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 Finite-Element
Modelling of
Structural Concrete
Short-Term Static and
Dynamic Loading Conditions

Michael D. Kotsovos
Na1io11al Technical U11frersi1y of Arhenf

CRC Pies~ is an il'llf)ri1\t Of the

Taylor tc Et;1ncb Ctoop, 11n lnforma tx.slne$$
A SPON PRESS BOOK
 In memory of Jan Bobrowski

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Contents

Preface xiii
Author xv

1 Need for a reappraisal

1.1 Physical modelling of structural concrete
1.1.1 Typical models I
1.1.2 Underlying concepts 3
1.1 .2.1 Load transfer 3
1.1 .2.2 Load-carrying capacity 3
1.13 Shortcomings 4
1.1.3. I Shear capacity 4
1.1.3.2 Flexural capacity 9
1.2 Constitutive modelling JO
1.2.1 Underlying concepts 10
1.2.2 Inconsistencies of concepts underlying constitutive nAode/Jing 14
1.3 CondJtding remarks 15
References 15

2 Main behavioural characteristics of concrete 19

2.1 Cylinder test 19
2.1 .1 Underlying considerations 19
2.1 .2 Test results and required darifications 20
2.2 Posr-peak behaviour 22
2.2.1 Uniaxial·co1npression tests 22
2.2.1.1 Behaviour of a test spec.itnen under con1pre·ssive load 22
2.2.1.2 Experbnental evide11ce for the brittle natur~
of concrete 24
2.2.2 Triaxial con,pression tests and the effect of tensile stresses 32
2.2-3 Conaete: A brittle fracturing 1naterial 34
2.3 Fracture proc;esses in concrete 36
2.3.1 Non·linear behaviour of concrete 1naterials 36
2.3.2 Causes of fracture 37
2.3.3 Fracture n1echanis1n of concrete 37
2.3.3.1 Fracture processes under deviatoric stress 40

vii
viii Contents Contents ix

2.3.3.2 Fralture processes 11nder hydrost-fltil stress 45 4.3.2.1 Jncre1nental Ne1uton-Raphson n1ethod 131
2.3.3.3 Fralture processes 11nder generalised stress 48 4.3.2.2 Jncre1nental strain-displace1nent relationships 134
2.4 Failure 111echanis1n in concrete strult11res 49 4.3.2.3 lncre1nental stress- strain relationships
2.4.1 A fundan1ental explanation of failure init;ation for uncracked concrete 135
based on triaxia/ n1aterial behaviour 49 4.3.2.4 lncre1nental force- displacement relationships 136
2.4.2 Triaxiality and failure initiation by macro •cracking: 4.3.2.5 Residual forces 137
So1ne experbne-nta/ and ana/ytilal evidence 53 4.3.2.6 Convergence and divergence criteria 139
2.5 S111nn1ary of lharalteristil features of loncrete 4.3.3 Modelling of macro-cracking 141
relevant to n1ode/ling n1aterial behaviour 65 4.3.3. I Nature of structural cracking 141
References 66 4.3.3.2 S1neared·crack approach vers11s the
discrete-crack approach 146
3 Modelling of concrete behaviour 69 4.3.3.3 lnlre1nental stress- strain relationships
for cracked concrete 148
3.1 Constitutive relations for lOnlrete 69
4.3.3.4 Shear·retentio11 factor: Its role in the conditioning
3.1 .1 Experbnental data on observed behavio11Y 71 of stiffness 1natrices and actual physical evidence 1.51
3.1 .1.1 Deformational behavio11r durin·g looding 71 4.3.3.5 Macro-crack closure 153
3.1 .1.2 Deforn1ational behaviour d11rin·g unloading 76 4.3.4 Descriptio11 of the reinforcing steel 154
3.1 .2 Mathematica/ deslription of defoTlnational behaviour 76
4.3.4.1 lncre1nental relations for the three·node
3 .1.2.I Three· moduli approach 76 11niaxial elnnent 154
3 .1.2.2 Internal-stress approach 79 4.3.4.2 Concrete- steel interaction 155
3 .1.2.3 Combined approach 86 4.3.5 Overall no11°/i11ear strategy 160
3 .1 3 Accuracy of the mathematical model
4.4 Material and procedural factors i11/111encing FE predictions 161
for the constitutive relations 88 4.4.1 Material paran1eters 162
3 .2 Strength envelopes for lOnlrete 93 4.4.2 Procedural para111eters 163
3.2.1 Experbnenta/ data on~ and 1nathe1natila/ 4.4.3 Tentative reco1n111endations 166
description of, fail11re s11rfaces 93 4.5 A brief outli11e of the smeared-model package 167
3 .2.2 Accuracy of the mathematical model for the failure surfaces 102 References 174
3 .3 Defo11national and yield lharalterisrics of reinforcing steel 105
3.4 A s111nmary of lharalteristil features of concrete 5 Finite-clement solutions of static problems 177
relevant to niode/Jing of 1nateria/ behaviour 107
References I IO .l.1 £/felt of crack closure on predictions of structural·
concrete behaviour 1111der n1onoto11ic loading 178
5 .1 .1 Background 178
4 Structure modelling for static problems 113
5 .1.2 RC beams in shear 178
4.1 Finite·ele1ne11t n1ethod 113 5 .1 .3 RC slabs in punchi11g 179
4.1.1 Direct formulation of FE characteristics 113 5 .1.4 RC str11ctt1ral tua/ls under combined edge
4.1 .2 Generalisation to the whole structure 116 contpressive and shear stresses 183
4.1.3 Finite elements selected 117 J .2 Performance ofstntet11ral·c.Onlrete 1nen1bers exhibiting
4.2 Non·linearanalysis 12S points of contra·flexttre under sequential loading 186
4.2.1 Direct iteration n1ethod 12.l 5 .2.1 lntroductio11 186
4.2.2 Newton- Raphson method 126 5 .2.2 Bea1n designed in co1npliance tuith the Greek code 189
4.2.3 Modified 127 5 .2.3 Bea1n designed in partial co1npliance tuith the CFP 111ethod 190
4.2.4 Generalised Newton- Raphson n1ethod 128 5 .2.4 Beam desig11ed i11 full compliance with the CFP method 191
4.2.5 Concluding remarks 129 5.2.5 Bea1ns designed in accordance ruith the European code 192
4.3 Non·linear finite elen1e11t n1odel for str11ct11ral concrete 130 5.2.6 Safeguarding against shear types of failure 194
4.3.1 Background and scope 130 5.2.7 Causes ofpremature failure of beanis
4.3.2 /ncre1nental fonnulation up to 1nacro·c.racking 131 designed to the European code 196
x Conte nts Contents x i

5.3 RC beam- col11m11 joints under cydic loading 196 7.4.2 FE discretisation 255
5.3.1 Backgro11nd 196 7.4.3 Remits of the analysis 255
5.3.2 Structural fortn investigated 197 7.4.3. I Static loading 256
5.3.3 FE discretisation 199 7.4.3.2 Dynamic loading 257
5.3.4 Results of analysis and discussion 199 7.4.3.3 Di«ussion of results 260
5.3.5 Conduding remarks 205 7.5 Three-storey RC wall 262
5.4 Strnctural walls under cydic loading 206 7.S. I FE discretisation 265
5.4.1 Wall details 206 7.S.2 Results of analysis 266
5.4.2 FE modelling 207 7.S.2. 1 Staticloading 266
5.4.3 N111nerical results 209 7.S.2.2 Dynamic loading 266
5.4.4 Discussion of n11n1erical results and 7.6 Two· level RC fra1ne under seisn'ic action 271
con,parison 'uith experbnenral data 209 7.6.I Design details 271
5.4.5 Co11c/11sions 215 7.6.2 FE modelling 273
S.5 N111nerical experbnents 011 flat slabs 216 7.6.3 Results 274
5.5.1 Slabs hrvestigated 216 7.6.4 Discussion of the results 275
5.5.2 Mesh discretisation adopted 218 7.6.5 Co11duding remarks 279
5.S.3 Resttlts of analysis and discussion 219 7.7 Effect of the co11fine1nent of reinforce1nent in bou11dary·col11n1n ele1nents
5.5.4 Concluding remarks 224 on tbe behaviour of str11ct11ral·concrere zualls under seis1nic. excitation 279
References 225 7.7.l Background 279
7.7.2 Design details 285
6 Extension of finite clement modelling to dynamic problems 227 7.7.3 Loading regimes 286
7.7.4 Meslt discretisation adopted 287
6.1 Background 227
7.7.5 Results 288
6.2 Equation of motion 227 7.7.6 Discussion of results 289
6.3 Nu1neric.al solution of the equation of n1otion 227 7.7.6. I \Y/alls WI 289
6.3.1 Explicit method 228 7.7.6.2 \Y/alls W2 290
6.3.2 Implicit method 229
7.7. 7 Co11dusions 294
6.4 N111nerical procedure adopted for str11ctural cont.rete 231 7.8 Conduding remarks 294
6.4.1 Ne1mnark fan1ily of approxitnations 231 References 295
6.4.2 Stability conditions 233
6.5 ln1plen1entario11 of the dynantic scbe1ne 233 8 Structural concrete under impact loading 297
6.6 Verification studies for the dyna1nic. sche111e 235
6. 7 Gm eraI remarks 238 8.1 Introduction 297
References 243 8.2 Structural c.onc.rete under co1npressive bnpact loading 297
8.2.1 Background 297
8 .2.2 Experin,ental inforn1ation 298
7 Reinforced concrete structural members under earthquake loading 245
8 .23 Structural fortn invesrigated 300
7.1 lntrod11ction 24S 8.2.4 N11merical modelling of the dynamic problem 301
7.2 Application of the earthq11ake load 24S 8 .2.J N111neric.al predictions 302
7.3 RC columns 247 8.2.6 Validation of 1111n,erical predictions 309
7.3.1 Design details 247 8.2.7 Causes of the loading-rate effect on the behaviour of the specimen 317
7.3.2 FE discretisation 248 8.2.8 Cond11sions 320
7.3.3 Static loading 249 8.3 Structural concrete under tensile itnpact loading 321
7.3.4 Dynamic loading 250 8.3.I Background 321
7.3.J Discussion of the n11n1erical results 251 8.3.2 Review of experimental data 321
7.4 RC frames 253 8.3.3 Struct11ral form i11vestigated and FE mod•lling 322
7.4.1 Design details 253 8.3.4 Presentation and discussion of the nun1erical predictions 323
xii Contenu

8.3.5 Validation of the n11merical predictions 328

8.3.6 Para1netric investigation 329
Preface
8.3.7 Cond11sions 331
8.4 RC beams 11nder impact loading 332
8.4.1 Backgro11nd 332
8.4.2 Review of experimental data 332
8.43 Str11ctural form investigated 335
8.4.4 FE modelling of the problem 338
8.4.5 Static loading 338
8.4.6 Impact loading 338
8.4.6. I Predicted behavionr 339
8.4.6.2 Ca11ses of beam be'1avio11r 341 Over rhe years, in collabo ration with Milija N. Pavlovic, che author has steadily conducred a
8.4.7 Conclnsions 342 programme of research a imed a c racionalising rhe analysis and design of struccura l concrece.
8.5 Concluding remarks 345 This programme of \Vork was preceded by a decade of experimental research at the n1acerial
References 345 leve1 \Vhich furnished che key daca input for struccural considerations, namely che fu nda·
n1ental behaviour of concrere materials under mulciaxial scress conditions. Thus, the lan er
349 provided che sta rcing point for a comprehensive investigation into rhe response of concrete
Appendix A: Octahedral formulation of stresses and strains
ro loading up to collapse, a study thar encompassed the follo,ving rhree basic srructural
Appendix 8: Coordinate transformations 353 aspec-~nu merical ntodelling by che fi nite-element nlethod; l:iborator cescing_pf structural
nten\bers a nd a consistenc design methodology.
This book is concerned \Vich the firsc of these three fundamental approaches ro srruc cural
behaviour; ic excends che range of application of che pare of rhe ·work carried ouc in che mid·
1990s (Kotsovos M. D. and Pavlovic M. N., Str11ctural Concrete: Finite-Ele1nent Analysis
for Uniit-State Design, Thomas Te.lford, 1995) so as to cover scrucrural concrete behaviour
\\rithin the \Vhole speccrum of shorc-rerm loading ranging from staric (monotonic and cyclic)
ro dynamic (seismic and impact). The characteristic feature of rhe \Vork described is rhac it
contrasts \Videly accepted renets in rhar concrere is considered to be a brittle material and ir
is demonscrared chat the ducrility of concrete structures or members o( strucrures is dictated
by triaxial srress conditions, the laner invariably developing in concrete \Vhen its strengrh is
approached, rather than strain-sofrening material properties. Some elements of the remain·
ing nvo strucrural aspecrs, namely laboratory resting of scrucrural members and a consistent
design methodology, \Viii also be mentioned whenever che necessary praccical supporcing
evidence co rhe theoretical findings may be deemed appropriare; a full outline of the pro·
posed unified design methodology (also based on che concepts underlying rhe numerical
n1odelling of strucrural concrete) has forn\ed the subjecr of a recent publicarion (Korsovos
M. D., Contpressive Force·Path Method: Unified Ultin1ate Lin,it-State Design for Concrete
Structures, Springer, 2014).
This book, rherefore, not only provides the theorerical background o(, and jusrification
for, rhe laner design approach for ultimate scrength bur a lso affords a po'verful cool for
both a nal)•sis a nd design of rhe more contplex structural e lements for \Vhich hand calcula·
tions and/or simplified design rules are not sufficient and which therefore demand a more
formal, rigorous and, indeed, sophisticated computational model such as the one based on
non-linear finire..elen1enc analysis described here.
The book is divided into eighr chaprers. The need for a reappraisal of rhe concepts thar
underlie che mechods adopted in pracrical structura l analysis and design is de1nonscrated
in C haprer I rhrough rhe use of rypical srudy cases highlighring rhe significance of valid
experimental infonuarion on the behaviour of concrere under rriaxial stress conditions for
interprering srrucrural behaviour. Such information is presented in Chapter 2, \vhere rhe
rechniques developed for obtaining valid resc data are also discussed, and used for modeHing

x iii
xiv Preface

concrece behaviour as described in Chapcer 3. The mode,! has been developed by regress-ion
analysis based on che internal stress concept which allo\VS for che effecr of micro-cracking
Author
on defonnarion. The n1odelling of che steel propercies as well as rhe i1ueracrion benveen con·
crete and scee l are al so discussed in Chaprer 3, whereas rhe numerical rechniques developed
for incorporacing rhe macerial models into non-linear finice-.elemenc anal)'Sis for the case of
shon-rerm scatic (monoconic and cyclic) loading are presented in Chapter 4 .
The objecrivicy and generalicy of rhe numerical scheme presented in Chapter 4 are inves-
tigated in Chapcer 5 where, by merely specifying che uniaxial cylinder compressi,•e srrengch
for concrere and the yield stress of rhe sreel, ir is sho\Vn ro be capable of producing realiscic
predictions of the behaviour (load-carrying capacicy, deformacion and mode of failure) for
a \Yide range of scruccural concrete configurations. The numerical rechniques adopred for
excending che use of che nun1erical ana lysis scheme for the solution of dynamic problems are
presented in Chapcer 6 and che validicy of the resulting package is invescigared in Chapters 7 After conducting extensive research into the triaxial behaviour of concrece materials,
and 8 where ic is used to predict che response of a \Vide range of scrucrural concrete configu· Dr. Michae] D. Kotsovos has pioneered its application to cheana lysis and design of struccural
rations respeccively co seisn1ic and impact excitations. In all cases, che proposed numerical concrere members. He has authored over 100 journal papers and 3 books in these fields, and
n1odel is found ro provide a realiscic description of the experimenca lly esrablished response. has been engaged in various consulcancies covering the design of conc-rece struccures, their
The auchor is indebted ro many colleagues and past students \Vho, throughouc rhe years assessmenc and upgrading under earthquake conditions. He is a former professor and direc-
have concribured co rhe developn1enc of rhe present unifying approach to structural mod· ror of che laboratory of concrete structures at che National Technical University of Arhens
elling. Among che former, mention muse be made of Jan Bobrowski who encouraged rhe where he is currently engaged in research and posr-graduare reaching.
aurhor \Vich his sa lutary - albelr some,vhat irreverent comn1enrs - on codes of practice
and Dr. J. B. Newman who iniciaced che research on cria.xial resting thar led evencuall)' ro
rhe material model adopted herein. Mr. D. Hitchings kindly provided the linear package
FINEL, which fonned the basis of the program for rhe non-linear modelling of concrete
s-rrucrures, and he was panicularly generous \vlth his advice on rhe use of rhe fonner. Ac
rhe early scages of che work, a cime of rapid development in hardware, many useful sug·
gestions for the choice and implemenracion of rhe computing equipment \Vere n1ade by Dr.
K. Anascasiou. The actual numerical implen1enracion of the finite-e lement model and ics
applicacion to specific problenlS was carried ouc \Vith the help of che follo~ring collaborarors:
Dr. C. Bedard (<wo-dimensional modelling); Dr. F. Gonza lez Vidosa (three-dimensional
modelling}; Dr. D. M. Cocsovos (rhree·din1ensional modelling under dynamic modelling
and studies of structural concrete under seismic and impacr loading); Dr. G . M . Kotsovos
(smdy of punching failure of slabs).
Finally, che auchor \vishes to express his sincere appreciation co Tony Moore of C RC Press
and Spon Press for encouraging hin1 ro pursue rhis project and che Taylor & Francis team,
especially Jennifer Ahringer, Andrea Dale and Syed Mohamad Shajahan who parienrly and
painstakingly guided che editing and production process rhroughout.

xv
Chapter I

Need for a reappraisal

Most n1erhods \Videly used for rhe ulcin1ace lin1ix-srare analysis and design of concrere srruc·
rures place e1nphasis on n1odelling pose-peak marerial characteriscics such as, for example~
strain softening, cension stiffening, shear-rerencion a bility a nd so on, coupled \Virh srress-
and/or suain-rare sensiriviry \\1hen blast or impulsive rypes of loading are considered . Such
modelling is based on a variery of theories, such as, for exa1nple, endochronic (Bazanr and
Bhar 1976), plasriciry (Chen and Chen 1975; Fardis er al. 1983; Yang e r al. 1985), plascic
frac rnring (Bazanr and Kim 1979), viscoplascic iry (Cela 1998), damage mechanics (Mazars
1986; Mazars a nd Pijaudier- Cabor 1989; Suaris er al. 1990) and so on, all invariably devel·
oped \\richin the context of conrinuu1n 1nechanics (Truesdell 1991).
The in1ple1nenracion of such n1odelling in 6nire-elen1enr (FE) analysis has led ro che deve1op-
menc of nun1erical packages each found ro produce realisric solucions co parricular, racher ro a
\\ride range of, strucrural proble1ns such as, for exan1ple, FE 1nodelling of reinforcen1e1u \Vich
bond Uendele and Cervenka 2006), reinforced-concrere (RQ colu1nns under n1onoconic and
cyclic loading {K'von and Spacone 2002), nuclear reacror conrainn1enr RC vessels Uendele
and Cervenka 2009), RC walls (Agrawal er al. 1981; lie and Reynouard 2000) a nd frames
(Mochida er al. 1987; Lee and Woo 2002) under earthquake loading, plain-concrete prisms
or cylinders (Tedesco er al. 1997; Thaber and Haldane 2001), RC beams (Dube er al. 1996),
slabs (Cela 1998) and plates (Sziveri er al. 1999) under impact loading a nd so on. This appar·
enr lack of generaliry has been accributed ro poor n1arerial n1odelling due co misinterpreracion
of the observed behaviour of concrere a r boch m..acerial and srruc-cural levels (Kotsovos 2014).
In facr, ic has been suggested thar such 1nisinterprecations have also resulced in con1plex design
n1erhods \\rhich cannor safeguard rhe code requiiren1ents for srrucrural perfonnance.
In vie\v of che above ic is considered thar rhere is a need for reappraising che currently pre-
vailing views regarding rhe n1odeHing of concrece behaviour (Kocsovos2012) and the present
chapcer is inrended to demonstrace this need. The main concepcs underlying rhe n1odelling
of struccura l cone:rere are ouclined and cypica l exan1ples of rhe shorrcomings resulring froni
rheir in1plemencation into 1nechods developed for predicring scrucrural behaviour are pre-
sented. E1nphasis is placed on che physical n1odelling underlying pracrical srrucrural design
rather rhan the constitutive modelling underlying a nalysis since, unlike rhe larcer, rhere is
an1ple published work on rhe shorrcon1ings of currenc design 1nerhods.

I.I PHYSICAL MODELLING OF STRUCTURAL CONCRETE

I . I.I Typical models

Any strue:cura l form comprising linear e le1nenrs 1nay be seen as an assemblage of si1nply
supporced elen1enrs extending benveen successive points of zero bending n1on1enc (sin1ple
2 f inite-element modelling of structural concrete
Figure l.t Typical cr ack pattem of R.C beams just before suffer ing flexural failure under a transverse point
load applied at mid-span.
supporcs, points of conrraflexure or inflection), the s-implesr forn1 of such ele1nenrs being
sin1ply supported bean1s. Therefore, an indication of che physical n1odelling of RC scruc..
cures 1nay be provided by reference ro che modelling of simply supporced RC beams \Vichouc
any loss o( generaliry.
Figure 1.1 shows the rypical crack panern of an RC beam ac ics ulcimace lin1ic scare, jusc
before rhe occurrence of flexural failure, under a cransverse point load acting ac n1id-span.
Front rhe ti.gure, it can be seen chat che crack panern is characrerised by inclined cracking
of the web throughouc rhe bean1 span; rhese cracks become visible when the applied load
exceeds a value of around 50% of the load-carrying capacicy of che beam and, \Vith increas..
ing load, they progressively extend cowards the load point. The load reaches ics peak va lue
just before horizontal splining of rhe con1pressive zone ·which rransforms che beam into a
mechanisn1 and leads to loss of load-carrying capacicy.
\Vhen the bean1 reaches its ultin1are lin1ir stare, ir is \Videly considered that the n1a.n-
ner in \Vhich rhe applied load is cransferred co the supports is realistically described by
rruss (Riccer 1899; Collins and Mitchell 1980; Morsch 1902) or struc-and-rie 1nechanisn1s
(Schlaich er al. 1987), \Vhich underlie the de,•elopmenr of current methods for structural
concrete design (Eurocode 2 [EC2] 2004). The simplest form of a cruss char can be used
ro represent che physical stare of a si1nply supporred beam-like RC element such as char in
Figure 1.1 is sho\vn in Figure 1.2. In facr, such a srruccural elen1enr is considered ro scan
behaving as a truss once inclined cracking occurs; rhe compressi\•e zone and the flexural
reinforcen:1ent form rhe longitudinal scruts and cies, respectively, che scirrups forn1 rhe trans-
verse ries, \Yhereas che cracked concrece of che e1emenc \Veb is assumed co allo\\r rhe forn1a-
rion of inclined scrurs.
Adopting a truss model for describing the funcrion of an RC beam at its ulti1nare lin1ic
state i1npl ies rhac the inclined srrucs and the cransverse ties fonn the path along ·which
rhe applied load is transferred fro1n its poinc of application (ar che rruss·member joinrs ac
rhe upper face of rhe bean1-like RC ele1nenr) ro the supporcs. The load cransfer occurs as
Figure 1.2 Truss model o( a beam-like RC element.
Need (or a reappraisal 3
Figure 1.3 Portion o( truss in Figure 1.2 between cuts 1- 1 and 2-2.
indicated in Figure 1.3. The figure sho\\rs, in isolation, the ponion of the truss benv·een nvo
successive curs (J -1 and 2-2 in Figure 1.2) on either side of an inclined srrut. The r,esulranc
AF, of F, and F, - AF, (i.e., che forces developing \Vichin the horizoncal scrut due ro rhe bend ..
ing of che bean1.. Jike RC elen1enr) combines with rhe force V, (= P) transferred to the upper
side of the truss by che right-hand side vercical cie, and, chrough the inclined strut, rh.e result..
ing force F1 is cransferred ro the lower end of che srruc; rhere, the vercical componenc (V,) of
F, is transferred co rhe vertical tie ar chis end, \Yhereas its horizontal componenc balances
the accion of che resultant M$ off, and F, - M$ (i.e., the forces developing \Vithin rhe hori ..
zonta l ties due to rhe bending of che bean1.. Jike RC elen1enr). Through this vercical cie, V, is
transferred co rhe upper end of the inclined struc adjacent co che one considered in thie figure,
and, in chis 1nanner, che load cransfer continues until the applied load reaches the swpporr.
1. 1.2 Un derlying concepts
The fundan1encal prerequisite for adopting a cruss n1odel for che descripcion of rh.e physj ..
ca l stare of a beant·like RC element ar irs u lrimace limit scare is rhac, afcer visible cracking,
concrete is capable of making a signi6canr conrribucion co the load-carrying capaciry of the
bea1n. Such a prerequisite i1nplies strain softenjng n1arerial characteristics (i.e., a gradual
loss of load·carrying capaciry once the peak-load level is reached), since, as it \viii be dis ..
cussed in che nexr chapcer, ir has been esrablished by experin1enr char the formacion of vis ..
ible cracking begins ar the peak..Joad level under any scare of scress.
1.1.2.I Load transfer
As discussed in Section 1.1.1, in spire of rhe formation of visible cracking in the bean1·s \Veb,
concrete allows the forn1ation of inclined srrucs, che laner enabling load transfer. The for..
n1acion of inclined struts implies load cransfer across che crack faces, since ic is inevirable for
the direccions of inclined struts and cracks co incersecr as a resulc of che dose spacing of rhe
cracks forn1ing \Yirhin rhe \veb ac che ulrin1ace lin1ir state of che element. Such a load transfer,
however, also i1nplies a shearing n1ove1nenr of the crack faces \Vhich is resisced by frictional
forces developing on che crack faces.
Therefore, ir appears fro1n the above char, since strain softening (\vhich characrerises
'cracked' conc-rere behaviour) is indicarive of 1narerial instability, it is predo1nina nrly rhe
develop1nenr of frictional forces resisting rhe shearing n1oven1enr of the crack face-s \\1hich
enables load cransfer by allo\ving rhe formacion of inclined srrucs rhrough cracked c.oncrece.
1.1.2.2 Load-carrying capacity
Ir should also be noted thar che posr.. peak (strain softening) characceristics of conc-rere in
uniaxial co1npression are used to forn1ulace rhe failure criterion of rhe horizontal srrur of
4 f inite-element modelling of structural conc.rete Need for a reappraisal S

l l 1-
-
35

,
900 1200 P2 100 100
30 ,,,_
P,
r-- t

Iij 1:
I "I

£ 20
25
~ \. 111
608@150
II
708@105
I 608@75 I II 230

~
t
I

j 15

10
_ -
-
ti
ei =e.i
- -
100-l

R,
1600

R,
t 500
I
Olmens:ions In miU,mette
014

5
Figure 1.5 Design details of an RC beam with an overhang (beam denoted as BIGRC) designed in compli·
0 ance with the truss model and subjected to sequential transverse loading. (From Kotsovos M. D.•
- 20 - 16 - 12 -8
Stt:lln x IQ-3
0 • and Michel is P.. 1996. ACI Structural Concrete JournoL 93(4), 428- 437.)

Figure 1.4 Stress-strain curves for a typical concrete in uniaxial compression.

che cruss in Figure 1.2 (compressive zone of che beanl in Figure 1.1). The experinlenrally
escablished stress-strain curves for a cypic-al conc-rece in uniaxial co1npression are sho\\rn
in Figure 1.4 (Barnard 1964). A usually overlooked feature of chese stress- srrain curves is
rhac nor only che race of increase bur also che nlagnirude of che cransverse strains (scrains
orrhogonal co che axial compression) increase ar a race significantly higher than chac of rhe
axial strain \Vhen che srress approaches its peak value. In face, ac che peak stress le\'el, rhe
values of axial and cransverse strains are nunterically nearly equal, chat is, E 1 = 111.I = 0.002 .
Failure of che longitudinal strut is considered ro occur \Vhen che compressive strain of con·
crete reaches che lintiring value E'" = 0.0035 {EC2 2004) corresponding co a posr-peak scress
of che orde.r of 0.85ft, \Vhere l is che uniaxial cylinder conlpressive screngrh of concrece.
Since visible cracking of concrete in uniaxial compression appears just before E'" reaches che
value 0.002 (i.e., the value corresponding co ft), rhe above failure cricerion intplies chat che
'cracked' concrece of the longitudina l scrut makes a significantcontr·i bution ro load-carrying
capacity of the bea1n before flexural capaciry is exhausted.
1. 1.3 Sho~tcomings
As discussed in Section J.1.1, che significance placed by curtent design ntechods on che post·
peak characteriscics of concrete is reflected in che use of various cypes of truss or scruc-and·
tie 1nodels for describing the funccion of RC linear elenlenrs ar their ulcimace lintit stare. The
use of such ntodels often leads co large deviations of che calculated front che nieasured va lues
of shear capacity, whereas che assu1nptions underlying che assess1nent of flexural capacity
are in sharp contrast \Vich true scruc-cural behaviour. In whar follows, en1phasis is placed on
presenting cases \Yhere shear capacity is overe.scin1aced and/or flexural capacicy undere.sti·
maced, since these are cases \Vith grave implications for che safery of structures.
capac-iry, \Vhere it was n1aintained conscant. Then, the laner load \\ras increased monoconi·
cally co failure.
The beant \\ras designed in accordance \Vich che provisions of the European Code for the
design of concrere structures (EC2 2004) so as ro eventually fail when che flexural capacicy of
its overhang is exhausced. In accordance with these provisions, shear failure can be prevented
chrough the provision of a sufficient antount of cransverse reinforcemenc assessed on che basis
of rhe assuntpcion that rhe bean1 behaves as a cruss \Yhen che u lcintate limit scare is reached.
And yet, as indicated in Figure 1.6, beanl fai lure occurred \Vell before the flexural capacity
had been exhausted. In face, the beant failed in a brinle n1anner due co se\'ere inclined crack·
ing \\1ithin its shear span adjacenc co che right support under a shear force \\1hich was around
35% sntaller than the calculated value of shear capacity. Such failure is indicative of failure
of the indined scrucs \\1hich che provisions of current codes for shear design, and, in parricu·
lar, chose considered safeguarding againsc failure of inclined struts, \Vere apparent!)' found
unable to prevenL The resuh:s obcained \Vere subsequently confirnled by Jelic ec al. (2004).
The cruss model a lso underlies the design of che coluntn sho\vn in Figure l .7a; rhe colu1nn
\\ras designed in accordance wich che earrhquake-resiscanr design clauses of che European
Codes (EC2, 2004; Eurocode [EC8) 8 2004) so as ro exhibit a flexural mode of failure thac
safeguards duccile behaviour. And yet, as indicated in Figure 1.7b, che colun1n, as in che case
of che beam in Figure 1.5, failed preinaturely in a brictle manner caused by severe inclined
cracking \Yirhin irs crirical end regions, in spite of che dense stirrup arrange111ent \\1hich was
expected co allo\\r che developntenc of a shear force more than three cintes larger chan che
shear force corresponding to flexura l capaciry.
Anocher unexpecced cype of failure thar may be suffered by colunlns is chat indicaced in
Figure 1.8, which shows rwo slender and one shore (in the middle) column of buildings dant·
aged by che earchquake that hit Athens in 1999 (Kotsovos and Pavlovic 2001). In a ll cases,
che cruss n1odel underlies design; ho\Ve\•er, in concrasr wich che !eh-hand side slender colu1nn
\ \ hich \Vas designed in accordance \\rich che earchquake· resistanr design clauses of che old
1

1.1.3.1 Sh~or capacity
Figure 1.5 sho\vs rhe design decails of an RC beam \\rich an overhang invescigared by
Kocsovos and Michel is (1996); che bea111 \\ras subjecced ro nvo cransverse poinc loads, one ar
mid-span and che ocher near che end face of che overhang. The fornter of the C\VO loads was
applied firsc; it \\'as increased ro a predefined value, close co chat corresponding to flexural
generation of codes based on the per111issible stress philosophy (Deucsche lnduscrie Nornlen
1045 IDINI045J 1959), che other rwo were designed in accordance wich che earchquake-
resistanc design clauses of ntore recenc codes of praccice based on the linlir-srate philosophy
(EC2; EC8 2004). And yet, in spice of the assumed design improvemencs (in rhe form of a
significantly denser scirrup arrange1nenr) introduced by che laner design codes, in all cases,
failure occurred unexpectedly ac ntid-height, rarher than ar the colu1nn end regions \\lhich
are \Videly considered as critical.
6 f inite-element modelling of structural concrete Need ( or a reappraisal 7

(•) Mr = 0.4 V =
V ' " " ' 20.6 (22.3) kNm

F
r SS.7 kN I
(b)
(33.41 k.i~m)
~ 12
//"-::
/ 2-ikNin I ~
1000
II ,..
"

-~ ~ I
(<)
T I
r-

20kN (14.12 kN)

(83.S3kN)

60kN
v
D<l
h_ - v
1 3
I ~
'-.J
I 014~014
M, = 0.6V=
' 30.9 (33.4) kNm
r- • V. = 19.59kN
(o) (b) (<) (d)
V. = S93SkN
V., = tOOk.~
Pigure 1.7 Experimental results from tests on RC columns under combined ffexure and shear. (a) design
~--r
details: (b) crack pattern at faiture: (c) bending moment diagram and (d) shear force diagram.
(The diagrams correspond to the experimentally esubSished (continuous line] and the calcu -
SO kN (SS.88 kN) lated [dashed line] k>ad-carrying capacities. with th.e shear force diagram also including the shear
capacity [VJ of the various beam regions.)
Figu~ 1.6 Experimental results for the RC beam in Figure l.S under sequential loading: (a) crack pattern at
failure: (b) bending moment diagram and (c) shear force dia.iram. (The diagrams correspond to
the experimentalty establish ed [continuous line] and the calculated [dashed line] load-carrying
capacities. with the: shear force: diagram also including the shear capacity [VJ of the various beam
r egions.)

