposite兲 at a given point in the material
of the material in response to electric field and strain. Further- when there is a gradient of polarization. However, as before, there
more, the electrical body force and the Maxwell stress cannot be is no implication in our approach that the electrostatic stress in Eq.
determined from measurements of the total true, elastic, or elec- 共81兲 is the Maxwell stress, nor that the electrical body force is the
trostatic stress, neither in terms of their body forces nor their expression given in Eq. 共82兲. As we have emphasized already,
interface or surface tractions. there is no need to adopt any particular postulate for the electrical
Another possible assumption for the susceptibility is that body force and the Maxwell stress.
tion. The susceptibility is isotropic before straining and remains at A special case of this result is where all the stretch ratios are fixed
least orthotropic thereafter because of the lack of shear strain. The at unity. The blocking traction is then
electrostatic stress from Eq. 共62兲 in all situations for this actuator
T33 = 2 共˜ − 1 − 2兲E2
1
共96兲
is then given by
冉 冊
where the relevant value of the partial derivative of the suscepti-
33 o 2 bility component has been deduced from Eq. 共53兲 and, of course,
es
11 = − 1 + 33 + 21 E
11 2 Eq. 共96兲 agrees with the result that can be obtained from the
theory of Landau and Lifschitz 关6兴, since this case is also the limit
es 冉
22 = − 1 + 33 + 2
2
22 2
冊
33 o 2
E 共91兲
of zero infinitesimal strains.
Note that compressibility of the material is essential to our abil-
ity to calculate a meaningful result for the problem just addressed.
冉 冊
If the polymer were exactly incompressible, then the kinematic
33 o 2 relationships would become
es
33 = 1 + 33 − 3
2
E
33 2 1
3 = 共97兲
with the shear components zero. 21
The electrodes are assumed to be very thin and highly compli-
and
ant, as they are in practice 关5,11,16兴, so that they offer no con-
straint on the deformation of the dielectric. Thus, the only me- 1
chanical loads are the tractions T33 applied through the electrodes o3 = 共98兲
共o1兲2
and that act parallel to the x3 axis or, alternatively, the tractions
T11 or T22 applied parallel to the plane of the electrodes. In addi- Then once the stretch parallel to the electrodes of the actuator has
tion, the stretching of the actuator parallel to the plane of the been established, applications of electric field and mechanical
electrodes may also be controlled kinematically. stress are incapable of changing the through thickness strain.
In the first deformation we consider, the principal stretch ratios Thus, actuation in the sense of thickness change for the device
1 and 2 are equal to each other and, consequently, the elastic becomes impossible and there is no need for a blocking traction to
stresses from Eq. 共85兲 are suppress the actuation. All that applications of electric field and
冉 冊 冉 冊
tractions do is to modify the hydrostatic stress in the dielectric
1 1 1 polymer without changing the strain.
e11 = e22 = G − 2/3 1/3 + B 1 − 2 Having demonstrated that one must be careful when using an
3 1 3 1 3
incompressible material model, we now turn to a problem that can
共92兲
冉 冊 冉 冊
be successfully and accurately assessed with a volume-preserving
3 1 1 constitutive law as an approximation to the true behavior when the
e33 = G 2 − 2/3 1/3 + B 1 − 2
1 1 3 1 3 bulk modulus, B, is much greater than the shear modulus, G. In
this problem, the actuator is first stretched in the x2 direction with
with the shear components all zero. The case we will address first
no other tractions or constraints applied and under short circuit
is that where the principal stretch ratios 1 and 2 are controlled
conditions so that E is zero. This stretch ratio is held fixed there-
but within the constraint of being equal. The result, deduced from
Eq. 共7兲, that the traction T33 is balanced by the sum of the 33 after so that 2 = o2 and due to incompressibility at this stage
components of the elastic and electrostatic stresses provides 1
1 = 3 = 共99兲
冉
3 1
冊 冉
G 2 − 2/3 1/3 + B 1 − 2
1 1 3
1
1 3
o
+ E2 1 + 33 −
2
冊
33 2
= T33
33 3
冉 冊 冑o2
An electric field is then applied and simultaneously a traction T11.
In the incompressible limit, the elastic stress is given by Eq. 共90兲
共93兲
with J = 1 and the term containing B is replaced by the negative of
which, in principle, can be solved for 3. When 33 is a function a pressure p. After the electric field is switched on, the stretch
of strain, its derivative will be a function of 3 in a manner that ratios must obey the relationship
can only be determined by experiment. Therefore, the order of Eq.
1
共93兲, through the dependence of the susceptibility on the strain, is 3 = 共100兲
indeterminate without information from such experiments. Fur- 1o2
thermore, if the potential difference between the electrodes is con- and the pressure is calculated from the condition that the sum of
trolled, the electric field will be a function of 3, further compli- the elastic and electrostatic stress in the 33 orientation is zero
cating the equation order. Rather than pursue the solution of Eq. because there is no traction applied in that direction. Thus
冋 册冋 册
共93兲, we will consider the situation where the actuator, without
mechanical load or electric field 共i.e., in short circuit兲, is strained 1 1 33 o 2
p=G − 1 + 1 + 33 − E
in the planar direction to a stretch ratio given by 1 = 01 and then 共1o2兲2 共1o2兲2 33 2
an electric field applied along with blocking tractions sufficient to
共101兲
maintain the stretch ratios as they were before application of the
field. The resulting through thickness strain before application of and it follows that the balance of forces in the 11 orientation
the electric field and traction conforms to a stretch 3 = o3 satisfy- provides
ing
G 冉 o3
−
1
冊 冉
+B 1−
1
冊 =0 共94兲
冋
G 21 −
1
共1o2兲2
册再 − 1 + 33 +
2
冋
1 2 33
1 −
1 33
11 共1o2兲2 33
册冎 oE 2
再 册冎
this blocking traction is then
冋
switching 关18,19兴. Thus, the formulation can and will be extended
1 33 33 to dissipative materials in due course.
T11 = − 1 + 33 + − oE 2 共103兲
2o2 11 33
Acknowledgment
where the electric field and the traction are simple to establish
because the thickness strain of the actuator is given by Eq. 共99兲. The work of CML for this paper was supported by NSF Grant
The result in Eq. 共103兲 predicts to within reasonable accuracy the CMS-0238522 and that of RMM by the UC Discovery Program.
results of an experiment carried out by Kofod 关11兴. It is notable
that if the susceptibility is independent of strain, the traction pre- References
dicted by Eq. 共103兲 is compressive, reflecting the fact that appli- 关1兴 Toupin, R. A., 1956, “The Elastic Dielectric,” J. Rational Mech. Anal., 5, pp.
cation of the electric field will cause the actuator to try to expand 849–914.
parallel to the x1 axis. 关2兴 Voigt, W., 1910, Lehrbuch der Kristallphysik, Teubner, Leipzig.
关3兴 Eringen, A. C., 1963, “On the Foundations of Electroelastostatics,” Int. J. Eng.
Sci., 1, pp. 127–153.
关4兴 Landis, C. M., and McMeeking, R. M., 2000, “Modeling of Fracture in Ferro-
Discussion electric Ceramics,” Smart Materials and Structures: Active Materials: Behav-
The formulation presented in this paper is general and valid for ior and Mechanics, Proceedings of SPIE, edited by C. S. Lynch, Vol. 3992, pp.
176–184.
materials in which the stress can be described by a local theory 关7兴 关5兴 Pelrine, R., Kornbluh, R., Pei, Q., and Joseph, J., 2000, “High-Speed Electri-
and for which couple stresses or a director theory of materials cally Actuated Elastomers with Over 100% Strain,” Science, 287, pp. 836–
response are not needed. In addition, the presentation is, we be- 839.
lieve, free of unnecessary assumption in regard to the nature of the 关6兴 Landau, L. D., and Lifschitz, E. M., 1960, Electrodynamics of Continuous
Media, Pergamon, Oxford.
electrical body force and Maxwell stress in electrostatic systems. 关7兴 Malvern, L. E., 1969, Introduction to the Mechanics of a Continuous Medium,
Instead, the expressions are presented in such a way that measur- Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
able behavior can be used to determine all the necessary functions 关8兴 McMeeking, R. M., 1998, “A Maxwell Stress for Material Interactions,” J.
and constants to completely describe the material constitutive be- Colloid Interface Sci., 199, pp. 187–196.
关9兴 Coleman, B. D., and Noll, W., 1963, “The Thermodynamics of Elastic Mate-
havior for reversible response. Indeed, it is not necessary to know rials with Heat Conduction and Viscosity,” Arch. Ration. Mech. Anal., 13, pp.
the electrical body force or the Maxwell stress to obtain a usable 167–178.
constitutive law. Instead, given the assumptions of the paper re- 关10兴 Carroll, M. M., 2004, “Derivatives of the Rotation and Stretch Tensors,” Math.
garding the constitutive law, measurements of the elastic response Mech. Solids, 9, pp. 543–553.
关11兴 Kofod, G., 2001, “Dielectric Elastomer Actuators,” Ph.D. thesis, Department
at zero electric field and of the material’s dielectric permittivities of Chemistry, Technical University of Denmark, Riso Report No. Riso-R-
as a function of strain will fully characterize the constitutive law. 1286共EN兲.
If the assumptions of the paper are incorrect in the sense that the 关12兴 Ogden, R. W., 1972, “Large Deformation Isotropic Elasticity—On the Corre-
constitutive law is more complex than that presented in Eq. 共55兲, lation of Theory and Experiment for Incompressible Rubberlike Solids,” Proc.
