Ecology - is the systematic study of the
interrelationships that exist between organisms and
their environment.
Microbial ecology - is the study of the numerous
interrelationships between microorganisms and the
world around them; how microbes interact with other
microbes, how microbes interact with organisms other
than microbes, and how microbes interact with the non-
living world around them
Microbes play important roles in:
 agriculture,
 various industries,
 disposal of industrial and toxic wastes,
 sewage treatment,
 water purification
Microbes are essential in the fields of:
 biotechnology
 bioremediation
 genetic engineering
 gene therapy
SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS INVOLVING
MICROORGANISMS
Symbiosis
- defined as the living together or close association of
two dissimilar organisms (usually two different species)
Symbionts - organisms that live together in such a
relationship
Categories:
Neutralism - a symbiotic relationship in which neither
symbiont is affected by the relationship (no effect on
each other)
Commensalism - a symbiotic relationship that is
beneficial to one symbiont and of no consequence (i.e.,
is neither beneficial nor harmful) to the other.)
 Example of a commensal, is the tiny mite called
Demodex, which lives within hair follicles and
sebaceous glands, especially those of the
eyelashes and eyebrows
Mutualism - is a symbiotic relationship that is beneficial
to both symbionts. Ex: E. coli that produces Vit. K that is
used by the host
Parasitism - is a symbiotic relationship that is beneficial
to one symbiont (the parasite) and detrimental to the
other symbiont (the host).
 “Smart’” parasites - do not cause disease, but
rather take only the nutrients they need to exist
 “dumb” parasites - kill their hosts; then they
must either find a new host or die
Indigenous Microflora (Indigenous Microbiota)
- normal flora; includes all microbes that resides in us
- our body have 100 trillion microbes; composed of
between 500-1000 diff. species
- a fetus has no indigenous microflora
- blood, lymph, spinal fluid, and most internal tissues
and organs are normally free of microorganisms (sterile)
- destruction of resident microflora disturbs the delicate
balance between the host and its microorganisms.
Ex: prolonged therapy of antibiotics, diarrhea
Transient Microbes- attracted to moist, warm body
areas. These microbes are only temporary.
Microflora of the Skin
- The resident microflora of the skin consists
primarily of bacteria and fungi—as many as 300
different species, depending on the anatomical
location.
- The most common bacteria on the skin are
Staphylococcus, Corynebacterium, and
Propionibacterium spp.
The number and variety of microorganisms present on
the skin depends on many factors, such as the:
• Anatomical location
• Amount of moisture present
• pH
• Temperature
• Salinity
• Presence of chemical wastes such as urea and fatty
acids
• Presence of other microbes, which may be producing
toxic substances
Microflora of the Ears and Eyes
- The middle ear and inner ear are usually sterile,
whereas the outer ear and the auditory canal
contain the same types of microorganisms as
are found on the skin.
- The external surface of the eye is lubricated,
cleansed, and protected by tears, mucus, and
sebum. Thus, continual production of tears and
the presence of the enzyme lysozyme and other
antimicrobial substances found in tears greatly
reduce the numbers of indigenous microflora
organisms found on the eye surfaces.
Microflora of the Respiratory Tract
- The nasal passages and throat have an
abundant and varied population of
 microorganisms, because these areas provide
moist, warm mucous membranes that furnish
excellent conditions for microbial growth. Many
microorganisms found in the healthy nose and
throat are harmless
Healthy carriers— harbor virulent (disease-causing)
pathogens in their nasal passages or throats, but do
not have the diseases associated with them, such as
diphtheria, meningitis, pneumonia, and whooping
cough. Although these carriers are unaffected by
these pathogens, carriers can transmit them to
susceptible persons.
- The lower respiratory tract is usually free of
microbes because the mucous membranes and
lungs have defense mechanisms
Microflora of the Oral Cavity (Mouth)
- shelter for numerous anaerobic and aerobic
bacteria
 Grampositive and Gram-negative bacteria (both
cocci and bacilli), spirochetes, and sometimes
yeasts, mouldlike organisms, protozoa, and
viruses
 The most common organisms in the indigenous
microflora of the mouth are various species of
a-hemolytic streptococci
Streptococcus mutans - bacterium most often
implicated in the formation of plaque
Microflora of the Gastrointestinal Tract
- Gastric enzymes and the extremely acidic pH
(approximately pH 1.5) of the stomach usually
prevent growth of indigenous microflora, and
most transient microbes
Helicobacter pylori - a Gram-negative bacillus; a
common cause of ulcers
- The colon contains as many as 500 to 600
different species— primarily bacteria
- Because the colon is anaerobic, the bacteria
living there are obligate, aerotolerant, and
facultative anaerobes.
- All humans have E. coli bacteria in their colon.
They are opportunists, usually causing us no
problems at all, but they can cause urinary tract
infections (UTIs) when they gain access to the
urinary bladder
- Through the childbearing years, vaginal
secretions are acidic (pH 4.0–5.0), encouraging
the growth mainly of lactobacilli
Lactic acid - byproducts of lactobacilli; inhibit growth of
the bacteria associated with bacterial vaginosis (BV).
“Vaginitis” versus “Vaginosis” The similarly sounding
terms vaginitis and vaginosis both refer to vaginal
infections. The suffix “-itis” refers to inflammation, and
inflammation usually involves the influx of white blood
cells known as polymorphonuclear cells (PMNs). Thus, a
vaginal infection involving inflammation and the influx
of PMNs is referred to as vaginitis. In bacterial vaginosis
(BV), there is a watery, noninflammatory discharge,
lacking white blood cells (WBCs). Thus, the difference
between vaginitis and vaginosis boils down to the
presence or absence of WBCs. Whereas vaginitis is
usually caused by one particular pathogen, BV is a
synergistic infection.
Beneficial and Harmful Roles of Indigenous Microflora
Benefits:
 Produce useful vitamins and other nutrients
 Provide a constant source of irritants and
antigens to stimulate the immune system
 Prevent pathogens from colonizing our bodies
Microbial Antagonism
- Microbes vs. microbes
- Is a property that enables microorganisms to
kill, injure or slow down the growth of a
different microorganism.
- microbial antagonism involve the production of
antibiotics and bacteriocins
Opportunistic pathogens (opportunists)
- can be thought of as organisms that are
hanging around, awaiting the opportunity to
cause infections.
Biotherapeutic Agents (probiotics)
- Bacteria and yeasts that are ingested to
reestablish and stabilize the microbial balance
within our bodies
Biofilms – are microbes that are often organized into
complex and persistant communities of assorted
organisms

Defecation - many microbes are removed from the GI

tract through this process

Microflora of the Genitourinary Tract

- The most frequent causes of urethral infection

(urethritis)—Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria
gonorrhoeae, and mycoplasmas—are easily
introduced into the urethra by sexual
intercourse.
Epidemiology - is the study of factors that determine
the frequency, distribution, and determinants of
diseases in human populations, and ways to prevent,
control, or eradicate diseases in populations.

Epidemiologists - are scientists who specialize in the

study of disease and injury patterns (incidence and
distribution patterns) in populations, and ways to
prevent or control diseases and injuries.