As for che cases of che RC bearn and colun1n elen1enrs discussed above, the code adopted
n1erhods for che de-sign of bean1-colun1n joinls a lso rely on n1odelling che joinc as a uuss;
such a truss, schemarically represenred in Figure 1.9b, con1bined \Vith rhe deveJopn1enc of
a diagonal scrur mechanisn1, schen1acicaJly represenred in Figure l.9a, is assumed co resisr
rhe accion of che forces rransferred co che ioinr by che adjacenr beam and colwnn e lemenrs.
Ho,vever, in spire of che considerable research \York on che behaviour of RC bean1- column
ioincs (such as chat sho,vn in Figure 1.1 0) carried ouc co date, che adopred n1erhods have been
found unable co satisfy che code perforn1ance require1nenrs. This is because, as indicated
by che crack pan·e rn sho,vn in Figure l.11 , noc only did the cypical joint sho\\1n in Figure
1.10 suffered considerable cracking before che forn1ation of a plascic hinge in rhe adiacenc
be:un, but also, such cracking occurred ac early load stages and thus violated rhe assun1p·
cion of 'rigid ioinr, \\1hich underlies the n1erhods adopted in practice for scrucrural analysis
(Korsovou and Mouzakis 20 11). Results sin1ilar co those in Figure 1.11 have been obrained
from a nu1uber of invesrigacions (see e.g., Ehsani and \Vighr 1985a,b; Hwang et a l. 2005;
Tsonos 2007).
The invescigacion of rhe causes of deviations bec\\1een che intended and the observed Figure l.8 Typical mode of failure suffered by columns of buildings damaged by the earthquake that hit
Athens in September 1999. The column at the left-hand side: was designed in compliance with the
structural behaviour, such as chose discussed above, forsns rhe subjecr of excensive research permissible stress philosophy, r ather than the limit-snte philosophy that formed the basis of th.e
work which appears in nun1erous publicarions, n1any of \vhich are sun1n1arised else,vhere design of the two other column s.
8 f inite·element modelling of structural concrete
---
F""igure 1.9 (a) Diagonal strut and (b) truss mechanisms of beam-column joint resistance.
(Korsovos and Pavlovic 1995, 1999; Korsovos 2014). Fron1 rhls \vork, ic becontes clear tbar
d1e apparenc inabilicy of currenr ntechods ro produce design solurio11s safeguarding the code
specified requirentencs for struccural performance reAecrs the incon1patibiliry benveen che
concepcs underlying the develop1nenr of che n1erhods and funda1nenta l concrere properries,
rhe larcer forn1ing rhe subjocr of rhe nexr chaprer.
lot~r;r~r
~1
8Qm30H5
sOHtop
8(.>14 bouom
Figure I. tO Design details of a typical beam-co!umn joint designed in accordance with EC2 and EC8.
Need for a reappraisal 9
Figure I.II failure mode of beam-column joint shown in figure t.10.
1./.3.2 Flexural capacity
Ainongsr che assu1nprions underlying rhe assessn1enc of flexural capacity is rhar the behav..
iour of concrece in rhe compressive zone is adequarely described by a - E curves, co1nprising
borh an ascending and 3 gradually descending branch, esrablished £ro1n rescs on cylinders
or prisms in uniaxia l contpression. This assun1prio11, on rhe one hand arrribures rhe strains,
of rhe order of 0.35%, nteasured at the exrren1e compressive fibre of an RC beant at ics
ukin1are-lin1it sr:ue in f)exure, co scrain sofrening, \Vhich, as discussed in Seccion 1.1.2,
characrerises rhe behaviour of 'cracked" concre-re, and, on che ocher hand, implies thar rhe
rransverse srresses, \\1hicb invariably de\'elop in any RC srrucrural eJe1nent, have an insignifi ..
cant effe<t on conc-rere behaviour.
And yer, rhere is easily reproducible experin1enral inforn1arion \Vhicb sho,vs char che abo\•e
assu1npcions are nor correcr. Figure 1.12 shoYlS che derails of an RC bean1 designed to fail in
flexure under che acrio11 of a r·wo-poinr rransverse load (Korsovos 1982). The marerial char..
acreristics of both conc:rece and sceel roger her y;1ith rhe val ues of the design and 1neasured
CL- s1 -
t t
1020~0
I 106'
l- l 2-2
Cros.s·sectklons
r.,ur-e J.t2 RC beam s under tWO· point loading: design details. (From Kot'SOVOS M. 0 .. 1982. Materials ond
Suucwres, RllEM. IS(90). S29- S37.)
10 finite -element modelling of structural concr ete Need for a reappraisal 11

ft = 39MP3
f, =41? MPa 250
DesignlJ = 6.<I kN '? 200 a t(MPa)
Me.uured \j = 6.8 kN
i 150 -l-'l'-4'--- ! -- '·•I
·--·--· 0
- - - - l?
.i
- · 100 +--'--~~"+--·
-·-·- 35
- - - 52
- - - 69
50

'tc
e"'' e,tl
Steel properties
es
Ca/cultulon ofd\'t'.rag~ Slreu a 0
Fs = Asf, = 56.55 x 41? "'23600 N
Mi= "ja,. = 6800 x 300 = 2C»OOOO Nmn'
!: = M/F, = 2040000/23600"' 86..S tnm

x = 2 (d - !:) = 2x(90 - 86.5) = 1 mm

a. = Fil(bx) = F/(b~) = 23600/(51 x ?)
- 20 0 20
Sttaln x l o-3
60 80

Figure 1.14 Stress-strain curves for a typical conc.rete in triaxial axi.symmetric compression (a.> o:J.

"'67MP:t,..J.?ft
Figur~ I. f3 Assessment of average stress in compressive zone based on the measured values obtained from
testing the beam in figure 1.12. (From Kouovos M. 0 .. 1987, ACf Structurafjourno~ Proceedings.
84(3). 266-273.)
load-ca trying capaciry are provided in Figure 1.13 where chey are used ro assess the average
srress in rhe con1pressive zone corresponding ro che 1ueasured load-carrying capaciry. The
ca lc!Ulated average axial stress in the con1pressive zone is found to be d 11 =67 MPa, th.at is,
70% higher ch.an rhe uniaxial cylinder con1pressive screngch of che concrere (ft) and abour
150% higher than rhe desjgn srress, assuming a s.afery facrorequal ro 1.5. Such a large stress
can only be susrained if the srress conditions in the con1pressive zone are rriaxi.al compres·
si\•e (Korsovos 1987). Moreover, horizonral cracks appeared in che compressive afcer rhe
peak load had been reached \Vhich is an indication chat concrece in the con1pressive zone is
desctibed by strain-hardening, rather rhan scrain·sofcening1 1narerial ch.a racreristics. A full
descripcion of rhe behaviour of concrete in che con1pressive zone of RC beants exhibicing a
flexural 1node of failure is provided in Seccion 2.4.2.
generalised (criaxial) srress scares. The forn1ulacion of an.a l)•tical expressjon.s is follo\ved
by calibrarion ch rough the use of experi1nenral daca. Such rypical dara obcained front resrs
on concrece under axisymmetric (Korsovos and Ne\\rman 1980) and biaxial (Kupfer er al.
1969) srares of stress are shown in Figures 1.14 chrough 1.16 and Figures 1.17 and 1.18,
respecrively.
Figure 1.14 presents stress-srrain curves obrained from r·esrs on concrere cylinders under
rriaxial axisyn11uerric compressjon, rhat is under rhe contbined accion of an axial coin·
pressive scress, O.u and a confining pressure, o,, such rhac er11 > Ot assun1ing compression
as posicive. The cylinders \Vere first subjected co a hydrostatic pressure (a.= aJ \Vhich was
increased to a prede6ned value; then, <J, was n1aintained constant during the subsequent
applicarion of che displacemenr controlled er11 \Vhich \Vas increased n1onoronically until rhe
cylinder suffered significant loss of load·carrying capacity.
The figure shows char all curves exhibit si1uilar crend.s of behaviour \Yhich are indepen·
dent of rhe applied at. Be>ch axial scress- axial scrain and axial stress- laceral strain curves
contprise ascending and gradually descending branches. le is imporranr co nore, howe\•er,
rhac, \Yhen rhe er,. approaches its peak value, rhe rare of increase of the lateral strain (i.e., the
strain in rhe direcrion of o~ (<er11) beco1ues significancly larger rhan rhe rare of the axia l scrain
(i.e., rhe strain in the direcrion of 0 4 ) .

1.2 CONSTITUTIVE MODELLING 80

a,(MPa)
10
----· l?
1.2.1 Underlying concepts 60
·- - .. 34
":? 50
The concepcs discussed in rhe preceding seccions also underlie che con.srirucive models of ~

concrece behaviour incorporated in n1osr packages currencly used for che numerical analy· 6«>
sis of concrece struc-cures. Although en1phasis is placed on rhe description of che posr-peak ~ 30
.;; 20
n1acf'rial characreriscics \Yhich essenrially describe rhe behaviour of a discontinuous n1ace·
10
rial, since chey reAecr rhe effec-r of cracking on deforn1arion, che n1acerial 1uodelling relies
0
on concinuu1n 1nechanics rheories. \Virhin the conrexr continuum n1ec-h.a11ics, a rheory (e.g., Ax:l31st n
endochronic, dan1age, pla.sciciry, ere.) or combin.arion of theories (plastic fracruring, visco· - 10
plas·cicity, ere.) considered as rhe mosr appropriace for the description of che phenon1enologi·
-2 - I 0 l
S t1'3ln x lo-3
2 •
ca l features of rhe behaviour of concrece under load is selecred for formulacing analytical
expressions describing the srress- srrain and screngch characreriscics of concrere under Figure I.ts Stress-strain curves for a typical concrete in triaxial axi.symmetric extension (a.< OJ.
12 Finite- element modelling of structural concrete Need for a reappraisal 13

s from the rriaxial compression rests, the rate of increase of che strain in che direcrion of che
smaller stress, a. is significantly larger chan chat of the srrain in rhe direccio-n of the larger

6
stress, cr, \\lhen che axial scress approaches ics peak value.
4 Figure 1.16 shows the variacions \Vich confining stress, cr0 of the 1naxi1nun1 and n1inimun1
values of the axial stress, a", suscained by concrece for rhe cases of rriaxial axisynunecric
contpression (a"> cr,) and excension (G., < o ,), respectively. The figure sho\VS th.at, for che case
3 of criaxial compression, cr" increases sharply \\rith cr" even for a small increase of the larcer;
sin1ilarly, for the case of triaxial extension, cr, increases sharply \Vich o", even for a sn1all
~ / increase of che larcer. On rheocher hand, che presence of sn1all censile stress is sufficienceven
2 n. = nt
"J --;.- ro reduce co zero che load-carrying capacity of rhe n1aterial in the orchogona.1 direction.
The stress- strain curves in Figure 1.17 ha\'e been obtained front rests on square concrere
places under a plane state of stress 111, o1 such that o, = 0.5o1 > 0. As for che case of the
/ o,. <o, srress- suain curves of concrere unde:r axisy1nn1etric co1npression, the stress- strain curves
under biaxial co1npression con1prise an ascending and a gradually descending branch \Vich
0
the descending branch, \Vhich describes the our-of-plane deforn1ational response(~). exhib-
iting a significantly smaller slope than rhe slopes of che in-plane descending branches (t1, ~).
_, -1---....- -...- -...- -...- .....
As regards the screngrh of conc-re1e under biaxia l (plane) stress condicions, Figure 1.18
-I 0 I 2 3 4 sho\vs thar, \Vhile rhe presence of a con1pressive scress up ro l in any of rhe f\VO principal
./la//, directions (cr1, o 1 ) leads co an up ro 25% increase of che compressive strength of concrete
in the onhogonal direction, rhe prese.nce of a sn1all censile stress (sn1aller chan the unia.xial
figure 1.16 Strength envelope of concrete under axisymmetric states of stress. tensile strengrh of concrere) rapidly di1ninishes che co1npressive srrengch of concrece in the
orchogonal direction to zero.
The calibration of rhe analycical for.n1ulacions of che constitutive models proposed ro date
Figure 1.15 presencs stress- strain curves obcained fro111 tests on concrete cylinders under appears co place emphasis only on che use of suess- srrain daca (such as those presented
triaxial axisynunecric extension (i.e., under che con1bined accion of cr" and cr, such thar above) desc-ribing che deforn1acional response of concrece in rhe direction of the n1aximun1
o, <; o,). As for the case of the triaxial compression ems, the cylinders were first subjected principal compressive stress. (Ir should be noted thar rhe directions of the axes of symmetry
to a hydrostatic pressure (cr" = cr,) increasing to a predefined va lue; then, o, '\Vas maintained of the specimens reseed for establis hing che scress-scrain behaviour of concreoe are rhe direc-
conscant during the subsequent applicarion of a displace1nent·controlled axial stress coun· cions of the principal scresses.) On the other hand, the shapes of rhe scress- s·crain curves in
reraccing the vercical contponenc of rhe hydrostatic pressure uncil che specinten suffered a the directions orthogonal 10 the direction of the n1aximun1 principal co1npressive scress (i .e .,
con1plece loss of load-carrying capacicy. rhe directions of che intern1ediace and n1ini1nun1 principal stresses) are diccaced by che con-
The figure shows chat all curves exhibit similar crends of behaviour \Vhtch are indepen- tinuun1 n1echanics rheory adopred for the forn1ulacion of the analycical expressions.
dent of rhe applied a,, but, unlike che stress- strain curves in Figure l.14, these curves have Although the posr·peak 1narerial characreristics as described by rhe conscicutive n1odels
only ascending branches; \Vhen che axial stress reaches a crirical value, che cylinder suffers a proposed co date also desc-ribe che effecr of cracking on deforn1arion, only che forinulacion of
con1plere and in1n1ediace loss of load-carrying capaciry. However, as for the .curves obtained

1.4
I
a,. '
1.4

1.2
..... 1.2
I/
'~
0.8
~ 0.8 "'~ J .
-,; --<, ""'~ 0.6
I
~

" 0.6
0.4
- - - <,
...... <,
0.4
0.2
...
I 0
I/
0.2
Comptesstw I I
0
-0.2
-0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.2 1.4
-4 -2 0 2 4
Sttaln x tO-l 01/ft

Figure 1.17 Stress-strain curves for a typical concrete in biaxial compression. Figure l.f8 Strength envelope of concr ete under biaxial states of stress.
14 Finite-eleme nt modelling o f strucwral concrete
th.e deformacional response of concrete in co1npression is considered to adequacely describe
th.is effect. Under a state of stress \Vith ac least one of the principal stress con1ponencs being
tensile, che numerical descripcion of the effect of cracking on deforn1ation is comple1nented
\\rich the use of nun1erical techniques (such as e.g., the sn1ea.red-crack approach (Ngo and
Scordelis 1967) with fixed [Cervera a nd Chiumemi 2006) or free-rotating Uir:isek and
Zlin1mern1ann 1998] crack axes and che discrete-crack appr oach (Saou1na and Ingraffea
1981]) \Yhich allo\\r for che effect of cracking on deforn1acion ch rough the in1plemencacion of
n1odifications in the geo1netry of the structure analysed. Such techniques place emphasis on
th.e shear resiscance considered co be provided by friction dev-eloping across the crack inter·
faces through the introduction of shear-resistance paran1ete.rs such as the shear-recention
factor (Senna er al. 2001).
1.. 2.2 Inconsistencies of concepts underlying constitutive modelling
RC struccures subjected to in-plan e loading, such as, for example, fran1es, structural ·walls
and so on are ofcen analysed assun1ing plane-stress conditions:. Even if in-plane loading \Vere
possible (since there al\\rays exist unintended eccentricities of the applied load), che assun1p-
tion of plane...srress conditions is unrealistic; chis is because the developn1enc of our-of-plane
acrions is inevitable due co variations in che rransverse expansion resulting from rhe non·
uniforin distribution of the internal scresses. As discussed in Section 2.4.2, such variations
in. cransverse expansion inevitably result in the developn1en!t of sn1all cransverse scresses,
f0>r purposes of tra.nsverse deforn1ation con1patibility, t he effect of which is considerable
in. strength, as indicated in Figure 1.16. Ignoring che developn1ent of cransverse scresses on
account of cheir small 1nagnitude leads to n1isinterprecations of che available experin1ental
inJorn1ation and assun1ptions \Yhich d iverc anencion fron1 che true causes of observed and
n1easured srrucrural response.
A typical 1nisinrerpretacion links the causes of rhe 'size effect' pheno1nenon (i.e., the
dependence of the behavioural characteristics of cerrain concrete 1nen1bers, such as, bean1s
\\rithour cransverse rein forcement, on the actual n1en1ber di1nensions) \Vich incrinsic material
properties (Bazanr and Oh 1963; Hillerborg 1985; Gus1afsso11 and Hillerborg 1988). On rhe
other hand, it has been suggested by Kotsovos and Pavlovic (19941 1997) char size effecrs are
due to our-of-plane actions resulting fron1 non·syn1n1ecrical cracking caused by unincended
eccencricicies of the applied load and/or the hecerogeneous nacure of concrete. In face, ic
has been sho\vn char realistic predictions of rhe size effecc 01}; the load-carrying capacity of
RC bea1ns withour cransverse reinforce1nent can be obcained by nu1nerical analysis \\rhich
allo\VS for rhe fonnarion of non-sy1nn1errica l cracking (Korso-vos and Pavlovic 1997).
As discussed in Section 1.1.2.2, the posr-peak stress- strain behaviour of concrete u nder
any srace of stress is significantly affected by visible cracking \Vhich firsc occurs when the
peak·stress level is reached. As it will be fully d iscussed in rhe following chapter, visible
cracking predon1inanrly affeccs the strains n1easured in rhe dlirecrion orrhogonal ro that of
th.ecrack plane, chat is, the srrains in the d ireccion of o, in Figures 1.14 and 1.15 and strains
e.1 in Figure 1.17. This effect is reflected on the rate of increase of chese strains \Yhich exceeds
the rate of increase of the strains in the other directions by an a1nount significantly larger
than rhe amount that could be described by a continuu1n mechanics theory. As a result,
conscicucive models developed on the basis of a contin uum n1ochanics theory cannot provide
a realisric description of the post-peak deforn1ational behaviour of concrete as a n1acerial.
The inability of conscicurive models based on conrinuum 111echanics concepcs ro provide
a realistic description of rhe post-peak concrere characceristics is n1ore pronounced for the
case of scares of scress \\1ith ar lease one tensile prin cipal stress con1ponenc. In such cases,
th.e descripcion of cracking on deforn1ation is con1ple1nented rhrough rhe use of nun1erical
Need fo r a r eappraisal IS
tech.niques (e.g., smeared· or discrete-crack approach) \Vhich modify the geon1ecry of the
srructure so as to accounr for the effecr of cracking in excess of char \\1hich is accounced for
by che adopted constirucive n1odel.
Moreover, although the large race of increase of the scrains o·r chogonal to che crack plane
implies void formacion due co rhe lack of co1uacc of che crack faces, it is often further
assuJned that some resistance ro the shearing moven1enc of che crack faces is possible to
develop due co friction. This resistance is usually described by assuming thac 'cracked' con·
crete rerains a portion of the shear rigidity of 'uncracked' concrere.
As a resulc of the above inconsiscencies characterizing the constitutive 1nodels, the appli-
cabi~icy of che analysis packages \\1hich incorporace t hen1 appears co be limited only co par-
ric-uUar scructura l elements. ln facr, there has been no evidence presented co dace on t he
abilicy of rhe a nalysis packages ro provide realistic predictions of the behaviour of a \Yide
range of scructura l configurations \Vithout a suicable modificacion of che adopted conscitu·
rive .n1odel of concrece behaviour. The above i1nplies thar the a bility of rhe analysis packages
for realistic predictions is linked \Vich the use of a consticurive model dependent on rhe rype
of scruccural e1en1enc analysed; however, there has not as yec been any cricerion suggested
for selecting a 'suicable' conscicurive model. This apparent lack of generality of the analysis
packages, as a resulc of the lack of objective criteria for adoptiing a particular conscituci\•e
n1odel, represencs a n1ajor dra\\1back of the use of nun1erical 1ne1hods for the analysis of RC
srructures. ~toreover, even if such criceria exisced, li nking the ability of realiscic predictions
of structura l behaviour ro rhe use of a particular constitutive rnodel does nol appear to be
ratio na l, since such a link implies chat concrece possesses son1e sort of incelligence aJI0\\1ing
it to adapc ics behaviour co rhe needs of particular srruccures.
J.l CONCLUDING REMARKS
The methods \\1idely used for the u lcin1ate li1nit·scare analysis and design of concrete scruc-
tures under load n1ake use of 1nodels \Yhose de\•elopmenr places e1nphasis on the contribu·
tion of concrete co load-carrying capacity a frer the forn1arion o{ visible cracking.
T he use of such models has proven to dare ineffective. As regards design, current n1echods
have been found unable to ahvays produce solucions \\1hich sa tisfy che code requiren1encs
for scructural perfonnance. This shortcoming appears co reflect che conflict becween rhe
concepcs underlying the modelling of scrucrural elen1en.rs and the 1nechanis1ns diccating the
observed andfor measured scrucmral response.
As regards analysis, rhe applicabilicy of n1ost nun1erical packages developed co dare
appears co be li1nited only to parcicular srructural elements, as there has nor as yec been
pubtiished evidence on the a biliry of che packages co provide realiscic predictions of rhe
behaviour of a \\ride range of struccural configuracions. The causes of ch is apparent lack of
generally appears to be due to the use of constirucive 1nodels \Vhich, although developed on
rhe basis of continuun1 mechanics cheories, are used to describe the behaviour of a n essen·
rially d iscontinuous n1arerial such as concrete.
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Res•ard1, 16(49), 203-210.
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Material and Structures, RILEJ\1, 18, 291- 296.
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sequential loading and exhibiting points of inflection, Computers and Concrete, 1(1), 99- 113.
Jendde L :ind Cervenka J., 2006, Finite clement modeUing of reinforcement with bond, Computers aud
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Jir:isek, ~1. an d Zimmermann, T., 1998, Analysis of routing crack model, Journal of Engineering
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fkxurc based on the properties of concrete under multiaxial stTCSs, Materials aud Str,,chtres,
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Kotsovos M. D., 1987, Consideration of triaxial stress conditions in design: A necessity, AC/ Stntdural
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Concrete Strudures, Springer, London. UK. 221pp.
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Need for a rea ppraisal 17
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Kotsovos ~1. D. and Pavlovic M. N., 1999, Ultiniate LUnit-State Design of Concrete Struct,,res: A 1''ew
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Kotso\'OS l\•t. D. and Pavlovic M. N., 2001, The 7/9/99 Athens eanhqu.:tke:: Causes of damage not pre-
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Chapter 2

Main behavioural characteristics

of concrete

Ir i clear from rhe preceding chapter 1har concrete behaviour i an important constiruenr
of the overall inpu1 required for the , trucrural analy i of con rere tructure . However 1he
modelling of oncrere beha\•iour i fraugh1 \ ith difficultie . The fir r of rhe e i rhe nece siry
of u ing triaxial-ce t dara namely rlliar che macerial de criprion hould refer ro che re ponse
of con rece under generali ed (i.e., three dimen ional) rares of tress. A discu ed in che
pre eding chapter 1he reason for 1h.is i che large effe 1 char mall ere e u ually ignored
in plane- ere analy i , ha\•e on on rere behaviour; chi \ ill be ome apparent throughouc
1he following haprer of the book. The e ond our e of diffi ulcie a ociared wirh 1he
e cabli hing of a rual properties of con rere material relare co che airer - and chu
1he reliability - of a ailable e perimenral results. 01 urpri ingly this apparenr di crep-
an )' of 1he failure envelope and conscicucive relation obtained by arious laborarorie and
resear h group working in rhi important field rai e rhe question of whether or nor a reli -
able model of on rere i at all po ible u h char con i renr and repearable re ult might be
obcained among a er of nominally idenci al pecimen .
In an acrempr ro re olve rhe problem of daca caner an 1incernacional cooperative proje 1
wa er up wirh ub equenc publi arion of ic finding on rrengrh (Ger rle er al. 197 ) and
conscirurive re pon e (Ger rle er al. 19 0). In 1he recognicion tha1 rhe large aner in pa 1
scudie of 1he crengrh and respon e of plain on rece (PC) under mulciaxial ere rare
could be actribured co 1wo prin ipal fa cor - namely variation of marerial re red and varia -
1ion of rhe re 1 method chernselve - rhe cooperative rudy on encrared on eliminating a1
lease the fir r of the e fa tor . One of the prin ipal finding of this rudy, whi h are um-
mari ed in Korsovo and Pavlovi (199~) wa 1he idencifi arion of re 1 mer hod apable of
producing con i rem and reliable data by indu ing definable rare of rre in pecimen .
The dara discu ed in che pre enr chapter have been obtained from uch a method whi h
employ 1he triaxial cell developed lby ewman (1974) forte ring C)•linder a de ribed in
rhe following e tion. Although rhi device i capable of reprodu ing only axi ymmetri
loading a e u h a limicarion doe nor po e a pracci al problem for rhe rea on whi h
will be outlined later. Moreover, unlike rhe data re ulcing from orher re 1 method rho e
obcained b employing the triaxial cell have been found ro provide a comprehen ive de crip-
1ion of che key fearure of oncrere behaviour under generali ed rre .

