Embedded Systems An Integrated Approach - (PG 55 - 67)

introduction to
1 embedded systems
In this chapter, you will learn
What is meant by the term ‘embedded The working of a simple embedded system
systems’ The figures of merit for an embedded
The application domain of embedded system
systems Classification of MCUs on the basis of
The model of an embedded system data bus widths
The difference between an MCU and an The history and current trends of the
MPU embedded systems industry
Introduction
The term ‘embedded systems’ has become very common, but is quite difficult to ‘define’,
because of the large variety of devices included in this class. So, let us make an attempt
to understand it, rather than make an attempt to ‘define’ it.
An embedded system is an electronic system which is designed to perform one
or a limited set of functions, using hardware and software. Thus, let’s examine the vast
domain of embedded systems.
Copyright © 2012. Pearson India. All rights reserved.
Having hardware and software makes an embedded system a computer, but this
computer performs only a limited set of functions. Thus, we exclude the PC from the
embedded system world, and name it as a general purpose computer. Therefore, an
embedded system is a ‘special purpose’ computing unit—meaning that it will have
a processor and associated software. The software associated with the application is
‘burned’ into the ROM of the processor; therefore, it is better to designate it as a
‘firmware’.
Take the case of an automobile, for example, a car. It has a number of ‘electronic
control units (ECUs)’ as part of what is called ‘automobile electronics’—each of these
units has a processor, which controls one or other of the various parts of the car such
as engine, brakes, lights, doors and so on. Thus, embedded systems are ubiquitous, that
is, omnipresent within an automobile, and adds intelligence to the operation of the
vehicle.
Chapter-opening image: Development board of TI’s low power MSP 430 microcontroller.
Das, LyLa B.. Embedded Systems : An Integrated Approach, Pearson India, 2012. ProQuest Ebook Central,
http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/indiannavalacademy/detail.action?docID=5124979.
Created from indiannavalacademy on 2018-10-24 03:22:31.
M01_9788131787663_C01.indd 34 7/3/2012 12:08:27 PM

INTR ODUC TION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS 35
1.1 | Application Domain of Embedded Systems

The application domain of embedded systems percolates every element of modern life—
it will be easier to understand its features once we take a tour of the world of embedded
systems. The following is a list:
i) Consumer electronics: Cameras, music players, TVs, DVD players, microwave
ovens, washing machines, refrigerators and remote controls.
ii) Household appliances/home security systems: Airconditioners, intruders and
fire alarm systems.
ii) Automobile controls: Anti-lock braking system, engine and transmission control,
door and wiper control, etc.
iv) Handheld devices: Mobile phones, PDAs, MP3 players, digicams, etc.
v) Medical equipments: Scanners, ECG and EEG units, testing and monitoring
equipments.
vi) Banking: ATMs, currency counters, etc.
vii) Computer peripherals: Printers, scanners, webcams, etc.
viii) Networking: Routers, switches, hubs, etc.
ix) Factories: Control, automation, instrumentation and alarm systems.
xi) Aviation: Airplane controls, guidance and instrumentation systems.
xii) Military: Control and monitoring of military equipments.
xiii) Robotics: Used in factories, household and hobby-related activities.
xiii) Toys.
Figure 1.1 depicts some embedded products. It is only a sample of the products in
the galaxy of embedded systems.
This list is incomplete, and on perusing it, you are likely to feel that anything and
everything that involves modern day electronic control is an ‘embedded system’. This is
not far from the truth. In fact, the only electronic equipment that we simply and easily
exclude from the list is the home PC.
Why do we exclude the PC from this list?
We will first list out the general features of an embedded system before attempting to
answer this question.
1.2 | Desirable Features and General Characteristics

of Embedded Systems
i) It should have one or a small set of functions which it is expected to perform
efficiently.
ii) It should be designed for low-power dissipation, because many systems are battery
powered.
iii) It has limited memory and limited number of peripherals.
iv) Applications are not meant to be alterable by the user.
v) Many of them are not accessible directly, that is, they may be part of the control unit
of a larger system, so no interference in operation is possible.
vi) They need to be highly reliable.
vii) Many of them need to operate with time constraints.
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36 EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
Figure 1.1 | Some application fields of embedded systems
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Now let’s try to understand why a PC is not considered to be an embedded system.