R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 326, pp. 565–584.
more extensive experiments will be needed to characterize the 关13兴 Ogden, R. W., 1972, “Large Deformation Isotropic Elasticity: On the Correla-
free energy as stated in Eq. 共43兲, perhaps because the dielectric tion of Theory and Experiment for Compressible Rubberlike Solids,” Proc. R.
response involves a nonlinear dependence of the electric displace- Soc. London, Ser. A, 328, pp. 567–583.
ment on the electric field or that the elastic and electrostatic en- 关14兴 Blatz, P. J., and Ko, W. L., 1962, “Application of Finite Elasticity Theory to
the Deformation of Rubbery Materials,” Trans. Soc. Rheol., 6, pp. 223–251.
ergy do not separate in the manner assumed in Eq. 共55兲. 关15兴 Blatz, P. J., 1963, “Application of Finite Elastic Theory to the Behavior of
In regard to the terminology in the paper, quibbles can be Rubberlike Materials,” Rubber Sci. Technol., 36, pp. 1459–1496.
raised, e.g., concerning what we call the Cauchy stress, which 关16兴 Pelrine, R., Kornbluh, R., Heydt, J. J. R., Pei, Q., and Chiba, S., 2000, “High-
some workers regard to be what we have called the total true Field Deformation of Elastomeric Dielectrics for Actuators,” Mater. Sci. Eng.,
C, C11, pp. 89–100.
stress, i.e., the sum of what we call the elastic and electrostatic 关17兴 Shkel, Y. M., and Klingenberg, D. J., 1996, “Material Parameters for Electros-
stress. However, this would be to focus on the wrong issues, be- triction,” J. Appl. Phys., 80, pp. 4566–4572.
cause it is the formulation that is important, not the names of the 关18兴 Cocks, A. C. F., and McMeeking, R. M., 1999, “A Phenomenological Consti-
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our entities, although we prefer our choice of names for what we 关19兴 Landis, C. M., 2002, “Fully Coupled, Multi-Axial, Symmetric Constitutive
have called the Cauchy, Maxwell, elastic, and electrostatic Laws for Polycrystalline Ferroelectric Ceramics,” J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 50,
stresses. pp. 127–152.
Journal of Applied Mechanics Copyright © 2005 by ASME JULY 2005, Vol. 72 / 591
modal analysis was employed for the structure. The DAA method and velocity along the wet surface may be considered of compos-
was proved to be accurate to model both early- and late-time ing two components: a free-field component and a scattered com-
behavior. Zilliacus 关16兴 used the DAA method to analyze the re- ponent 关13兴:
sponse of a submerged fluid-filled cylinder subjected to an inci-
pinf = p f f + psc 共1兲
dent plane step wave. It is worth noting that, in the DAA formu-
lation, the mass matrix for the fluid media is fully populated.
More comprehensive reviews of the nonradiation boundary can be vinf = v f f + vsc 共2兲
found in 关17兴.
where pinf and vinf are the total fluid pressure and normal velocity
In solving the general FSI problems, the exact or analytical
along the wet surface, p f f and v f f are the corresponding compo-
nonradiating boundary is difficult to implement. With the emer-
nent fluid pressure and normal velocity but are caused by the
gence of BEM which has been gradually recognized to have ad-
incident wave in the absence of the structure 共usually referred as
vantages in modeling infinite domain, FEM-BEM coupling proce-
the free-field response兲, and psc and vsc are the corresponding
dures were developed. Estorff and Antes 关18兴, Czygan and Estorff
component fluid pressure and normal velocity corresponding to
关19兴, and Yu et al. 关20兴 demonstrated the advantages of using
the scattered wave, which are the difference between the total and
FEM-BEM procedures for FSI problems. In their numerical simu-
lations, no artificial boundaries or wave reflections were present. free-field solutions. The relationship between psc and vsc is de-
Moreover, the FEM-BEM procedures have computational advan- scribed in the next section. The fluid medium is assumed to have
tages derived from its BEM formulation, which reduces the spatial a linear constitutive relationship, which excludes the effect due to
dimension by one. However, it inherited the disadvantages of cavitation, and thereby the free-field pressure and velocities will
BEM which demands for prerequisite fundamental solutions, be the same as the incident waves, i.e.,
which can be very complicated or may not be available. Further-
p f f = pinc 共3a兲
more, it leads to asymmetric coefficient matrices in its formula-
tion. Not only does it increase the requirement for memory stor-
age, but it also compromises 共if not nullifies兲 its other v f f = vinc 共3b兲
computational efficiency. where pinc and vinc are the fluid pressure along the wet surface and
Recently, Wolf and Song developed the boundary finite element the corresponding normal velocity caused by the incident wave.
method 共BFEM兲 关21–23兴, which was based on the geometry simi-
larity and finite element cell concept 关24兴. Contrary to the domain- 2.2.2 Pressure-Velocity Relationship for the Scattered Wave.
based methods, the BFEM formulation needs discretization only In PWA approximation, the pressure-velocity relationship corre-
along the boundary. Therefore, it is suitable for both finite and sponding to scattered wave can be described as
infinite domains. In addition, the BFEM formulation leads to sym-
metric matrices and encounters no singularity problem, which of- psc = cvsc 共4a兲
ten emerges in the BEM. Wolf and Song 关21–23兴 successfully
While in the DAA, the relationship can be expressed as
applied the BFEM to solve some infinite soil-structure interaction
problems and also some bounded solid problems. They demon- 1
strated that the BFEM is accurate for both bounded and un- 共ṗinf − ṗ f f 兲 − M−1A共pinf − p f f 兲 = ainf − a f f 共4b兲
bounded domains. c
In this paper, the BFEM is applied to model the acoustic prob- where an over-dot denotes differentiation with respect to time,
lems in an infinite fluid medium. Through coupling of BFEM- M−1 is the inverse of the fluid-added mass matrix, A denotes the
FEM procedures, the dynamic response of a submerged cylinder diagonal matrix which converts diagonal pressures to forces, and
is analyzed. In comparison with the PWA, VMA, and DAA, the ainf , a f f denotes the accelerations on the wet surface. and c
present formulation using the BFEM does not impose any restric- denote fluid density and wave speed in fluid, respectively. In the
tion on the structure and the incident wave as well. Hence, it is current study, another form of the relationship based on the BFEM
applicable for both early- and late-time response analyses. In com- and acoustic approximation is developed and described in detail in
parison with the FEM-FEM and FEM-BEM coupling procedures, the next section.
the present formulation has the advantages that no artificial
boundaries are needed, no singularity is encountered, no asym- 2.2.3 BFEM Formulation for the Scattered Wave
metric matrix appears, and no fundamental solution is required.
The effectiveness of the coupling BFEM-FEM procedure will be a. Basic description. Basically, the BFEM describes the dy-
shown through numerical examples. namic behavior of an unbounded medium through a dynamic stiff-
ness 共or mass兲 matrix in the frequency domain relating the dis-
placement 共or potential兲 amplitudes in the degrees of freedom on
2 BFEM-FEM Coupling Formulation the boundary to the corresponding force 共or velocity兲 amplitudes.
In the current study, the BFEM is used to model the unbounded By discretizing the domain into sectors radiating from a single
acoustic fluid medium, while the FEM is used to model the struc- center 共namely scale center兲, the geometry of the sectors can be
ture. conveniently described in a transformed coordinate system 共in
which one ordinate radiates outward from the scale center, while
2.1 FEM Model for the Structure. In modeling the struc- others run along the boundary curve/surface兲. More precisely, the
ture, the mass matrix M, the damping matrix C, and the stiffness unbounded medium lies in a semi-infinite domain (see Fig. 1共a兲).
matrix K can be treated in the standard manner according to the Along the radial direction, the near side is bounded while the far
FE discretization procedures. For 2D thin hollow cylindrical prob- side is unbounded. The derivation of the dynamic stiffness/mass
lems, simple two-node beam elements are used. matrix is based on a “cloning” technique, in which the small dif-
ferential 共w兲 between the two similar semi-bounded sectors (see
2.2 BFEM Model for the Unbounded Acoustic Fluid
Fig. 1共b兲) is taken to the analytical limit, zero. Consider the in-
Medium
finitesimal finite-element cell i-j-i⬘-j⬘ (see Fig. 1共b兲) which lies on
2.2.1 Acoustic Approximation. When a structure submerged in the boundary of the semi-infinite fluid domain. Note that the near
an unbounded fluid medium is subjected to incident waves, the face i-j is parallel to its cloned surface i⬘-j⬘, and the two side
major concern is the integrity of the structure, in particular its faces Oi and O j are both originated from the scale center O. The
strength adequacy against the dynamic pressure acting on the governing equation relating the potential and the velocity can be
structural surface 共wet surface兲. To begin, the total fluid pressure written as
冕
n j⌬t
Vsc共n⌬t兲 = 兺
j=1
M⬁关共n − j + 1兲⌬t兴
共 j−1兲⌬t
¨ 共t兲dt
= 兺 兩M 共n − j + 1兲˙ 兩
j=1
⬁ j⌬t
共 j−1兲⌬t 共7a兲
⬁
where Vscn
= Vsc共n⌬t兲, Mn−j+1 = M⬁关共n − j + 1兲⌬t兴, and
˙ j = 兩
˙ 兩 j⌬t.
Rearranging Eq. 共7b兲 to make M⬁1 ˙ n appeared on the left-hand
side, we have
n−1
M⬁1
˙n = n
Vsc − 兺 共M
j=1
⬁
n−j+1
⬁
− Mn−j ˙ j + M⬁n
兲 ˙0 共7c兲
M⬁1 psc
n
Vsc
n
兺 共M ⬁ ⬁
兲psc
j
共9兲
冕
= − − n−j+1 − Mn−j
t
j=1
⬁
Vsc共t兲 = M 共t − 兲
¨ 共兲d 共5兲
0 where pscn
= −
˙ n, psc denotes the fluid pressure corresponding to
the scattered wave, and pscj
= psc共j⌬t兲. Note that Eq. 共9兲 describes
where 共t兲 denotes a velocity potential vector composed of nodal the relationship between the pressure psc and the corresponding
velocity potential 共t兲 for scattered wave on the wet surface, normal velocity vsc.