2.1 CYLINDER TEST

2.1. I Underlying considerations

The rriaxial cell device developed by ewman provide a imple and dependable cechnique
for gathering 1riaxial data. Through 1he ell' reel ram rhe ylinder is ubjecred co axial

19
20 Finite -element modelling of structural concrete
oncentri load P. ar ic end ombined wich hydrauli ally imposed pre ure p on ic urved
edge . However due co che highly hererogeneou narure of on rece even under u h imple
loading, ir is only che mean valu of rhe cresses de\•eloping wichin che cylinder char ic i po •
ible co decermine accuracely. Thus che average axial cres developing due co P. is cr. = 4P)rr.D2,
where D i the diamecer of rhe )•linder' cros eccion, wherea rhe mean value of che radial
compre ive ere developing due co p i cr, = p. in e these normal ere e are che only
er e developing under che loading onditions con idered cr. and cr, are prin ipal ere e .
lei importanr co note however that the scare of r.re within a pecimen is affecced by
the mean u ed ro subject the cylinder co the intended loading. The a ial load i applied
chrough the rigid reel ram; ic i inevitable therefore rhat fri rional for e develop at che
on rer reel interfa e due co che in ompacible me hani al properrie of con rece and reel.
A will be dis u ed in detail in a following e tion chese force lead ro che developmenc of
an indefinable ere field \ hi h re trains ignifi antly che tran ver e expan ion of con rere
within the end regions of che C)'linder. However in ac ordan e \ ich r. Venanr' prin iple,
chi indefinable tres field fade away wirh rhe di can e from teel- placen inrerfa e and ic
effect on deformarion be omes negligible ac a di can e of abouc D from the cylinder' end .
It is con idered, therefore char, for a cylinder with HID> 2 (where Hi che cylinder heighc)
che middle portion of che pecimen is free of the above end re trainc effect . On the other
hand, the cran ver e confining pres ure i impo ed hydraulicall)• and rherefore, the fluid-
con rere inrera rion doe nor lead to the developmenr of any internal rre rare other than
rhar cau ed by rhe impo ed pre ure p. Therefore only the middle porrion of th.e cylinder
under the combined action of an axial force and a cran ver e confining pre ure is. ubje red
co the definable care of rre cr., cr, and hen e ic i wichin thi middle portion that che
deformational re pon e of con rece hould be measured.
Moreover ic hould be rem inded that concrete comprise aggregace panicle of various
ize bound together' ith cement pa ce. It ha been found b)' experimenc that, for rhe mea·
ured re ponse co be repre entative of con rece, rather chan i olated aggregace parti le or
cement pa re deformation should be measu red over a length of around chree rime the ize
of the ma. imum aggregate of che on rete mix invescigaced ( ewman and La han e 1964).
Ir appears from che above therefore, rhar in order co both induce definable srace of ere in
on rete and obcain realistic mea uren1ents of macerial re pon e che te r pecimen hould
have a heighc-co-diamecer racio of 2.5. In fa c a urning a maximum ize of aggregace of
around 20 mm che pe imen ele red for re ring in che criaxial cell are 100 mm diam·
ecer x 250 mm height cylinders.
2.1 .2 Test results and required clarifications
Typi al results expres ing borh che deformational and crength haracceri ri of oncrece
alread)' have been hown in Figure 1.14 1.15, 1.17 and Figure 1.16 1.17 re pectively.
A di cu ed in e tion 1.2.1 a haracceri ci fearure of che rre - train relation hip of
Figure 1.14 and 1.17 i that for rre level beyond rhe peak value the cen· ile train
increa e at a race whi h i very much higher chan chat of che compre ive crain (Barnard
1964). Poi son· ratio value , whi h describe u h behaviour may vary from a value of
approximacely l at the peak-load level ro value a large a 10 for ere level beyond chi
level (Kot ovo 1983).
Now it hould be recalled char an isocropi concinuum (\ hi h concrete is a urned to be
chroughour the whole range of re ting) cannot exhibic Pois on' rario values in exce of 0.5.
In fa r tlli i impli ic in the de ign of the re ring devi e used to obcain rre - crain rela-
rion u h a rho e hown in Figure 1.14 and 1.17. Therefore exi ring re ring technique
a __ ume that the deformational behaviour of con rece is ompacible with chat of a cominuou_
Main behavioural characteristics of concrete 21
medium up ro and beyond the maximum uscained load. There is a hi tori al ju rifi arion
for u h an a umprion in che en e char rhe variou resr mechod were devised originally
with the aim of obcaining rea onably a curare e rimare of the trength of con rere. In rhis
re pe r loading device u h as bru h and flexible platen are considered ro indu e negli -
gible fri rional rescrainr at rhe pe imen- plaren inrerfa es when de igned ro allow displa e-
mem in che dire rion orthogonal to loading ompatible wich ren ile rrains cal ulared on
rhe ba is of Poisson' ratio value up 10 0.5 (Ger tie et al. 1978).
ow, as hown in Figure 2.1 uch \•alue haracreri e concrete behaviour up co a level
close to bur nor beyond the peak-load level. Therefore, it i evidenr that a the maximum
load i approached and the Po· on· racio be ome in rea ingl y large, che on rece peci·
men is no longer a ontinuum buc i beginning to be affe red markedly by inrernal fra rure
proce e . Despice chi an average load- deformacion pach can rill be recorded for che speci-
men a a whole and chi implie tllar con iderable frictional restrainc between placen and
specimen mu t, ac che e lace rage of the deformarional re ponse, come inro effe t.
The importan e of fri cional for e between pe imen and machine ha been re ogni ed
a early a 1882, when Mohr riti i ed Bau hinger's re uh of ompression rests made wich
cubi pecimen on che ground rhar che fri rion of che cube urface in contact with che
machine ice c-places: 'mu r have a grear effect upon che ere di cribution o char the re ult
are nor tho e of a imple compre ion re t' (Timo henko 1953 p. 287). imilar ob ervarion
regarding the importance of interfa e fri cional for es were made b)• Foppl when working
wich cubi pe imens of Cenlent· he explored various way of reducing uch -effects howing
char the u ual c ts of cubi pecimen give exaggeraced value of che com pre ive trength of
che macerial (Timo henko 1953).
As memioned earlier, mo t of rhe atcempc made ub equentl)' co eliminate fri tional
effects becween specimen and ma hine were aimed ac obcaining realiscic stre11gth valu . In
addition co redu ing chese fri tion force co Vaf)•ing effects, experimenrali r also increa ed
the a peer ratio of pe imens (i.e., the length co cro • ectional dimen ion racio) in order to
minimise end effect . A poinced our above all the e mea ure eem co have· been u ce fut
in term of crengrh-daca a ur.a )' (a cypical example being the ylinder ce c). On che other
Stress(MP!I)
0 s 10 15 20 25 30
O +-~~~--'~~~~--~~~~...._~~~.-.~~~~..._~~~,.....
-o.i
- 0.2
- 0.3
-0.4
-0.S
-0.6
Peok stress,
Frgure 2.1 Typical variation of Poisson's ratio with increasing stress obtained from tests on cy6nders under
uniaxial compression.
22 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Main behavioural characteristic.s of concrete 23

hand the larger deviation of the mea ured values of Pois on· ratio (i.e., v » 1) from their
a urned ounrerparc (i.e., v < 0. • used to de ign the experimenral er-up that would mini-
mi e end re rrainr) at load level beyond trength indi ate that the po t-peak ren ile defor-
mation of the pecimens in the direction orthogonal to that of the maximum applied load
( ee Figure 1.14 and 1.17) is in fa t ignificantly affected by rhe end re traint provided by
rhe re ting devi e and that the experimental et-up an not fo 'lfil ir obje rive of eliminating End20ne
end fri cion. Clearly the actual behaviour of a con rete pecimen in uniaxial compre ion
a rhe peak load is approached (and beyond) an be obtained onl)• if the fri rional effect
are truly eliminated. One uch investigation wa u e fully undertaken in order to a e
the effect that redu tion - and eventual removal - of the end fri tion would have on exi t· ····~.::.... Cenlt:ll20ne
ing uniaxial- ompre ion data on (a) trengrh and (b) po t-peak characreri ri (Kor ovo
1983). The inve rigation findings, whi h were ub equently onfirmed b)' or her re ear her
(van Mier 1986; van Mier er al. 1997) are outlined in the next e rion.
··....
End20ne

2.2 POST-PEAK BEHAVIOUR

2.2.1 Uniaxial-compression tests

2.2 . 1.I Behaviour of a test specimen under compre ssive load

Complete rres - train relation hips for concrete under uniaxial ompre ion have been
obtained to dare by loading ylinder at a onsrant rare of di pla ement through a ' riff' F"igure 2.2 Schematic representation of the effect of boundary frictional restraint (t) on the state of stress
re ting ma hine either by u ing a loading y rem apable of relea ing almo t in tanta· within cylinders under uniaxial compression.
neou I)• any load in exce of that whi h can be u rained by the pe imen at an)' time
(Ahmad and hah 1979) or by load ing a reel pecimen in parallel with the con rete
pecimen in a manner uch that a r'he load- arrying capacity of con rere beyond ulti-
mate rrengrh (U ) i redu ed the con rere- reel y rem rran fers rhe exce load from
concrete ro reel o a ro maintain the internal equilibrium of the overall y rem (Wang
6
m =End20fle
er al. 1978). u h relationship de ribe the respon e of the ·Central zone of rhe cylinder
which i generally ac epred ro be ubjecred to a near-uniform 1111iaxial ompre ive tre O" =Cenlr.\I 20fle
in contra t to rhe complex and indefinable compre ive tre rate impo ed on the end
zones by frictional re rraint re ulting from the intera rion between pecimen and loading
de i e ( ee Figure 2.2).
9
Ar a load level clo e ro the maximum load- arrying capa iry of rhe pecimens, era k
aligned in the direction of loading appear in the enrral zone and the maximum load-
carrying capa iry i rea hed' hen rhe of rhi zone i attained. At this cage the end zone
remain rre ed belo\ their U apa iry on a count of the confining {triaxial) rre rare
( ee Figure 2.3) without uffering any vi ible era king.
The void aused by the cracks of the central zone re ulr in a dramatic increa e of the lat·
eral expan ion of the zone whi h i in ornpatible \ irh the mu h maller lateral expan ion
of the 'un ra ked' end zone . Thi in omparibiliry give ri e to i11temal force acting o a
peclmen
to (a) restrain rhe lateral expan ion of the entral zone and (b) increase the lateral expan- colbpse
ion of the end zone ( ee Figure 2.4). With in rea ing deformation the internal force a r-
ing on rhe end zone progre ively redu e rhe effect of boundary fri tional re rrainrs and st•t•
eventually reare a rate of rre in the end zone with at lea tone of the prin ipal rre
component ten ile ( ee Figure 2.3). '\ hen the U of the end zone i attained the ra ks of
the central portion propagate into the end of the pecimen and the latter collap e under
an applied load whi h indu e , in the end region , a rare of tre imilar to that indicated F"igure 2.3 Schematic representation of stress paths induced in the central and end zones of cylinders under
in Figure 2.3. increasing uniaxial compression.
24 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Main behavioural characteristics of concre te 25

and 100 mm ube . Two mixe were u ed the crengrh of' hich ar the rime of resring
were: for rhe ylinder 50.0 MPa (Mix I) and 29.0 MPa (Mix 2)· for rhe cube 60.0 MPa
(Mix I) and 37.7 '.\'1PA (Mix 2). The pecimens were ubjecred to varying degree of fri •
2 rional re rraint a ro their loaded urface . Thi wa achieved by pla ing ariou rype of
'anti-friction' media berween rhe pe imen and the hardened reel ub idiar load plaren
rhe larrer having a rhickne of 25.4 mm and rhe same cro • ecrional dimen ion a rhe
nominal cro ecrion of the pe imen re red. Three cylinder and rhree ubes from each of
rhe rwo on rere mixes used, were reseed for every one of rhe following anti-friction media:

a. A layer of synthetic rubber (neoprene) 0.45 mm chick.

c, 0 c. b. An MGA pad con isting of 0.008 mm chi k hardened aluminium reel pla ed adjacent

- - to rhe pecimen; Moly lip grea e (containing 3%Mo 1 )- and a Melinex polye re.r film
gauge 100, pla ed against rhe reel plaren. (The higher-srrengrh con rere pecimen
were rested by u ing previou ly unu ed MGA pad · the ame pad wer,e rhen u ed ro
re t che lower- trengrh concrete pe imen .)
c. A brush plate11 developed by splitting a steel platen longitudinally and tran \•er ely to
form a large number of individual 'bri rle '.
d. o 'anci-friccion medium, that is plain sreel plaren .
e. In addirion ro che above technique , rhree cylinder made of the higher- trengrh con-
crere ' ere ubjecred roan active restraint induced by 'Hi-Torque' ho e clamp placed
at a di can e of 3 mm from rhe loaded urfa e and tightened by a mall torque load of

0
\

-
rigu"' 2.4 Stages o f behavior of concrete cylinders under uniaxial compression.
1000 mm.

For rhe cube only the trength wa determined,\ hile for rhe ylinder both rrengrh and
deformational re pon e were e rablished. The complete deformational behaviour wa mea-
ured wirhin rhe central zone of the cylinders by arraching 60 mm elecrri al re i ran e train
Ir appear from rhe above rherefore rhat rhe po r-ulrimare stre - train relnionship gauges in rhe axial and ircumferential direcrion . Two gauges pla ed diamerrically oppo ire
obrained from rhe re t de ribe behaviour under a complex and indefi11able scare of rres each o ther were u ed for ea h dire tion. The overall axial deformation of the pecimen wa
whi h i clearly induced by the fri tional re crainc (developing under in rea ing load) at the also mea ured by using linear voltage displa ement rransdu er (LVDT ).
pecimen- loading de\<i e interfaces. h therefore eem chat the only rea on for the central The main re ult of the ce cs appear in Figure 2.5 through 2.10. Figure 2. • how rhe
zone of the pe imen co re pond a a unit during the po r-ulcimare rage i rhe re training variation of the cube and ylinder rrengrh (normali ed wirh re pe t to the ylinder trength
a rion of the end zone . Thi uggesr chat if the rare of ere wa the ame throughout (l) obtained from the resrs using plain reel platen ) with the various techniques adopred
rhe pe imen, no u h re training a rion would exi rand the pe imen \ ould complerely
collap e a a re ulr of the formation of continuous era k ar rhe U level. Ir i con idered 1.4 : Sundord deviation for mea.ru
reali tic to propo e rherefore rhar oncrere uffer a complete and immediate lo of ir Cube Cyhnder /, (Nfmm')
load arrying apa iry when U i exceeded. Clear! su ha propo al implie char ' hile rhe
end re rraincs affecr rhe post-ultimate deformational response of on rere pe imens, they 1.2 •0 •
0
50.0
29.0
have lirde influen eon rhe maximum re orded load level in e O\•erall ollap e immediarely
follow rhe on er of cracking in the encral zone.
;. 1.0

2.2. /.2 Experimental evidence for t he brittle nature of concrete

0.8
An unequivo al experimental proof of rhe validity of rhe proposed behaviour of concrete
can be obtained only by u ing resring rechnique whi h omplerely eliminate any fri rional
re era inc on rhe specimen-re ring de\•ice inrerface . Alrhough rhi i unlikely robe achieved 0.6 .___ _.___ _ __.__ _ _ _.___ _ __.__ _ _ _.___ _ __,__ _ __
by u ing existing re ring re hniques, an indication of rhe effecr of frictiona l resrrainr on po r- Active PWn t~ MGA pad Brush MGA pod Rubber
ultimare deformation an be obtained from uniaxial-compre ion re cs b)' employing resting resmlnt pbten used p ously platen not used previously l~yer
device \ hi h induce varying degrees of boundar)' fri riona l re rraint on rhe pecimen . 'And·frlcdon· medb
For rhi purpo e, an experimental programme wa carried our (Kocsovo 1983) whi h
im•olved rhe re ring of rwo rype of pecimen: 250 mm height x 100 mm diamerer 'c ylinder Rgure 2.5 Variation ol cube and cylinder normalised strength with the various 'anti-friction' devices adopted.
26 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Main behavioural characteristics of concrete 27

to redu e fri rional re trainr. The variation of ylinder rrength \ i1h the re hnique u ed is
(>) 1.0
al o hO\ n in Figure 2.6 whi h in addition, in lude che orre ponding axial and lateral
train and the tangent value of Pois on· ratio. Figure 2.7 and 2. how the axial rre -
0
axial train and load- displa emem relationship , re pe rive! , obtained from the linder
re t ; for omparison purpo e the e relation hip are expre ed in a normalised form with
0.6 - - Pbln tttl pbten
respe r ro both the maximum u rained rre (load) and orre ponding train (di pla e- o• - - - - MGA p;>d used pr <>u<J
menc). The rypi al deformational response of the tinders under in rea ing load e rabli hed t:I
0.4 Brushpbten
/
/ Rubber b '"
/, (N/nun~ "Antl-f ctlon" m<dlum 0.2
o.,. c. M1x1mu.m USb.lned tttss
;>nd con~ndln :ucbl
Cl so A Acth·e restr.llnt stn n
0 29 8 Pb n teel pbten
T ~nd.udd ation C MGA pad used prt>'lousl 05 1.0 15 2.0
.L for~ D Brush pl;>ten E/E"
E MGA p;>d not used previously
F Rubber b)"« {b) 1.0
(a)

so Q
~ ~-
- - - - Actl restraint
~
0
- - Pl~n teel pb!<!n
- - Brush pl;>ten
(If' 0.6
~ 4-0
~·
- - Rubber bt"tt
- · - - MGApodnotused
~ 0.4 pcM<>usly
o•
30 a.. c. M:>xlmum susuined stres
0---2 0.2 ;>nd CO<rt<pondlng J.Xbl
train

20 0
A 8 c D E 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 1.0 1.2 1.4
c/c11

(b)
AxW Inn rriurc 2.7 Axial-strain relationships established from cylinder tests: (a) f.,. 29 MPa; (b) f.,. SO MPa.
2.0
-0 Q"§.
/2 ~f Cl
22- from the train-gauge measurement · ompared' ich that e rablished from the L OT mea-

l
E
-:t- _ l.:ltenlslr.lln
uremenrs in Figure 2.9. Finally Figure 2.10 pre enrs cypi al fra cure mode of the ylinder

0--Q--~-; -:a--~
1.0 ubjecred co the variou degree o boundary fri rional re rrainc impo d by the ce ring
c hnique u ed.
The fri rional re craint induced on the pe imen by the re ring technique adopted ma
0 be quantified in cerm of the rrength of che ube resred in ompre ion. in e ic i gener-
A 8 c D E F
ally a epred that the differen e bet\ een ube and ylinder trengrh reflect the inlluen e of
ignifi am boundary re rrainrs on the ube it i on idered reali ti to a ept also that, for
(c) a given on rere the larger rhi differen e, che higher the boundary restraint . On the ba is
of this argument Figure 2. ho' that the re crainr is ignifi ancly redu ed if in rea ingly
effi ienr ·ami-fri ti n' media are employed.
.
2.0

~
The normali ed >•linder- rrengch data pre emed in Figure 2.5 are in agreement ' ith
f
~
> rho e obtained in a previou inve cigarion ( e\ man and La han e 1964). whi h ha hown
1.0 that the uniaxial - ompre ion trengrh of the ylinder with a height-co-diameter ratio of
2 2. i e enrially independent of the fri rional -re traim ondicion aero the loaded urfa e
(a point already tre ed in earlier parts of this hapcer). It i of interest chat the re ult
0
A 8 c D E F obtained b u ing bru h platens onfirm che findings of imilar inve tigacions whi h have
indi ared char the u e of u h platen lead to 1he ube and cylinder trengch being nearly
rriu"' 2.6 Variation of cylinder-tests' parameters at ultimate load with the various ·anti-friction' devices equal ( ee Korsovo 19 3). Ir may al o be inrere ring co note in Figure 2. that when a rub-
adopted: (a) strength: (b) axial and lateral strains: (c) Poisson's ratio. ber layer i u ed che ube trength is mailer chan che ylinder crengch. Thi i on idered
28 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Main behavioural characteristics of concrete 29

(•) 1.0 (>) 1.0

,,,,.,,.,
_. - --:.::::0...-.- -..,.- - --=--- S~tn n rebtlonsh1p
/ -,
0 0 / ~
/
/
/
..... 0.6 - - Pbln steel pbt.., ~ 0.6 I Load-dispbc~nt rebtlonship
• - - - · MGA 1>3d us.ed previously ~ I
<>:
0.4
- - - - 8ru<h pbten
- · - · · Rubbtt 12 r
p., s. Muunum usulned
--' ··
.....
it" 0.4
I
I
I
I

0.2 load and CO<'tt<pond ns 0.2 I

:ud.ll dlSJ>b<en~nt I.

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
SIS. (E/E.)
{b) 1.2
(b) 1.0
........ ..... Actne restraint Stres - stnln rel2tlon<h p --,,.-"
/
S<ttl pbten /
1.0 0.8 /
/
Brush pl•t.., /
/
Rubbttb ·er ~ 0.6 /
0. \ ·. ~ /
' .._ MGA1'3d ..... /
Lo~- disp~nt
', ····••··..• a: 0.4 /.
..... 0.6 /,
/, rebdonshlp
a: 0.2

0.4
'' 0.5 1.0 1.5

0.2 P., S.; Pw I03d •nd correspondmg I dJspbc~nt -+--------l

0.0
0 0.5 I 1.5
sis.
F'.gurc 2.8 loa~isplacement relationships established from cyr.nder tests: (a)
co indi :ue char a oon as che load in rea e co rhe rubber layer au ·cen ile' rarher
chan · ompre ive' ere e co develop a ro rhe loaded urfa e and chac u h ere pro-
du e l:ueral expansion racher rhan indu e re crainc. (However, under ere level beyond
U rhe apa icy of che rubber for lareral expan ion i mu h maller than chat of con rece,
and, a a re uh che 'tensile' ere e b ome • ompre ive' and thu re train further lateral
expan ion of the pe imen , whi h then rend ro be held cogether b fri rion.)
The q •linder- trengch data, from whi h rhe normali ed value of Figure 2. • are derived
are hown in Figure 2.6 whi h al o include the orre ponding daca for axial and lareral
era in . The figure indi ace rhac a for the crengch daca, che a ial- train value ac U appear
co bee encially independenr of the boundary fri cional re crainr ondicion . Furthermore
chey are hown co be independenc of the on rece rrength. On the ocher hand, the lareral
crain appear co decrea e with in rea ing oncrece rrength, and while tho e of che higher
con rece trength are al o e senrially independenr of fri tional re rrainr conditions tho e of
1he lower on rete 1reng1h p imens eem co decrea e wirh decrea ing fri rional re trainc.
F'.gure 2.9 Deformation response of cylinders under uniaxial compression established from strain-gauge
and LVDT measurements: (a) f."' 29 MPa ; (b) f."' SO MPa.
2
(The reason for chis differen e in behaviour ' ill become apparenr larer, \ hen rhe in lina-
rion of the po c-ulrimare branch of rhe load- di pla emenr relation hip for the rwo t}'pe of
f."' 29 MPa; (b) f,"' SO MPa. on rere 1e ted i di us ed.)
The 1angenr value of Poi son' ratio at U are hown in Figure 2.6 whi h indi ace rhac,
for all ylinder ce ced che valu are mu h greacer chan 0. . u h behaviour i omparible
wich earlier reported experimenral informacion (Barnard 1964).
Figure 2.7 and 2. ho\ chat for ere level up co che deformacional behaviour
of the ylinders a e cabli hed by boch scrain-gauge and L OT mea uremenrs i pra ti ally
the ame for any of che boundar)' fri cional ondition indu ed by che re ring technique
adopced. On che ocher hand for ere level beyond U , boch figure indi are a very pro-
noun ed dependen y of the pecimen re pon eon che fri cional-re rrainr conditions ac rheir
boundarie.
However ir i incere ring co noce chat, while che load-di pla emenr relacion hip of Figure
2. exhibit oncinuou in rea e of di pla emenc chroughour che \ hole of che loading pach
the ere - train relation hip of Figure 2.7 how that the po c-ulrimate train in rea e
numeri all but chac che orre ponding ere es de rea e co a level between approximately
60% and 0% of U . At this level the trend rever e and the train decrea e onrinu-
ou I 10 omplete di ruprion of 1he pe imen . Thi late hange of trend in behaviour in
30 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete
(a)
(b)
rrgure 2.10 Typical fracture modes of cylinders (standard size 10 x 4 in/254 x 102 mm). 'Anti-friction' media
used from left to right: (a) for lower-strength cylinders: plain-st.eel platen, brush platien, MGA
pad, rubber layer; (b) for higher-strength cylinders: active restraint, plain-steel platen, brush
platen. MGA pad. rubber layer.
the hara teri ti of Figure 2.7 i con idered to reflect the effect on deformarion of the
occurren e of conrinuou axial cracks whi h ubdivide rhe pe imen in u h a way that
the applied load i predominantly upported by the core rather than the outer layer of the
pecimen, a indicared in Figure 2.11 ( ee al o rage 3 in Figure 2.4). A a re ult, the ere e
within the outer layer de rea e and thi cau e an 'ela tic re overy' (in fa r, the outer layer
are no longer load carrying) whi h i not typical of the overall pe imen behaviour in e it
doe nor reflect ·rhe deformational re pon e of the (ungauged) core of the pecimen.
Ir can also be een char, before rhe above 'ela ti re over • (i.e. unloading) o cur , the
relation hip of Figure 2.7 exhibit rrend of po r-ulrimate behaviour imilar ro rho e of rhe
relarion hip of Figure 2 .. There are, ho\ ever, quanrirarive differen e , demon r'rated in
Figure 2.9,' hich refle r rhe fa r chat ' hile rhe srrain-gauge mea uremenr de ribe e en-
riall)' rhe deformational re pon e of rhe cemral zone of the pe imen ( ee Figure 2.2) rhe
displa emenr measuremencs de cribe the overall re ponse of the pe imen- loading ysrem.
le can be sho\ n, however chat a the loading frame be omes stiffer the displa emenr mea-
uremenr be ome more representative of rhe pe imen beha iour (Ahmad and hah 1979).
The relatively good correl:uion of the relationship hown in Figure 2.9 may be taken a
an indication that through the u e of the relacively tiff loading frame, rhe loading- y tern
Main behavioural characteristics of concrete 31
\ \
I - , . _ Outer layer
/
!II 11\!
/ \ Core
rrgure 2.1I Distribution of post-ultimatie load-carrying capacity of cylinders.
effect on the di pla emenr measurement have been minimi ed to the exrenr that rhe re ulr-
ing load- di pla emem relation hip of Figure 2.8 provide a reali ri de riprion of rhe peci-
men behaviour.
Figure 2. indi are that, for all rhe boundary condition inve rigared the in lination
of the po r-ultimare bran h of rhe relation hip obrained for rhe 10\ er oncrere-srrengrh
ylinder appear to be le reep than char of the relationship obtained for the higher
con rere- rrengrh cylinders. This differen e in behaviour i con idered to reflect the dif-
feren e in ize of rhe central zone of the specimens ' ithin which continuou longitudinal
cracks appear when rhe maximum load-carrying capa iry of the pecimens i approached
( ee Figure 2.4). For the higher con rere- trengrh pe imen the ize of the above zone
wa ob erved to be ub ranrially larger than chat of the lower concrere- trength pe i-
men indicating a more dynami rype of crack propagation for the former a again r the
relatively gradual extension of the era king exhibited by rhe larrer· a a re ulr the ize and
re training effe r on lateral expan ion of the end zone wa mailer. Furthermore ir wa
al o ob erved char cracking of the higher con rete· trengrh pecimen alway extended
in both direction with in rea ing deformation ( ee Figure 2.10), thu redu ing further
the ize and rhe re training action of bot/J end zone . In contra r, for the lower con rere -
trength cylinder , cracking extended in one direction only and, a a re ult, the ize and
re training action of at lea r one of the end zone wa maintained throughout the ' hole
length of the po t-ultimare branch ( ee Figure 2.10).
However a hara teri ri feature of rhe relarion hip
both con rete u ed, their de cending portion be om ignifi antly reeper a rhe fri -
rional re craint decrea e . In face for the higher concrete· rrength cylinder , the redu rion
of boundary fri tional re rraint a hieved by ome of rhe re ring re hnique adopted was
uffi ient to au e omplere breakdown of the pecimen a oon a U was ex eeded . u h
trend of behaviour appear ro upporr rhe propo al rhar, if rhe boundary fri tional reStrainrs
are completely eliminated, rhe po r-ulrimare behaviour of rhe spe imen ' ill be chara rer-
ised by a omplere and immediate lo s of load-carrying apa iry. Ar rhe ame rime, and
a mentioned earlier it i evident char rhe econdary effeccs due ro inrerfa e fri tion at rhe
end of a cylinder having a height-ro-diamerer ratio of 2.5 are unimportant up ro abour the
maximum u rained load, so that the uniaxial con rete trengrh is pra ti ally independenr
of the boundary re traint provided by the te ring devi e.
32 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete
It i important ro ere s chat even though the above conclusion regarding the brinle nature
of concrete marerial when re red uniaxially in compre ion ha been reached on the ba i of
a particular experimental cudy (Kor ovo 1983) uch a view i upporced by the finding
of a number of orher investigator . In the e, howe er, one rarely - if ever - find an unam-
biguou sracemem chat the po c-ulcimace deformation branch i attriburable ' holly to the
intera cion between pecimen and loading platen and i not a characceriscic of the material
(e.g. ee hah and ankar 19 7). In read uch a belief (whether explicit or impli it) in the
exi cence of the train- ofrening regime of concrete i till wide pread de pire evidence to
the conrrary and it i often found e'•en among those' orker who ere ult lend upport to
the view chat con rece uffers :in abrupr :ind total lo of load arrying capaciry a oon a
its peak trength i attained.
2.2.2 Triaxial compression tests and the effect of tensile stresses
In the preceding se tion it was argued that a specimen of con rete under truly uniaxial
compre ion doe nor exhibit a posr-ulrimare load-deformation bran h. ince concrete in a
st ructure i general!)' under the action of a multiaxial sere tare it is importanr to ascertain
whether or nor the mode of failure of the material remain brinle when subjected to the e
more complex loading condition .
Con iderable insight into the rype of failure exhibited by concrete under mulriaxial com-
pre ion ha been obrnined by mean of re t on concrete cylinder with a height-co-diameter
rario of 2.5 whi h, have been ubje ced to an axial compre, ion (cr.) and a lateral confining
pre ure (cr,) (Korsovo 1974· Ko ovo and ewman 1978). The e acrions were combined
in such a way rhat the scare of srre wirhin the pe imen ' a eirher cr. > cr, (triaxial 'com-
pre ion') or 0 < cr. < cr, (triaxial 'excen ion'). The axial compre ion wa applied b)' u ing a
loading method imilar co rhat employed for uniaxial resting (i.e., no attempt \ a made co
reduce the fri rion at the end of the cylinder), while the confining pre ure was hydro tati
(with the r ulc char the urved urfa e of the specimen wa e emially fri cion-free). In all
re t , the entire pe imens were ubjected initially to a given hydro tati pre ure and then
the axial ompre ion wa either in rea ed (tria ial 'compre sion') or decrea ed (rriaxial
'extension') to failure ( ee Figure 2.l 2a).
Typi al ere - train relation hip obtained from the above rest are hown in Figure
2.12b \ hi h indi ate that while under triaxial 'compre ion' oncrere exhibited a grad-
ual reduccion of load- arrying capacity for tr s level beyond U under triaxial 'exten-
sion' con rece uffered an immediate and omplete los ,o f load- arrying apacity. Thi
difference in material behaviour i con idered ro refle r the effect of fri rional re traim
on the fracrure pro e e of the spe imen . A ording ro rhe fracrure me hanism of uni-
a ially te ted on rete (di cu ed in e tion 2.2.1.1), under criaxial 'compre ion' era k
propagation o ur in the axial dire tion and therefore \ hen era king pread in the
end zone of the spe imen the fri tional re traint \ ill affe t rhe pe imen behaviour a
for the unia ia l _a e. On the other ha nd, under rriaxial 'exten ion' crack propagation
takes pla e in rhe lateral direction (i.e. perpendi ular to the cylinder' a i ) and hence
rhe fracture proce e that o cur in the central zone of the pecimen are not affe red by
rhe fri tional re traint that exist at the pe imen- platen interfaces. The above finding
rrongly ugge t that a truly ' unr trained' pecimen of concrete under arbitrary (but
ompre ive) nes condition would uffer a complete lo s of load-carrying apa icy on
attaining it ma imum trength. Therefore it eem rea onable to postulate that brittle
failure i a chara teri ti of con rete behaviour at a material level under any rate of
Main behavioural characteristics of concrete 33
(b) a. (N/mm2}
ISO
=
t., t, Str.> ns
(•) In d rectlon of
sue:sses 01111 ~ Gr
Tens le
-60 -40 -10 0 20 60 0 100
(2) "a;
SttolJ\ (mm/m)
Figure 2.12 Triaxial compression tens on cylinders: (a) stress paths used: (b) typical stress-strain relation-
ships obtained from 'compression' and 'extension' tesu on cylinders with(.= 31.7 MPa.
The effect of tensile cres e on the po 1-ulcimace behaviour of con rece remain to be
considered. The ca e when a ylinder i acted upon by confining cir umferential pre ure cr,
and an axial ten ion cr. may be con idered co be an extrapolation of the criaxial 'extension'
ca e di u ed above. In fa t, uch a pe imen would be expe red co exhibit an even more
explo ive type of failure than the ca e when cr. i compre ive. By referen. e co the parri u-
lar instance of uniaxial ompression a similar lack of train softening may be anti ipated
when cr. is compre ive while cr, i ten ile provided that fri tional end effe ,t are eliminated.
Finally it eem unlikely that the pre en e of a fully ten ile et of prin ipal ere e will lead
10 an increa e in du tility in the material. On the ontrary u h a ere ombination in
con rete repre ems an inherently brittle y tern d pite gradually descending po t-ultimate
bran he proposed by ome inve rigaror a the latter train oftening far from being a
hara teri ri of the material, i a dire t re ult of the control of era k propagation impo ed
by the ma hine in the cour e of ten ile re ring. In chi re pe t, it is ignificant that train-
ofrening bran hes in dire t ten ile re t can be ob erved only if the tiffne of the re ting
ma hine is reeper than the sceepe t portion of the falling bran h; ocherwi e a udden fail -
ure is deemed to oc ur (Evan and Marathe 196 ). !Evidently the inrera rion between uch
tescing ma hine and the pe imen which d i rare the fracture pro e in the material has
no relevan e for oncrere \ irhin a rru ture a the latter i urrounded by material having
1he ame (if P ~ l or imilar (if reinforced _on _re1e [RC)) tiffne _,
Typi al failed cylinder for the variou triaxial-cesc types ju t d ribed howing
the relevant fracture mechani ms may be een in Figure 2.13 and 2.14. For triaxial
'compres ion' ( ee Figure 2.13) ( ewman 1973 1979) \here the prin ipal ere is main-
tained ompressive or i in rea ed in ompre ion, failure - under low value of onfining
pre ure - can be ob erved ro o ur along plane parallel to the maximum compre i\•e
tre in a manner imilar to uniaxial ompre ion. For larger value of confining pres ure
on the other hand, the failure plane be ome le distin t a the beha\•iour - although till
brittle in e failure coin ide \ ich the peak of the stre - train urve - be ome more
34 finite-element modelling of structural concrete
Figurr 2.13 Typical c.o ncrete specimens (for four mix types) after failure under tria.xial 'compression',
with confining pressure increasing from left to right (all standard-size cylinders (standard size
10 x 4 inl254 xl02 mmD.
'du rile' in the en e that larger train now occur. The u e of a onventional hydrauli
coaxial cell to apply rhe load give ri e ro 'bulged' profile of pe imen under high confin ·
ing pre ure allied to the con iderable horcening in the axial direcrion ( ewman 1973).
In contra t, for the 'exten ion' or compre ion- ompre ion- ten ion ( - T) te t type
(Figure 2.14) (Kor ovo 1974; ewman 1979), failure o cur abruptly on plane orthogo-
nal ro che minimum compre ive rre . (In decrea ing the axia l cress to failure the lacter
occur in a 'ten ile mode' under a re ultant a ial rre which ma)' be either compre ive
(triaxial 'e ten ion'I or ten ile [C- - T , or rria. ial 'ten ion'), depending on the value of the
maximum confining pre ure in che ce t.)
2_2.3 Concrete: A brittle fracturing material
The tesc resul di cu ed in previous e tions hed on iderable doubc over the validity of
the current widely a cepted view that a gradually decrea ing po r-ulcimare load- arrying
Main behavioural characteristics of concrete 35
Figure 2.14 Typical concrete specimens (for a given mix) after failure under triaxial 'extension' and C- C-T
(all st:andard-siz.e cylinders [st:andard size 10 X 4 in/254 X 102 mmD.
capa ity for oncrere i an e ential pan of rhe me hani m of tre redi triburion within
R rructure under increa ing load. The validity of thi view ha for a long rime been
considered elf-evident and in recent year a ignificant amount of re earch work ha been
concentrated on rhe development of ce ting appararu apable of yielding tre - train
relation hip \ hich exhibit a gradually de cending po t· ultimare portion. Although u h
re earch ha reached rhe cage \ hen the hape of tre - train relation hip exhibiting
· oftening' i readily obtainable, the re ults of che work pre ently de cribed indicace rhat
the time ha come to reapprai e exi ting te ting method in an actempt roe rabli h to what
extent rhe obtained relation hip really represent the beha\•iour of an element of con rere
ill a structllre.
The experimental eviden e pre enred in the preceding se tion points unequivo ally to
rhe on lu ion thar P exhibit a udden mode of failure under both uniaxial and the more
general rriaxial rre rare . u h a brirtle narure at the marerial level, ho' ever i not
incompatible with the fa c that when properly de igned, a con rete rru rure or member
can exhibit a du rile rype of failure.
Du rilicy ar che rru rural level is often due ro rhe fa r char macerial failure o ur locally
and in a gradual manner, chu allowing ere redi cribution to cake pla e. Anocher ob i-
ou ource of du rilicy i the pre en e of sreel reinforcement. However, chere is a more
fundamental explanacion a ro ' hy rru rural on rece i capable of failing in a du cite
36 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete
fa hion, and rhi concern the intera rion of variou element of concrete within the tru •
rure (Kor ovo 1982· Kot ovo and heong 1984). This intera tion give ri e to complex
(triaxial) tre tates whi h re ulr in at least some of the principal tre e being very large:
individually, the e may be well in exce of the uniaxial trength of con rete but when taken
together they repre ent a srre y tern below the triaxial trengrh of the mareria I. u h
large ere e are a o iated with large local train which allow the formation of what one
mighr term lo al ' hinge ' that a count for overall member ductility. This point will become
evident later in the chapter once the criaxial crength of concrete has been pre ented and the
haracteriscic failure mechani m in a tru rure di cu ed.
In vie\ of the above, it hould be clear that even though not con i tent \ ith the
notion of concrete a a brittle material, pla ti it)' concept may often be u ed ac a tru •
rural level although they do not ah a)' guarantee the orre c failure -me hani m and/or
ultimate-load prediction. In the latter in tan e the reason doe not lie o mu h in the
brittle nature of concrete. After all Heyman (1982) has hown how, for brittle ma onry
structure , pla ticity concept can be applied. However the ere e in the latter type
of tru cure are very low and failure oc ur through the formation of a mechani m.
Concrete tru ture in contra t tend to be ubje t - albei t lo ally - co high triaxial
tre e a their ultimate load i approached and it i the e large tre e which au e
the train nece ary to produce ductile beha\•iour. Therefore the latter i compatible
with the brittle failure that occur at the material level and i not due to the exi tence
of a strain· oftening bran h that i often argued to be ne e ary in order to explain the
ob erved du tiliry of tru rural con rete.
2.3 FRACTURE PROCESSES IN CONCRETE
2.3 . I Non-linear behaviour of concrete materials
The re ponse of concrete at a material le\•el is characterised by a distinctly non-linear behav-
iour. u h a characteri ti i already evident in the early portion of the stre - strain rela -
tion becoming more pronounced a the U i approached. If non-linear computer-ha ed
technique are to be employed co analy e rigorou ly the re pon e of concrete cru cure to
the impo ed loading ondition , information mu t be expre ed in a mathemari al form
uitable for u e with u h technique . Before thi i done, hO\ ever the origin and nature of
material non-linearicie hould be properl)• under rood.
The non-linear prope.rcie of con rete are generally accepted to reflect the fra rure pro-
e e which occur under ere , and hen e knowledge of the e proce es provide a uitable
ba i for the mathemati al de cription of on rete non-linearity (Kot ovo 1979a). The term
fra rure proce is u ed to denoce the cru tural hange whi h a brittle material undergoe
under in rea ing tres ; in on rete these tru rural change are con idered to be primar·
ily tho e cau ed by racking. A fracture mechanism (i.e., the .law or group of law whi h
control the above fracture proce e ) for con rete valid under any rate of stre and whi h
an be u ed to predi t ob erved deformational behaviour, may be po rulated on che ba i
of theoreci al con ideration regarding the exten ion of a era k within a brittle medium
(which, oncrete i a hown in e rion 2.2). Thi fra rure mechani m forms the ba i for
an analy i of experimental tria ial ere s- rrain daca which will lead to the marhemari al
de riprion of the deformational behaviour of con rete under rati hon-term loading con-
dition . Before u h an analyri al de cripcion i presented it i helpful to give in a unified
form, the omplete q11alitative de ription of the rru rural hange of on rete under any
type of in reasing _tres_.
Main behavioural! characteristics of concrete 37
2.3 .2 Causes of fracture
It i general!)• accepted that the cau e of fracrure and failure of con rete i the proliferation
of Ila\ or mi ro· ra k \ hi he isr' ithin the body of the material even before the applica·
cion of load. The e flaw are anributable to a number of au es; the main one are
a. Di ontinuicie in the cement paste matrix re ulring from it complex morphology
( uch flaw range in ize from a number of ang crom unit at the gel-latci e level, to
everal microns (or above) for i olated or continuou capillary pore ).
b. oids caused by hrinkage or thermal movement due to incompatibility between the
propertie of the variou phase pre ent in con rete.
. Di ontinuicies at the boundary ber' een the aggregate p·a rti le and the paste or mor·
tar matrix cau ed by egregation ..
d. oids present in concrete a a resulr of incomplete compaction.
The above pre-exi ting flaw can be con idered a randomly distributed and oriented
within the material and to exhibit a range of hape and ize .
The ere and train applied to the boundary of an element of a compo ire material u h
a on rere, generate a train field within the material whi his dependent on the distribution
of the component pha es (i.e., aggregate parti le and ement· pa re matrix), and the ize,
hape and distribution of flaw . Lo al train concentration , therefore develop throughout
the material a a re ult of the in ompatible deformation of the con riruent pha es. u h
train concentration are further inren ified ro far higher order of magnitude owing ro the
pre en e of flaw , parri ularly tho e with high a peer ratio (Griffith 1921). It i primarily
these Ila\ that are considered to be the potential ource of any load-indu ed racking.
2.3.3 Fracture mechanism of C•o ncrete
The exi ten e of a fla, or micro-crack within a brittle elastic material under stre di •
curbs rhe srre and train field around the mi ro-crack and cau e high, predominantly
te11sile, rre and srrain concentrations (and thu rrain-energ)' oncentrarions) wirhin
mall region near the mi ro-crack tip . The energy capacit)' of rhe e mall regions musr
have a limir dependent on the material propertie whi h, if exceeded, re ulr in pon·
caneou rack exren ion (Griffith 1921) due ro the iniciarion of bran he . Thi proce
i followed by cable propagarion of the e bran he evenrually be oming un rable and
leading to ultimate collap e (Brace and Bombolaki 1960; Hoek and Bieniaw ki 1965).
The above rack exren ion and propagation pro e e have been found ro o cur in che
dire cion of rhe maxi11111m principal compressive stress applied to the boundarie of a
pecimen (or orchogonal ro che dire tion of the maximum principal ten ile rre ) (Brace
and Bombolakis 1960· Hoek and Bieniaw ki 1965) and cake pla e in order to relea e any
exce ive train energy fed within the macerial b external load . (The cracking can be
visuali ed by reference ro a erie of parallel plane of fra ture containing rhe large c and
intermediate prin ipal compre ive ere e rhe plane extending along rhe former [i.e.
maximum] rre dire rion a racking propagate .)
For a ten ile tre field era .k exren .ion i insufficient to redu e rhe train-energy concen·
tracion to a level that can be conrained within mall region near the era k tip . A a resulc
the fra rure proce is unstable in thar era k exren ion continue co complete di ruption
even if rhe load i maintained con tanr.
On the ocher hand, for a predominantly compre ive tre field the train energ)' whi h
i relea ed during the fra cure proce redu e the train·e.nergy con enrration to a level
below the energy _apadt of the material in the vUniry of the cm k rip and a_ a result,
38 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Main behavioural characteristics of concrete 39