i) The PC has a large application set, from word processing and computation to
communications, printing, scanning and many more.
ii) Low power consideration is a good idea, but that is not the guiding principle in
its design.
iii) Memory is available in various forms: RAM, ROM and secondary memory
devices like the hard disk, CDROMs and the like. More memory can be added if
the user desires.
iv) Since the PC is used for various applications, more applications can be added as and
when needed.
v) The PC can be accessed by input devices like the keyboard, mouse, modem, etc.
vi) Like any other system, the PC also needs to be reliable, but since it is unlikely to be
the part of a very critical system, it can afford to fail once in a while (not a very good
idea, though because PCs are used in critical monitoring applications sometimes).
vii) The applications on the PC need to be fast for better performance, but usually there
is no time criticality involved.
Now that we have eliminated the general purpose PC from the list of embedded
systems, the next question is whether the new handheld devices such as advanced mobile
phones, PDAs, etc. can be included in the list of ‘embedded systems’. The answer is that
gradually these devices are also being used for ‘general purposes’, just like a PC. But the
other side of the argument is that the design of such handheld devices is similar to that
of embedded systems, where processor power, memory, size, are limited, and timing is
critical, even though the applications may resemble that of a PC. As such, such devices
can also be thought of as embedded systems.
1.3 | Model of an Embedded System

In its simplest and most general form, an embedded system consists of a processor,
sensors, actuators and memory. The idea is that any application should be able to provide
solution to a real-world problem, for which some data is definitely to be read in. For this,
sensors are needed. This data is processed by the processor and the result of it is given
to actuators which perform appropriate actions. See Figure 1.2, which is a very simple
model of an embedded system.
1.4 | Microprocessor vs Microcontroller

We have already talked about a processor as being the brain of an embedded system. This
simply means that there should be a computational engine as the core of the system, to
make it ‘intelligent’. There are two types of ‘processor units’ commonly mentioned in
the literature.
1.4.1 | Microprocessor Unit (MPU)

A processor like the 8086, or its advanced version, that is, Pentium, has very high
computational capability, but it does not have pins or the internal architecture to interface
with the external world. For such ‘microprocessors’, external chips act as peripheral
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38 EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
A
S
C
E T
N U
S Processor A
O T
R O
R
S
S
Memory
Figure 1.2 | General model of an embedded system
controllers. For example, to connect an LCD display to an MPU, a parallel port IC is to

be connected externally—to have a serial transmission facility, an external serial control-
ler is necessary—for timing and counting, external timers are needed. Memory can also
be connected externally. Figure 1.3 shows an MPU chip connected to peripherals and
memory which are physically external to the chip. Such MPUs are used as the core of
general purpose computation systems, where the emphasis is on ‘computational power’
rather than interfacing capability. A PC uses an MPU, and a number of external chips
together as a ‘chipset’ which acts as controllers to various peripherals.
RAM
S
Y
ROM
S
T
Parallel I/O
MPU
E
Chip
M Serial I/O
B
Counter/
U Timer
S
Other
Peripherals
Figure 1.3 | An MPU with peripherals and memory external to the chip
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MCU
Processor Parallel I/O

Core Ports
Serial
I/O Ports
Internal
Memory
Counter/
Timer
A-to-D D-to-A
Conversion Conversion
Figure 1.4 | An MCU with peripherals and memory inside the chip
1.4.2 | Microcontroller Unit (MCU)