M⬁共t兲 denotes the mass matrix of the unbounded fluid medium,
and ¨ 共t兲 denotes the second derivative of 共t兲 with respect to 2.3 BFEM-FEM Coupling. The FEM formulation for the
time. Note that in Eq. 共5兲, the scattered velocity Vsc and the ve- structure can be written as
locity potential 共t兲 along the wet surface are variables. The ma- Ma + Cv + Kd = Fext + Finf 共10兲
trix M⬁共t兲 depends only on the geometry of the wet surface and is
independent of the dynamic response of the structure and the where Fext is the sum of body and traction forces; Finf is the force
fluid. Hence, it can be obtained before solving the dynamic re- derived from the unbounded fluid medium; M, C, and K are re-
sponse equation. Wolf and Song 关21–23兴 showed the detail deri- spectively the mass, damping, and stiffness matrices derived from
vation of the dynamic mass matrix and no duplication is given the structure; and a, v, and d denote the structure’s acceleration,
here. In brief, the first step is to establish the integral form of the velocity, and displacement vectors, respectively. The derivation of
governing equation in frequency domain, and then, by taking the Eq. 共10兲 can be obtained following the standard FE procedures.
differential width w as the analytical limit to zero, it yields a What follows will elaborate on the derivation of the last term in
consistent infinitesimal finite-element cell 共IFEC兲 equation in fre- Eq. 共10兲.
quency domain. Appling the inverse Fourier transformation to this By virtue of the principle of virtual work, the nodal force Finf
frequency equation leads to an equivalent IFEC equation in time on the wet surface can be expressed in terms of the shape function
domain. Subsequently, the mass matrix M⬁共t兲 can be obtained by N for the structure and the total pressure 共=psc + p f f 兲 as follows:
冕 冕 冕
solving the IFEC equation in time domain. 共More recently, the
same equation was successfully derived using different ap- Finf = − NT共psc + p f f 兲d⌫ = − NTN ppscd⌫ − NT p f f d⌫
proaches by Song and Wolf 关25兴 and Deeks and Wolf 关26兴, respec- ⌫ ⌫ ⌫
tively.兲 The scattered wave along the wet surface Vsc共t兲 in Eq. 共5兲
can be discretized through conventional finite element technique, = − Fsc − F f f 共11兲
i.e., where ⌫ denotes the wet surface, F f f = 兰⌫N p f f d⌫ and Fsc T
= 兰⌫NTN ppscd⌫. Note that N is the shape function for the struc-
Vsc共t兲 = 兺
e
冕 ⌫
N f vsc共t兲d⌫ 共6兲
tural element, while the shape function for scattered wave can be
different, say N p, i.e.,
psc = N ppsc 共12兲
where vsc denotes the velocity of the scattered wave normal to the
wet surface; ⌫ denotes the wet surface; N f is the shape function By substituting Eq. 共11兲 into Eq. 共10兲, the governing dynamic
for the fluid element; and ⌺e denotes assemblage of all fluid ele- equation for the structure-infinite fluid system can be obtained,
ments along the wet surface. i.e.,
vinf = vn 共14a兲
Second, the corresponding dynamic compatibility demands the
compressive traction on the structural surface to be equal to the
fluid pressure, i.e.,
p = − pinf 共14b兲 Fig. 2 A cylindrical cavity subjected to a suddenly applied
acceleration
Substituting Eq. 共14a兲 into Eq. 共2兲, and then the result into Eq. 共6兲
and subsequently into Eq. 共9兲 leads to
M⬁1 psc
n
=− 兺 冕 N f 关vn共t兲 − v f f 共t兲兴d⌫ −
n−1
兺 ⬁
共Mn−j+1 ⬁
− Mn−j 兲p sc
j 冉
pinc共x,t兲 = p0H t −
R−x
c
冊 冉
= p 0H t −
R − r cos ␥
c
冊 共19兲
e ⌫ j=1
where H is a Heaviside step function, and p0 is the magnitude of
共15兲 the pressure at wave front. r, ␥, and R are as shown in Fig. 8. The
incident fluid radial velocity is
Note that once psc is determined, the second term Fsc on the
right-hand side of Eq. 共13兲 can be obtained. pinc
Now, discretize Eq. 共13兲 in time domain using Newmark’s v f f = vr = − cos ␥ 共20兲
c
time-integration scheme. We have
冉 K+
1
␣⌬t 2M +
␦
␣⌬t
C dt+⌬t 冊 3 Numerical Examples
To validate the present BFEM formulation and the pressure-
+C 冋 ␦ t
␣⌬t
d +
␦
␣
冉 冊 冉
− 1 vt +
␦
2␣
− 1 ⌬tat 冊 册 共16兲
an infinite fluid medium. At t = 0, boundary acceleration a is sud-
denly applied and then kept constant until the end of the analysis.
The objective of this analysis is to check the accuracy of the
where t+⌬tFsc = 兰⌫NTN ppsc t+⌬t
d⌫, ␣ = 0.25, and ␦ = 0.5. Assume “mass” matrix M⬁共t兲 for the infinite fluid medium. The surround-
n⌬t = t + ⌬t. Hence, Eq. 共15兲 can be rewritten as ing fluid medium is modeled by the BFEM using 8 or 32 ele-
ments. The results are plotted in Fig. 3. The time axis is normal-
M⬁1 psc
n
= − 兺 e ⌫
N f 关vtn共t兲 − f f 共t兲兴d⌫
vt+⌬t − 兺 共M
j=1
⬁
n−j+1
⬁
− Mn−j 兲psc
j with respect to aR. The same problem was considered by Yu et
al. 关28兴 using the FEM-BEM coupling procedures. The FEM-
BEM and standard BEM results are also plotted in Fig. 3 and
共17兲
compared with the current result. From Fig. 3, one can see that the
in which the velocity vt+⌬t
of the current time step is approxi-
n
8-element results are equal to the 32-element results, and both are
mately set equal to the velocity vtn of the previous time step. almost identical to the FEM-BEM and BEM results. It shows the
However, in some cases, it is desirable to include that term into efficiency and accuracy of the present formulation.
the global iteration scheme, i.e.,
冉 K+
1
␣⌬t2
M+
␦
␣⌬t
C 冊 t+⌬t j
d
+M 冋 1 t
␣⌬t2
d+
1 t
␣⌬t
v+
1
2␣
冊册
− 1 ta 冉
+C 冋 ␦ t
␣⌬t
d+
␦
␣
冉 冊 冉 冊 册
− 1 tv +
␦
2␣
− 1 ⌬t ta 共18兲
where j denotes the jth iteration within a time step. The term v f f 共t兲
can be obtained via other analytical solutions. For example, in
shock-wave analysis, Lamb 关27兴 gives the following explicit ex-
pression for the incident fluid pressure along the wet surface 共see
Fig. 8兲: Fig. 3 Pressure of the cavity boundary
ds =
Ri2 P0
Es共R2e − Ri2兲
冉 共1 + 兲R2e
R
+ 共1 + 兲R 冊 共21兲
Fig. 5 Loading conditions for a cylindrical shell Fig. 8 Geometry of an infinite cylinder
speed in fluid: c = 1500 m / s. pected to be more refined than 8 representative sectors. Neverthe-
The wall of the shell is discretized into 32 two-node beam less, the efficiency of the BFEM formulation is clearly
elements, while the fluid boundary is matched by 32 BFEM ele- demonstrated by using a fairly coarse 16-element mesh.
ments 共in the similar manner as in Fig. 6兲. The time step chosen
for the analysis is 0.002667 ms. The magnitude of the incident
pressure wave impinging on the structure is taken to be equal to 4 Conclusion
c2. The same problem was investigated by Huang 关29兴 and re-
ported by Zilliacus 关16兴, who obtained the velocity history using This paper presented the boundary finite element method
an analytical approach. The same problem was also analyzed by 共BFEM兲 formulation for acoustic fluid-structure interaction 共FSI兲
Fan et al. 关13兴, who modeled the shell using 2 ⫻ 12 nine-node problems. In the process of incorporating the acoustic effect, the
spline shell elements and modeled the fluid using the plane wave authors developed the velocity-pressure relationship for the scat-
approximation. Plane-strain conditions were imposed along the tered wave. This relationship enables the extended applications of
axis of the cylinder. Recently, Yu et al. 关20兴 also analyzed the BFEM in solving the FSI problems. The formulation was verified
same problem using the BEM-FEM coupling technique. through checking against benchmark solution—a submerged infi-
Results obtained from the present BFEM formulation are com- nite long cylindrical shell subjected to step incident wave. The
pared with solutions by others. Figure 9 shows the dimensionless results show that the present formulation is able to yield more
radial velocity history at different locations 共 = 0 ° , 90° , 180° 兲. accurate solution than many prevailing numerical results 共such as
BEM, PWA solution兲. In a nutshell, the BFEM formulation is
The velocity is normalized with respect to sound speed c, while
shown to be useful and efficient in solving unbounded fluid-
the time is normalized with respect to R / c. From Fig. 9, one can
structure interaction problems. It can represent accurately the un-
see that the present results are in good accord in all time with
bounded fluid medium.
analytical solution 关28兴, and also in good agreement in early time
with PWA solution, which is known to be relatively accurate in
early time. On the other hand, the FEM-BEM results are also in
fairly good agreement but exhibit random undulations around the
analytical solution, particularly during late time, and the peak
value is delayed. It demonstrates that the present BFEM formula-
tion can yield more accurate results than the PWA and the BEM,
in particular at late time. Note that the true velocities at
= 0 ° , 180° should approach 1.377 at late time 关28兴. From Fig. 9,
one can see that the BFEM results approach that true value of
1.377 at late time. Compared to the DAA results obtained by
Zilliacus 关16兴 共not shown in Fig. 9 for clarity兲, BFEM results are
closer to the analytical solution and exhibit more subdued oscil-
lations. Note that the results shown in Fig. 9 are obtained using
the iterative Newmark scheme (Eq. 共18兲), which has iterations
within each time step. The effects of using the Newmark scheme
without iterations are also studied. The results shown in Fig. 10
suggest that the noniterative Newmark scheme leads to slightly
inferior results. In order to study the convergence of the current
BFEM formulation, three different BFEM meshes 共comprising 8,
16, or 32 elements兲 are used to represent the fluid boundary. The
time step is set to 0.01333 ms in all analyses. The results are
shown in Fig. 11. One can see that except for the 8-element re-
sults, the 16- and 32-element results are nearly the same as the
analytical solution. The poorer 8-element results are not unex- Fig. 10 Comparison of results obtained from two Newmark
pected because the velocity variations around the cylinder are ex- schemes
Journal of Applied Mechanics Copyright © 2005 by ASME JULY 2005, Vol. 72 / 599
Fig. 1 Sandwich pipe geometry Fig. 3 Polypropylene specimen
Fig. 2 Experimental setup for cement injection Fig. 4 Engineering stress-strain curve of aluminum tubes
⌬ oD
wo = − cos 2 共3兲
2
where D is the outside diameter of the sandwich pipe and is the
polar coordinate of a given node 共0 艋 艋 90 deg兲. The calculated
collapse pressures 共P̂co兲 are given in Table 6 along with the cor-
respondent experimental values 共Pco兲.