the rack ea e 10 extend. Crack extension i resumed when energy fed into rhe material by TabJe 2.1 Fracture processes ol c.o ncrete when c.o ncrete is subjected to load
external load tend ro in rea e again the train -energy con enrrarion co value above the
apaciry of rhe lo al energ)'" coring regions. The fra rure pro e therefore oc urs in di - ~uced
Observed mattrid changes in
rere rep and i rable in e era k exren ion cea e \ hen the load i maintained con rant. behaviour under increasing ~uced changes de(ormaaonal Approximate
Evenrually, howe\•er, further in rea es in load lead ro the stage when no more energy can stress in internal suucture behaviour stress level Influencing chamcuristics
be t0red within the material· any additional energy induced by rhe applied load i relea ed
Presence of cracks Pre-existing Prior to Shrinkage. thermal effects.
immediately by ra k ei..'ten ion whi h in rum redu e furrher rhe energ capacity of rhe detected miaoscopic:ally cracks load and so on
y rem and reace a srare of insrabiliry (Korsovo and ewman 1981b). and from x-rays
The energy release whi hoc ur during the above fra cure pro e e resulr in a redu cion
of the ire and train con encrations whi h exi r near the rack rip orthogonal ro the path From structural investigations:
of era k exrension. Furthermore the e fra rure proce se create void within the material Bond cracking and Quasi-elastic 30%-40% Spacing of particles for a
matrix cracking behaviour ultimate given mix and so on
( ee Figure 2.15). The redu rion of thee high ren ile srre and rrain concentrarions rend ro increases depending on
au ea contraction of rhe marerial in rhe direcrion normal ro rhe era k-exten ion parh, while spacing of partides of
void formation rend ro au e an exren i.on. The overall effe r on deformation therefore, will aggregate. with cracking
be either a contraction or an exren ion, depending on whether rhe effect of redu rion of rhe aligned in direction ol
ren ile tress and strain oncencrarion or rhe effe t of void formation predominates. maxinYJm compressive
stress as load inaeases
Ba ed on the re earch of previous inve cigaror ' hich has been concerned' irh the rudy
of the fracrure proce se of concrere ar both rhe mi ro copic and the phenomenologi al From phenomenological investigations:
level ir ha been po rulared rhat the fra rure mechani m of thi material i qualitarivel)' Decrease in uluasonic Start of localised Plastic '45%-90% Method of detecrion. type
imilar ro the fracture mechani m described above. The alienr fearure remming from pulse velocity. Start of stable cracking behaviour ultimate ol aggregate. type of
the work of thee inve rigarors may be summari ed a ho\ n in Table 2.1 ( ewman 1973· significant acoustic specimen. state of stress.
emissions. measurable rate of loading. curing
Korsovo 1979a). (It hould be noted thar the deformational behaviour denoted in the rable
void fonnation conditions, and level
by the term 'qua i-ela ti 'and ·pla ti · ould be de cribed more ac urately a non-linearly decreases with: increase
ela tic and inela ri [i.e. exhibiring permanent deformarion upon unloading) re pe cively.) with wlc ratio; increase in
A fearure of the fra cure pro es being di u ed i rhar ir mechani m i pecifi in rhe volume fraction of
sen e rhat a mentioned previously, crack exren ion occurs in rhe dire tion of rhe 'applied' aggregate: deaease in age;
decreasing roughness and
angularity of agg,regate
Exist ng cnck Extending Cl'Olck From structural investigations:
Fonnation of con.tinuous Start ol 70%-90% Spacing of aggregate
crack patterns through continuous ultimate particles for a given mix

v~7
matrix and around cracking
aggregate partides

I
D rectlon of =ck
=
extA?nslon direct on From phenomenological investigations:
or nuxlmum pr nc 1>31
conipres Ive stres Increase in volume. Unscable 70%-90% As for localised stable
marked increase in behaviour caused ultimate cracking (detected
Ch~nge n geometry acoustic emission. and by reduct.ion in phenomenologically)
change in stress-strain number of load
rebtionship paths due to
cracking (leading
to complete
disruption)
Ter\S'lle ~tm
c.onc::entntion Sourc0< NewmM J. 8 .• 1973. Defommloml beh:Mout, bllure mech:inlsms :ind desi2ft criterb to.. concm:es ._..,. cornbln:l·
otCl'Olckbp !Ions of stre.SS. PhD thesis. Unl~rslty of London.

maximum principal compre ive ire s, and affect predominantly the deformarion in rhe
direcrion orthogonal ro rhe crack-exren ion parhs while rhe effe r on deformation along
Change In stress 6eld rhese path i negligible. Clearly, i1 i impli itly a urned here thar rhe many micro-crack
rhar exisr within concrete under rre e.xrend in a mode q11alitatively similar ro that of a in-
tigure 2.IS Schematic representation of changes in crack geometry and stress field associated with crack gle micro rack within a tres ed brirrle medium. uch a po rulare i reasonable, bur ir mu r
extension. be borne in mind rhat in a hererogeneou material uch a concrere, rhe crack exren ion
'40 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete
path will be orientared in che direction of che local rather chan the 'applied' maximum
prin ipal compre ive sire . Owing co thi hererogeneou and complex nature of con rere,
rhe direction of local principal tre e i indefinable and hen e rhe orientation of fracrure
path i dilficulr, if nor impo ible co e rabli h. everrhele , ic eem reali ric ro a sume
rhar, under a deviacor tre (i.e. any tre race' hi h i nor purely h)•dro raric} che direc-
tion of mo r of rhese local maximum principal compre ive ere e pra ti ally coin ide
\ irh the direction of the 'applied' maximum prin ipal compre ive rre . Thi i upporced
by a comprehen ive invesrigarion of che fraccure proce e of on rere specimens ubjecred
co near-uniform rares of multiaxial rre (Ne' man 1973; Kot ovo 1974; Kor ovo and
e\ man 1977) which ha indicated thar the fracture proce e whi h lead to ulr.imare col-
lap e of the material are indeed rho e that occur in the direction of the maximum applied
compre ive (prin ipal} ere . Therefore, ic would appear rhac for con rere under deviator
tre rhe effect of the fracture proce e on deformation may be reflected in the relarion-
hip ben een the deformation of the material in che direction of the 'applied' maximum
principal compre ive ere and the deformation in rhe orthogonal direction under in rea -
ing tre · uch a relation hip could chus form che ba i for the inve tigation of rhe fra rure
proce e of con rete under in rea ing load. On the other hand it i found rhac hydro rari
tre rares are a ociared \ irh an e enrially random orienrarion of fra rure proce se .
In view of rhe above, ir is convenient to cla ify rhe fra tu re pro e e of con rere into rhe
following f\ o caregorie .
Category A: Proce e with a unique orientation. These are ea ily definable in e rhe
propagation path coincide with rhe direction of rhe ·applied' maximum principal
compre ive tre . u h fra cure pro es e may occur under any type of non-hydro-
rari tare of ere bur they are unlikely ro rake place under pure hydro rari tre .
Category 8: Proce e wirh a 'random' orientation (in the ense that the propagation
dire rion i indefinable}. u h fracrure pro e se ma)' oc ur under any stres rare bur
they are considered co be redu ed to a minimum under a pure deviacori tre .
It follow from the above con iderarion therefore thac a deviatori ere
predominantly rhe fracture proce e of category A wherea a hydro raric ere cau e
only rhe fracrure pro e es of ategoq• B. A detailed de riprion of chese rwo categorie of
fra rure proce se i given below.
2.3.3. I Fracture processes under devlotorlc stress
It i a umed here thar under a deviarori rate of tre the principal dire tion of both
local and applied rates of tre coin ide. For thi rea on no di cin tion i made in the fol -
10\ ing berween local and applied stre tare .
The various stages of the frac111re processes - Comprehen ive inve tigacion into rhe
behaviour of on rere under mulriaxial tre ( ewman 1973· Korsovo 1974) have indi-
aced chac chere are at lea r four tage in the proce of crack proliferation under in rea ing
ere . The e are a follow .
Stage I. When the load is fir r applied, mi ro- rack additional co rho e pre-exi ring in
the material may be formed ar i, olared poinc where che cen ile tre con enrrarions
due ro che in omparible deformation of che aggregate and ement-pa te pha e are
highest. During chi rage, the mi ro- ra k do nor propagate bur remain cable.
Stage 2. A the load i increa ed, high rensile train on entracion gradually develop
near rhe rip of rhe mi ro· rack a a re ult of the micro-era k geomerry and/or
Main behavioural characteristics of concrete '41
oriemarion. The srage i reached, rherefore, when rhe initially rable micro-era k
begin ro inirfare branche in rhe direcrion of the maximum prin ipal compre ive
ere . Thi branching pro e rend ro relieve rhe rrain con entration and, once
rrain redi rriburion ha occurred, rhe individual rack configuration remain table
during furrher increa of applied tre . Although rhi pro e may produ e void ,
rhe redu tion of train concenrracion along the crack branche i uch rhar ic re ulc
in onrra tion of rhe material in locali ed zone near rhe rack cip whi h in turn,
cau e the race of in rea e of rhe ren ile train in rhe direcrion ar right angle ro char
of bran hing ro be redu ed with re pe r to rhe rare of in rea e of rhe train in rhe
direcrion of bran hing. The rare of uch deformational behaviour ha been rermed
local fracwre illitiation (LFI) and i on idered ro mark rhe tart of the branching-
iniriarion pro ess.
Stage 3. When che load i in rea ed ro a higher level a rage i rea hed ar which rhe
bran hed era k rart ro propagate. During rhi crack-propagation rage, ea h era k
of the y tern extends in a relatively cable manner in chat if the applied load i held
con tanr the pro e cea e . Although che relief of strain on enrrarion continue
during chi pro e void formation i u h rhar ir cau e che rate of increase of rhe
train ar right ang.le ro che dire cion of bran hing ro in rea e wich re pect ro che rare
of in rease of the strain in che dire rion of bran hing. The rare of u h deformational
behaviour is onsidered to mark the tart of rhe cable ra k-propagarion proce and
ha been termed 011set of stable fract11re propagation (0 FP).
Stage 4. The degree of era king eventually rea he a more evere level afcer' hi h che
era k y rem becomes un cable and failure occur even if che load remain con tanr.
The rarr of chi rage ha been termed 011set of 1111stable fractllre propagation (OUFP).
Under ompre ive tre stare 1hi level i ea ily defined in e ir coincide with rhe
level ac which the overall volume of rhe material become a minimum. Under predomi-
nantly ren ile ere tare , ic i marked by a rapid increa e in the overall volume of the
material and can be derecced a de ribed el e\ here (Kor ovo 1974).
The above four rages of ra k exren ion and propagarion are illu traced chemari ally
in Figure 2 .16 by referen e ro on re1e under ompre ive ere . u ha repre ent:uion may
be thought of a po ibly corre ponding co a uniaxia.I ylinder re r in \ hich the fri cional
LFI OSFP OUFP
lndl _d\W
end<:
I
rigure 2.16 Stages in the process of crack extension and propagation for concrete under compressive
suess.
'42 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Main behavioural characteristics of concrete '43

effecc berween pecimen and platen have been removed or co the entral porcion of u h
a pecimen if che end effect are presenc.
(•) Sr--------------. (b)
·····•··•··· LFI 12
A simplified qualitative description of micro-cracking 011d macro-cracki11g processes: crit- - - OSFP
ical levels of concrete behaviour - Ir i imporranr co empha i e thar che above four rage of --OUFP
che fra rure proce are not all a learly defined as mighr ha\<e been implied by rhe ubdivi- 4 ··- ·· us 10
ion adopted. In parti ular there i no ea ily dece table limit epararing che local and en-
tially random proce of rage I from che aligned era king of rnge 2. However, an analy · of
criaxial cre - crain data can lead co a dececcion of reasonably di rin c level of change in che
behaviour under in reasing tre . As noted earlier the e le\'el are on idered co represent ~
che cart of the cage ' ithin whi h crac.k bran hing (LFI) table era k propagation (0 FP) 6
and un cable ra k propagation (0 FP) occur. (Ir i inrere ring co nore char ic ha nor been 1!"
po ible co detect che LFI level under triaxial 'compre ion' [C- C- J of cylinder pecimen ~
when the ma imum prin ipal ompre i\'e er is applied axially o thac o. > o, Hm ever ~
/
-----?"·
·····://
•.. ... ·····~'Y
:<:!-/ .....-
an indication of thi level may be obtained by u ing the I.FI levels detected under rriaxial !t / I
'exren ion' [C- C- buc wich the maximum prin ipal tre applied laterally i.e. o. < oJ and ~2 /~-:Y · / I
triaxial 'cen ion' [ - C- T i.e. o. cen ile] - see Kotsovo and ewman 1981b.) 0.
E .~~- .... . - I
The above con ideration ugge t that in acrempting roe rabli h failure criteria for on- 80 /!,'. ...·········· I
crece three crici al level might be con idered. The ignificance of the e level will depend
on the damaging effe r whi h the en uing fracture proce ha on the tru cure of the mate - "
';;
c
rial. in e bran .hing· ra k initiation appear ro indu e tabili acion of the material owing ~
co the re ulcing relief of rhe ere con entrarion (and a inrimared above it i nor alway 0 3 4 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
(2) x Confining pres.sure T<ftS le Compressive
readily dere table), the 0 FP and OUFP level ould be con i.d ered uitable for u e a ba e (2) x L31erol str3ln x I 01
for lower-bound and upper-bound failure rireria in onformiry with che limir· rare require - Unla.xlal cylinder compress ' 'e rength
ment of en<i eabilicy and U . The validit)' of this con iderarion i upported b)' experimen -
tal eviden e which ha indicated a very do e orrelation between: (a) rhe 0 FP level and che Figure 2./7 Typical Lfl. OSFP. OUFP and US envelopes for concrete (with l = 46.9 MP:i) subjected to
axisymmetric triaxial stress sutes using the stress path 3 defined in Figure 2. 18: (a) stress space;
' fatigue crength' of on rere, rhac is that le,•el belm \ hi h on rece doe noc suffer di tre (b) strain space.
under repeated appli arion of load; and (b) the OUFP level and che 'long-cerm trengch' of
on rete, chat is, char level belm \ hi h con rece doe nor ollap e under ustained load.
For cru rural purpo e however, the number of repeated loading at che 0 FP level co axisymmerri criaxial condition [Korsovo and ewman 1977 1981a b; Koc ovo
whi h are required ro au e fatigue failure of concrece i con idered co be impra ci ally 1979a] in whi h che ere pa ch 3 [ Korsovo 1979a,b] de pi ced in Figure 2.18 wa followed.)
high. For chi rea on, ic eem char ic i mainl che OUFP level which i relevant in cru • The figure indicate char che 0 FP form a do ed envelope in both ere and train pa e. Jc
rural appli acion where che governing criterion i char of cari screngrh. In chi re pe r ir may also be noced char in boch train pace and rhe wholly ompre ive portion of che scre
i found convenient co implify the cracking pro e e onceprually by con idering these co pa e, the 0 FP envelope is nearly ymmerri al abouc che hydro rati axi .
consi r of two major rage \ hi hoc ur ac the micro copi and macro opi level of ob er· u h behaviour implie char, for ere and rrain scare en lo ed b)• che envelope che mace·
vation re pe cively. A cordingly che fir c of che e can be denoted generically by the cerm rial may be con idered i ocropic. in e che orientation of crack bran hing under a criaxial
mi ro · ra king and en ompa e rage 1- 3 (indu ive) described above. Micro· ra king 'compre ion' rate of ere i perpendicular co rhac under criaxial 'exten ion' or C -C·T ( ee
can be aid co be the underlying cau e of the non-linear behaviour ar the material level the chemaci kec he in Figure 2.17a) uch isocropi behaviour indi ace chac the fra cure
and thu derermine the on cirurive relation of con rere. One way of de cribing it would proce up to the 0 FP level au e in ignificanr di ruprion in che cru cure of the material.
be a a raric pro e in the en e char crack exren ion cop when rhe load i maintained In view of chi i otropy ic i po ible that the LFI envelope within the criaxial 'compres ion'
constant. The e ond major rage in the fracture proce i rhac of macro- racking, which zone may be repre enred by the reflection of the LFI envelope in che triaxial 'exren ion' and
coin ide with rage 4 di u ed earlier. In contra r ro mi ro-cra king macro racking indi - C· -T zone wich re pecc ro che hydrostatic axi a hown in the figure.
caces macerial failure in locali ed region ' ithin a tru rure and i a dynami phenomenon In contra 1 co the LFI and 0 FP envelope , che OUFP and U envelope are open-ended
in char era k excension continue e\•en if che load is maintained on rant. Ir cop when for the range of ere se u ed in rhe re rs and are non· ymmetrical with respe c co che
equilibrium whi h i di turbed by material failure in che region of che ma ro-cra k i re- hydro rari a.xi . Thi laner ob ervacion sugge rs rhac, for er and crain race ouc ide che
escabli hed chrough tr redi rriburion (el ewhere) in the cru rure. Due co material break· 0 FP envelope the material be ome anisorropi be au e era k excension oc urs along a
down macro· ra king cause lo al di onrinuiti in the original geomecry of a trucrure. particular direction di raced by che maximum principal compre ive ere . However, allow·
Clearly, unlike mi ro-cra king macro - racking affects on rere ac the structure level and ing for the catrer of re ulc rhac i en ouncered in proce ing che deformational rre - train
hen e defines che failure criterion (or rhe failure 'envelope') of on rere. daca \ irhin che OUFP envelope for a wide variety of con rere mixes (chis cacrer will
Failure e11velopes - Figure 2.17 hm rypi al variations in sires and strain pace of LFI, be di cu ed in the next hapcer) it eems rea onable co po rulace rhac che de riprion of
=
0 FP, OUFP and U . (The a rnal value corre pond co a con re re with l 46.9 ~Pa ubjecr the ere - crain relarion may be approximated by means of an i orropi model up co the
'44 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Main behavioural characteristics of concrete <IS

2.3.3.2 Fracture processes under hydrostatic stress

Thi ection can be ummarised as folio' .
P3th 3
a, >~ = o1
2.3.3.2.I Description of the fracture processes
P•ths 1•nd2 / Except for che 'random' orientation (which a a result of ics local haraccer cannot be mea·
Hydtostillc pressure /
sured) the fra cure pro esse under hydro caci ere may be con idered qualitatively imi·
/
lar co cho e de cribed by che cage 1- 3 of the fraccure proce e under deviacori sere .
/
Owing co chi 'random orientation a characceristi feature of che e processe i chat they
/
increase the likelihood that a crack \ ill be iruaced in the path along whi h a potential
/
crack may propagate under ome fucure applied race of ere . The former ra k will a r as
a era k· propagacion 'inhibitor' which will tend to in rease the energy required co care the
ra k· propagacion proce (Cook and Gordon 1964). The number of u h rack 'i nhibitor •
will increa.se with the level of applied cres , and it i con idered realisci co a ume chat the
Pulls l •nd 2 era k extension and propagation proce e will eventually dimini h under hydro tati c:re .
P2th3 Furthermore under u h a care of tre the fra cure proce e de cribed above are con id·
ered apable of redu ing the internal tre and train con entracions co u h small value that
Ten le a very high load, well our ide the apa it)' of urrencly u ed resting ma hine will be required
2 x confin ng p<esstire to rescarc a fraccu re proce which will lead co ultimate collap e of the material.
The appli acion of hydro raci cres e which au ea reduction in tre on emracion ,
Figure 2.18 SchemAtic representations of various stress paths used in the triaxial testing of concrete cylinders. in rea e che i orropy of concrete at the macro copic level. Under uch conditions con rece
can with rand very high hydro caci loading (a mentioned above, con iderably outside the
OUFP le el orre ponding co ma ro- ra king. Morea er ic is found chat the OUFP ere apacity of current ce ring ma hine ), a well-known feature of isorropi media.
level form a urface in cres pace imilar in hape and ize with that of the ulrimace-
scrength urface. As the c:rengch of che con rece in rea e , rhe two urface become pra ri - 2.3.3.2 .2 Effect of fracture processes on failure envelopes
ally identical, bur even for lower·strengch con rece the e urface are quire clo e to each
Figures 2.20 through 2.22 how the failure envelope obtained from the re t on a cypi al
ocher (Koc ovo 1974). Therefore it eem rea onable to on ider the OUFP and U level a
con rece with f,= 31.7 MPa ubjected co various srre path ( ee Figure 2.18) compri ing
being essentially the ame at lease for pracci al purpo e . Thi may be represented chemati·
both hydrostati' and ub equent deviatori' pore.ion . Path 2 i similar co path 1 except chat
cally, a in Figure 2.19, by referen e to both restrained and unre trained concrete pecimens
after applying the required hydro caci pre ure, 1he l:ucer is maintained on cane until the
under uniaxial compres ion.
race of in rea e of deformation rhrough 'creep' ha reduced co a negligible \•alue (as com·
pared with the ra ce of deformation under increa ing deviacori load a a. e ed from the
re uh of previous ce r u ing path I). Thi path ha been inve cigaced for values of hydro·
Res1r.1 ned specimen caci pressure higher than 0.7{, ince for lower value , 'creep' under hydro caci pressure i
o mall chat 1he path oi n ides with path 1.
The figure indi ace that the ere path ha a imilar effect on all envelope but chi effe c
appear to be mailer for OUFP and particularly within the cr, =<Ji> crJ region where
it eem co be in ignifi ant. For value of the hydro tati component of the tre tare at
Unlooded >OUFP > ultlmite 0 FP 0 FP and U up to approximately 0.8fc the envelopes are unaffe red by the ere
pee men <ultimate path and therefore can be expre ed by a ingle envelope. For higher value of the hydro·
caci omponenc the envelope appear co be ere · path dependent, u h chat for a given
hydro cati level, OSFP, OUFP and U occur under deviacoric ere le el whi h increa e
with che cype of tre path varying in the order 3, 1 2 for a,> ai =a; and I, 2, 3 for
a,= ai >a . It i clear that the deviacori ere level increa e by both in rea ing the maxi·
mum value of the pure hydro cari ere of the re t and u raining chis va lue uncil the race
Unrestr31ned peclmen of deformacion becomes negligible in compari on with char occurring under 1he ub equenc
deviacori sere . u h behaviour ha been attributed to the fra rure proces es of 'ra ndom'
orienrarion which oc ur under hydro rari ere and in parci ular ro rhe delaying effe r
F"rgure 2.19 Schematic representations of the fracture processes for restrained and unrestrained concrete which the crack propagation 'i nhibitor ·have on the fracmre proce e char occur under the
specimens under increasing compressive stress. deviacoric portion of the tre path. The number of uch 'inhibitors' increase as a re uh of
46 Finite-element modelling of suuctural concrete Main behavioural characteristics of concrete 47

(>) •l.0 (b) (>) 6 (b)

l<»ding poth a
a0.......
--1
2 ~ so
<>--- 3
I
I
~I_,. 90Sc:onftdtnttlimitsforthem~iu: a I
/ s I
I

. ..t
3.0 I Ml
6 _: ,' Loading path
_! ,' 0 - - I
~
~ : I 0 ······· 2
~ . . . . ,,--.Q-.;;·,..,&Gj x
c ,' <>--- 3
30
« 1-T-i 90% confidence

/:.
,,. ,.~l
:;
2.0
~ ~ .L Umlts for the nleans ~
~
i ..
3 ~
:! .5

/:i"'" ..
< -::; 3 !!
~2
.... -;; 20

fE ~
1.0
+;,,,.. ,\) . 0 ~ ~

<_,, .. ·.··"f .s 1
2
10
,,"'<:;;> ..,
.ii 0 0.