See Figure 1.4. Here the processing unit has along with it (in the same chip), timers,
parallel ports, serial ports, RAM, ROM, etc. So, no external controller chips are needed.
Memory is also available inside the chip—the program code is burned into the internal
ROM, and application code is run with the help of internal RAM. Thus, this is more or less
a self-contained single chip computer. Popular microcontrollers include 8051, PIC, AVR,
ARM, etc. When such an MCU has a lot of peripherals inside, such that the design of a
large system is possible with these peripheral controllers itself, the chip is called a System
on Chip (SoC). We usually hear terms like ARM SoC, Cypress’s PSoC (Programmable
System on Chip), etc. which are very popular in the embedded system market. Figure 1.5
is a photograph of a few MCU chips.
Figure 1.5 | Some popular MCUs
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40 EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
1.5 | Example of a Simple Embedded System

Let’s examine the embedded system in detail. We will think of a very simple system,
as in Figure 1.6. An MCU is considered the brain of this system, which functions as a
temperature monitor/controller. A sensor reads the temperature, and an ADC inside
the MCU converts it to digital form. This data is compared to a reference temperature,
and if it is above the allowed value, an alarm is activated. Also an output from the MCU
is used to start a cooling fan to reduce the temperature. There is a digital display of the
temperature as well.
Thus, the output actuation consists of the following:
i) Display of the temperature value

ii) Alarm
iii) Motor which controls a cooling fan
The input is just a temperature sensor.

This is a very simple system. The program continuously measures the temperature
at the sensor with a delay of T, between the readings. This ‘delay’ is obtained from the
timer inside the MCU. There is an ADC inside the MCU to convert the analog value
of the temperature into a digital number. The output display also is refreshed at the
same rate as the rate of reading the input temperature. The program is written, tested
and burned into the ROM (usually flash ROM) of the MCU. The program runs con-
tinuously. The circuitry is put on a PCB, packed inside an enclosure, and it becomes a
product. The user simply places it in the area that he wants to measure the temperature.
Now, if the program is to be changed, the designer has to interfere. The user cannot do
anything to the finished product.
This product can have a user interface, by adding a keyboard at the input side. For
example, if the ‘reference temperature‘ is allowed to be changed by the user, this keyboard
input, with a password (optional) can be used. The keyboard is interfaced with an inter-
rupt, that is, when a key is pressed, an ISR (interrupt service routine) (Section 2.2.9) is
activated, which checks the password and allows the user to change the ‘reference’ tem-
perature settings.
Display
Sensor
M
C Motor
U
Keyboard
Alarm
Figure 1.6 | A simple temperature monitor
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This kind of approach in ‘programming’, where a program continually and repeatedly

runs in memory, is termed ‘the superloop approach’. This is how a simple embedded
system is designed to meet its requirements. Any aperiodic input is accepted by the
mechanism of interrupts.
Next let’s take the case of a more complex system, for example, a mobile phone,
which has a number of functions to perform: handling voice calls, messaging, the
Internet, video and music players, reminders and a lot more. Some of the applications
may be time critical, others may not be. Such a complex system needs a ‘manager’ and
usually has an operating system. Most of us are aware that mobile phones have some
version of an operating system. Symbion, Android, etc. are some popular mobile phone
operating systems.
Other complex systems like PDAs, telecom networks, wireless sensor networks,
etc., also have operating systems. Operating systems are needed only when system com-
plexity due to multiple tasks of different types and criticality of response times dictate
the need for it.
1.6 | Figures of Merit for an Embedded System