The results show that, except for specimen PIP.M1.G1.I02, the
experimental collapse pressures fell in between the calculated val-
ues considering perfect adhesion and no adhesion between layers. Fig. 10 Three-dimensional finite element mesh
Actually, these two values can be expected to be the upper and
lower estimates for a given material and geometric configuration.
In general, the predictions assuming perfect adhesion between pressure is amplified when there is lack of adhesion between
layers compared quite well with the experimental results for most layers, mainly for cement sandwich pipes.
of the studied configurations 共e.g., nearly 5% average difference
for specimens PIP.M1.G1.I01, PIP.M2.G1.I02, PIP.M2.G2.I01兲. As a continuation of the research work performed by Netto et al.
Experimental collapse pressure of specimens PIP.M1.G1.I02, 关18兴, this paper will focus on the structural behavior of sandwich
PIP.M1.G2.I01, and PIP.M1.G2.I02 were closer to the lower col- pipes under combined external pressure and bending, and their
lapse pressure estimate 共i.e., no adhesion assumption兲. A poor ad- comparative performance with steel pipes. These results are
hesion between the cement annulus and the pipes may have oc- shown next.
curred after curing, which was not noticed before testing. This
was not observed for the polypropylene specimens, in which the Numerical Analyses of Sandwich Pipes Under Com-
use of an epoxy resin promoted a good adhesion between layers. bined External Pressure and Bending
It is also interesting to note the differences between lower and
upper estimates, especially for both polypropylene specimens and Numerical Procedures. The problem consists of a long, circu-
for cement specimens with ta = 4.25 mm. In these cases, the lack lar, sandwich pipe under combined bending and external pressure
of adhesion between layers had a significant detrimental effect in loads. The pipe geometry (including initial imperfection in the
the performance of the sandwich pipe, with a decrease of nearly form of ovality, eq. 共3兲), curvature K, and the deformation of its
65% in the estimated collapse pressure. On the other hand, this cross sections are assumed to be uniform along the length. It is
effect was minor for specimens PIP.M1.G1.I01 and also assumed that plane sections perpendicular to the pipe mid-
PIP.M1.G1.I02, probably because of the higher relative rigidity of surface remain plane during loading. The coordinate system used
the cement layer as compared to the overall sandwich pipe. to define the problem geometry is shown in Fig. 10. Symmetry
about planes 1–2 and 2–3 are also assumed. These hypotheses
Parametric Study. A comprehensive parametric study on the allow the problem to be reduced to the analysis of a half-ring of
collapse pressure of full-scale sandwich pipes with different ge- unit length. In addition, for simplicity the layers were considered
ometries, materials, and initial imperfections was accomplished perfectly adhered to each other.
by Netto et al. 关18兴. It has been concluded that Again, the numerical model developed operates within the
framework of the nonlinear FE code ABAQUS 关17兴. A typical
• For both polypropylene and cement as annulus material, an mesh used in the analyses is shown in Fig. 10. The layers were
approximately linear variation of P̂co with increasing ta was discretized with three-dimensional, 27-node, quadratic brick ele-
observed. ments 共C3D27 for steel pipes and cement annulus and its hybrid
• Expectedly, because cement has a greater initial tangent version C3D27H for polypropylene annulus兲. In the circumferen-
modulus than polypropylene, the collapse pressure of a ce- tial direction, the 180 deg sector was discretized with 12 elements
ment sandwich pipe is always greater than the one for a with equal angular spans of 15 deg each. Four elements were used
correspondent geometry with polypropylene. In addition, through the thickness 共one for inner and outer pipes and two for
the collapse pressure for cement sandwich pipes presents a the annulus region兲. Although this mesh may seem coarser than
steeper growing rate when ta is increased. that used for the correlation with experiments, the goal here is just
• As it occurs with single pipes, the collapse pressure of sand- to provide data to compare the performance of sandwich pipes and
wich pipes is rather affected by geometric imperfections in single wall pipes.
the form of ovality of the cross sections. The loading history is simulated by applying external pressure
• Lack of adhesion between layers can significantly decrease followed by longitudinal bending until collapse 共P → K兲, i.e., past
the maximum pressure capacity of sandwich pipes. Further- the maximum bending moment. External pressure is first pre-
more, the influence of the initial ovality on the collapse scribed through surface pressure load increments on the external
Except for case 3, where the extrapolated result estimated for sandwich pipes presented almost the same steel weight as equiva-
Kco in pure bending is lower than that presented for the equivalent lent single-wall pipes 共cases 1 and 2兲 and a slightly higher value,
single wall pipe 共Fig. 21兲, an extra strength was presented for about 14%, for case 3. Moreover, in spite of having a superior
cement-filled sandwich pipes 共Figs. 19 and 20兲. Nevertheless, ul- overall weight in relation to the single-wall pipes, the submerged
timate curvatures under combined loading for case 3 were be- weight of sandwich pipes is usually smaller. It should be noted,
tween 22% 共P = 0.2Pco兲 and 292% 共P = 0.8Pco兲 higher than those however, that the core material of sandwich pipes works as a
for equivalent single-wall pipes. Again, as observed for pure thermal insulation layer which is normally manufactured over the
bending in Figs. 19–21, the structural benefits of the filler de- external surface of the single wall pipes, not being considered in
creases with the relative increase of the thickness ta. Table 11. This layer depends on the scenario of application and
Finally, the two concepts 共sandwich and single-wall pipes兲 are cannot be estimated here.
compared through the steel weight 共Ps兲, total weight 共Ptot兲, and
Concluding Remarks
submerged weight 共Psub兲 per unit length in order to provide in-
sight for the evaluation of material and manufacturing costs, as Sandwich pipes like the ones proposed here aim to fulfill con-
well as the feasibility of transportation and installation. Table 11 comitantly structural and thermal design requirements. Therefore,
summarizes these results, where the following densities 共兲 were the core material must be selected in order to provide both thermal
used to estimate the structural weight: steel = 7850, PP = 910, insulation and, combined with the internal and external pipes, suf-
CMT = 1724, and water = 1025 Kg/ m3. ficient strength against either burst or collapse of the system under
As can be observed from Table 11, there is a significant reduc- installation and working loads. Certainly, many different combi-
tion in the steel weight for cement-filled sandwich pipes in rela- nations of materials 共pipes and annulus兲 and geometries 共ti, te, and
tion to single-wall pipes, 25% on average. Polypropylene-filled ta兲 may have similar structural and insulation performance. Mate-
Fig. 17 Pressure-curvature ultimate strength for both sand- Fig. 19 Pressure-curvature ultimate strength for both sand-
wich „polypropylene… and single-wall pipes—case 2 wich „cement… and single-wall pipes—case 1
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support
from Brazilian Research Council 共CNPq兲, FINEP, National Petro-
leum Agency 共ANP兲, FAPERJ, and PETROBRAS at different
stages of the research program on Sandwich Pipes conducted at
the Submarine Technology Laboratory—COPPE/UFRJ.
Nomenclature
Di ⫽ inner diameter
D ⫽ outer diameter
Dmax ⫽ maximum diameter at the cross section
Fig. 21 Pressure-curvature ultimate strength for both sand- Dmin ⫽ minimum diameter at the cross section
wich „cement… and single-wall pipes—case 3
Table 11 Comparison between the structural weight of sandwich and single-wall pipes
Improved Form of a Fracture depends on its orientation and there exists a range of orientation
angle where a crack does not propagate and 共ii兲 ⍀ / 4 = 1, propa-
Mechanics Based Failure Probability gation of a crack is independent of its orientation.
Model for Brittle Materials 2.1 Case (I): ⍀ / 4 ⬍ 1. If there is only one crack and its
crack plane is randomly orientated, the probability of failure
caused by this single crack 关Eq. 共1兲 in Batdorf and Crose 关1兴兴 is
Rentong Wang given by
Graduate Student
P f = ⍀共⌺, cr兲/4 , 共1兲
Noriko Katsube
e-mail: katsube.1@osu.edu where ⌺ is the applied stress, and cr is the critical stress of the
crack.
If the crack density is N, N⌬V represents the number of cracks
Department of Mechanical Engineering, inside the volumetric element ⌬V. Therefore, the overall survival
Ohio State University, probability Ps is the multiplication of the survival probability of
Columbus, OH 43210 each crack.