0
/ --...-,o-· ~ a
E

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0 2 •I 6

T6Uil~ CompceSJ.h-e 0
Confining pttS<U<e(/,
utenl >tr.Un x lo' ~c
~
rtgure 2.20 Typical OSFP envelopes (f. = 31.7 MPa): (a) stress space; (b) strain space. - 10
- 20 -10 0 +10 +20
Conlin ng press.we//, TeMile Compresslw
lateral st n x 1<>3

(a) rtgu"' 2.22 Typical US envelopes {f. = 31.7 MPa): (a) stress space: (b) strain space.

/ l...oadingp:a.th borh in rea ing and u raining the maximum value of the hydro tati tre of the re t, and
'0 --1
.' ,' O·- · ···· 2 chi ause the failure envelopes to expand in ere pace .
: ' <>- -- - 3 le hould be noted however, char the above qualitative ob ervation regarding che effecc of
4 / ,' ._T_. 90"1 confidence
' l limits (or th-e m~ns rhe ere path on the variou envelopes hould nor ob cure the key fact char the variability
20
~ of rhe data in the crain pace i u h rhat ic i difficult to escabli h any path effects on rhe
.s failure envelope that i che experimental arrer wamp any path-dependency e££e ts even

..
!!
«
~
<
ar high values of the hydro taric- tre omponenc. Moreover, the available re ulrs for rhe
OUFP and U envelope seem co indi are rhar if an)' ignifi anr rre -parh influen e does
10 occur, chi can take place only at srres levels rhat are unlikely ro be reali ed in ordinary
.. stru rural- oncrere appli ation . Ir can be con luded, therefore, char for practi al purpose ,
2
~c. ic i ufficiently accurate to neglect the effe t of rhe tre · path on: (a) the U envelope (a
noted in ection 2.3.3.1 the latter an be taken robe practically identical co the orrespond·
~ 0
ing OUFP envelope); (b) che ere - train relations ( in e allowing for data caner, the
train are - like the tresse - effec.tively independent of the ere path).
.. The above conclu ion are both confirmed and extended by some re ts on ylinder in
i whi h the tre path con i red of che following three tag : in rea ing rhe hydro caci
~
pre ure co a given value; decrea ing che hydro raci pre ure co zero and applying an axial
-1 0
- 10 0 +10 compre ive rre co failure (Koc ovo and ewman 1981b). u h an approa h provide
Tensile Comprenn-e ome informat ion on r.he change in rhe material cau ed by previou hi rorie of hydro tati
ul<nl >lr.lin x lo' loading. Figure 2.23 how the variation with rhe maximum alue of rhe hydro ratic rre
of che re c, of the sue levels ar 0 FP OUFP and U obtained under ub equenc uniaxial
rigure 2.21 Typical OUFP envelopes ((. =) 1.7 MPa): (a) stress space; (b) strain space. compre ion. Thi figure indiace thac the above tre level vary lightly up co a value
48 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Main behavioural characteristics of concrete -49

-5
!!"
..!:e
"i
!:!
~ 8Ea.
] -8
i
"1i
0.4
0 OSFP 0 purpo e , can be ignored.
~ 0 OUFP 0
c
::> ou
0 2.4 FAILURE MECHANISM IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES
0 05 15 2
H ·drosta c stress
Un ul:il cyl nder compress ve stlength
Figure 2.23 Variation of stress level at OSFP: OUFP and US with hydrostatic stress obtained from typical
uniaxial-compression tests on concrete (with (. = 47 MPa) which has been subjected to previ-
ous hydrostatic stress.
ere of approximately 0. fc beyond which chey begin decrea ing ' ich
in rea ing hydro cacic ere . If ic i a urned char che fra rure proces es char occur under
che hydro caci portion of che ere pach are related co 1he maximum value of che applied
hydro cari cress che above variation reflect rhe effe c of chese fracrure proce e on che
fra rure proce e char oc ur under che ub equencly applied uniaxial ompre ion.
A already mencioned in a hecerogeneous material u h a on rece che principal
dire cion of che lo al cres field rhar develop ' ichin che macerial when subje red co
hydro caci ere are indefinable and che era king paths are of random orientation. u h
cracking rend co creace a more uniform cress and crain di criburion within che mate-
rial becau e high ere and crain oncencracion are relieved, and ' hen icuaced in che
pach along whi h a era k i likely co propagate tend al o to inhibit u h crack propaga-
tion. The e effe cs may, in face, cau e che light in rea e of che tre level ac OUFP and
U wich in rea e of hydro catic ere up to abou1 0.8fc a ' ell a the increa e in tre
differen e becween OUFP and U whi h may be amibuiable to che delaying effecc of che
above fra cure proces on che un cable material behaviour above 0 FP - ee Figure 2.23.
However, che figure ugge t char, for value of hydro caci ere higher chan 0_8fc, che
fraccure pro e e under hydro cacic ere redu e che energy capa it)' of che macecial and
chu che ere level ar 0 FP OUFP and U de rea e ' ich in rea ing hydro taci srre .
everchele , any decrea e in OUFP and e pecially, U , appear co be quire mall even up
co che limit of available results (i .e. hydro caric ere of around 1.5fc), par1icularly in view
of che ever-present marerial-daca caner.
2.3.3.3 Fracture processes under generalised stress
in e any generali ed stale of ere can be decomposed into a h)•dro caci and a deviatori
component ic would be expe ted char, under uch a ere care boch rype of fra cure
pro e di cu ed above would occur concurrencly. The rack extension and propagation
pro e e au ed by che deviaroric component are con idered co be rho e fraccure proce se
whi h ' ill evenrually lead co ulrimace collap e of che macerial. On rhe ocher hand che
fra cure proce e cau ed by che hydro racic componenc ' ill a 1 a •inhibitor ·of che previ-
ou type of fra cure proce . u h an effe c \ ill rend to redu e che race of the era k prop-
agation proces e au ed by the deviatoric component and chu increa e che tre level
required co au e ulrimace failure a i evident for example, b)• referen e to che OUFP and
envelope for pach 1 and 2,' h.ich lie outside rho e for pach 3 {the laner having a ma lier
hydro cari • ere component ince in Figure 2.20 through 2.22, rhe hydro rati ere cor-
re ponding ro any given dara poinr i obcained by a projeccion onto the hydro ca·ci axi rhac
i either perpendicular to ic (stress pach 1 and 2) or parallel ro che axial- ere axi ( ere
pach 3)). However, a menrioned earlier uch path dependen y i mall and, for pracci al
2.4.I A fundamental explanation of failure in itiation ba.s ed
on triaxial material behaviour
The experimental informarion on con rece behaviour pre ented in the preceding seccion
can be u ed co anricipace the rypi al mode of failure initiation in plain and R structures
by mean of a imple reasoning ba ed on rwo key feature of concrete material . The e rwo
fundamenca.I characteri ci are hown in Figure 2.24 whi h ummari e much of che ear·
lier discu ion on material behaviour.
A i well known con rece is weak in ren ion and trong in ompre ion. le primary
purpo e in an RC stru rural member i co u tain ompre ive force , while reel reinforce-
ment i used to ater for cen ilea tion wi1h con rece providing protection to ic. Therefore
ince che rru rural role of con rece i. con erned primarily ' ich ompre ive rre race
che present di u ion relace to ic crengrh and deformational re ponse under u h ondi-
cions. ow informarion on che crengrh and deformacio11al propercie of con rere is u ually
obrained br re ring ylinder or p.rism pecimens 1111der 1111iaxial compression. Although
cypi al ere s- crain urve cemming from u h te ts have been hown in che preceding
chapter ic i u eful ro refer to Figure 2.24a whi h depi ts, in a generi en e, one further er
of such urve . The figure enre a a reminder rhac, in addition to the train in the direc-
tion of che loading (whi h u uall)• on cicuce the main - if nor the ole - irem of inrere tin
current de ign chinking) che uniaxial re t al o provide informacion on che crain perpen-
di ular co chi direction. Furthermore, a rypi al plor of volumetri • crain variarion appear
in che figure. A characreriscic feacure of che curve in Figure 2.24a i char chey ompri e
a ending and gradually de ending bran he . However de pice che prominen e given to che
lacrer in de ign ic wa explained in e cion 2.2. 1.2 how experimencal eviden e how quire
con lu ively char, unlike the a ending branch che de ending bran h doe nor repre enc
acrual material behaviour: rarher it merel)• de cribe econdary te ring-procedure effecc
resulring from the inceraccion becween re ting machine and pe imen. Thi is an important
ob ervarion con erning che behaviour of con rete at che material level, as che lack of train
softeni ng char is po c-ulrimace bran h justifie ic being referred co a a brittle material. On
che ocher hand it curn our char consideration of the behaviour of concrete ar the cru rural
level make the acrual po c-ulcimate re ponse of che material irrelevant for, even if che laccer
were co exi c, failure of concrete in a cru cure invariably o cur before che anainment of
its ulcimace . ompre ive rre . The ca e for uch a cacement may be argued along the fol -
lo' ing lines.
Perhap the mo r ignifi anr fearure of con rece behaviour is the abrupc in rease of che
rare of lateral expan ion a uniaxial -re c pecimen undergoe when che load exceeds a level
50 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Main behavioural characteristics of concrete 51

(>)
at\ hi h concrete begin 10 e pand i a ociaced wich a proce s governed e semially by void
formacion and i termed the OUFP level which for all prac1i al purpo e may be equated
10 the failure load as explained in ecrion 2.3.3.1. Jc i imporram 10 empha i e here chat the
rapid e pan ion a1 che minimum-volume level with the censile train ac righc angle ro the
direction of maximum compre ive ere oon exceeding che magnicude of che ompre ive
rrain, i a fearure of boch uniaxial and che more general 1ria ial ompre ive behaviour ( ee
Figures 1.14 and 1.15, respeccively).
The ocher key fearure of con rece behaviour reface co che major role played by even
rela1ivel)• mall ( e ondary) ire es \ hen the true bearing treng1h of the material is being
a e ed. Thi may be illu trared by reference to Figure 2.24b, in whi h the variation of
che peak axial compre ive ere usrained by cylinders under variou levels of confining
pre ure i indi aced chemacically. Jc i incere ring 10 noce chac a mall confining pre ure
/, =cylindtt strength of abour ~Oo/o of the uniaxial ylinder compre ive crengch l, i uffi ienr ro in rease che
load-carrying capa iry of che pecimen by a mu h a 50%. On ehe ocher hand a mall lac-
-3 -2 -1 4 eral censile rre of abouc 5% of l i ufficienr ro reduce rhe cylinder creng1h by che same
tr n(rnmfm) amoum. u h behaviour implie , 1hac che pre en e of mall econdary ere e chac develop
wirhin a strucrural member in rhe region of che paeh along which compre sive for e are
(b) 5 cran micced co ehe upports hould have a ignifi anr effe c on che load- ar,rying apa icy
of the member: ompre ive rre se hould in rea e ic on iderably while ren ile rre e
hould - drama1i ally - have che oppo ice effe r.
While well knO\ n, che above 1wo fundamenral chara ceri ci of on rere ac a mace-
rial level ( ummari ed in Figure 2.24) are rarely (if ever) memioned; more imporranr rill
from a de ign viewpoim cheir impli arion for the behaviour of on rece in a cru rure
do noc appear yer ro have been fully appre iaced in cerm of failure mechani m re ulcing
from rhe imera rion of con rece elemenr in R 1ruc1ure . In order 10 appreciate 1ha1
uch inrerac1ive behaviour i unavoidable irre peccive of che cype of 1ru rure and/or load-
/ ing condition iris u eful ro rec311 char, O\ ing 10 rhe hererogeneou nacure of oncrere,
/ che sere condirion within a concrere trucrure or member can never be uniform even
/ under uniform boundary condirion . A a result even for rhe ca e of a C)•linder ubje 1ed
/ IO uniform uniaxial compre ion rhe development of criaxial ere condirion i inevi-
cable on account of rhe etring up of se ondary rre e char are e emial for maintaining
comparibiliry of deformation wirhin rhe crucrure (see Figure 2.25). Under ervi e loading
condirion rhe econdary tre e are negligible and an be ignored for de ign purpo e .
However, a the load increa e volume dilarion oc ur in a localised reg1ion where the
-I ere condition are the fir r co reach rhe minimum-volume level. on rere dilarion i
re trained by rhe urrounding concrete and rhi i equivalenr ro che appli acion of a con-
-I
fining pre sure which a Figure 2.24b indi ace , hould increase the trengrh of the dilat-
ing region. Ar che same time, the dilating region induces tensile rre e in rhe adja enr
Fieure 2.24 The two key characteristics of triaxial behaviour of concrete materials that govern the funda- concrete and on the basis of the information hown in Figure 2.24b, the e should reduce
menta.I fa~ure mechanism of structural concrete: (a) typical stress-strain curves obtained from rhe crengit h of the concrete.
cylinders under uniaxial compression (note the rapid increase of tensile strains orthogonal to The preceding rea oning for the failure of a pe imen under nominally uniform ere
the direction of principal stress once the OUFP level is exceeded): (b) typical failure envelope conditions i even more evident in the general a e of arbitrary trucrural y rem in which
of concrete under axisymmetric triaxial stress (note the large effect of even relatively small there is alway a localised region in compre ion where the 0 FP level is exceeded before
secondary stresses cs, on the load-carrying capacity cs.J.
it i ex eeded in urrounding region (whi h are also in ompre ion). A a re ult, the rate
of ten ile train will in rea e abruptly in 1hi region thu indu ing tensile : ere e in the
lose co buc noc beyond che peak tre . u ha feacure wa noced already in ection 2.2, adja enc on rece. Con urrently equilibrium require char the urrounding con rece hould
and che relevanr ere level may be idenrified a che minimum-volume level ( ee Figure restrain the expansion of the lo ali ed region. While 1hi extra re craim further in rea e
2.24a) \ hi h mark che beginning of a dramaci volume dilacion rhac, in 1he ab en e of an)• che creng1h of che locali ed region the tensile ere e evenruall)• rum che cace of ere in
fri cional re crainr at che inrerfa e between che ends of che pe imen and the reel platen , is the urrounding con rece inro a tale of ere with at lea tone of 1he prin ipal ires compo-
con idered ro lead rapidly ro failure e\•en if the load remain con rant. Thi i \ hy rhe tre nents ren ile and chu redu e che crengch. Therefore ir i alway che on -rete urrounding
52 finite-element modelling of structural concrete
Com pr
str
tnjectones
rriure 2.25 Schematic represenution of the non-uniform stress distribution due to material heterogeneity
within a concrete cylinder under uniform compressive stress.
che locali ed region of wholl ompre ive ere e char fail fir 1 in e it care of ere nO\
ha ac lea 1 one cen ile prin ipal ere omponent.
Ir appear cherefore char, owing 10 che imera cion of che on rece element wichin a cru -
cure, failure i unlikely 10 oc ur in region wheie che ompre ive ere is large 1. In read,
fuilure hould occur in adja em region where che ompre ive ere es may be significant I)•
maller O\ ing to che pre en e of mall e ondary censile ire e char develop a di u ed
above. u ha failure m hani m indi aces char on rece invariably fail in cen ion and char
a on rece cru rure ollap e before rhe (u ually rriaxial) U of on rece in ompre ion
i ex eeded an where wichin rhe cru rure. This nocion that the on rece in che • rici al'
z.one of ompression alway fails by· plirring' - never by· ru hing' - contra ts wich widely
held view that form the ba i of urrent analy i and de ign method for RC cru rure .
Thu mo r de ign pro edure have been developed on the a umption that it is uffi ienr to
rely almo t entirely on uniaxial tre - train hara reri ti for the de ription of on rere
behaviour. Thi assumption may be ju rified by the fa t that tru rural member are u uall)•
designed 10 arry tr e mainly in one parri ular dire tion with the tre e that develop
in the orthogonal direction being m:ill enough to be a umed negligible for any pra ti al
purpo e. Howe er u h reasoning undere rimate the nsiderable effe r that mall rre e
have on che load- arr ing apa iry and on the deformacional re pon e of on rete beyond
che in- ervi e ondiiion . The ignoring of che e mall tre e in de ign nece aril}' mean
char cheir a rual effe r on tru rural beha\•iour is normally auribuced ro ocher au e that
are expre ed in the form of - a ic turn our erroneous - de ign a umption . The folio\ •
ing example\ ill uffi e to illustrace thi . It is often pointed out that the train re orded in
che ompre ive zone of beams indi ace char th e are well in ex e of chat value that or-
re pond to the peak tre in a uniaxial ylinder or pri m te r. A a re ulc, the argument i
put fon ard char crain oftening mu r be pre ent ince u h large train are ob erved only
in the region of the de ending bran h of che uniaxial t 1. Ho\ ever, the true explanation
Main behavioural characteristics of concrete 53
lie in che fa r thac u h region are ah ay ubje t 10 a rate of criaxial ompre ion and
chi mean thac although che peak rre has not been ex eeded, che a ociated rriaxial
crain are mu h larger than their uniaxial-te t ounterparc around the 0 FP level. Thu
for in ran e, an axial train of around 7 mm/m mark pra ti ally the end of the d ending
branch for a on rece of(,"' 46 .MPa in a ordan e with an ordinary (i.e. uniaxial) ylindei
re r (Figure 1.4); when ubje red IO a hydro raci tre cr0 = 17 MPa, the axial train for the
ame on rete prior 10 the auainment of the de ending bran h is abouc three rime thi
value, and become mu h higher rill with in rea ing onfinement cr0 (Figure I. 14).
2.4.2 Triaxiallty and failure initiation by macro-cracking:
Some experimental and analytical evidence
The behaviour of tru rural con rece outlined in che pre eding e tion ha been predicted by
analy i and verified by experiment (Kor ovo and e\ man 19 la; Kocsovo 19 2 19 7·
Kocsovo and Pavlovi 19 6). The inevicable criaxialiry condicion in zone u uall (mis-
guided!)•) deemed IO be riri al on a ounr of large ompre ive a tion and che a ociared
failure iniriacion b)• ten ile tre e adja enr IO u h zone will be ome evident throughout
che \•ariou problem of lacer .haprers ca kled by means of FE modelling.. everihele 1r 1
insrru rive ro devote the pre em e cion ro a preliminar)' illu crarion of the ba i m hanism
char govern che ulcimace-load ondicion in a on rece member.
Con ider an R beam de igned in a ordan e wich rypi al urrenr regulacion ba ed on
che ultimace- rrength philosophy. The tr - train hara ceri ci of on rece in ompre •
ion are considered to be adequately de cribed by the deformational re pon e of on rete
pecimen u h a pri m or ylinders undei uniaxial ompre ion· chu , che en uing ere
distriburion in the compre ive zone of a cro e rion at the ultimate limic care as propo ed
for example, by B 110 (British randard Institution 19 ab) exhibic a hape imilar to
char hown in Figure 2.26a. The figure indi are char the longitudinal tre in rea es \ ith
che di can e from the neucral axi up ro a maximum value and then remain on cam. u h
a hape of rre di rribucion ha been arrived ar on the ba is of both fery on ideracion
and the widel)• held view char the ire train relation hip of on rece in ompres ion on-
i rs of borh an a ending and a gradual!)• de ending porrion a illu 1ra1ed in Figure 2.26b.
In fa 1 che ere block in Figure 2.26a i ba ed on che implifi acion char, beyond the peak
ere , perfe 1 pla ci iry may be a urned up 10 a crain of 0.003 · however, alcernarive ere
block may also be used eicher involving further implifi ation u has full pla ti iry leading
10 a re tangular tres block or derived by allO\ ing for train sofcening between peak tre
and a train of 0.0035 o that the hape of the tre block i urved throughout (Briri h
tandard In titution 19 Sb). The portion beyond the ulcimare (i.e. peak) er in Figure
2.26b define the po 1-ultimare tre apa iry of the material whi h a indi ated in Figure
2.26a, is general! con idered to make a major comribution to rhe maximum load arr ing
apa ity of the beam. Ir will be nOfi ed that the prin ipal rea oning behind the rres block
adopred for design purpo i ba ed on the large ompres ive trains (in ex e of 0.0035)
mea ured on the top urfa e of an R beam ar its ulrimare limir rare u h train being
almo r t\ i e the value of rhe ompr i e train e. ar the peak- rre level undei uniaxial
ompre ion. (Typi ally e. i of rhe order of 0.002 - ee Figure 2.26b.)
That rhe above de ign pro edure is nor borne our b e. perimencal e\•iden e an be hown
b reference 10 the re ult obtained from a re t erie of chree imply upported rectangular
R beams ubje red to lie. ure under two-point loading (Korsovo 19 2). The detail of a
typi al beam are hown in Figure _.27 \ irh che entral porrion under pure flexure on ri -
tuting one-third of the pan. The ten ion reinforcement con i red of rwo 6 mm diametei
bar ' ith a ield load of 11.8 k . The bar were bent ba k at the end of the beam o a to
S4 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Main behavioural characteristics of concrete SS

£,,, =
(a) b 0.0035
,· f '11'

_____ l_ OC-LVDT
0 1..-<lons ln ml1limettt

0 0

Cro ·section Friure 2.28 RC beam under two-point loading: beam instrumentation.

:ibout 2 month until reseed. The ube and ylinder strength :ic the time of re ting were
(b) CJ
f,. =43.4 ~Pa and f,= 37. MPa, re pectively. Be ide the load mea urement, the deforma·
~
c:::J tional re pon e wa re orded by using both 20 mm long electri al re i tan e train gauge

!.....
o
[E
c::=J
and L OT . The train gauge were pla ed on the top and ide urfa e of the beam in the
longitudinal and the transver e dire tion a hO\ n in Figure 2.2 . The figure :ii o indi ace
the po icion of the L OT! ' hi h were u ed to mea ure deflection ar mid· pan and at the
loaded ro ection . Finall che ere - crain char:i reri ti in uniaxial ompre ion for
t the on rete u ed in che inve rigacion are depi red in Figure 2.29.
In pre enting the alienc re ulc of the re c erie of beam tt 1 onvenienc to begin by
howing the relation hip bet\ een longitudinal (i.e. :ilong che be:im axi ) :ind tran ver
(i.e. :i ro the be:im widch) tr:iins a me:i ured on rhe top urfa e of the girder . The rel·
evant information i ummari ed in Figure 2.30a and b' hi h refer co che tr:iin re orded
:it the riti al e tions (i.e., throughout che middle third of the beam pan) :ind ' ithin the
hear pan re peccively. Al o ploned on che e figure i the rel:itionship between longitu-
F"rrurr 2.26 Characteristic design of a beam cross section for ultinute-load conditions: stress and strain dinal and cransver e cr:iins deri ed on che ba is of the uniaxial material har:i teri ti of
disuibution proposed by 8S8 I I0 (Part I) for a critical section at failure ((.. "' characteristic cube Figure 2.29 (or, equivalently, on the ba i of che cylinder trengch f, through the en uing
strength): (b) typical stress-strain relationship for concrete under uniu:ial compression used m:ichem:iti :ii on titufr e relations). O\ if rhe uni:i ial· mpre ion tre - rroin h:tr·
to derive (a) (f- •(.for cylinders); f- "'(.. for cubes. :i teristi of Figure 2.29 were co pro ide :i re:ilisti predi rion of oncrece behaviour in the
provide ompre ion reinfor ement along the whole length of the hear pan . ompre ion
and tension reinfor ement along ea h she:ir pan' ere linked b even 3.2 mm diameter tir· 1.2
rup . either ompre ion reinfor ement nor rirrup were provided in the entr:il portion
of the beam . A :i re ult of the :ibove reinforcement arrangement all beams failed in flex·
ure rather chan hear although the hear pan· to·effe rive depch racio w:i around 3. The 0.9
beam together with onrrol pecimen were ured under damp he ian :ic 20° for 7 da ''
and chen rored in the laboratory armo phere (20° :ind 40% relative humidity (RH]) for C- ' ,.....
..
Crxk pattttn
~ 0.6 0-A A- 8 8-C C-0 '
D~ ~ ~
0
51 I i--- - - -- 305 1525 1 c..
1-- -· - 151 l-... I
t 'l
D
I

AD
! I
0.3
r.===l=~+------1 Mlcrocncl<s Continuous encl« I
- 90

/,=38M~
206 + 0.0
-15 -10 -5 0 10
1- 1 2- 2
Stra n (mm/m)
Dlmensoons ln mllllmettt Cross-S«Uons
F"rrurr 2.29 RC beam under two-point loading: stress- strain relationships under uniu:ial compression for
F"rrure 2.27 RC beam under two-point loading: beam details. the concrete mix used.
56 Finice-elemenc modelling of scruccural concrece Main behavioural characceri stics of concrete 57

portion of rhe deformational relationship ba ed on the uni axial ylinder re r up ro the OUFP
level an provide a reali ri d riprion of rhe beam behaviour. Beyond this minimum-vol -
ume level, there is a dramari deviation of rhe cylinder rrain from the beam relarion hip .
ot only doe u h behaviour upporr the ie\ rhat rhe po t-peak bran h of the deforma -
1 tional re pon e of a ylinder in ompre ion doe nor de cribe material re pon e but, more

!
c 3
importantly for pre enr purpo e , clearly prove rhar,' hile uniaxial ere - train dara may
be useful prior ro rhe arrainmenr of rhe peak rre rhey are in ufli ienr to de ribe the
"i! behaviour on e this ma imum- tre level i approa hed. On the other hand while Figure
11
2 2.30a demonstrate the triking in ompatibiliry berween ylinder pe imen and tru rural
2 member beyond ompre ive train larger than abour 0.002 (which, a noted earlier or-
]
~ re pond roe., the train at the f, ({,.)level - ee Figure 2.26 and 2.29) Figure 2.30b ho\
.9 that the relationship between longirudinal and rransver e trains measured on the top ur-
fo e within the hear pan of the beam are adequately de ribed by rhe longitudinal train-
tran er e train relarion hip of on rete under uniaxial ompre ion. Ir hould be noted
(' cnJn g;iuges IS :ind 16; bum 3 however, thar rhe relation hip of Figure 2.30b orre pond co rre le\rel well below U .
o --~~~~~-+-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