Embedded system design is usually aimed to achieve the following objectives:
i) Low-power dissipation
ii) Small physical size
iii) Small code size
iv) High speed of response
Low-power Dissipation Many embedded devices are battery powered, and hence
low-power dissipation is an important figure of merit. Even in cases where the embed-
ded system is part of a larger system (like in a washing machine), it is important to keep
power dissipation low to avoid excessive heating. Thus, embedded designs should be
low-power designs and the first step in this is achieved by choosing an MCU with low-
power features. What has made the ARM MCU (used in many mobile phones, IPads,
etc.) very popular is its ‘low power’ feature. Taking care of the power requirement of the
MCU is not the only thing. Peripherals like displays, motors, relays, etc. should also be
chosen with the same consideration.
Small Physical Size Many embedded systems are handheld devices, and others are
allotted only small spaces within large systems such as the electronic unit which controls
a printer, scanner, etc. It is obvious that the smaller the size of the unit, the better it will
be. As such, the trend is to choose an MCU with most of the peripheral controllers
inside the chip itself—thus the PCB is very small, with very few extra chips—there is
also the trend in chip design to focus on ‘small dies’.
Small Code Size The system code, after testing and debugging, is to be embedded as
firmware, and it is best if it fits inside the (flash) ROM of the MCU. Thus, the code size
is to be minimized, as on-chip ROM is expensive and a scarce resource. If the code size
is large, external memory will have to be added, which will defeat the very purpose of
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42 EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
using an MCU. If an operating system is being used for the system, its ‘footprint’ should
be small.
High Speed As a general case, we would like systems to respond fast. For an embedded
MCU, fast response implies high clock frequency—but the higher the clock frequency,
higher will be the power dissipation—so the trick is not to choose an unnecessarily
high clock frequency unless the application needs it. For simple applications, if PIC
and 8051 MCUs are used, we find that frequencies in the range of 12–20 MHz are
common. This is not a high frequency compared to clock frequencies of general purpose
processors (2 to 3 GHz). But higher end systems are likely to use MCUs (like ARM)
with much higher clock frequencies for faster response.
Real Time Response There is another aspect to response time and that is defined by a
‘deadline’—if an operation is stipulated to have to be completed within a deadline, the
system must be able to produce the result within this time frame—if not, it becomes
either a useless system or a system with low performance quotient.
1.7 | Classification of MCUs: 4/8/16/32 Bits

We can classify embedded systems on the basis of their complexity. Complex operations
imply large amounts of data, usually. For example, image and video operations need large
word lengths and higher clock rates. This needs MCUs also with wide data buses. MCUs
of different data and address bus widths are available. Here we classify MCUs on the
basis of their data word lengths.
i) 4-bit MCUs: Some applications deal with very little computation, and in that
case 4 bits of data could be sufficient. Simple toys and applications which use just
switch inputs and directly perform actuation don’t need to handle large volumes of
data.
ii) 8-bit MCUs: The highest volumes of MCUs used are the ones with 8-bit data
buses. For moderately complex operations, this is sufficient. The most popular of this
is the 8051 family, which was developed by Intel, but which is now manufactured
by various other companies as well. Microchip’s PIC is another popular family with
many different series with varying capabilities. Newer versions of PIC with more
and newer peripherals are being developed which makes the PIC series very attrac-
tive. Incidentally, the PIC series includes 8-bit, 16-bit and 32-bit MCUs.
iii) 16-bit MCUs: There are a few 16-bit MCUs like Intel’s 8096, 80196, some ver-
sions of PIC, etc. MSP 430 (manufactured by Texas Instruments) is a new 16-bit
series, which has very low-power dissipation, and can compete effectively in the new
embedded market, which is very particular about power dissipation.
iv) 32-bit MCUs: ‘ARM’ is the most popular 32-bit MCU in use today; it is used in
complex applications requiring low power, high speed and good computing capabil-
ity. The 32-bit MCUs are the ones used in image and video applications and thus
find use in the latest mobile phones, IPods, PDAs, etc.
In the following section, we will discuss some other devices which are also included
in the category of embedded systems.
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1.7.1 | ASIC: Application Specific Integrated Circuit

This is an IC in which complex functional blocks are integrated to make it a complete
application. The IC is designed from basics, after defining its application. It can even be
that it is tailor-made for a particular customer by the designer company.
A video codec (coder decoder) is an example of an ASIC. What we get here is a
hardware implementation of a complex algorithm, and this hardware implementation
will be very efficient and fast (in the case of a sturdy design). ASICs are generally
expensive to make, especially because of ‘strict’ specifications and limited application
market.
What is an ASIP?
ASIP stands for ‘Application Specific Instruction Set Processor’. It is a processor whose
instructions set is tailor-made for a specific application, like graphics, for example. Thus,
it will be a sort of tradeoff design between the programmability features of a CPU and
the performance of an ASIC.
1.7.2 | FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array)