Journal of Applied Mechanics Copyright © 2005 by ASME JULY 2005, Vol. 72 / 609
Ps共⌬V,⌺兲 = exp ⌬V 再 冕Min
cr
Max
cr
ln关1 − ⍀共⌺, cr兲/4兴
dN共cr兲
dcr
dcr . 冎 PIIf 共V兲 冉 冕冕
= 1 − exp −
V 0
M
cr
dN共cr兲
dcr 冊
dcrdV , 共13兲
共6兲
where a superscript II is introduced to indicate that this equation is
Therefore, the failure probability for the total volume V is given suitable for calculating the failure probability caused by the cracks
whose propagation is not dependent on orientation, i.e., Case 共II兲:
再冕 冕
by
Max
⍀ / 4 = 1.
cr In Summary, the probability of failure caused by all types of
PIf 共V兲 = 1 − exp ln关1 cracks P f 共V兲 is given by
冎
Min
V cr
冉 冊
⌬V / V approaches zero. In this case 关3兴,
2cr − 1 − 2
lim 关1 − ⌬V/V兴V/⌬V = e−1 . 共12兲 ⍀ = 2 cos−1 . 共17兲
⌬V/V→0
1 − 2
Therefore, the failure probability for the total volume V, P f 共V兲, is Since ⍀ / 2 ⬍ 1, Eq. 共7兲 with the substituted area integral is used.
given by The overall failure probability given by Eq. 共14兲 leads to
冋 a2mkID
册
冉 冕 冕
2 1 B = ln . 共21兲
dN共cr兲 共 t 2兲 m
P f = 1 − exp − A dcr + A ln关1
0
dcr 2
For the formulation based on Batdorf and Crose 关1兴, ID in Eq. 共21兲
冊
is given by
冕 冕 冉 冊冉 冊 冉 冊 冉 冊 冉 冊
dN共cr兲 1 1/P/t2
− ⍀/2兴 dcr . 共18兲 ⍀ cr m−1
r cr r
dcr ID = 2 d d .
r/a=0 cr /P/t2=0
2 P/t2 a P/t2 a
Correspondingly, the overall failure probability based on Batdorf
and Crose 关1兴 can be obtained as follows: 共22兲
冉 冕
Pr = 1 − exp − A
0
1
⍀ dN共cr兲
2 dcr
dcr . 冊 共19兲
For the formulation obtained in this work, ID is given by
ID = 冕 冉 冊 冉 冊冋 冕 冉 冊 冉 冊
1
2
r
a
d
r
a
2/P/t2
cr
P/t2
m−1
d
cr
P/t2
cr/P/t2=0
冉 冊冉 冊 冉 冊册
Example 1C. 1 艌 0 ⬎ 2 r/a=0
In this case, the critical stress cr is between 0 and 1, and the
crack propagation depends on the crack orientation. The range of
critical angle ⍀ can be calculated from Eq. 共17兲. For this case, any
−冕 1 /P/t2
cr/P/t2=2/P/t2
ln 1 −
⍀
2
cr
P/t2
m−1
d
cr
P/t2
,
4 Discussions
3.2 Example 2: Crack Density Parameter Determination
Based on Biaxial Flexure Tests. Crack density parameters are In Example 1A, there is no difference in terms of actual formu-
often determined by curve fitting of data from failure strength lations between the work based on Batdorf and Crose 关1兴 and the
experiments. We will examine the effect of differences in the present work as shown in Fig. 1. In Examples 1B and 1C, the
above formulations on the resulting statistical parameters deter- results shown in Fig. 1 reflect the differences caused by the two
mined from a set of experimental data. For this purpose, biaxial formulations. While these are not dramatic differences, the failure
flexure tests were conducted using borosilicate glass specimens. probability of the proposed formulation is higher than that of the
The 1 mm thick glass disks with 15.9 mm diameter were sup- formulation by Batdorf and Crose 关1兴 given the same stress level
ported at the edge by a ring of bearings and loaded on the top and therefore it provides a more conservative estimate.
center through a tungsten carbide 共WC兲 spherical ball indenter In Example 1B, if cr falls between 2 and 1, the two formu-
with a diameter of 10 mm. The surfaces of the glass disks were lations are significantly different as in Eqs. 共18兲 and 共19兲. When
sanded on a rotating wheel with 600 grit SiC sandpaper under the value of cr approaches that of 1, the value of ⍀ / 2 ap-
water coolant. The experiments were carried out on the Universal proaches zero 关see Eq. 共17兲兴. In this case, ln共1 − ⍀ / 2兲 in Eq. 共18兲
Testing Machine 共Instron Model 4020, Canton, Mass.兲 at a cross- can be approximated by −⍀ / 2 in Eq. 共19兲 by ignoring the higher
head speed of 0.01 mm/ min. A total of 34 specimens were used to order terms of the Taylor expansion. Because of this, the contri-
obtain the experimental failure probability distribution. The frac- bution to the overall failure probability by cracks with critical
ture initiation load P was recorded for each specimen and the
cumulative probability of crack initiation was obtained.
The crack density function N共cr兲 is assumed to be in the form Table 1 Crack density parameters determined by biaxial flex-
ure tests
of Eq. 共15兲. By using this equation in the formulation by Batdorf
and Crose 关1兴 or Eq. 共14兲 obtained in this work, we can derive the m k 关mm−2 MPa−4.917兴
failure probability function P f as follows:
Batdorf and Crose Formulation 4.917 4.95⫻ 10−11
P f = 1 − exp共− eB Pm兲, 共20兲 Proposed Formulation 4.917 3.99⫻ 10−11
where
C. Y. Wang where 1 ⬅ 1L3 / EI1 and ⬅ 2 / 1 is the density ratio. The gen-
eral solution to Eq. 共6兲 is
Member ASME
Department of Mathematics and Department of 1 = CtJt共兲 + DtJ−t共兲 共7兲
Mechanical Engineering, where C and D are constants and
Michigan State University, 2
East Lansing, MI 48824 = 关共1 − a兲 + a − s兴3/21/2
1 . 共8兲
3
e-mail: cywang@mth.msu.edu
The boundary conditions are that the top is free
d2
共1兲 = 0 共9兲
1 Introduction ds
The study of the tallest standing column is basic in the design the base is fixed
of tall structures, especially antennae. Greenhill 关1兴 first found the 1共0兲 = 0 共10兲
maximum height of the uniform column that does not buckle un-
der its own weight. The height can be extended if the column and the angles and moments match at the joint
tapers towards the top. The optimum shape of the tallest nonuni- 1共a兲 = 2共a兲 共11兲
form column is more difficult to determine. Keller and Niordson
关2兴, and Cox and McCarthy 关3兴 discussed its asymptotic proper- d1 d2
ties, and Hu and Kirmser 关4兴 integrated the shape numerically. It EI1 共a兲 = EI2 共a兲. 共12兲
ds ds
was found that the optimum column shrinks very fast at the base,
then more slowly, and becomes very sharp at the apex. For nontrivial solutions, after some work, Eqs. 共9兲–共12兲 give the
However, such an optimal column is very difficult to manufac- characteristic equation
ture due to the vastly nonuniform radius variations. A more prac- ␥关Jt共1兲J−t共a兲 − J−t共1兲Jt共a兲兴兵a关J1−t共a兲 − J−1−t共a兲兴
tical solution is to weld two uniform rods of different radii to-
gether. The purpose of the present paper is to find the optimum − 2tJ−t共a兲其 + J−t共a兲兵a关J−t共1兲具J1+t共a兲 − Jt−1共a兲典 + Jt共1兲
dimensions 共lengths and diameters兲 of a compound column such
that for a given total weight, the maximum height can be attained. ⫻具J−1−t共a兲 − J1−t共a兲典 + 2t关J−t共a兲Jt共1兲 − J−t共1兲Jt共a兲兴其
=0 共13兲
where ␥ ⬅ EI2 / EI1 and
2 Formulation 1 = 兩s=1, a = 兩s=a, a = 兩s=a . 共14兲
We assume the column is composed of two segments, each with
For given a , ␥ , and since 1 = ␥2 / , Eq. 共13兲 can be solved
uniform density 共weight per length兲 and uniform flexural rigidity
numerically for the lowest value of 2, which can represent the
共Fig. 1兲. Let the subscript 1 denote the top segment of length
buckling weight.
共1-a兲L, and the subscript 2 denote the bottom segment of length
aL. For small deflections, a moment balance on an elemental
length for the top segment gives
3 Optimum Shape
dm + 2共L − s⬘兲2 ds⬘ = 0. 共1兲
Consider the important case of the two-segment solid column
The moment is proportional to the curvature made of the same elastic material 共E = Young’s modulus,
d2 = density兲 and a similar circular cross section 共radii r1 and r2
m = EI2 共2兲 ⬍ r1兲. Thus
ds⬘
where s⬘ is the arc length from the base, is the local angle of ␥ = 2 = 共r2/r1兲4 . 共15兲
inclination, and , EI are the weight per length and the flexural Actually Eq. 共15兲 is satisfied by a variety of other similar cross-
rigidity, respectively. Equations 共1兲 and 共2兲 give sectional shapes. For each and a Eq. 共13兲 is solved by a root
d 2 2 finder algorithm yielding the buckling parameter 2 in Table 1.
+ 2共1 − s兲2 = 0. 共3兲 When a = 0 or = 1 the compound column is equivalent to a single
ds2 uniform column. The value for the buckling parameter is 7.837 35
Here s = s⬘ / L is the normalized distance and 2 ⬅ 2L3 / EI2 is a 共see, e.g., 关5兴兲. On the other hand, if a = 1 the buckling parameter
nondimensional weight parameter. The general solution to Eq. 共3兲 is 7.837 35/ . The total volume of the column is
is in terms of Bessel functions
V⬘ = aLr21 + 共1 − a兲Lr22 . 共16兲
2 = A Jt共兲 + B J−t共兲
t t
共4兲 The normalized volume is
where t ⬅ 1 / 3, A and B are constants and
2
= 共1 − s兲3/21/2
2 . 共5兲
V=
V⬘
=
1
4L4/E 2
1−a+
a
.冉 冊 共17兲
3 For given a , we obtain 2 from Table 1 and the value of V from
For the bottom segment a similar moment balance yields Eq. 共17兲. The dimensions of the tallest two- segment column for a
given amount of weight or volume is equivalent to that which
minimizes the volume for given height. Thus we search for the
Contributed by the Applied Mechanics Division of THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF minimum V in Table 2. After some refinement, we find minimum
MECHANICAL ENGINEERS for publication in the ASME JOURNAL OF APPLIED MECHANICS.
Manuscript received by the ASME Applied Mechanics Division, March 26, 2002; V is 0.038 41 occurring at a = 0.661 and = 0.131. For given
final revision, May 15, 2004. Associate Editor: N. Triantafyllidis. height L that needs to be reached, the optimum dimensions are
Journal of Applied Mechanics Copyright © 2005 by ASME JULY 2005, Vol. 72 / 613
r1 = 冑 4VL3
E关a − 共1 − a兲兴
= 0.499 冑 L3
E
, r2 = 冑r1 = 0.362 r1
共18兲
and the lengths of the two segments are 0.661L and 0.339L, re-
spectively. Notice that the radial dimensions depend on the mate-
rial properties of the column.
The present analysis can be extended to two-segment columns
with different material properties or to multisegment columns.
References
关1兴 Greenhill, A. G., 1881, “Determination of the greatest height consistent with
stability that a vertical pole or mast can be made, and of the greatest height to
which a tree of given proportions can grow,” Proc. Cambridge Philos. Soc. 4,
pp. 65–73.
关2兴 Keller, J. B. and Niordson, F. I., 1966, “The tallest column,” J. Math. Mech.