0 2 s 6 7 An indi arion of rhe au e of behaviour de ribed by rhe relation hip of Figure 2.30a
Transwl'M! tra n (mm/m) and b ma be een b)' referen e to Figure 2.31 whi h hO\ the hange in hape of rhe rrans -
ver e deformation profile of the rop urfa e of beam I (but rypi al of all beam ) with load
(b) in rea ing co failure. The chara teri ri feature of the e profil i that within the 'criti al'
entral porrion of the beam rhey all exhibit large local ren ile train con enrrations whi h
develop in the ompre ive regions of the cro e tion where the primar)' flexural era k ,
that eventually au e ollap e oc ur.
Although mall rrain on enrrarions ma)' develop in the e region ar early load tage
before the o urren e of any vi ible ra king rhey be ome large only when rhe ulrimare
limir rate i approa hed and vi ible flexural ra ks appear in the tension zone of the beams.
u ha large and udden in rease in rransver e ei pan ion near rhe ultimate load is indi ari,,e
of volume e pansion and how quire )earl chat, even in the ab en e of rirrup a rriaxial
rare of tre an be developed in locali ed region \ irhin the ompre ive zone. The lo al
tran er e expan ion i re trained by on rete in adja enr region (a indi ated by the re ul -
Sualn-gau Bum ranr ompre ion for e Fin Figure 2.31), a re crainr equivalent to a onfining pre ure that
numbers I 2 3 will later be ho\ n a being equivalent co at lea r 10% off< hen e, a Figure 2.24b indi -
1.2 6. x 0 ate , the ompre ive region in the plane of a main flexural ra k i afforded a on iderable
19,20 '<;:/ () in rea e in rrengch o thar failure i not iniriaced rhere. on urrendy, the expanding on-
crere indu e tensile ere e in adja ent regions (rhe e are indi aced by the re ulrant ten ion
for e F and F/2 in Figure 2 .3 1), and thi give rise to a ompre ion/ten ion tare of ere .
T<llSlle
u ha tre tare redu e the rrengrh of con rete in the longitudinal direction and collap e
o ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
oc ur a a re ult of horizontal plirring of rhe ompre ive zone in region between pri -
0 o.s maq' flexural ra k a illu rrared hemati ally in Figure 2.32a. on rece ru hing, whi h
Transverse >lt'W (mm/m)
i \ idel)' con idered co be the au e of flexural failure thu appear to be a post-fai/11re
phenomenon char o ur in the ompre ion zone of cro e rion onraining a primary
rriure 2.30 Relacionships becween longicudinal and cransverse strains measured on che cop surface of che
flexural era k r ulting from a lo of re trainr pro ided previou ly by rhe adja em on rete.
RC beams under cwo-poinc loading (fo r scrain-puge locations. see Figure 2.28): (a) ac critical
sections: (b) within che shear spans. It ma)' be con luded from the above therefore, thar the large ompre ive and ren ile
train mea ured on the top urface of the enrral portion of the beams hould be attributed
ompre ive zone of the beam re ted in flexure, then the relation hip between longitudinal to a n111/t1ax1al rather rhan uniaxial tare of tre . A further indi arion chat these large
and tran ver e train measured on rhe top urfa e of the beams would be e pe red ro be rrain annot be due co po r-ulrimate tre - train hara teri ti is rhe la k of any visible
omparible wirh rheir ounrerpan deri ed on rhe ba i of rhe ylinder re r· furthermore longitudinal ra king on the cop urfa e for load level even near rhe maximum load arrying
longitudinal ma ro- ra k ought to appear on the top urfa e of rhe beam , a indi ated in apa iry of the beam . As hO\ n in Figure 2.29, u h ra k hara reri e the po t-U behav-
Figure 2.29, ' here rypi al ra k parrern of axially ompre ed con rere cylinder around iour of on rete under ompre ive care of tre . i ible crack occur predominantly on
(8- ) and beyond ( -D) U are depi ted hemati ally. Ir i apparent from Figure 2 .30a, plane parallel to rhe rop urfa e at the mometlt of final collap e. The rypi al view of the
however thar, for the region of ro ections in luding a primary fle.xural ra k, only the beam on e the ollap e of a member ha taken pla e i depi ted in Figure 2.32b where the
58 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Main behavioural characteristics of concrete 59

F
behaviour under in reasing load (i.e. behaviour characreri ed by load- defleccion relarion -
:2-0 a, hip exhibiting trend imilar ro rho e hown in Figu ~ re 2.33 for the under-reinforced mem-
~u..£ F Beam I bers re red) are due ro a complex mulriaxial compre sive scare of ere whi h exist in any

iE
1.5 CritJC31 secclon i real rru rure ar ir ulrimare limit tare. Su h srre rare may be aused by econdary
resrrainr impo ed on on rere b)' sreel reinforcement, boundary condirions urrounding
con rere and o on. The ignifi an e of these restrain cs i in mo r a es nor undersrood or
imply ignored. It may rhu be con luded that the U of con rece in locali ed region exhibir
.sc '•
-- 2P = 13.6 kN
ignifi am \•ariarions dependenr on the local 11111/tiaxial ompressive race of tre within
-e 1.0
-----
.........
2P = 13.S kN
2P= 13.2kN the compre ive zone of an R rru rure or member. The higher the multiaxial U of con-
~.. -- - 2P= 12.2l<N crere ar a riri al cro e rion the larger the orre ponding ompr ive and ren ile train .
Ci - ·- 2P=7.I kN The 'ducciliry' of rhe rru cure rherefore eem ro be dependenr on rhe true (i.e. rriaxial)
...~ 0.5 Fl2
U of concrere at rici al cro eccion rarher rhan on rr redi rribution a((riburable ro

t
0.0
0 300 600 900
Betm span (mm)

ttgure 2.31 Typical variation of transverse deformation profile of loaded face of RC beams under two-point
loading with increasing total load (2P) and schematic rep~esentation of resulting fo~es (F) and
stresses (aJ.

pair of main fie ural ra k ob erved orrespond ro the peak ren ile rrain concenrration
re orded experimenrally in beam I (see Figure 2.31).lr is inrere ting to note thar the re ults
de cribed o far do not contradict the view expre ed throughour thi chapter that concrere
in compres ion uffer a complete and immediate lo of load- arrying capacity when U
i exceeded. The impli arion of the re ult of the beam test is that in rhe absen e of a
po r-ultimare graduall falling bran h of the ere - train relation hip of concrete in com-
pre ion the large compre ive train whi h haracteri e RC rru rure exhibiting 'ductile'
Be:un I 3 2
14 I

i --- - i
(•)
12

10

I ZS I (/( { I ( \ \'\ ::ZS::

I z:
~

~
6

i
-
i
(b)

IA I (/ ( I f] \ \'\ ::zL
I 2 6
Deflection (mm)
10 12

ttgure 2.32 Typical failure mode of RC beam in flexure: (a) schematic representation of failure mechanism
at collapse; (b) observed failure of beams foUowing coUapse. (From Kocsovos M. D.• 1982. ttgure 2.33 Typical load-deflection curves of RC beam under two-point loading (for LVDT's locations. see
Materials & S11Ucwres, RILEM . 15(90). 529-537.) Figure 2. 28).
60 finite-element modelling of structur,al concrete Main behavioural characteristics of concrete 61

(•) (b) 4.0 ~-----------------------~

I
8"3m
61
0 2
D 3

/
3.0 .... /
a, /
/
Figure 2.34 Schematic representation of radial stresses due to deflected shape of RC beams: (a) forces (R); /
(b) stTesses (O'J. /
/
re uh of che formation of a 'pla ci 'zone au ed by a critical flexure era k che radial tre e cf
become ignifi anr in magnirude ince the)' cend co become locali ed and co oncentr:ice over /
the pla ti zone (Ta)for and Al· ajmi 1980). For load level doe co the maximum load· /
arr ing apa ity of rhe beam the mean value of the above r:idial rre e may bee rimared /
ET

EvJJ~EV>
- albeit rough!)• - a folio\ . If the in linarion of the longirudinal ompre ive and ren ile /
cress resultant i defined by the angle of di continuity a re ulring from rhe inela ti defor- 0 /
mation of the 'plasric' zone (Figure 2.34), then / Ey= EV!; CV>
6 p·
1.0-
R - C in a - T in a (2.1) / e o
0 .r:f Cr tk:ll <tttlon
ow, T i a!pproximacely equal ro the coral yield force of the reinfo~ emenc char is 1:;[:(
0 /
T= 2x11 00 = 23 600 ( ee earlier derail) ' herea an approximate value for a may
be obtained by rhe ratio o .P
Cl'
I I I
a/2 - (maximum mid - point deflection}/(halJ - pan of beam) (2.2) 1.0 2.0 3.0
£.r(mnt/n>)

For a value of the maximum mid-point defle cion approximately equal ro 10 mm ( ee

Figure 2.33) Equation 2.2 give a"' 4.4 x 1Q..? rad ' hich when ub cicured in Equation 2.1
r ult in R"' 1000 . Finally a urning chat the length of the 'pla ti · zone i ·mm, a nom -
inal value for the radial ere e (approximating the eccion \ idrh ro approximately ·o mm)
i CJ,"' 1000/(5 x 50) <>< 4 MPa. Hen e CJ,<>< 0.1{, in e, a noted previously [,"' 38 MPa.
The order of magnirude of the tran ver e tre e CJ, may be a e ed by reference to the
e rimare obtained for CJ,. Con ider Figure 2.35, whi h hm the variarion on the rici al e •
rion of the average train mea ured in the loading direcrion on the ide fa e of che beam
with the cran verse train mea ured on the loaded urfa e. lei inrere ring co nore from the
figure char the train mea ured on the ide fa e are lightly larger than chose mea ured
on the loaded face. Thi i con idered a an indi ation that the average value of the tre e
re training rhe uan ver e expan ion of the critical eccion hould bear lea r as large a thar
of rhe radial rre e char i CJ,> 0.1{,. The rransver e and radial rre e therefore com-
bined with rhe longirudinal tre e give ri e ro a omplex mulriaxial compre i e scare of
cress in rhe regions of the large cen ile train concentrations wirhin the compre ive zone of
the beam . Under such a rhree-dimen ional srre rare con rere can u rain both tre es
and strain whi h can be con iderably larger than rho e obtained in uniaxial material re r
char form rhe basi of mo r current srrucrural de ign.
How large are rhe main ere e (CJi)? The e would be expe red robe ar lea r "0% in exce
of[, be au e a pointed our in ecrion 2.4.1 Figure 2.24b ugge c char an axi ymmerric
confining pre ure of abour 10% of{, boo c che acrual rrength b)' about one-half of it
F"Jiure 2.35 Relationships. with increasing load. between transverse and vertical strains at critical sections
of RC beams under cwo-point loading.
original value. Thar chi i indeed the ca e may be een by reference co Figure 2.36a, whi h
how the ren ion (T) and compre ion (C) force re ulranr. at a riri al eccion of a beam.
in e only an order-of-magnitude e timare of CJ1 i required, average rre value may be
u ed and hen e it i uffi iemly a curare co adopt a re rangular rre block. ow earlier
al ularion for beam 1 whi h were presented in haprer 1 ( ee Figure 1.13) gave T (F,) = C
(FJ = 23 600. (i.e. du rile failure), while the ulrimare load P (V1) = 6800 1 ombined with
a rounded -off value of the hear pan of about 300 mm lead co the maximum- u rained
bending momenr (.Mr) of approximately 6 00 x 300 = 2 040 000 mm. The lever arm then
follow at z = 2 040,000/23,600 = 6. mm, enabling the depth of the ere block co be
estimated ar x = 2 x (90- 6.5) = 7 mm. A before the beam width may be approximared
ro 50 mm so chat rhe compre sive-zone srre es CJ1 =23,600/(50 x 7) = 67 MPa, chat i the
average alue of the longicudina I cres ac a crirical ecrion i 75% above(, and clearly ome
of the a rual local ctre se will be even higher than chi figure.
On rhe ba i of rhea umed distriburion of econdary (i.e., ;confining') seres e CJ, and
CJ,, ( ee Figure 2.31 and 2.34), ir could be argued thac rhe degree o( rria ialiry varie
rhroughour rhe depth of rhe ompre ive zone in rhe manner ho\ n in Figure 2.36b, with
rhe longirudinal ere es CJ1 increa ing from rhe neutral plane up co a maximum value
62 finite-element modelling of structural concrete Main behavioural characteristics of concrete 63

x:rr:
(•)

T
(b)

rrgure 2.J6 Longitudinal stresses a, in the critical compressive zone of the RC beams under two-point
loading at fdure: (a) assessment of average a, based on measured values of ultimate tensile
force resultant and bending moment: (b) likely shape of a, distribution predicted on the basis
of triaxial behaviour.
64 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Main behavioural characteristics of concrete 65

(>)

(b) (c)
1
1 y

A
l.-1
......_
~,
I\
~ - -
" 8 II
(b) (<) I \
I \
I \
I I
I I

@
Figure 2.38 Characteristic failure mechanism of a PC cylinder under axisymmetric patch load: (a) elevation
and plan views of the cylinder. showing portion actually analysed: (b) typical crack pattern at
1.0 0 initiation of cracking: (c) typical crack pattern at collapse.
0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0.25 0.50
s{d aff.
rare of ere in whi h ar lea r one of rhe principal ere s component i ren ile. 'I hen rhe
(d) a.if.
c,.. Ee :tre str:airu n rrength of concrete under chis la!!er tare of rres i ex eeded cracking occur and rhe
dir~tJon or $l.ttS.SeS a•. a, ize of region A (where failure rill doe nor occur) is reduced further ( ee Figure 2.38c).
2.S Therefore rhroughour rhe \ hole analy i , rhe rrengch of on rete in compression i nor
ex eeded ar any poim in rhe member so rhat collap e of rhe rru rure evenrually oc ur
before the rrength of concrece in region Ai exceeded.
£,
2.0

2.S SUMMARY OF CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF CONCRETE

RELEVANT TO MODELLING MATERIAL BEHAVIOUR
l.S

Thi hapcer ha been devoced co a derailed de riprion of rhe variou hara reri 11 s
of con rere material \ ich reference to borh phenomenologi al au es and che resulting
-------, !>'
0.67
7--- . . . ..........
effe rs whi h are of direct relevance co the behaviour of a tru rural -con rere member.
Before embarking upon expre ing che behaviour of concrere in an analytical form ir i
', From unl3JC1>1 cests
' , on pW.n concrete
u eful ro ummari e very briefly the main finding of thi chapter a regard the alienr
cyllnders fearure of concrete.
Much o:f the experimemal data on con rere propertie may rurn our co be unreliable on
a ounr of rhe imera rion between re r machine and re red pe imen. A imple technique
Terulle char is both ound and consi rem is provided by rhe ordinary uniaxial - ompres ion cylinder
-2 0 4 6 8 10 resr. While rhe ascending branch of rhe ere s- train curve of a cylinder under uniaxial and/
Stnin (mmfm) or rriaxial tre s tare provide a reali tic de cripcion of material behaviour rhe descend -
ing branch is a dire r con equence of rhe frictional interaction berween specimen and rhe
Figure 2.37 Effect of hoop reinforcement on the strength and deformational response o( a PC cylinder: loading de i e. If the laner fri tional for e ere ro be omplerely removed on rere would
(a) structural form investigated: (b) relationship between :s trength and reinforcement spacing; uffer an immediace lo of carrying capacicy on reaching ir peak ere . This ugge c char,
(c) effe« of reinforcement spacing on suength and S'tress path: (d) stress-strain relationships. ac the material level concrete i brittle and char a full de criprion of it re pon e is embodied
66 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete
in the tre - train characteri ti up to the maximum u tained tre . u h chara teri ti
repre ent the complex proce e of fracture initiation and exten ion. !early the e proce e
are a o iated predominantly with volume de rea e, and minimum volume i reached at the
o ailed OUFP level. From thi point onward , volume dilation begins a a re ult of void
formation and the peak tre i quick!)' rea hed. in e the OUFP and the maximum· tre
level are very do e to each other the former may be con i.d ered to mark for all practi al
purpo e , failure of the brittle material, \ ith the formation of (nO\ vi ible) primary era k .
Ju ta the non-linear on titutive relation up to the 0 FP level are a o iated with mi ro·
ra king, the OUFP limit it elf may be u ed to define the trength urfa ea ociated' ith
ma ro· cra king.
The need i evident to employ criaxial trengch envelope ' hich allo~ for the very
on iderable (local) triaxial trength (u ually we.II in exce of fJ in the 'crici al' region of
a 1ru rural component (even ' hen the latter might be on idered to approximate qua i·
unia ial condition ). Although u h c:riaxial eJfe t have long been known (e.g., they were
noted, among ocher , by Foppl [Ti mo henko 1953)), their u e in de ign has remained largely
unexploited de pite the eviden e chat they govern the a rual failure me hani m in rru •
rural con rete. In the ca e of non-linear FE analysi of con rere tru rure , due allowan e
of tria. iality i an essential prerequi ire if the true failure me hani mi to be identified and
an ac urate ultimate -load estimate obtained. With regard 't o the mechani m that trigger
failure, one conscanrly find that chi is governed by the combined eHe t of udden volume
expan ion around the OUFP level and the very ignificant enhancement/deterioration in
trength due co se ondary ompr ive/ten ile tre es. These cau e the o-called riti al
region where ma. imum ompre ive- tre condition ar'e rea hed fir r co gain further
in trengch so that the failure envelope (in compre ion) i never exceeded in tho e region .
Con urrenrly adja enr zone are ubje red eventually co a combination of compre ion·
ten ion and it i in these zone where failure actually begin by ' plitting· not ·cru hing'.
It would appear, therefore that it i uffi ient for a failure 'c riterion to de ribe only tho e
failure condition in which the state of tre s ha at least one of the prin ipal tre compo·
nents ten ile, thus bypa ing altogether fully ompre sive tre care . This of cour e i not
actually done in the FE model u ed, a it would !early on riruce a case of prejudging - if
not impo ing - the failure mechani m in a tru cure· rather, all po ible failure criteria are
allowed for although, a will be seen in ub equenr chapter re ult invariably confirm rhac
con rece in 'crit.i al' compres ive zones ah ay fail in tension, ne\<er in ompre ion.
REFERENCES
Ahmad . Ii. and hah . P. 1979 Complc1c tress-strain cur\"c of concrelc and nonlinear design,
Proceedi11gs CSCE-ASCE-ACl-CE.B lutematio11al ymposium 011 011li11ear Desig11 of Co11crete
trnctures, Uni,·crsiry of arcrloo Ontario, pp. 61-S I.
Barnard P. R., 1964, Researches inro me complete suess-strain curve for concrete, Maga;;i11e of Co11crete
ReSl!.arch, 16(49), 203-210.
Br.:icc ~ . F. and Bombolakis E. G., 1960 A norc on the brittle cr.:ick growth in compression, Joumal of
the Ceopl1)•sics Research, 68, 3709- 3713.
Briri h randards lnsrirurion, 1985a, British Standards, Stn11:t11ral me of co11crete. BS 110 (Part 1,
Code of pra·ctice for desig11 a11d co 11structio11), British tandards lnstirution, London.
Briti h tandards In rirurion, 198Sb, British ttUrdards, t111ctllfal use of concrt!le, B 110 {Part 2,
Code of practice for special cirm111sta11ces) British tandards In rirurion London.
Cook J. and Gordon J. E., 1964, A mechanism fo r 1hc control of cr.:ick propagation in all-bri1tlc
rems Proceedi11gs of the Royal ociety {Lm1do11) , Series A, 282, 508-520.
Main behavioural characteristics of concrete 67
Ev:ins R. H. and Maramc M. ., 1968 Mi rocrncking and stress-strain curves for con rc1c in 1ension
Materials and Structures. RILEM, I 61-64.
Gerstle K. Ii_, A.schl H. Bellotti R., lkrtacchi P., Kouovos .M. D., Ko H.-Y. Linsc D. H. er al., 1980,
Behaviour of concrc1c under multiaxial stress stares, }011mal of the E11gi11eering Mechanics
Division. ASCE, 106(EM6), 1383-1403.
Gerstle K. H ., linsc D. H., Bcrtacchi P., Kotsovo _ l. D. Ko H.-Y. cwman J. B., Ros i P. ct al, 1978,
1reng1h of concrete under mulriaxial stress stares Proceedi11gs Douglass McHenry /11/emational
Symposium on Co11crete and 'Co11crete Structures, .Mcx:i o City, ~1exico ACI Public11ion SP-SS,
Detroit, U A, pp. 103-131.
Griffith A. A., 1921, The phenomena of ruprurc and flow in solids, Philosophic.al Transactions of tbe
Royal Society {Lo11don) S<:ries A 221 , 163-198.
Heyman J., 1982, Tbe Masonry Ard1, Elli Horwood, Chi hcstcr.
Hock E. and Bieniawski Z. T., 1965, Brirtlc frncrure prol"'garion in rock under compres ion,
lmemational Joumal of Froctme Mecha11ics I 137- 155.
KotsO\'OS M . D., 1974 Failure crireria for concrete under generalized tres , PhD thesi Uni\"crsity of
London.
KotsO\"OS M. D., 1979a, Fracrurc processes of concrerc under gcncr.:iliscd srrcss tares, Materials &
trudures, RILEM, 12(72),431-437.
Kotsm·o M. D., 1979b, Effect of tress pam on 1.hc behaviour of concrc1c under rriaxial stress rates,
AC/ Joumal. Proceedings, 76(2), 213-223.
KotsO\'O M . D. 19 1, An analytical( investigation of me beha,•iour of concrete under con cntrarions of
load, Materials & Strrtctures, RILEM 14(83), 341- 348.
KotsO\"OS .M. D., 1982, A fundamental explanation of 1hc behaviour of reinforced con rctc bcims
in flexure based on the properties of concrete under mulriaxial st:rcs , Materials & Struc.t11res,
RILEM , 15(90) 529- 537.
Kotsovos M. D., 1983, Effect of 1cstin techniques on the pos1-ulrima1e behavior of con retc in com-
pres ion Materials & Structures, RILEM, 16(91),529- 537.
Kotsovo M_ D., 1987, Consideration of triaxial sucss conditions in design: A necc iry, AC/ Stmdural
Joumal, Proceedin •s 84(3), 266-273.
Kotso,·os M. D. and Cheong H.K., 1984 Applicabili1y of test specimen rcsulrs for me description of the
behaviour of con rcrc in a structure, AC/ Joumal, Proceedi11gs, 81(4), 358-363.
KotsO\'O M . D. and cwman J. B., 1977 Behaviour of concre1c under mulriaxial rrc , AC/ Joumal.
Proceedings 74(9), 453-456.
KotsO\'OS M . D. and , cwman J.B., 1978, Gcncr.:iliscd stress-strain rclarions for con rctc,Jo1m1al of tbe
Engineering Mechanics Division. ASCE, 104(El\•14) 845-856.
KotsO\'OS M . D. and ' cwman J.B., 19813, Plain concrete under lo:id - A new interpretation, IABSE
Colloquium 011 Advanced Mecha11ics of Reinforud Concrete, Delft, IAB E Final Rcpon 34, pp.
143-158.
Kotsovo M. D. and Newman J.B., 19 l b, Fr.:ictun: mechanics and concrete beha,•iour, Magazine of
Co11crete Research, 33(1IS),103-112.
Kotsm·o M_ D. and Pa,•lo\•i M. , ., 1986 on-linear finilc clcmenr modelling of con rc1c structures:
Ba i analy · , phcnomcnologi al in ight and design implications Engi11eeri11g Co111p111atio11s,
3(3) 243-250.
Kotsovo M. D. and Pav(o,·ic ).1. N., 1995 Structural Co11crete: Fi11ite-Element Analysis for Limit-State
Design, Thoma Telford London, UK, 550pp.
Newman J. B., 1973, Deformational bcha,·iour, failure mechanism and design criteria for concre1cs
under combinations of strcs , PhD 1hcsis, Universiry of London .
Newman J.B., 1974, App:ir.:irus for Testing Concrete Under Mulriaxial ores of mess Magav11e of
Co11crete Researd1, 26(89), 229- 238.
Newman J. B. 1979, Concrc1c under complex stress, in De11elopme11ts i11 Co11crete Teclmology I, edi1ed
br l)mdon F. D. Applied icncc Publi hers London pp. 151- 219.
ewman K. and La hance L, 1964, The testing of brittle materials under uniaxial compre ivc srress,
Proceedings o f ASTM, 64, 1044- 1067.
68 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete

Shah . P. and Sankar R., 1987 lnt=I era king and strain-softening response of concrete under mul-
ciaxial compression, AC/ Materials f0<1mal 84, 200-212.
Taylor R. and Al - 'ajmi A. Q. . 1980, The trength of concr<:te in compo ire reinforced concrete bc:ims
in hogging bending, Magazine of Concrete Researd1, 32, 156-163.
limoshenko . P. 1953 History of tm1gth of Materials, ~1cGraw-lii ll, cw York .
van Mier J. G. M., 1986, ~1ulciaxial strain-softening of concrete, Materials & Stmct11res, RILEM,
19( 11 I), 1 79- 200.
van Mier J. G. M., hah . P., Arnaud ~. , Balayssac J. P., Ba oul A., Otoi ., D=brock D. ct al.,
1997, train -softening of concrete in uniaxia l compression (TC 148- C: Test methods for the
strain-softening of concrete}, Materials & Stma11res, RI LEA·l, 30( 198), 195- 20.
Wang P. T., Shah . P. and aaman A. E., 1978, Stress-strain curves of normal and lightweight concrete
in comprt:SSion AC/ f0<m1al, 75, 603-611.
Chapter 3

Modelling of concrete behaviour

The chapter presenrs an analyrical description of che defonnational and strength characrer·
iscics of concrere and steeL The analytical expressions proposed for concrete were derived
from an analysis of daca obtained from rests on specimens subjecred to rriaxial loading by
using cechn.iques capable of both inducing definable srares of stress in che specimens and
n1easuring reliably the deforn1arional response of concrer·e . However, the imponanr (ea·
cure of che analysis \Vas char it anributed rhe non-linear material behaviour co rhe internal
stresses resulting from the fracture processes discussed in the preceding chapcer. On che
other hand, the analytical description of the propenies of the s teel reinforcen1ene, for which
rhere is linle roon1 for variation and dis.agreement, follows che recomn1endation of current
codes for rhe design of concrece scrucrures.

3.1 CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS FOR CONCRETE

This secrion is concerned \Vith deformational propenies and presencs an analyrical

descripcion of the ascending porcion of che stress- stra in curve for concrere \Vhen sub·
jected eo sh on-cern1 s catic loading conditions since, as discussed in Seccion 2.2, concrere
is brinle in nacure in char ics pose-peak behaviour is characterised by a complere and
immediate loss of load-carrying capaciry. The analyrical description of che deformarional
behaviour is based on an analysis of criaxia l srress- srra in dara obra ined from tescs on a
\\ride range of concretes \Vith u niaxial cylinder compressi\•e s trength ft varying fron1 abouc
15 to about 65 MPa (Korsovos 1974; Kotsovos and Ne\vman 1979). The r·e sts were car·
ried out at Imperial College London by following rules oudined in Section 2.1.1 (see also
Newman 1974). In che analysis, use is made of che face that rhe macerial non-linearities
predoniinantly reAecr che effect of fracture processes having nvo opposing effects on rhe
mareria l deformacion.

Effect A. Cracking causes a reducrion of the high, predominanrly cens ile srress concentra·
cions existing near rhe crack rips. This reducrion in censile scress can be assumed co be
equivalent co the application of a compressive scress which rends ro red11ce the volun1e
of concrece.
Effect B. Cracking produces voids which cend co increase che volume of material.

le \\ras shown in Seccion 2.3.3.l char, depending on the con1bined effects of A and Bon
deformation, the cracking processes could be described qualitacively by reference ro four
srages. For present purposes, such a description n1ay be simplified by d ividing rhese fracrure

69
70 f inite·element modelling of str uctural conc.rete
a,
(b)
-.r-·
Stage Ill
OUFP
sugeu
OSFP .,,._~~~~~~-'-'-4~~~~
Sl3ge I I
L .___.___
Te.nsUe
Figure 3.1 Stages of fracture processes and their effect on the stress-straSi r elationships of concrete.
(a) linear material properties. (b) effect of internal stresses. (c) effect of void formation.
processes inco rhree srages, \Vhich are sho"rn schemarically in Figure 3.1. These can broadly
be described as follows.
Stage I. Effecr A is significanr while effecr Bis insignific-anr since cracking is loca lised. As
a resulc, che volume decreases.
Stage IL Effens A and B are signi6cam, bur effect A is greater than effecr B and rhus
rhe volume concinues co decrease. The beginning of chis srage was previously rermed
rhe OSFP level, a c which rhe rare of increase of srrain £i begins to exceed rhe rare of
increase of scrain £ 1, even chough £ 1 sci II exceeds~ (see Figure 3.1).
Stage lll. In Srage 111, borh effecrs A and Bare signi6canc, bur elfecr B is grearer rhan
effecc A and this causes the volume co increase. The beginning of this scage \Vas previ·
ously cermed rhe OUFP level and can be defined easily since it corresponds co che level
ar \Vhich rhe volume of rhe marerial becomes a minimum (i.e., beyond rhe OUFP, ez
soon exceeds E 1) .
On the basis of rhe above consideracions, cherefore, ic is evidenr char che deformational
behaviour of concrete at all three stages may be decomposed into the foJlo,ving three
componencs:
a. A 'linear• component chroughour, dicraced by che material characcerisrics and un.af·
fecred by che above fracture processes.
b. A non·linear component expressing rhe effecc of the incernal stresses caused by rhe
fracture processes.
c. A non·linear componenc expressing che effecc of void formation.
To quan.rify rhe above componencs using experin1enral stress- strain dara appears co be an
impossible cask since che dara describe overall marerial behaviour. Neverrheless, ir is clear
rhac rheir combined effects result in cwo broad regin1es of (overall) non·linearicy. The firsc
of rhese, which fornlS the subjecc of che present sec-cion and relates co rhe consticucive rela·
rions up to the OUFr level, is governed primarily by a combination of (a) and (b). Therefore,
Modelling of concrete behaviour 71
a lchough micro·c-racking does cause some increase in the volume of rhe n1acerial owing ro
void formacion, ics predominanc effecr is co release che high tensile stresses ac che crack tips
which, as noced above, is stacically equiva lent ro che applicarion of an internal compressive
srace of stress rh.ac reduces che volun1e of concrece. Therefore, ic is rhe lacrer effect (i.e., effec-r
A) which is considered ro be che underlying cause of che non.·linear behaviour up co rhe
minimum·volun1e level. This firsc regime of non·lineariry (namely srages I and II in Figure
3.1 ), which is of a 'mild' nacure, may be described analycically b)' means of the concept
of che inrernal compressive scress scare described above. Before chis is done, ho,vever, ir is
necessary co discuss briefly in terms of suicable paramecers rhe experin1encal dara on. che
deformational behaviour of concrece during both loading and unloading.
3. 1. J Experime n tal d ata o n observed b e h a vio ur
These can be sun1n1arised as follo\VS.
3.1. 1.I Deformational behaYlour during loading
The generalised srress- srrain relacionships for rhe experimenral dara corresponding ro che
ascending branch of concrece m.acerials are expressed mosc conveniendy by decomposing
each scare of scress and strain inco hydrostatic and deviacoric componencs, thar is, in rhe
form of n.onnal and shear octahedral stresses {00 , '£0 ) and scrains (£0 , y0 ), respectively. (for a
definicion of chese ocrahedral parameters, see Appendix A.) In rhis form of represenracion,
rhe deformational behaviour of concrere up ro che minimum·volume level under increasing
srress (behaviour under decreasing stress is discussed larer) can be described complerely by
reference co che scrains produced upon the applicarion, in rurn, of hydrosracic and deviaroric
componenrs of stress.
The resulrs of cescs indicare chat che deformational behaviour of concrece under hydro·
static scress 0 0 can be fully described by che variation of che hydroscacic (volumecric) scrain
£0161 \Vich 0 0 , since the accompanying deviacoric scrain ~>has been found co be insignificanr
(Korsovos and Newman 1978, Gerstle er al. 1980). (The subscripr h serves as a reminder
rhac che octahedral scrains resulr from che applicacion. of a pure h)'droscacic srress scare.)
These 0 0 - Eoc"> relationships depend only on rhe uni.axial srrengch ft, of the parcicular con·
crece, and rypical resulcs are sho\\rn as data poinrs in Figure 3.2. Ir is evident char rhe varia·
tion of Eo(bt with 0 0 is discinccly non·linear. Such non·linear behaviour is considered co reflec-r
rhe dependence of volum.ecric scrains on internal scresses resulcing from rediscriburions chac
occur as a result of changes in che srruccure of the marerial when subjec-red co an exrernall)•
applied hydroscacic stress. It would be expected char internal srresses can be decomposed
inco hydrosracic and deviacoric componencs, bur che face rhac che discorcion of the macerial
under a pure applied hydrostatic scress 0 0 has been found co be insignificant (i .e.,~•>= 0)
indicates char rhe deviacoric componenr of che inrernal stress is negligible, and rhis n1ay
be anribured co the randon1 orienracion of che scrucrural changes char con.crece undergoes
under external hydrosracic srress. Furthermore, ir has a lso been found char specin1ens sub·
jeered to various levels of uniaxial compression. below rhe failure level, when unloaded and
rhen reloaded hydrostacically, exhibir a srress- srrain relacionship \Vhich is essentially the
same as thar exhibited by specimens under increasing hydroscatic scress \\•ichout any previ·
ous (deviatoric) loading hiscory (Newman 1973). In view of chis experin1encal evidence, ir
appears realistic co consider rhac rhe volumecric scrain Eo(At> of concrete due co che hydrostacic
component cr0 of che applied scare of srress is independenc of the va lue of the applied devia·
roric component 't0 , and hence foe"> n1ay be expressed in rerms of 0 0 only. Finally, ir should be
poinced our rhac, since rhis variation of EQ(bt wirh cr0 indicaces consolidation of the macerial
72 Finite- element modelling of structural concrete Modelling of concr ete behaviour 73