These devices also are included in the domain of embedded systems. As the name indi-
cates, it is a programmable hardware— a type of hardware which is programmable, that
is, reconfigurable even while it is part of a circuit. It is an advanced form of complex
programmable logic devices. Here the device density is very high.
In this, a number of logic cells are interconnected—the logic cells as well as inter-
connects are programamable using hardware description languages and synthesis tools.
This makes hardware design cheap and flexible, but the end result is not as efficient or
as fast as ASICs. There are a number of well-advanced companies supplying FPGAs—
Xilinx, Altera, Altec, etc.
1.7.3 | DSP Processors

The above-said processors belong to the set of ‘general purpose processors’. They have
instruction sets which cater to general arithmetic and logical computations. But for
many applications like signal processing where floating point operations and complex
arithmetic operations are involved, their performance is unlikely to be sufficiently fast
and efficient. Here comes the necessity for processors with instruction sets which are
designed for signal processing and complex math operations. They are called DSP
processors.
Where real-time processing of speech, image, video, etc. are involved, they perform
superbly. There are many companies manufacturing such DSP processors: Texas
Instruments is the leader in the design of DSP processors, and Analog Devices, Nvidia,
Lucent, Freescale, etc. also some of them. For many applications, the current trend is
to have a general purpose core and a DSP core on the same chip, so that tasks can be
partitioned. See Figure 1.7 which is a very popular setup for advanced operations—an
ARM core and a DSP core handling different types of computations, along with a num-
ber of peripheral controllers—all on the same chip.
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44 EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
ARM 9 DSP
Core Core
Peripherals
Figure 1.7 | Typical embedded dual core setup
1.8 | History of Embedded Systems

To trace the history of embedded systems, one does not need to look very far back.
When Intel and other companies started their design and manufacture of microproces-
sors, it was realized that programmability features could ease computations and also that
interfacing with input and output devices was possible. All this led to the development
of computers or what we now call the personal computer. The immense possibility of
using computers for control and actuation soon grew into realization and many pos-
sibilities were tried out.
With this realization, the personal computing sector grew and along with that, the
idea of embedding intelligence into computer chips took new wings. It was realized
that along with a computational engine, other functions can be incorporated into a sin-
gle chip. Memory and other functional blocks, when added to a microprocessor gave it
the name microcontroller or embedded processor. It was actually the development of the
concept of such types of processing units with peripherals and memory on a single chip
that gave the necessary impetus for the growth of embedded systems.
Two engineers in TI (Texas Instruments), Gary Boone and Michael Cochran, are
credited with creating the first microcontroller TMS 1000, which became a commercial
product in 1974. It had ROM, RAM and clock circuitry on the chip along with the
processing unit.
In 1977, Intel emerged in this field with the 8048, a microcontroller which had
RAM and ROM and which became widely used used in PC keyboards. In 1980, Intel
introduced the 8051 MCU and called it MCS-51 architecture. Over the years, it became
very popular especially because Intel allowed others also to manufacture and sell it. In
1982, Intel introduced the 80186 and called it an embedded processor. It had the same
computing engine as the 8086, but had a number of peripherals inside it, like timers,
DMA controllers, clock generators and so on. This chip was never used in PCs—all its
applications were in embedded products. Other popular microcontroller series are PIC
by Microchip and ATMega by AVR. Besides this there are a number of smaller players
also in the market.
This outlook that microcontrollers alone paved the way for the development of the
embedded industry development may not very true, however. If we look at any embed-
ded system today, we know that it is not ‘electronics’ alone that has made miraculous
strides. Along with electronics, sensors, actuators, displays, mechanical parts and software
developments have also made giant strides to fuel the growth of the embedded industry.
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What are the challenges in this field now?