16, pp. 433–446.
关3兴 Cox, S. J. and McCarthy, C. M., 1998, “The shape of the tallest column,”
SIAM J. Math. Anal. 29, pp. 547–554.
关4兴 Hu, K. K. and Kirmser, P. G., 1980, “Numerical solution of a non-linear
Fig. 1 The two-segment column differential-integral equation for the optimal shape of the tallest column,” Int.
J. Eng. Sci. 18, pp. 333–339.
关5兴 Wang, C. Y., 1986, “A critical review of the heavy elastica,” Int. J. Mech. Sci.
28, pp. 549–559.
冦 冧
2⌳ n U
2
100871, Beijing, PRC =
z2 z2
, 共1兲
⌳2
2U
= n 2
Although Peng Yafei and his co-workers discovered some faults z̄ 2
z̄
with the pseudo-stress function method suggested by Y. S. Lee in
1987, the authors did not provide convincing arguments. We in- where
vestigate the crucial assumption in Lee’s method by rewriting it as 2U 2U
the form of real part and imaginary part. Through a specific coun- 2 = , 共2兲
z2 z̄2
terexample, we point out that the crucial assumption in Lee’s
theory is untenable. Namely, for given Airy’s stress function, it 1−m
cannot be guaranteed that the pseudo-stress function ⌳共x , y兲 ex- n= . 共3兲
m
ists. The root cause of the fault with Lee’s method is found in this
paper. 关DOI: 10.1115/1.1935526兴 Then, Lee obtained the compatibility equation in terms of the
pseudo-stress function ⌳ as follows:
4⌳
1 Introduction = 0. 共4兲
z2z̄2
In 1987, Y. S. Lee and his co-workers 关1–4兴 came up with an
analytic method that is known as the pseudo-stress function However, Eq. 共4兲 cannot hold true because there is a serious
method. The pseudo-stress function method is similar to the Airy problem in Lee’s assumption Eqs. 共1兲. The following discussion in
stress function method in linear elasticity and has been used to this section will show that the pseudo-stress function ⌳共x , y兲 does
analyze the stress field of power-hardening materials. However, not always exist for given Airy’s stress function U and constant n
this method was challenged by Peng Yafei and his co-workers in 共n ⫽ 0兲. This problem is fatal to the whole theory.
1996 关5兴. In Peng’s paper, the authors declared that they had found For given Airy’s stress function U and n, we suppose ⌳共x , y兲
some crucial problems in Lee’s theory and presented some discus- = P共x , y兲 + iQ共x , y兲. Rewriting Eqs. 共1兲, we have
再 冋 冉 冊册冎 冉 冊
冦再 冧
1 2 P 2 P 2Q 2 P 2Q 2Q 1 2U 2U 2U
− + 2 + i − 2 + − = n − − 2i
4 x2 y 2 x y x y x2 y 2 x2 y 2 x y
冊册冎 冉
4
冋 冉 冊
. 共5兲
1 2 P 2 P 2Q 2 P 2Q 2Q 1 n U 2U
2
2U
2 − 2 −2 +i 2 + − = − + 2i
4 x y x y x y x2 y 2 4 x2 y 2 x y
冉 冊
冦 冧
Considering Airy’s stress function U is a real function, from Eq. 2 P 2 P 2Q 2U 2U
共2兲 we know n is also a real function and has the following form: 2 − 2 ±2 = n −
x y x y x2 y 2
冉 冊
. 共7兲
2 P 2Q 2Q n U
2
⫿2 + 2 − 2 = ⫿ 2
再 冋冉 冊 冉 冊 册冎
x y x y x y
1 2U 2U 2
2U 2 n/2
n = − +4 . 共6兲
16 x2 y 2 x y
Thus,
冉 冊
冦 冧
2 P 2 P n U
2
2U
2 − 2 = 2 −
x y x y2
共8兲
Contributed by the Applied Mechanics Division of THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF 2 P 2U
MECHANICAL ENGINEERS for publication in the ASME JOURNAL OF APPLIED MECHANICS. = n
Manuscript received by the ASME Applied Mechanics Division, May 31, 2004; final x y x y
revision, October 26, 2004. Associate Editor: H. Gao.
Journal of Applied Mechanics Copyright © 2005 by ASME JULY 2005, Vol. 72 / 615
冦 冧
2Q 3 Conclusion
=0
x y From what have been discussed above, we find, for given Airy’s
. 共9兲 stress function U and constant n 共n ⫽ 0兲, it cannot be guaranteed
2Q 2Q
− = 0 that the function ⌳共x , y兲 exists, which is required to satisfy Eqs.
x2 y 2
共1兲. So, we can safely draw our conclusion that Lee’s assumption
Equations 共8兲 and 共9兲 are the differential equations that the real is unwarranted and the pseudo-stress function method suggested
part and imaginary part of ⌳共x , y兲 should satisfy respectively. by Lee collapses.
From Eqs. 共9兲 one obtains
Acknowledgment
Q共x,y兲 = A共x2 + y 2兲 + Bx + Cy + D, 共10兲 The authors acknowledge the support of the National Natural
Science Foundation of China Grants No. 10172003 and
where A , B , C , D are constants. 10372003.
However, when n ⫽ 0, Eqs. 共8兲 usually have no solutions. We
consider the case of n = 2 and U = xy 2. Substituting n = 2 and U References
= xy 2 into Eqs. 共8兲, we obtain 关1兴 Lee, Y. S., and Smith, L. C., 1988, “Analysis of a Power-law Material Con-
taining a Single Hole Subjected to a Uniaxial Tensile Stress Using the Com-
冦 冧
plex Pseudo-Stress Function,” ASME J. Appl. Mech., 55, pp. 267–274.
2 P 2 P 1 关2兴 Lee, Y. S., 1987, “Stress Analysis and Investigation of Void Formation Under
− = − x3 − 2xy 2
x2 y 2 2 External Stress of Power-law Creep Materials Using Complex Variables and
. 共11兲 the Pseudo-stress Function,” Dissertation abstracts, University of Pittsburgh,
2 P 1 2 Pittsburgh, PA.
= x y + 2y 3 关3兴 Lee, Y. S., and Gong, H., 1987, “Application of Complex Variables and
x y 2 Pseudo-stress Analysis of Single Rigid Inclusion in Power-law Materials Sub-
jected to Simple Tension and Pure Shear,” Int. J. Mech. Sci., 29, pp. 669–694.
It is not difficult for us to know that Eqs. 共11兲 have no solutions at 关4兴 Lee, Y. S., and Batt, T. J., 1989, “Investigation of Void Formation on a Bonded
all. Therefore, the existence of ⌳共x , y兲 is not ensured, at least in Interface of Power Law Creep Materials Containing a Cylindrical Particle,”
the case of n = 2, U = xy 2. Generally speaking, Eqs. 共8兲 do not have Acta Mech., 79, pp. 183–205.
关5兴 Peng Yafei, Shen Yapeng, and Chen Yiheng, 1996, “Some Faults in the Stress
solutions since a single function P共x , y兲 is required to satisfy two Analysis of Power-Hardening Materials with Pseudo-Stress Function Method,”
distinct differential equations. ASME J. Appl. Mech., 63, pp. 554–555.
1 Introduction
1
−
1
共2 f兲2 共2 f 0兲2
= 冕 A
x3
3EI
dxdy 共4兲
The microcantilever-based dynamic method uses resonant fre-
quency changes due to mass loading. This method has been ap- where A is the surface area occupied by the monolayer of ad-
plied to detect vapor adsorption 关1兴, the amount of uniformly sorbed molecules. In Eq. 共4兲, is a constant representing the areal
coated material 关2兴, the number of Escherichia coli cells bound mass density of molecules in A and depends on the mass and size
关3兴, the mass of an Escherichia coli cell 关4兴, etc. In this work, of the molecule. Using Eq. 共1兲 or 共4兲, the mass of a single mol-
using the general relationship derived for the method, we demon- ecule and the number of molecule layers adsorbed can be deter-
strate that, when the designed adhesion region of a cantilever is mined as shown below.
not fully occupied by molecules, this method cannot be applied to i. Determination of the mass of a single molecule. When only
accurately determine the number of molecules adsorbed, which is one molecule is adsorbed on the cantilever, the relationship 共1兲
different from what was claimed in previous studies 关3,4兴. We also becomes
discuss the possibility of determining the number of molecules
adsorbed according to the relationship between the static bending
of a cantilever and the mass loading.
m=
3EI
冋1
−
1
x03 共2 f兲2 共2 f 0兲2
册 共5兲
关6兴 where l is the cantilever length and t the cantilever width. The
mass of the molecule can be obtained, for instance, by the ap-
proach of case i, and the size of the molecule is normally available
Contributed by the Applied Mechanics Division of THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF in a physical or chemical manual. After these two are known,
MECHANICAL ENGINEERS for publication in the ASME JOURNAL OF APPLIED MECHANICS.
Manuscript received by the ASME Applied Mechanics Division, June 21, 2004; final can be calculated accordingly. After f is further measured experi-
revision, October 29, 2004. Associate Editor: K. M. Liechti. mentally, k can be determined using Eq. 共6兲. This equation can
Journal of Applied Mechanics Copyright © 2005 by ASME JULY 2005, Vol. 72 / 617
Fig. 1 Cross-sectional view of a cantilever and the geometric
meaning of the influence coefficient ai in the dynamic method
冕
关4兴 llic, B., Czaplewski, D., Craighead, H. G., Neuzil, P., Campagnolo, C., and
gx2共3l − x兲 Batt, C., 2001, “Single Cell Detection With Micromechanical Oscillators,” J.
w= dxdy 共11兲 Vac. Sci. Technol. B, 19, pp. 2825–2828.
A
6EI 关5兴 Thomson, W. T., 1988, Theory of Vibration with Applications, Third Edition,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, pp. 156–158 and 299–304.