160 120
0
'"" 100
120

100
~ 80

~ 80 !j;'
o• + ft = 62..l 1'.1Pa
e 60
60
~
40
•
•
ft = '46.91'.1Pa
ft = Sl.?MPa -· 40
20 a ft = 15.3MP:l
ft =
- Predicted l'tbtlonshJps 0 62.1 N/niml
6 8 10 20 6 46.9N/mm2
O 31.7 N/m.m1
o 1S.3N/mm2
00
Figu~ 3.2 TypicaJ experimental o. - t.ollt r~ationshjps for variou s cor.cretes. 10 15 20 25
Y11X 10'1

char occurs ar a progressi\'ely increasing rare, che hydrosraoc componenr of inrernal scresses Figure 3.3 TypicaJ experimental t,, - YoM relationships for various concretes.
must be compress ive 3nd is considered to represent the reducrion of high rensile-s-rress con-
cenrrarions char occur near the crack tips as a result of crack extension; such a vie\V is clearly Such path independency of the relarions 't0 - "foc.1> and t 0 - e.0 Cd> wich respecr to the direc-
consjsrenc \Vich che fracrure mechanism of concrece under increasing stress discussed previ- tion of 't4 on the deviaroric plane defined for any given cr0 is an imporranr and very useful
ously in the description of component (b) of the deforn1a1iona l behaviour, \Vhich governs propercy of concrete macerials, as ir considerably sin1plifies rhe analycical model to be
non-linearity up to rhe OUFP level. subsequently derived. Ho,vever, it leads next to the question of whecher or nor che nvo
The applicacion of an external deviaroric stress "to gives rise to boch volumecric and devia- relations benveen -r0 and che strains it produces are in facr affecced by rhe magnitude of 0 0
roric (shear) srrains. Therefore, the deformational response of concrere under increasing icsel f. It turns our that, as in rhe case of cheo0 - E01 ,,1 relacionships, rhe -r0 - ~> characreristic
deviaroric stress is defined b)' both 't.. - y01,> and to - E.o4J1 relarionships. (The subscript d indi-
cares thar rhe occahedral scrains are due to a pure deviaroric stress scare.) Typical experi-
mental rtsulcs for the "to - y01,> relations for various concretes are sho,vn as daca poincs in (o) 60 ,--- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- . (b,.>_ _ _ _ _ _ ___,
Figure 3.3. In addition, data points for both che t 0 - YQCd'J and "to - fo(d1 characcerisrics appear
in Figurl?!i 3.4 and 3.5, respecrively, for rwo possible stress paths (o 1 > 01 = O; [rriaxial 'com-
pression'! and (o1 = o 1 > o 3 (criaxial 'exrension'J). le is evidenr rhac both secs of relationships 50
are essencially independent of rhe scress pach, indicacing rhac che inAuence of the direction
of -r,, (i.e., roracional angle 0 - see Appendix A) on the octahedra l (or deviaroric) planes (i.e.,
rhe planes orchogonal to the stress-space diagonal ac various levels of 0 0 ) is negligible and
rhar any S"tress-induced anisocropy is insignificant and can be ignored for praccica l purposes. ft = 3l.? N/mm2
Additiona l confirmation of path independency (but concentracing no\V only on rhe 't.. - Yoe.I>
relations! is provided by che results gathered in the internacional cooperacive project referred oJ/, •
to iu Chapu.• r 2, am.J which wai. Uai.t:c.1 ou thc- u.st" ol a c.:oum1ou c.:om.:rt'tt' iuix Uy all panic.:i·
a 0.49
o o.~
pants (Gerscle er a l. 1980). These findings appear in Figurr 3.6 in rhe form of thr"" cur\'es 6 0.'1
rhac correspond ro che differenr stress pachs followed. (The stress pachs denoted as l and 3 • 1.19
correspond ro the rriaxial 'compression· and 'excension', respec-cively, while 2 refers ro the <> 1.'9
~ Ptedkted rebtlonshlps,
addicion.al case of constant in.tern1ediate principal stress.) Mean curves were obcained for - w1thOUFP
each par1icipanr's rest series and for each path, and these, in rurn, averaged as shown in rhe lO JS 20
mean "to - y01, , curves of Figure 3.6. h is obvious rhac chese mean curves for rhe three pachs r.x ta3
coincide sufficiencly closely so chat the differences may be arcribured to random effects, a
conclusion confirmed by the face that, among rhe various rest series, chere was no clear~cut F'igu~ 3.4 Typical experimental t. - Yot') r ela.tioruhips for concrete (with (._ • 31.7 MPa) for two possible
ordering of sciffness for the different parhs. stress paths: (a) 0 1> 0'1 • ol: (b) 0 1• 0 1 > ol.
74 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Modelling of concrete behaviour 7S

(1>)
applications. Therefore1 rhe facr rhar, beyond che minimum·volume level1 where the pre ..
(•)
dominant eHecr on deformation is void formacion (\vhich is considered ro cause rhe n1uch
fus rer rare of increase of y04d) \Virh 'T0 ), che t., - y01J) characceristic does becon1e dependent on
the value of 0 0 has no bearing on rhe mareria l n1odel. furrher evidence of the independence
of rhe 'T0 - yo(41 relations ·wirh respecr ro rhe location of oc-rahedral planes is provided by
some of rhe results of che various test series of the inrernarional cooperative projecr (Gerstle
f'C al. 1980). The rriaxial load history follo\ved in a number of these rests allowed srress

ft = 31.? N/rnm2 deviation wichin various ocrahedral planes of mean normal stress varying fron1 abour 0.5ft
to almost 2 .0£. Deviatoric srress- strain curves were ploned (or all chese oc-rahedral planes
aJJ, = and the results are shown in Figure 3.7. Here, deviarions were imposed \Vichin differenr
0 0.49 ocrahedral planes ranging from"•= 0.55 {, (= 17.6 MPa) co"•= 1.75 {,(= 56.3 MPa).
0 0.12
A 0.9? Each individual cur\'e in Figure 3.7 represenrs che n1ean of several tesrs along each of
v 1.29 rhese paths. le is clear char che curves are very closely b'Unched, \\rich no sysce1naric ordering
10 ~ l.69 according ro 0 0 • Ocher resr series gave encirely similar resulrs, especially as regards che very
~ Predicted tefa.tloo.shlps.
- "1th0UFP sn1all random sc-aner of curves, thus confirming rhat rhe 'T0 - y04d) relarions are independenc
of 0 0 •
2 • 0
The 'T4 - focd> characrerisrics, on the orher hand, are a function of boch ft and 0 0 , as is dear
by reference co Figure 3.5. (Ir shou ld be noted rhar rhe sharp deviations from rhe smooch
cur\'es on reaching the OUFP level are of no rele\'ance to the analytical model.) Such charac-
Figure 1.5 Typical experWnental t. - £~4> relationships for concrete (with f. • 31.7 MPa) for two possible terisrics, rherefore, appear co represenc the only form o ( inreracrion (i.e., coupling) ber\\reen
stress paths: (a) a.> a 1 • ~; (b) Ow• a 1 >Cf).
rhe hydrosratic and deviaroric con1ponencs of the stress and scrain staces. As for rhe cr., - foe•>
relationships, rhe nonalinearicy of 'T0 - YoiJ> and ,.., - e04d) is due primaril)• to rhe dependence of
has a lso been found to be essentially unique, rhar is, (or a given concrere (defined by ft), y0 1000 and e.*1 on the internal scress redisrribucions that rake place \Vhen an ex·cernally applied
is dependent on t 0 only and nor on the level o( cr.,. This is implicit in Figure 3.3 bur may be deviaroric stress is imposed. \-Vhile the non·linear variation of ~1 \\•ith t 0 may be regarded
seen more clearly by reference ro Figure 3.4 where, (or a given ft, a single curve describes as being caused by rhe deviaroric component o( internal scresses, the non·lineariry of e0 (d)
rhe 'T0 - Y04olJ relationship up ro rhe OUFP level, rhac is, up ro about rhe peak of rhe ascend .. ·with 'T0 is considered to be dicrared by che effecr of che h.ydrostaric component o( che internal
ing branch that defines the range of material properties relevanc (or purposes of srrucrural srresses on the deformation of che marerial when subjec-red ro applied deviaroric srress. The
{acr that e04d) increases (i.e., volume o( specimen decreases) ar an increasing rate implies that,

Figure 3.6 Oeviatoric stress-strain curves obtained from triaxfal tests us ing different loading paths. figure 3.7 Oeviatoric stress-strain curves for drfferent octahedral planes.
76 Finite-element modelling of structural concr ete Modelling o f concrete behaviour 77

as in che case of che 0 0 - Eo(bt relacionship, rhe h)'drosraric componenr of incerna l stresses (o) so
(under external deviacoric stress) is con1pressive and may a lso be considered to represenc the
reducrion of the high rensile stress concencrarions that occur near the crack tips as a resulr
of crack exrension. 40

3.1. 1.2 Deformat;onal b~havlour during unloading

~
30

~
An indication of the srress-srrain behaviour of concrece during unloading may be given by
uniaxial and rriaxial experimental d ata obtained from C)'clic tesrs (Newman 1973, Korsovos
1974, 1984, Spooner and Dougill 1975). The hysteresis loop exhibited by such data during " 20

the first cycle is so small rhac rhe same linear scress- scrain re.lationship may be used ro
describe in a realistic \Vay concrere behaviour during borh unloading and subsequent reload .. 10 ft = 45N/mm2
ing up ro che maximum srress level experienced previously by rhe materia l (see Figure 3.8). - Measured
- - • Pttd.Jcted
Figure 3.8 indicaces thac chis linear relarionship has an essencially consranc inclination and
its distance, front rhe origin of the monotonically increasing scress- scrain curve, increases 0
0
\\rith the n1aximum scress leve.1 of the cyclic load. For scress le\•els beyond this n1axin1um t:(mmJm)
stress, concrete response is described by rhe monotonically increasing scress-scrain relation..
(b) 120
ships discussed in che preceding sec-rion.
The above simple behaviour upon unloading may readily be understood by reference to
rhe internal fraccure processes chat \Vere used earlier ro explain the causes of che observed 100
behaviour under increasing stress. During unloading, chese fracrure processes cease and, as
a resulc, concrete behaviour is then essencia lly elastic. Only \Vhen che n1aximum stress level
previously experienced by rhe material is exceeded, rhe fraccure can be resumed. 80

~
~
3.1.2 Mathem atical description of deformational behaviour 60

The ain1 of rhis seccion is co incorporate che salient phenomenological feacures and relared
experin1enta l daca outlined in che preceding section into an analycica l material model in "
a forn1 suitable for use in rhe non.. Jinear finite.. element (FE) analysis of concrere struc..
rures. This can be done in several ways, and rhree possible approaches \\rill be described
in dera il. The first of these will be mosc fan1ili ar ro scruccura l engineers used ro dealing
\\rich a g iven number of material 'conscancs· chat are required for defining che stress- stra in
rela cionships. The second approach is conceptually ideal in expressing che fracture pro ..
cesses associaced wich micro..cracking and rhe internal stresses which arise therefrom. For
purposes of computer implementation, ho,vever, rhe chird approach has been found to be
n1osc convenienc (although such a standpoint is, arguably, a n1aner of personal casce); chis
is an ecleccic procedurei combining che philosophies of the firsc nvo mechods as needed. le Figu~ 1.8 Measured and predicted stress-strain behaviour during loading and unloading/reloading for a
should be evidenc that, whatever rhe forn1ula cion used to arrive ac a suicable machematical typicaJ concrete (with (.• 45 MPa) under (a) uniaxial and (b) tria.x:ial compression.
model, t he key analytical ingredient is effectively a curve.. fining process based on reliably
esrablished experimental da ca of rhe k ind discussed chroughout this and che preceding
chaprers.
srresses and srrains is adopted, perfecr isocropy permits che decoupling of volume changes
and distorriona l (i.e., shape) changes, \Vith rhe nvo natural material constancs becoming
3.1.2.I Three-moduli approach rhe bulk modu lus Kand the shear modulus G, as g iven by rhe follo\ving expressions (see
Appendix A):
As is well kno\\rn, in rhe case of linearly e lastic material behaviour in rhree dimensions,
rhe six components of stress are related co their scra in counterparts by rhe generalised la\v
of Hooke involving a maximum of 21 independent conscancs. Material isocropy reduces K - 0 0 1(3<0 ) - E/(3(1 - 2v)) (3.1)
rhe number of rhese consrants to 2, which may be expressed in several (clearly interde..
pendenc) ways, such as by means of lame's expressions or by che use of Young's modulus
G - ~.l(ly 0 ) - E/(2(1 + v)j
E and Poisson's racio v. For presenr purposes, where the ocrahedral represenration of (3.2)
79 f inite·element modelling of structural concrete Modelling of concrete behaviour 79

Since these parameters are consranc for linearly elasric materials, ic follows char borh rhe (3) (b)
oc-rahedral nonnal and shear srress- srrain (srraighc line) curves are unique, as they are inde .. <.
pendenr of srress magnitudes and scress racios in rhe uniaxial, biaxia l and rriaxial ranges.
In rhe case of non-linear m.arerials, paran1eters akin co relarions (3.1) and (3.2) may scill
be employed, bur rhen Kand Gare functions of che srress and scrain levels in rhe material.
For example, che following definitions could be used:

K, - 0 0 (< 0 )/(3e 0 ) (3.3)

G, - T.(y.)/(2y.) (3.4)

where che subscripts indicates rhar che secanl·modulus approach has been adopted. No,v,
ic \Vas argued in Section 2.3.3 char, up co about che OUFP level, concrere may be approx..
imaced by an isotropic model. Thus, expressions such as (3.3) and (3.4) can be used co
describe rhe ascending branch of che stress- strain relarions for concrece, or, more specifi·
cally, che cr0 - e.0161 and 't0 - y01,> characreristics, respectively. Such an approach, however, is
noc sufficient on accounc of rhe presence of rhe coupling betv.reen scress deviation and vol·
ume change. Q,ving co chis t 0 - E.01,> characceriscic, a third n1acerial n1odulus is needed, and
a coupling modulus H has b""n proposed (Gerscle er a l. 1980), defined as
Therefore, the coral ocrahedral scrains resulting fron1 che application of an exrernal stress
stale (00 , to) 1nay be \vrinen as
Yo • Y04d) • 'f.o/2G,
Figure 1.9 Schematic representation of the coupling effect between stress deviation t. and volume change
£~ (a) stress path followed; (b) resuJting strains.
3.1.2.2 lnternal·stress approach
Consider a cypical ascending branch of the scress- strain relations of concre1e, such as rhar
(3.5) represented by che curve of Figure 3.11. (The censorial nocacion and convencion adopred for
rhe stresses and the scrains are used here in a generic sense; che main specific applicarion of
Figure 3.11 and associated Equacions 3.8 through 3.10 - see below - concerns, of course,
oc-cahedral scress- srrain characcerisrics.) As explained already, che non-lineariry of such a
srress- srrain relationship is governed essentially b)' che fraccure processes identified \Vich
(3.6) n1icro..cracking and which n1ay be viewed as being equivalent co the application of an inrer..
nal compressive scare of scress. le follo,vs, therefore, char, once che depanure from linearity
(3.7)

lt is evidenr rhar the presence of che second cern1 on the righc..hand side of expression (3.6) 10~~----,
A BAM- FP
implies char the assumpcion of isormpy in concrete ar the material macro-leve1 may be used OCU- FC
only in an approximare sense. Unlike a cruly isorropic material, for which the principal srress 60 V ENEL- LP
O JCL- CYL
and strain axes coincide, the coupling effecc in concrete leads to the sche1nacic representation of 0 NMSU-LP
Figure 3.9, and the requiren1enr for a third n1odulus for \Vhar may be described more accurately so
as quasi-isotropic behaviour. \Vhile daca on the nlOduli K$ and G$ associated \vith true isotropy
\\rill be presented lacer, ic may be of interest ro include here some informarion on che additional
modulus char has enlerged from rhe inrernacional cooperative project in which various resting
rechniques \Vere used (Gerscle ec al. 1980). This cooperacive \Vork produced, an1ong ocher daca,
a number of re1acions and? alrhough chese allo"r only a superficial escin1ate of H, co be achieved,
ic is worch exhibiting here che 1nain trend of results. If a srraighr..Jine relation ben\reen 'C0 and
e°"" is assun1ed (dearly an approxi1nacion - see e.g., Figure 3.5)? H, will be a parameter char var..
ies onl)' wirh hydroscacic pressure 0 0 • ln order co assess chis variation, che mean 't0 - E"44> curves 10
of all criaxial series considered were plorced individuaJly and cheir moduli decennined. These
" rere chen ploned againsco0 and are sho\vn as daca points in Figure 3.10 (rhe solid curve refers 0 o~-2~0-~..,-~60
to che resuking approx:imace mean H, - 0 0 characceriscic 'vich che symbol names being che
abbreviacions of the nanies of laboratories which parcicipaced in che cooperative progran1me a.(N/mml)
(KorsO\'OS and Pavlovic 1995]). Ir is evidem rhar rhe coupling effecr rends ro become very slighr
ac lo"r values of 0 0 , as indicated by che corresponding high values of H" Figure 1.10 Coupling modulus versus octahedral normal stress.
80 Finite-eleme nt modelling of structural concrete Modelling of concret.e behaviour 8 1

For any of che a bove expressions (3.8) chrough (3.10) co be applicable 10 concrece behav·
(K,.GJ,' iour, it is evidenc that che follov.ring equation must hold:
,,
,,, --------------------------- a. - of' + a!;'' (3.11)
,,, where rhe superscripts ext an.d int refer ro the external (applied) and internal (mic-ro-
,,' cracking) stress sraces, respecrively. The scrain component due co of' is recoverable during
,,' unloading whereas that due to of is permanent and equ ivalent to che srrain s care caused by
rhe maximum level of ct;1 prev.iously experienced by rhe macerial. The elascic recovery can
,' be evaluared from any of rhe Equacions 3.8 chrough 3.10 by secting o f = 0 (Korsovos 1984).
'' However, che use of Equacions 3.8 rhrough 3.10 for che evaluation of the sP£rain scare cor~
':' responding ro a given scress lev.el requires a quanricative description o( che elasric cons-rancs
Kr and Gr; rhe internal stare of stress ct;1; a cticerion defining loading and unloading; and a
'
,'' criterion defining che variation in stress space of rhe external state of stress causing fa ilure.
Qualitacive descriprions of che first three of the above icenis are presented in: rhe (ollo\ving,
'' while rhe failure criterion 'viii be given in Seccion 3.2.
'' ' The elascic n1oduli K, and G~ (in ~'1.Pa) corresponding ro che inicial propeircies (i.e ., rhose
' for O::' = 0) of che stress- strain curves for concrece may be expressed as follo\VS (Kotsovos
1984):

K, - 11000 + 3.2{/ (3.12)

figure J.H Thie internal-stress concept used to account for the non-linear constitutive relations of con-
crete materials. G, - 9224 + 136{, + 3296 x 10-ur,u11 (3. 13)

is established and quantified, ir can be 1houghr of as rhe overall effecr of chese internal
stresses ac rbe srrucrura l level. Then, che use of this inre.c nal state of stress, in conjunction
with the initial e lastic moduli K6 , G,, £ 6 , vr (cangenc co the curve a c the origin), is su(ficienc
co describe ffully the non-linear consricutive characcerisric{s). In this ·way, che kno,vledge of
rhe internal s tress srace throughouc che ascending range of the stress- s train relacions enables
rhe non-linear response of concrete co be expressed analycically by using linear n1acerial
properties, namely the two moduli associaced wirh isocropic behaviour (Kocsovos 1984).
Thus, \Yhen o,,. refers t o a stress reJated ro the s1ace of scrain by consranr material propercies,
rhe generalised form of Hooke's la\V may be " rrinen as
•• - - (v,/ £.)oub, + [(1 + v,)/ E,]o ; (3.8)
or, equivalently
where rhe uniaxial cylinder compressive srrength k is also expressed in MPa .
Equacions 3 .12 a nd 3.1 3 are valid for values of(, in the range 15- 65 MJ>a. Oucside ibis
range, K, and Gr remain cons canr and equal co their values fork= 15 and 65 MPa; this is
also true for all che ocher para merers co be defined subsequencly (namely b, A, d, C, k, I,
1n , 11). (Such approximations a re based on rhe o bservations th.at, beyond f, = 65 MPa, any
paran1erer variations Aan en our co nearly constant values, while below ft = 15 MPa, rhe
relevant charac-cerisrics for che Barrer k va lue represent suf6ciendy accurace ai.•erages for rhe
scaner of results in rhis low concrece-screngrh range.)
By decomposing each scare of stress and srrain inro a hydroscaric and a dei...iaroric compo-
nent, che internal srms stare may be quantified by using experimenral dara similar ro those
shown in Figures 3.2 through J..5. A regression analysis of 0 4 - e.o..,
daca (see Figure 3 .2) has
led co che (ollo\ving analyrical expression for the relacionship ben veen external scress and
resulting scrain (Kocsovos 1984):

'• - -((3K, - 2G,)/ (18K,G,)Joub• + (1/2G,)o4 (3.9) (3.14)

in which the tensorial summation convention is implic~r (as is rhe \Vell-known meaning
e.,., - (00 + 3abK,(2f,f· 'a. + 3a(l - b)K,(2f,)')1(3K,) for 00 /f, > 2 (3.15)
of Kronecker·s de Ira), so that cr_.. = 300 and 2 r.,1= y,.,. By decomposing rhe total srrains r.,,.
and scresses o,,, into cheir hydrosracic componencs, r.0 =r.1 J3 and cr0 =ou/3, and deviaroric where Kr is given by Equacion 3.12 , \Vhilea and bare paramecers cha t depend on the macerial
componencs., e111 = e., - e0 0,1 a nd s,, = crq- cr0 0,,, rhe following s imple alcernacive expression for properties and can be evalua1ed by regression analysis. The relation for b may be expressed
Hooke's la\V in irs generalised form is obcained : in rhe follo,ving form:

•• - •J>; + ' • - (00 /(3K,)Jb, + ' • / (2G,) (3.10) b - 2 .0 + 1.8 1 x 10·'[,4·'" (3. 16)
82 Finite-·element modelling of structural concrete Modelling of concr ete behaviour 83

A regressjon analysis for a is not acrually carried out at rhis srage, since rhis paramecer is description of t 4 - y0 data s in1ilar ro rhose sho\\rn in Figure 3.3. Such an analyt ical descrip·
lacer a bsorbed into another one (A), as \viii be seen belo\\r. In keeping \Vich rhe notion that rion may ta ke rhe form (Kmsovos 1984)
rhP non ..JinP::lr v::iri::lrin n of F.,1..,1 '\Virh C"T.,, ::i~ PYf\rP~~Pti hy Fqu::irinn 'l 14, i11:; ro hP ::irrrihurPti
ro inrernal scresses caused by the fracrure processes chat occur under increasing hydrostatic y. - (<. + 2cG,<~)/(2G,) (3.22)
stress, ic is useful ro recall t he description in Section 2.3.3.2 of chese processes, which cake
rhe fonu o f micro~cracks rhac are randomly distributed and orienced. \Vhen che m icro·
cracks are siruated in the pach a long \Vhich a potential crack is likely co propagate, chey \Viii where G, is g iven by Equation 3.13, while' a nd da re marerial patamecers. A regression
rend co increase the energy required ro scarr rhe process and rherefore ace as crack 'inhibi· analysis for d yields che following expressions:
rors'. Sioce che number of such crack·propagacion inhibirors \Viii increase with che level
of hrdrostacic stress, ir is realistic to assume chat t his ry}X' of fracrure process d iminishes d - 2.12 + 0.0 183(, for (, s 3 1.7 (3.23)
progressively \Vith increasing stress and rhac, rherefore, che cause of the non-linearity of rhe
CJ., - E., relarionship should eventually cease co exist. Such considerations are suppon ed by d - 2.7 for(, > 31.7 (3.24)
experimental evidence which sho\\rs that, for hydrosracic stress levels higher rhan 2ft, rhe
i
CJ., - E., rela tionship becomes linear (see e.g., rhe curve for = 15.3 MPa in Figure 3.2). The As before, when che paran1eter a \Vas discussed, chere is no need ar this srage ro perform
validity of Equarion 3.14, rherefore, is assun1ed co extend up co 0 0 = 2ft. For higher values, a regressjon analysis for c, as rhe laner is co be absorbed inro a nother paramerer (C). No,v1
a linear \"'<ltiarion of 0 0 \Virh E0 may be expressed by rhe tangenc of Equation 3.14 ar 0 0 = 2l, for Equation 3.22 co be compatible \\rich 1he second cern1 of che righc..hand side of Equation
and chis ts what Equarion 3.15 refers co. 3. 10, -r.., n1ust be
For Equations 3. 14 and 3.1 5 co be comparible with rhe first rern1 of rhe righr· hand side of
Equation 3.10, the hydrostaric componenr of che internal s:ate of scress (o""~ = o,6) resulcing
(3.25)
from rhe external hydroscaric stress (o~xr = o.,) n1usc be

(.l.J7) w here

C - 2cG,f/-' (3.26)
(3. 18)

where
A - 3oK,ff-•
·with a regression analysis of experimental data yielding rhe follo\ving expressions for A
(which now incorporates - and defines - a)
A - 0.5 16 for f, s3 1.7
A - 0.516/[1+0.0027({, - 3 1.7)'-"'J for{,> 31.7
As d iscussed previously, rhe deviatoric component of che incernal stress scare under applied
o ., is in.signi6cant since rhc measured dcviatoric strain und:r- cx·rcrnal hyd rostatic stress has
been found to be negligible. lr appears, therefore, rhar Equations 3. 17 and 3.18 describe
completely the internal stress s tare which develops \Vithin concrete \Vhen it is subjecred ro
increasing exrernal hydrosracic stress. On rhe ocher hand, \Vhile an external hydrostariG
stress g ives rise co an incernal scress scare which is also purely hydrostatic, che internal srress
sra1e '\Vh1ch develops ·within concrete under external deviatoric stress consists of both a
hydrostatic and a deviatoriG component.
The deviacoric component ('t:;(!,1 = ,...,) of the inrernal stress scare rhac develops as a resulr
of an exfernally applied deviacoric stress can be quanrified on the basis of an analycical
\-Vith C both incorporating and defining rhe paramerer c, all thac remains ro be done is ro
perform a regression a nalysis on rhe exptrimental data for the.,.., relations. This yie1ds rhe
fol lowing expressions:
(3.1 9)
C - 3.573 for(, s 3 1.7 (3.27)
C - 3.573111 + 0 .0134({, - 3 1.7}'-"'J for(, > 31.7 (3.28)
(3.20)
The hydroscacic component(~> = a ..,) of che internal srress state resulting fron1 an exrer·
nal deviatoric scress is considered to be the fundamenta l cause of the volun1erric response
(3.21) e.,1,> of concrete under deviacoric srress. Nomina l values of o,, for a given cone:rere may eas·
ily be obtained by using 1"0 - E0 (4) and o., - EOlbl relationships such as chose shoV\rn in Figures
3.5 and 3.2, respec-rively. For a value of the volumetric strain Eo41J corresponding co a given
IPvPI of ::l J'f'l iPrl .;rrp<;_.; (Cl.,, 1'..,) (11:;pp Fignt'f' i . l), :. v::i lnP of hyrlrn11:;r::l rir .;rrp.;_.; - '\Vhir h m::ly hp
consjdered ro represent a nomina l value for CJ,, - can be obtained fron1 che 0 0 - £04.6> relation·
ship of Figure 3.2. In chis way, rhe 1"0 - e441 relat ionships of Figure 3.5 can be transformed
in co o"' - -r0 relationships such as chose shown, for example, in Figure 3. 12 . This procedure
(Korsovos 1980) is illusrrared schemarically in Figure 3. 13. A regression analysis of experi·
n1enral data similar ro rhose sho,vn in Figure 3.12 has led to the following analyrical expres·
sion for cr,, (Kotsovos 1984):
o.,lf, - Ml:<. l f,r (3.29)
84 Finite-eleme nt modelling of structural concrete Modelling o ( concr ete behaviour 85

where
1.6 ~---------------~
a,Jf, = .ft : 3t.7Nlmml
/\ 0.49 M - k/[I +/(a. I f.)"') (3.30)
1.4 D 0.72 0
0 0.97
v t.29 and k# Is 1n, n are material paramecers which may be expressed in rerms of las (ollo\vs:
0 l.69
1.2 - Predtaed refadoruhlps
k - 4 /(l + 1.087({, - 15)0.2ll (3.3 1)
1.0
I - 0 .222 + 0 .01086 (, - 0.000 122 (,' (3.32)
~ 0.8
" m - - 2.415 for(, s 31.7 (3.33)
0.6

m - - 3.53 1+0.0352{, for(,> 3 1.7 (3.34)

0.4

11 - I for{, s 31.7 (3.35)

0.2
11 - 0.3 124 + 0.02 17(, for f, > 3 1.7 (3.36)