New and innovative products are continually appearing in the market. The three Ps of
innovation frequently highlighted are ‘Price, Performance and Power’. This obviously
means that performance needs to be increased, but keeping power dissipation and price
as low as possible. This translates to using low-power dissipating processors, sensors and
actuators, all of which must be able to boast of high performance. Performance implies
high computational capability at the highest possible speed. The factors performance and
power dissipation directly conflict each other, and keeping prices low is an additional
issue. But in spite of all these challenges, the embedded industry is moving ahead in leaps
and bounds.
1.9 | Current Trends

To address the challenges just mentioned, various trends are being adopted.
i) Multi-core processors: It has become very clear that trying to improve processor
performance by increasing clock frequencies is fraught with difficulties, because the
direct result of higher clock frequency is high power dissipation. Thus, the option
of using more than one processor core (at lower clock frequencies) is being tried
out. Thus, the current smart phones and gaming consoles use multi-core processors.
It may be understood that if there are two cores, one may be a DSP core while the
other is a general purpose core. The design of multi core systems requires new design
environments which are being developed at a rapid rate.
ii) Embedded and real-time operating systems: With the emergence of complex
applications, many new embedded and real-time operating systems have become
popular. Linux has emerged as a popular embedded OS, and others like Android
and newer versions of Symbion have came up for mobile applications and handheld
devices.
iii) Newer areas of deployment of embedded devices: Embedded devices have
applications in the entertainment, healthcare and automotive segments. Besides
that, there are applications in the communication and military fields as well.
Research and development in these fields is going ahead.
Conclusion
In the forthcoming chapters, we will try to get some insight into this exciting field of
embedded systems and learn how we can make its study fruitful and interesting.
KEY POINTS OF THIS CHAPTER

Embedded systems have made their presence felt in every area of modern life.
There are some desirable features for an electronic system to be included in the list of
embedded systems.
A general purpose PC is not an embedded system.
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46 EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
Any embedded system has a sensor and an actuator.

MCUs are MPUs with peripherals and memory designed to be inside the chip.
The embedded systems industry is relatively new, but marching forward at a rapid rate.
Making use of multi-core processors has become a trend in the embedded industry.
QUESTIONS
1. Explain what an embedded system is, with few examples.
2. How is software embedded into an ES?
3. Name four fields of applications for an embedded system.
4. List three characteristics that an embedded system should possess.
5. Can an electronic tablet be listed as an embedded system? Substantiate your answer.
6. What is the difference between an MCU and an MPU?
7. Why is power dissipation a very important factor in embedded design?
8. Why are DSP processors used in embedded design?
9. Name two new areas of deployment for embedded systems.
10. Name two commercial products based on the ARM processor.
EXERCISES
1. Draw a block diagram of an embedded system which can be used for measuring short
distances.
2. Name a few embedded products in the field of bio-medical engineering.
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introduction to

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1.1 | Application Domain of Embedded Systems

answer this question.

1.2 | Desirable Features and General Characteristics

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Figure 1.1 | Some application ﬁelds of embedded systems

M01_9788131787663_C01.indd 36 7/3/2012 12:08:28 PM

Now let’s try to understand why a PC is not considered to be an embedded system.

1.3 | Model of an Embedded System

1.4 | Microprocessor vs Microcontroller

1.4.1 | Microprocessor Unit (MPU)

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Figure 1.2 | General model of an embedded system

controllers. For example, to connect an LCD display to an MPU, a parallel port IC is to

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Processor Parallel I/O

1.4.2 | Microcontroller Unit (MCU)

Figure 1.5 | Some popular MCUs

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1.5 | Example of a Simple Embedded System

i) Display of the temperature value

The input is just a temperature sensor.

Figure 1.6 | A simple temperature monitor

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This kind of approach in ‘programming’, where a program continually and repeatedly

1.6 | Figures of Merit for an Embedded System

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1.7 | Classification of MCUs: 4/8/16/32 Bits

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1.7.1 | ASIC: Application Specific Integrated Circuit

1.7.2 | FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array)

1.7.3 | DSP Processors

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Figure 1.7 | Typical embedded dual core setup

1.8 | History of Embedded Systems

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What are the challenges in this field now?

1.9 | Current Trends

Research and development in these ﬁelds is going ahead.

KEY POINTS OF THIS CHAPTER

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Any embedded system has a sensor and an actuator.

M01_9788131787663_C01.indd 46 7/3/2012 12:08:32 PM

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