If w and 关gx2共3l − x兲兴 / 6EI in Eq. 共11兲 are interpreted as 关6兴 Weaver, W., Timoshenko, S. P., and Young, D. H., 1990, Vibration Problems in
1 / 共2 f兲2 − 1 / 共2 f 0兲2 and x3 / 3EI, respectively, then Eq. 共11兲 ac- Engineering, Fifth Edition, Wiley, New York, p. 428.
tually has the same form as Eq. 共4兲. As a result, we expect that the 关7兴 Timoshenko, S. P., and Gere, J. M., 1972, Mechanics of Materials, Van Nos-
trand Reinhold, New York.
static method can perform the same functions as the dynamic 关8兴 Davis, Z. J., Abadal, G., Kuhn, O., Hansen, O., Grey, F., and Boisen, A., 2000,
method, such as the detection of the mass of a single particle, “Fabriation and Characterization of Nanoresonating Devices for Mass Detec-
while the same limitations faced by the dynamic methods in the tion,” J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B, 18, pp. 612–616.
detection of the number of molecules adsorbed also apply to the 关9兴 Abadal, G., Davis, Z. J., Borrisé, X., Hansen, O., Boisen, A., Barniol, N.,
Pérez-Murano, F., and Serra, F., 2003, “Atomic Force Microscope Character-
static method. Using Eq. 共11兲 and following the same procedures ization of a Resonating Nanocantilever,” Ultramicroscopy, 97, pp. 127–133.
in Sec. 2, which are based on Eq. 共4兲, it can be readily shown that 关10兴 Manual of the LEO Transmission Electron Microscopy, LEO Electron Micros-
this expectation is true. copy Inc., Thornwood, NY.
Finally, it should be noted that, in order to make the static 关11兴 Berger, R., Delamarche, E., Lang, H. P., Gerber, C., Gimzewski, J. K., Meyer,
E., and Güntherdot, H.-J., 1997, “Surface Stress in the Self-Assembly of Al-
method valid for detecting the presence of molecules based on the kanethiols on Gold,” Science, 276, pp. 2021–2024.
relationship between the static bending of the free end of a canti- 关12兴 Lang, H. P., Berger, R., Battiston, F., Ramseyer, J.-P., Meyer, E., Andreoli, C.,
lever and the mass loading, the mass loading must predominate Brugger, J., Vettiger, P., Despont, M., Mezzacasa, T., Scandella, L.,
the bending. As a result, the Eq. 共11兲-based static method is not Güntherdot, H.-J., Gerber, Ch., and Gimzewski, J. K., 1998, “A Chemical
Sensor Based on a Micromechanical Cantilever Array for the Identification of
applicable to cases where the surface stress generated because of Gases and Vapors,” Appl. Phys. A: Mater. Sci. Process., 66, S61–S64.
the absorption of molecules affects the bending more than the 关13兴 Moulin, A. M., O’Shea, S. J., Badley, R. A., Doyle, P., and Welland, M. E.,
mass loading 关10–13兴. In those cases, the dynamic method should 1999, “Measuring Surface-Induced Conformational Changes in Protein,”
be chosen to detect the presence of molecules since this method is Langmuir, 15, pp. 8776–8779.
关14兴 Fritz, J., Baller, M. K., Lang, H. P., Rothuizen, H., Vettiger, P., Meyer, E.,
not affected by the surface stress, in principle. Güntherdot, H.-J., Gerber, Ch., and Gimzewski, J. K., 2000, “Translating Bio-
molecular Recognition Into Nanomechanics,” Science, 288, pp. 316–318.
4 Summary 关15兴 Spiering, V. L., Bouwstra, S., and Spiering, R., 1993, “On Chip Decoupling
Zone for Package-Stress Reduction,” Sens. Actuators, A, 39, pp. 149–156.
In this work, we demonstrate that both dynamic and static 关16兴 Hibbeler, R. C., 1994, Mechanics of Materials, Prentice-Hall, Englewood
methods use the same form of relationships for their sensing pur- Cliffs, NJ, p. 134.
冕冕
references illustrate that structural integrity degrades with cycling L h/2 S
due to the accumulation of deflections. For some relatively long
structural members, deflections are consistent with buckling
b
0 −h/2
␦ dzdx − 兺 kw ␦w − ᐉ␦g = 0
i=1
i i 共4兲
modes that display periodic variation along the length 关4,5兴. Un-
der persistent loading, localization of such buckling modes can where wi is the transverse deflection at the ith support, S is the
take place and induce collapse. Under load control the deflections number of intermediate supports and
are unconstrained, and localization can take place in a manner that g = 关u共L兲 − u*兴EA = 0 共5兲
is reminiscent of monotonic loading. The events that lead to lo-
*
calization under displacement-controlled cycles of constant ampli- is a constraint used to prescribe the axial deflection u . EA is the
tude are less obvious because the global prescribed deflections of elastic axial rigidity of the column. The Lagrange multiplier ᐉ
the structure are constrained, and one may think that this would = P / EA yields the axial load in the column.
impair localization and result in shakedown. Yet, several examples
Solution. An approximate solution is attempted by discretizing
in the literature indicate that localization can set in and result in
collapse. the displacement components u and w using trigonometric series
In this note an attempt is made to illustrate how localization can expansions that satisfy the boundary conditions
develop under displacement-controlled cyclic loading as in 关4,5兴 Ns
nx
by using a simple model of a multiply supported column similar
to that considered by Goto et al. 关7兴. They used this model to
w= 兺 a sin
n=1
n
L
demonstrate that localization can take place under displacement- 共6兲
controlled cyclic loading. Here, the model will be used to illus- Ns
nx
trate how localization develops. u = b ox + 兺
n=1
bnsin
L
Substituting 共6兲 into the kinematics 共1兲–共3兲 and into the PVW
Formulation 共4兲 yields a system of 2Ns + 2 nonlinear algebraic equations with
The problem consists of a pinned-pinned elastic-plastic column unknowns 兵a1 , … , aNs , bo , b1 , … , bNs , ᐉ其. The equations are solved
with several intermediate pin supports as shown in Fig. 1共a兲. The iteratively for each prescribed increment in u* using the Newton-
spacing between the supports is . All but the left-most support Raphson method. The integrations in 共4兲 are carried out using
allow axial deflections. The total length of the column is L, and it Gaussian quadrature.
has a rectangular cross section of width b and height h. The col-
umn carries an axial load P 共positive in tension兲 at the right end.
The intermediate supports of the column are modeled as elastic
springs, as shown in Fig. 1共b兲. The stiffness of the springs k is set Results
to be relatively high, as in the penalty approach. The coordinate In order to illustrate localization, columns with several seg-
system is also shown in the figure, with x and z being the axial and ments must be considered. A column with no internal supports
共 = L兲 does not display localization 关12兴, and its response under
cyclic loading is very similar to that predicted by a simple
Contributed by the Applied Mechanics Division of THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERS for publication in the ASME JOURNAL OF APPLIED MECHANICS.
Shanley-type model 关13兴. Localization events become easier to
Manuscript received by the ASME Applied Mechanics Division, August 2, 2004; see as the number of segments increases. A column with eight
final revision, October 18, 2004. Associate Editor: N. Triantafyllides. segments 共 = L / 8兲 has been chosen to illustrate the development
620 / Vol. 72, JULY 2005 Copyright © 2005 by ASME Transactions of the ASME
Fig. 1 „a… Schematic of the parameters of the problem and „b…
model of the problem
冕
rate. This continues until approximately cycle 30 when the seg- 共n+1兲
ments near the right end begin to experience a decrease in trans- ⌬ = 共冑共1 + u⬘兲2 + w⬘2 − 1兲dx 共7兲
verse amplitude. By cycle 75, the localization of transverse de- n
flections becomes significant enough to cause the decrease in peak
compressive loads to accelerate. In fact, limit loads appear within Figure 4 shows the length change of several segments in solid
each cycle starting with the 78th cycle. By the 90th cycle, it is lines and the change in length of the column in dashed line. It is
clear that the deformation is heavily localized at the left end of the clear that segments close to the right end of the column increase in
column. length, whereas the segment where localization occurs decreases
Now that the localization behavior of the column has been es- in length, and that the overall length of the column increases
tablished, it is of interest to investigate how it takes place. It has somewhat as well.
already been shown that the amplitude of the transverse deflection In summary, the localization process is a global event in the
in segments on the right part of the column decreases with local- column, where the amplitude of the lateral deflections away from
ization and provides at least part of the length necessary to feed the localization zone decreases as the peak compressive load de-
the localization process. This is illustrated in Fig. 3, where the creases and the length of the same segments increases. These
axial deflections at the supports at the peak compressive displace- events provide the necessary kinematic events to make localiza-
ment u p are plotted versus the number of cycles N. The displace- tion possible. In this model localization occurs in a very smooth
Acknowledgment
This work was conducted with support from the National Sci-
ence Foundation 共Grant No. CMS96-10510兲 and the University of
Notre Dame.
References
关1兴 Bertero, V. V., and Popov, E. P., 1965, “Effect of Large Alternating Strains of
Fig. 3 Axial displacement of column supports
Steel Beams,” ASCE J. Struct. Div. 91, pp. 1–12.
关2兴 Kyriakides, S., and Shaw, P. K., 1987, “Inelastic Buckling of Tubes Under
Cyclic Bending,” ASME J. Pressure Vessel Technol. 109, pp. 169–178.
关3兴 Corona, E., and Kyriakides, S., 1991, “An Experimental Investigation of the
Degradation and Buckling of Circular Tubes Under Cyclic Bending and Ex-
ternal Pressure,” Thin-Walled Struct. 12, pp. 229–263.
关4兴 Vaze, S. P., and Corona, E., 1998, “Degradation and Collapse of Square Tubes
Under Cyclic Bending,” Thin-Walled Struct. 31, pp. 325–341.
关5兴 Ellison, M. S., and Corona, E., 1998, “Buckling of T-Beams Under Cyclic
Bending,” Int. J. Mech. Sci. 40共9兲, pp. 835–855.
关6兴 Yin, S., Corona, E., and Ellison, M. S., 2004, “Degradation and Buckling of
I-Beams Under Cyclic Pure Bending,” J. Eng. Mech. 130, 809–817.
关7兴 Goto, Y., Toba, Y., and Matsuoka, H., 1995, “Localization of Plastic Buckling
Patterns Under Cyclic Loading,” J. Eng. Mech. 121共4兲, pp. 493–501.
关8兴 Brush, D. O., and Almroth, B. O., 1975, Buckling of Bars, Plates and Shells,
McGraw-Hill, New York, Chap. 1.
关9兴 Dafalias, Y. F., and Popov, E. P., 1975, “A Model of Nonlinearly Hardening
Materials for Complex Loading,” Acta Mech. 21, pp. 173–192.
关10兴 Dafalias, Y. F., and Popov, E. P., 1976, “Plastic Internal Variable Formalism in
Cyclic Plasticity,” ASME J. Appl. Mech. 43, pp. 645–651.
关11兴 Hassan, T., and Kyriakides, S., 1992, “Ratcheting in Cyclic Plasticity, Part I:
Uniaxial Behavior,” Int. J. Plast. 8, pp. 91–116.
关12兴 Yin, S., 2002, “Buckling of Structural Members Under Cyclic Loading,” PhD
dissertation, University of Notre Dame.
关13兴 Corona, E., 2001, “Stability of the Shanley Column Under Cyclic Loading,”
Fig. 4 Length change of column segments ASME J. Appl. Mech. 68, pp. 324–331.
册再 冎 冋 册再 冎 再 冎
a single resonant mode, modeled through a concentrated mass and tions take the form
冋
a simple pendulum.
M+m mL ẍ共t兲 0 0 x共t兲 F共t兲
The simultaneous tracking control and swing suppression in + =
overhead cranes is an interesting control task since point-to-point mL J + mL 2
¨ 共t兲 0 mgL 共t兲 0
operations lead to significant control problems due to their
pendulum-like dynamic behavior. In the last decades many solu- 共3兲
tions have been proposed for the control of crane-like systems 共the
contributions from 关1–5兴, and the references therein, are represen-
tative of the research conducted to date兲. Some of them have led
to industrial applications and commercial diffusion 共e.g., 关3兴兲. 3 Synthesis of the Delayed Reference Controller
Nevertheless, researchers keep working in this field so as to re- Let us rewrite the second row of Eq. 共3兲 in the form
duce maneuver time and residual vibrations in rest-to-rest opera-
tions 共e.g., 关4,5兴兲. 共J + mL2兲¨ 共t兲 + mgL共t兲 = − mLẍ共t兲. 共4兲
This paper proposes a novel non-time-based strategy: the refer- The term on the right-hand side may be thought of as an external
ence path is made a function of a parameter depending on the time force q共t兲 acting on the pendulum, and whose value can be appro-
and on another variable which is related to the measured vibration
priately set by regulating the trolley acceleration. The values taken
共i.e., the swing angle兲, and can be thought of as a time delay. For
by q共t兲 depend on the control problem considered. A very basic
this reason the proposed control is named “delayed reference con-
trol” 共DRC兲. control problem which fits the studied system is keeping the pen-
dulum swing to a minimum while the trolley moves. This is a
regulation problem, in which the reference is set equal to zero.
1
To whom correspondence should be addressed. The following corrective action can therefore be established:
Contributed by the Applied Mechanics Division for THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERS for publication in the ASME JOURNAL OF APPLIED MECHANICS. q共t兲 = − mLẍ共t兲 = kcD关˙ r共t兲 − ˙ 共t兲兴 = − kcD˙ 共t兲 共5兲
Manuscript received by the ASME Applied Mechanics Division, February 3, 2004;
final revision, November 22, 2004. Associate Editor: N. Sri Namachchivaya.
Journal of Applied Mechanics Copyright © 2005 by ASME JULY 2005, Vol. 72 / 623
trolley is desired to follow may be defined by the parametric equa-
tion xr = xr共l兲, where l 苸 ⵜ is called the action reference parameter.
In the DRC scheme l is of the form l = t − , with 苸 ⵜ. The time
varying quantity = 共t兲 will henceforth be called a time delay,
although it does not necessarily take positive values. has been
introduced to allow modifying the action reference parameter,
and, consequently, the instantaneous position reference xr and its
time derivatives. This ensures the possibility of generating the
control action specified by Eq. 共5兲 without drifting away from the
desired path.
By computing the second derivative of xr共l兲 with respect to
time, and by substituting it for ẍr共t兲 into Eq. 共6兲, one gets the
following equation:
冕 冕冕
t t
The corrective action can be straightforwardly related to the ac- d 2x r
celeration of the trolley position reference 共ẍr兲 if the servo system kcD 共兲d = mL 共1 − ˙ 共兲兲2d
0 0
d共 − 共兲兲2
ensuring the motion of the trolley has a very low time constant
with respect to the swing period. In other words, the trolley posi-
冕冕
t
dxr
tion controller is required to keep the position error xr − x small, so − mL ¨ 共兲d 共8兲
that x xr can be assumed. Under such a hypothesis Eq. 共5兲 can be 0
d共 − 共兲兲
rewritten as follows:
If we write  = 共l兲 = 共dxr / dl兲共l兲, ⬘ = ⬘共l兲 = 共d2xr / dl2兲共l兲, Eq. 共8兲
kcD˙ 共t兲 = mLẍ共t兲 ⬇ mLẍr共t兲 共6兲 clearly becomes
Now, assume that xr is not only a function of time, but also of an
冕 冕冕 冕冕
t t t
additional parameter acting as a time delay, and which can be kcD 共兲d = mL ⬘共1 − ˙ 共兲兲2d − mL ¨ 共兲d
modified continuously. It is basically being assumed that the con- 0 0 0
trol problem consists in ensuring that the trolley moves along a 共9兲
desired path through space 共no matter how long it takes兲, rather
than in accordance with a trajectory in time 共as in classical control By integrating by parts the last term of the right-hand side, there
theory兲. Without loss of generality, the path through space the follows
冕 冕冕 冕冉 冕 冊 冕冕 冉
t t t t t
kcD 共兲d = mL ⬘共1 − ˙ 共兲兲2d − mL ˙ 共兲 − ⬘共1 − ˙ 共兲兲˙ 共兲d d = mL ⬘共1 − ˙ 共兲兲2d − mL  共t兲
0 0 0 0 0
− 冕
t
0
⬘共1 − ˙ 共兲兲˙ 共兲d − 冕冕
t
0
⬘共1 − ˙ 共兲兲˙ 共兲d = mL 冊 冉冕冕 0
t
⬘共1 − ˙ 共兲兲d − 冕0
t
⬘共1 − ˙ 共兲兲˙ 共兲d 冊
− mL共t兲 共10兲
M 共kg兲 32.318
m 共kg兲 0.7589
J 共kg m2兲 584⫻ 104
L 共m兲 0.459
冕
t
kcD 共兲d = − mL 共t兲 共11兲
0
Fig. 3 The experimental apparatus Although the assumption under which Eq. 共11兲 holds might ap-
pear too restrictive, in many practical applications 共e.g., material
handling by cranes or robots兲 the second derivative of the path
xr共l兲 is small. In these applications neglecting the terms containing
⬘ does not affect the expected dynamic behavior of the con-
trolled system, as it is shown by the experimental results in Sec. 4.
Fig. 4 Comparison of the experimental and numerical results. Linear reference path. x, ,
and vs. t.
As a result, the following relation between the delay and the • Reference planner: it computes the instantaneous reference
pendulum swing is established: xr on the basis of the action reference parameter l;
冕
t • Action reference block: it computes l on the basis of t, the
kcD instantaneous values of 共l兲 and ;
共t兲 = − 共兲 · d . 共12兲
mL 0 • Position controller: a standard proportional-plus-derivative
共PD兲 regulator is employed to compute the control action
Hence, as long as the actual position of the trolley 共x兲 can be F共l兲.
approximated by the path reference 共xr兲, Eq. 共12兲, or its Laplace
transform, The DRC scheme therefore has a cascade structure, which con-
kcD sists of an inner position 共x兲 loop and an outer loop closed to
T共s兲 = − ⌰共s兲, 共13兲 suppress the pendulum oscillation 共兲 actively. A major advantage
mLs
of the DRC scheme is the possibility of employing any kind of
allows computing the time the reference has to be delayed to regulator in the inner feedback loop, which provides a great flex-
perform the desired control action given by Eq. 共5兲. ibility in the design of DRC-based regulators. The inner loop
As far as the parameter kcD is concerned, its value should be set regulator, in fact, does not play any role in the DRC synthesis: its
so that the pendulum exhibits a critically damped response. The sole role is to ensure an accurate tracking of xr.
combination of Eqs. 共4兲 and 共5兲 immediately yields
kcD = 2冑mgL共J + mL2兲. 共14兲 4 DRC Experimental Validation
Figure 2 shows the block scheme of the DRC designed for the The theory developed in the foregoing sections has been ap-
studied system. It comprises the following blocks: plied to the prototype shown in Fig. 3. A pendulum, composed of
a steel load at the end of a slender steel bar with square cross
Equations 共21b兲 and 共21c兲 and 共22b兲 and 共22c兲 in the published paper contain typographical errors. The error in Eqs. 共21b兲 and 共21c兲
involves a switching of the sign and a factor of 2 while the error in Eqs. 共22b兲 and 共22c兲 involves a switching of the signs. The corrected
equations are written below.
Spherical Inclusion:
rr共r兲 = − 冋 3K M * − 2o/Ro
4 M + 3K M + 2Ks/Ro
册冏 冏
2R3o
r3
r ⬎ Ro 共21b兲
Cylindrical Inclusion:
628 / Vol. 72, JULY 2005 Copyright © 2005 by ASME Transactions of the ASME
Erratum: “Analytical Solution of a Dynamic System Containing
Fractional Derivative of Order One-Half by
Adomian Decomposition Method”
†Journal of Applied Mechanics, 2005, 72„2…, pp. 290–295‡
S. Saha Ray and R. K. Bera
The correct authors and their affiliations should have been listed as follows:
S. Saha Ray
Lecturer,
Department of Mathematics,
B. P. Poddar Institute of Management and Technology,
137, V.I.P. Road,
Poddar Vihar,
Kolkata 700052, West Bengal, India
R. K. Bera
Heritage Institute of Technology,
Chowbaga Road,
Anandapur, Kolkata 700107, India
Journal of Applied Mechanics Copyright © 2005 by ASME JULY 2005, Vol. 72 / 629