0.8 1.0 l.2

le isevidenc that, up to a uniaxial cylind~r strengch o( 31 .7 MPa, the relations hips becween
cr,4 and 1"0 are ahvays linear (since n = 1), as is clear, for example, by reference to Figure 3.12.
Figure 3.12 Variation of o.., with t 0 for various o:., for a typical concrete with f. a 31.7 MPa. For higher values of ft, n ~ 1, and hence such relationships become non·linear.
le should be noted that the coupling becween s tress deviat ion and volun1e change, expressed
in cenns of a,.,, has been carried our in a manner which, although referring to the lacter
paran1erer as an internal stress, in face creacs 0 1, as an excernal stress. This is dear if it is
recalled thac a.., is eventually obtained from che 0 0 - e0161 relations hip (see e.g., Figure 3.13),
so t hac o ld= 0 0 refers to the of' (and noc the o :;i) componenc (see Figure 3. 11). Therefore,
while cr,. and t,., are indeed incernal stresses (comparible with the generic definicion 3.11),
cr,4 is an equivalent ex·cerna l srress required to produce che acrual £*1. \X'hile ic \Vould be an
easy n1an er ro express che coupling by mean s of a cruly internal srress (as was done for er,.
and T14 ), ic rurns out co be more convenient - from a compucational viewpoint - to follo\v rhe
present approach, as \viii be sho\vn subsequendy.
Finally, a criterion that defines loading and unloading may also be expressed in terms
'• of the internal·srress concept. As discussed above, che internal scress sca re which devel·
/ ops \Virhin concrece u nder loading conSJscs of three components, namely o,", t,, and a,4
./ (th e laner coupling paramerer is expressed as an equ ivalent external stress), defined by
/ Equations 3. 17 and 3 .18, 3.25 and 3. 29, rcspcccivcly. These cquacions indicacc rhat,
O• . while a,. and t 1, occur independently of tach other under increasing excernal hydrostatic
o// and deviatoric stresses, respecrively, CTJ occurs under combined exrerna l hydrosratic
/ and deviacoric scress and represents che fundame nral cause of all o bserved interaccion
/~ --- - -- --- - ber\\1een the hyd rosca cic and deviacoric components of che external stresses and cor·
responding stra ins. (Although o,, is caused prin1arily by rhe deviacoric component of
the applied stress (t J - see expression (3.29) - irs acrual value is also governed by che
Figure 3.11 Schematic repr esentation o( the approach used to evaluate CJ"' (or a given combination o( o:. relevant ocrahedra l plane defined by the hyd roscacic component of che applied srress, as
and t,,. indicated by che 'consranc' J\if, expression (3.30). In vie'v of che above, loading, defined
86 Finite -element modelling of structural concrete Modelling of concrete behaviour 87

as any change of rhe ex1ernal srress srare rhar resulrs in an increase of rhe level of rhe In an analogous manner, rhe cangenr bulk and shear moduli (again, o., neglecring 0 14)
inrerna l srresses, may be classified as follo,vs. which relare srress and main i11creme11rs, K, = (113)(dcrjd•J and G, = (112)(dtjdy0 ) may
readily be obrained by differemiarion of expressions (3.14), (3.15) and (3.22), respectively.
a. Hydrostatit; loading. This occurs \Vhen rhe currenr exiernal 0 0 exceeds any previous The resuk is
exrernal 0 0 , rhus resuking in an increase of cr,..
b. Deviatorit; loading. This occurs when the current external t 0 exceeds any previous K,IK, - 11(1 + bA(a0 lf,)._'] fora.If, s 2 (3 .41)
exrernal 1"0 , rhus resuking in an increase of O"Nf.
c. Co1nbffled loading. This occurs when che current combination of exiernal cr0 and 1"0
results in a cr,J larger rhan any previous o,J· This loading may occur when ar leasr one K,IK, - 11[1 + 2'-'Ab] fora.If, > 2 (3.42)
of (a) and (b) is crue.
G,IG, - 11[1 + dC(~.lf,)"-'] (3.43)
On rhe basis of rhe above, unloading occurs \Vhen any of (a), (b) or (c) is nor true.
Furthermore, ir is implied char various combinations of loading and unloading n1ay rake
place sin1ukaneously. The above forn1ulae for the secant and rangenr moduli are illustrared in Figures 3.14
and 3_15 by reference ro a parcicular concrere f,=3 1.7 MPa). (Ir should be nored thar, in
rhe case of G, che experimental daca sho\Vn cover borh triaxial·'compression' and rriaxial·
3.1.2.3 Combined approach 'extension· cases.)
Sinceo,J is a pure hydrosracic correcrion, expressions (3.37) and (3.7) are equivalent ro rhe
The combined approach is based on rhe use of l\VO variable mechanical properries - namely fol lo\ving relations in global coordinate direcrions:
rhe moduli Kand G - which account for rhe non-linearities in rhe cr0 - e0 1h> and 1"0 - YocJ>
relationships, respecrively, combined \\rith che use of che cr,4 variable char accouncs for rhe '• - (a; + a.,6.)1(2G,) - (3v, I £.)(a. + o.,)b¥ (3.44)
coupling effecr 't0 - EocJ>· (r \Viii be recalled rhar, air hough based on rhe internal-stress con·
cepr, che laner parameter \Vas expressed earlier a.s an equiva lent exrernal scress: che reason
for rhis is rhar rhe coupling effecr may rhen be allowed for by simply adding o,, ro rhe where Es<o0 , 'tm ft) and v$(00 , t 4 , (J are rhe secant Young's modulus and Poisson's racio,
exrernally applied hydrosraric stress. Such an approach enables rhe rota I ocrahedral strains respecrively, derived from K, and G1 by rhe follo,ving standard formu lae of linear elasticiry
(3.6) and (3.7) caused by an arbirrary, externally applied stress scare (00 , 't0 ) robe rewrinen (obrained rhrough the use of Equations 3.1 and 3.2):
as follows:
E - (9KG)l(3K + G) (3.45)
(3.37)
v - (3K - 2G)l(6K + 2G) (3.46)
(3.7)

In chis \\ray, the chree..moduli approach has now been modified by the replacement of rhe 12~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

rhird modulus (H,) by an equivalent superin1posed stress scare (o") based on rhe internal· ft = 3L7 N/mm1
stress concepr. a 1 =41 =- o.,:
J.0 0
Experlmental data fot K/K.
\Vhile ou(o0 , T0 , (J accounrs for che coupling benveen 1"0 and e°'"'' K,(cr0 , ft) and Git4 , l>
Predicted relationships
are secant bulk and shear moduli 1 respectively, should such a coupling nor exist (i.e., rhey
O.il
are obrained by ignoring cr,4 ). Ir \\ras sho\vn earlier ho\v curve tiering of experimental uni·
axial, biaxial and criaxia l data has enabled expression (3.29) for a,4 robe derived. Similarly,
a regression analysis of experimenral information has led ro expressions (3.14), (3.15) and ><' 0.6
;;;;
(3.22), and iris from rhese thar K, = (113)(cr./•J and G, = (1/2)(tjy0 ), respecrively, can easily
be derived in the follo\ving form: 0.4

K,IK, - 11[1 + A(a0 lf,}"-1 ] fora.If, s 2 (3.38) 02

K, I K, - 11[1 + 2"-' Ab - 2 6 (b - l)A(o0 I f,)- 1] forcr0 If, s 2 (3.39) 0o

i,-~~~~.~5
~~~~~~
, ~~~~_..,.
, _s
~~~~---!,

o,I/,

(3.40)
Figure J.14 Typical variation of the bulk moduli (K.. KJ with a. for a given concrete (with(.• ll.7 MPa).
88 Finite-eleme nt modelling o f structural concrete Mo delling of concrete behaviour 89

The conceprual accuracy of the model may be judged by reference ro Figure 3.16, which
ft =31.7 Nfn\ml shows some criaxial daca for a particular concrete. Three degrees of refine1nenr in the consriru·
J.2
"a o a, >a1 = a 3 }JExper1menuJdata. ch•e mode.lling \\rere applied in rurn, and their relarive success in mimicking che experinlental
t:i. a 1 = a1 >a3 lotG,fG, inforn1ation can be seen fron1 che resulting curves. First, only the n1echanical properties are
J.0 - Pttdkted ttlilionsh.ips caken into account, a nd it is evidenc that such lin1ired means cannot provide an accurate descrip·
cion of the behaviour beyond the case of pure hydrostatic srress scaces. Once the suess path
O.ll deparcs from chis scace (ac 0 0 = 35 MPa in Figure 3.16), rhe effecc of o" requires char o*' (in addi..
<!>. cion, o( course, co G,) should a lso be accounted for. Therefore, for general srress scares the indu·
iJi 0.6 sion of t he coupling effect is necessary for a good correlation becween model and experimental
daca ro be achieved up ro che OUFP level. Ac chis poinr, the effecr of void forn1arion begins to
0.4 play an increasingly in1porranc role and musc be given due considerarion if rhe scress-scrain
paths beyond rhe OUFP level are m be reproduced (as in Figure 3.16, where curve Jll is based
0.2 on che inclusion of void formation in che consticutive n1odel (Kocsovos and Ne\vn1an 1979]).
However, as noced in Section 2.3.3.1, che OUFP level may be taken 10 coincide - for all practical
purposes - \\Tith the US level, so chac a sufficiently accurare descriprion of che constirurive re(a..
00 0.5 I cions up co fai lure is arcained by che inclusion of che effec-r of che internal (i.e., mechanical prop·
t,.1/, erries and coupling characteristics) \Vhile che effecr of void forma tion is disregarded alrogether.
The accual accuracy of che n1odel wich respecc 10 a large - and varied - body of avail·
Figurt l 15 Typical variation of the shear moduli (G,. GJ with t. for a given concrete (with l • 31.7 MPa). able experimenral dara mar be seen by reference to figures 3.2 through 3.5, 3.10, 3.12,
3.14 and 3.1 5: in most of chese the prediccions of che adopted model appear as solid lines.
Ir is evidenc cha r che proposed machemarical expressions derived on che basis of 'besc
Expression (3.44) is ob1a ined by noring cha1che r\VO t ennsof che scra in censor £ 11 = E.J>4 + e11 fir• co experimenra l data provide a very satisfaccory descriprion of the deformation of
(see (3.10]) musl be deall \\rich separa1ely \Vhen che conscicutive relarions are inuoduced in concre1e ar a ma1erial level, whecher individua l res rs or combined dara fron1 n1ore chan
chis censor relacion. Thus, while 1he model does nor impose any deviarion from non-linear one tesc (e.g ., Figure 3.15) are considered. Further <omparisons berween che model and
elasriciiry with regard ro che second cern1 (i.e., e,1= (o..., - 0 0 6.,)/lG,), the firsr rern1 does involve experimencal resulrs stemming fron1 specimens cesred at Imperia l College under criaxial
che correction o.., ro the acrual, applied o., (i.e., eoO..., = (o., + O,.t) 6/(3K,). scress conditions appear in Figures 3.17 and 3.1 8 ·which refer ro cria.xial-'compression'
Expressions (3.44) form rhe basis for calculating global srrains from globa l messes. The
accual procedure reduces 10 che fol lowing s1eps.

• The octahedral stresses (cr.,, 'f.o) are calculaced eirher fron1 che principal scresses (o i. O:h
O"J) - compuced previously on the basis of 1he global stresses cr,,, char is, (cr.0 CJ:>., cr:, 'txr
't~, 1).:) - or direcdy from che firsc and second scress invariants expressed in cer1ns of
a,1• (See Append ix A.)
• Kh G, and Eh v, are calcula ted.
• The hydrosracic correcrion (i.e., coupling scress) cr,, is calcula ted. • O Expe-.rimetal values few
• Global strains E,J are calculated. cotu~tece withft =46.9 Nlmml
otnd o,. = 35 N/mm1
le is c lear char che computacion of global strain incren1enrs fron1 global scress incremenrs a, +'"
follows the same procedure, bur \\rirh che material 'consran cs· no\V defined in cerms of can·
""
genr values K,, G,, E, a nd v,.
30
. '
0"2 = 0"1
3. 1.3 Accuracy of the mathematical model ~path

for the constitutive relations

As explained in Secrion 3.1, che cracking processes up co fa ilur,e are governed, broadly, by the
folJo,vi:ng rwo (opposice) effeccs: a reduccion in che predominandy censiJe srress co1\Cencracions
near the crack rips (leading to volun1e reduccion), and a production of voids (leading ro \'Olun1e
Figure 3.16 Typical stress-strain relations under triaxial stress predicted by the model for a given con-
increase). The proposed consrirutive mode.I is based on the firsr of these effects, through the c.rete (with f. • 31.7 MPa). (I) including mechanical properties of the model only: (11) induding
use of che mechanical propercies (Ks. G,) a nd che coupling parameter cr,,. On che o cher hand, mechanical properties and effecu of internal stresses only. (111) including mechanical properties
che effecc of void (ornl3cion has been ignored in che scress- scra in expressions thus derived. and effects o ( W'ltemal stresses and void formation.
90 Finite- ele me nt modelling of str uctural co ncrete Modelling of co ncrete behavio ur 91

(•) 90 (c) 300

ft = lS.3 N/mm2
- Preclkud
rebtionshtps 250
• 0

~ ~
E 60 a.= E 200
~ • A 0 ~ ft = 46.9 N/rtun1
"'·~ • a 7N/mm1
e o 14 N/mm 2 I JSO - Predicted
r-elUi<>nshJps:
~
i • E 0
§ §. a.=
Ll£.6>
~
.;
30
.o, .;
100
• 070N/mm2
' '
a
' '
50
• O StN/mml
• 6 35Nlmm?
• O 18Nlmml
.
0
- JO -
<, = "

Teo.sue 0 - '•
10
SJr>ln x lo'
01 = 03
Stress path

20
Compressi\·e 30
0
- 30 -
<, =c,

- 20
TensUe
- JO 0 JO
...!!--

Slr:lu1 •IO'
20 30
a, =a3
Sttess path

4-0 50
Comptessive
60

(b) 180 (d) 360

• 0

150 300
a.=
• 0 0
~ A 6 t9N/m.ml ~
120 ~ 240
f • CJ • a 24N/mml
e O 44 N/m.m2
~ CJ • <> O
ot>=

~
'ii 90
- Predicted
refatlonshlps "'t 180
• ll. 14N/mm2
• 0 3SN/mm2
• o 69N/mm2

! 6> E

~
§ .o,
.;
60

u:
.
·6' /
'
.;
J20

-
ft = 62.l Nlmm2
Predicted.
telatloruhlps a
~'

-
30 60

- -
a,= a3
<, = c,
'• 01 = 03
Scttss path <, =c,
~
Stress path

0
-20 - 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 30 210 0 10 20 30
Tei,sile Comptessive
Tensile Strainx lol Compress:h·e Sualn x 1<>1

Figure 3.17 Stress- strain r elationships for vario us concretes under stress states 0 1 > <Ji•~ (triaxial 'com- Figure 3.17 (Continued) Stress- strain relationships for various concr etes under stress states 0 1 > 0 1 • ~
press;on'): (a) f.• 15.3 MPa: (b)f. • 31.7 MPa: (<) f.• 46.9 MP·a; (d) f. • 62.I MPa. (Cont;n.,.d) (tr;ax;aJ 'cornpr ess;on'): (a) f.• 15.3 MPa; (b) f. • 31.7 MPa: (c) f. • 46.9 MPa: (d) f. • 62.1 MPa.

·w hich \Vas referred ro in Chapter 2 (Gerscle e r al. 1980], rhe Munich rescs represenc reli·
a nd rriaxial-'excension' loading parhs, respecrively; once again, a close fi r of rhe predicced a ble experimenta l da ca in the same \\ray as che tescs performed subsequently a t Imperia l
rela cionships wit h most of che dara is a pparenc, suggesring that che proposed ma chema ri· College: unlike the Imperia l College resulcs, ho\veverr, which use sequentia l paths and a
cal model is adequace for all suess paths. T he marhemacica l srress- suain rela cionships are near-un.ifornl srress srate applied by the loading syscen1 rhrough rhe adoption of cyli nders
a lso in good agreemenc \vich rhe results of biaxial (and uniaxial) suess condicions, as can \\rich a height· co ..,vidt h racio of 2 .5, t he Munich resrs ·were based on a proporciona l scress
be seen by reference ro Figure 3.1 9, which is based on che experimental values o bta ined a c path and che application of a near·un.iform sta re of strain. on. t he specimens chrough brush·
rhe Technica l Universiry of Munich (Kupfer er a l. 1969). (Ald!lough carried our well before bearing plarens; che close correlation. benveen predicted and experimental relation.ships
che incernaciona l cooperacive projecc a imed a r e lucidating che effect of rescing procedures indicates rhat the effec-r of cesrin.g conditions on che n1ateria l deformation in the Munich
92 f inite-element modellini of structural concrete Modelling of conc.rete behaviour 93

(3) (c)
50 80
a, o, a.=
~
.,,~ •"' ~ 70
•"'
+o t?N/mm1
• A 33N/mm2
~ 40 a, 160 6~ • 0 St N/mm2
• 0 68N/min2
~ E o,
830 a, = n2 8 50 a 1 = o.1
,... Stress path Stt~P3th
~
~ 20
E
40

~ ~ 30
.; ~·
IO 20

. 0
• ao=
0 • 10
!
V Putt hydrostatic stl'tSS
0
~ =
i: 1 £i • 022.8 Nlinm2
---+ e 043.S Nlmm2 "' _,
"'
- IO
-I
Ten.sue
0
Sttaln x tol
2
Compressive
3
- 10
- 1.5
Te.nsUe
- 0.5 0 0.5
Strain x 1«>3
1.5
Compresstw-
2.5

(b)
.
·~ ;o
IO
o, a.=
+ <> t?N/mm2
• A 34N/mm2
Figure 3.18 (Continued) Stress-strain relationships for various concr etes under stress states 0 1 •a,> O')
(triaxial 'extension'): (a) f. • 31.7 MPa: (b) l_• <16.9 MPa: (c) f.• 62.1 MPa.
~ • a 52N/mm2
~60 e 069N/mm2
6 specin1ens srenuning fron1 a con1mon mix and perforn1ed by means of the same appara..
so cus. This scaner of resulcs due ro m.arerial variabilicy (\vichin a given mix) is illuscrared
in Figure 3.21a- d (Kocsovos 1974, Kotsovos and Newman 1981), which show che rypical
~
e "° range of relevanc values for a concrece mix cesttd criaxially ar four values of confining pres·
~ 30
sure (chree specimens were used for each of chese confining·pressure values). Such degree
.; of scarcer, which is also represencative of typical uniaxial and biaxial stress- strain relation·
~o ships, indicates dearly chac furcher refinen1enr of rhe mathemacical model and/or its compo..

.
~
10
nenr paran1erers would nor be justified.

0 • 3.2 STRENGTH ENVELOPES FOR CONCRETE

"'-·· -2
Tensile
-l 0 2 l
Compr-esslve
Strain x te>l
Figure 1.18 Stress-strain relationships for various concretes under stress states a 1 •
sion'): (a) ( • 31.7 MPa: (b) f. • 46.9 MPa: (c) f. • 62.1 MPa.
experimencs is also insignificant for praccical purposes.) Finally, in addition co che special
case 0z!cr1 =0 forming pare of che more general biaxial·compression dara of Figure 3 .19
for l = 31.7 MPa, Figure 3.20 sho"rs the n1odePs close fir ro experin1encal va lues of uni-
axial con1pression for a much \Vider range of concrece strengchs (Korsovos 1980). Up co
f,= 40 ~.fpa, rhese experimental values refer to gi\'en data points (Barnard 1964), while
for f,> 40 MPa rhty are seen to correlate very closely \Vith empirical relacionships benveen
che applied stress and the corresponding srrain in rhe direction of loading proposed else·
where (Popovics 1973).
In assessing the 111odel's accuracy, rhe sheer impossibility of full y reproducing experimen·
cal data should also be borne in mind, even when comparing resulcs of rescs on concrece
l.2.1 Experimental data on, and mathematical descript.i on of,
failure surfaces
The use of non·linear con1puter..based mechods for che analysis of concrete struccures sub·
~ > o 1 (triaxial 'exten-
jecced co con1plex scress scares requires thac boch che screngch and rhe deformational prop·
(Cont;nued)
ercies of concrere should be expressed in a sui1able form. The deform.acion.al propercies
have been che subjecc of the previous section in which a machemarical description of che
scress- srrain behaviour of rhe macerial under generalised scress \Vas outlined. The presenc
seccion complemencs rhe above consciruci,,e pro?ercies and is concerned \Vich che marhe1naci·
ca l descripcion of che screngch propercies of conc-rere (Kocsovos 1979). Such a mathemaci·
ca l descripcion is considered essential, since m1>sr of che screngch criceria proposed co dare
for use in praccical scrucrural design (e.g., Hann.ant 1974, Korsovos and Ne\vman 1977,
Hobbs er al. 1977, Lowe 1978, Newman and Ne\vm.an 1978) ha,·e noc been expressed in
a suicable forn1 for compu1er applicacions. Furrhern1ore, certain criteria (Hannanc 1974)
have been formul.aced in such a way chac che convexity principle (Drucker 1967) does noc
hold, \Vhereas che formulacion of others has been based on che over·simplified assumpcions
rhac rhe effecc of rhe incennediate principal stress on the srrengrh propercies is negligible
9'4 Finite-element modelling of structural c oncrete Modelling of concr ete be haviour 95

(•) A1bl $~ N/mml

ft = 31.7 N/mm2
'.IOO D
Pn.• 'tlkw.J 1-daliu11:.Jdpl>

40

Conft.nlng: =
•""'""'2)
A
8
c
D
(N/mm
17.2
34.S
St.7
6~.0
Str.ainsb
A

-
o2'a 1 = - - Axial strain
10 • OO - - - l atent i tnin
ri a a o.s2 - 30 - 20 - 10
.A. A 1.0 -40 10
A:lbl Uld latC"ral stratn x J()l

~4'--~-
_~3~~-~2~~-
~,'--~-0'-~ ......~~~2~~-'-~--'4 (b)
Tensile Strain )IC t @ Compressive 300

figu~ 1.19 Stress-s train relationships for under biaxial (and unfaxia) compress ion fa< a t ypical concrete 2SO
(with f. • 31.7 MPa). c
200
"•e 8
70 ~-----------~~-~~--------~
Predicted ~
ISO

..~
relationships
Popovics (other A
60
empirical Cortfi.nJng
~ 100

50
relationships)
0 x Barnard
"''''"'"
(N/m.n')
(experime ntal A 17.2
so 8 34.S Strai.ns for
val ues)
c 51.7
D 69.0
040 30 - 10
TensJle

Figuu 1.21 Typical scatter on (uiaxiat) constitutive material data for a given concre t e (with h_ • 46.9 MPa)
tested under various levels of maximum coofining pressure. (a) Variation of axial and b.teral strains
with totaJ axial stress for triaxia.J 'compression'. t ria.x:ial ·extension' and C-C-T tests: (b) variation
of volumetric strain with total axial stress for tria.xial 'c ompression'. oiaxiaJ ' extension' and C- C-T
tests: (c) variation of lateral strain with axial s train for t riaxia.l 'compression', t ria.xiaJ 'extension' and
C-C-T tests: (d) variation of lateral strain with axial wain for triaxia.J •ext ensjon' and C-C-T tests.
(CM l#l""d)

-6 -4 -2 0 4 6 8 (Hobbs ec al. 1977) or char concrece beh.wes e lasrically up co a lin1iting ptinc-ipa l censile
Tensile Strain (mm/ m) Compressive
suain which defines ulrin1ace s-rrengrh a nd is regarded as a material constant (Lowe 1978).
The derivation of mathemacical expressions given he-re is based on a n analysjs of srrengrh
Frgur~ 3.20 Stress-strain relationships for various concretes under uniaxial compr ession. data o brained in che course of inves-cigac:ions o( che beh:iviour of concrece under mulri~
axial stress staces carried our at Imperial College a nd described elsewhere (Newman 1973,
96 f in ite·element modelling of structural concrete Modelling of concrete behaviour 97

As in che case of rhe conscirucive relations, a mathemacical dese:ripcion of the screngch

(t) «) . . - - - - - - - - - - . - - - - . .
envelope of concrece, \Vhich is governed by con1binarions of maximun1 scresses char define
a given fai lure cricerion, is nlosr readily formulated in cerms of hydrostacic and deviacoric
components acting on che occahedral plane. Therefore. ir is convenient co define the stress
space by rhe orthogonal coordinate syscem (01, o 1 , oJ) of principal stresses. (The convention
char compressive stresses are positi\'e will be adopted.) Then, viev.ring che coordinace syscen1
and che octahedral (or deviacoric) plane fron1 the hydroscacic axis, \Vhich intersects chis
plane ac right angles, ic is easy ro see char che scress space can be divided inco six regions,
~richin which che following conditions are sacisfied:

region 1 : 0 1 C: 02 C: OJ (3.47)

region 2 : a, C: 03 C: 01 (3.48)

region 3 : a, C: 01 C: O;; (3.49)

region 4: 01 C: OJ C: 0 1 (3.50)
·~
..
< 20
(d) region 5 : O;; C: 01 C: 01 (3.51)

region 6 : O;; C: 01 C: 01 (3.52)

~
•• These regions are shown clearly in Figure 3.22 .
ConfU\il'lg: ~2 The cransformation of rhe orchogonal coordin.ace syscem (01, o 2 , aJ) inco the cylindrical
pressure
(N/mm2) ~
•
v coordinate system (z= (3)'"o0 , r = (3) 11't0 , t'l) has been outlined in Appendix A. Accordingly,
10 A 172
z·is related ro che hydrostatic srress char coincides v.rirh rhe space diagonal o 1 = o 1 = o 1 , \Vhile
B
c
D
345
51.7
69.0
j 0 the radius r is similarly related ro the magnirude of c he devia1oric srress component, che
rocational variable t'i defining che laner·s orientarion on the occahedral plane. (Clearly, rhe
.i; hydrostatic and deviacoric stresses are obtained by contracting che (Z, r) coordinaces by a
<

Strains for
·~1ensi0n' ui.d C- C- T t.eStt
.-2 conscanr faccor of (3)•n.) \Vith chese preliminaries, che screngch envelope may be described
by reference ro both coordinare systems, and rhis is shown in. Figure 3.22. The resulcing
u lcimate·screngch variation obeys che convexicy principle usually associated wirh failure
~ surfaces (Drucker 1967), and is open in compression since con.crece can sustain increasing
-4
values of deviacoric scress for increasing hydroscatic compressive scress levels, char is, cross
- LS - JO -5 0 5 seccions of che srren.grh envelope (perpendicular ro che z: axis) become larger as 0 0 increases.
Tensne Comp~ 6 • 2 0
Lilttnlstrain x 1o-l L~ter.1.I oompresiY~ Strain )( Jol If isocropic n1arerial behaviour is assumed, che ulci111ate...screngch surface possesses a six·fold
symmerry aboui 1he space diagonal a,= a,= a,. Therefore, ir follom rha1 only one-sixth of
Figure 1.21 (Continued) Typical scatter on (triaxial) constitutive material data for a given concrete (with rhe closed curve defining the failure boundary on a deviacoric plane (Figure 3.22b) is required
fc • 46.9 MPa) tested under various levels o ( maximum confining pressure. (a) Variation o ( {or ics definition. Nov.r, experimental daca are readily obc:ainable for -r0 ,. and ,.°'" (che faccor (3)111
axial and lateral strains with total axial stress for triaxi.al 'compressjon', tria.xial 'extension' and ~rill henceforrh be dropped, rhar is, the deviacoric plane \Viii be shrunk to rhe curve -r~ racher
C-C-T tests: (b) variation of volumetric strain with total axial stress for triaxia.I 'compression', than (3) 11lt0 . ). These values correspond ro axisymmecric stress stares easily imposed in. a tri·
triaxial 'extension' and C-C-T tests; (c) variation o ( lateral strain with .axial strain for triaxial
'compression'. triaxial 'extension' and C-C- T tests; (d) variation o ( lateral strain with axial
axial cest. Thus, ,..,,, (for {) = 0°) is obtained by sening <>. = o 1 > o 3 (criaxial 'excension~) while
strain for tria.xfal 'extension' and C-C- T tests. 't« (for{)= 60°) follo\VS by setcing o 1 > o 1 =CJ;; (triaxial 'compression1. In rhis way, 'tor and 't~
values can be determined for various levels of hydrostatic scress 0 0 • For each a 0 , che value of
't.o.. for any 6 intermediate benveen 0° and 60° may be interpolated benveen che values of-t.,. at
Kocsovos 1974, 1979, Ne\vman and New1nan 1978). The resting cechn.iques used ro obtain 0° and 60° by means of the following expression (Willam and Warnke 1974):
chese dara (see Seccion. 2 .1.1 and Ne"rman 1974) have been validated by comparing chem.
v.rith those obrain.ed in the inrernacion.al cooperative program me of research inco the effecc 'fa. - 12-r"(-r1a.- - -r!,.)cos6' + T.-(2-,;°" - -r°'")
of resting rechniques and apparatus on rhe behaviour of concrece under biaxial and criaxial
mess states referred to previously (Gerstle et a l. 1978, 1980). (4(-r!.. - -r!,.)cos1 -ft + 5't!. - 4rQc'-,;~J111 }/(4(-r!., - T~)cos1 -ft + (2-c°" - -r°'")1 J (3.53)
99 Fini·te-element modelling of structural concrete Modelling o f concr ete behaviour 99

10 ~~~/.
~,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
(3) "•
(NJmm'J
b. J5.3
2.5
<> 3J.7
D 46.9
~ : 0.994
0 62.1 !.
2.0

~1.5

1.0

1.5 2
a.JJ.
2.5 l.5 • 4.5

(b)
"• Figurt 3.23 Combinations of octahedral stresses at uhimate strength for concrete under triaxjal 'compres-
sion' and triaxial 'extension'.

(fl 03
0'2>03>01 : Cf3>0'2>Cf1
Figure 1.22 Schematic representation of the ultimate· strength surface: (a) general view in stress space: (b)
typicaJ cross section of the strength envelope with a deviatoric plane (i.e .. a plane of constant
a.,. viewed along the axis o, • a, •
Cf)).
This expression describes a smoorh convex curve with tangenrs perpendic ular to rhe
directions of tM and'<,,, ar 6 "' 0° and 60°, respectively (see Figure 3.22). Therefore, ir fol-
10,vs rhat a full description of rhe strength surface nlay be escablished once che variations of
tl)t- and -r°' \\rirh o., are deternlined.
Figure 3.23 shows such variations of ~ and 'tac-- These combinations of octah edral
of Figure 3.23 is considered ro describe adequacely che strengrh of mosc ordinary concretes
I ikely ro be encouncered in practice when rhese are subjecced to axisyn1mecric srress stares.
This lack of influence of loading hisrory for both srress- strain relacions and che ultimare·
srrengrh en\•elope was discussed in Seccion 2.3.3.2, where ir " 'as argued char rhe unsysce1n·
atic variability of t he relevant d ata is larger chan rhe scarcer due ro path dependency. Figure
3 .24 show·s che juscificacion for such an argumenc in rhe case of failure data: ic is evidenr rhar
r he scaner of ulrimace srresses for concrece of a given ft (or different loading paths is smaller
rhan t he scaner of ultimare values for concreres of different£, bur following a given loading
path (Korsovos 1984). A simila r jusri6carion for adopcing the OUFP level as the failure limit
(as opposed co rhe slightly higher maximum sustained stress le\'el - see Section 2 .3.3.l) may
be seen by reference ro Figure 3.25, \Vhich shows char the unsysrematic variation of che maxi·
mum srress level for various concretes far exceeds che deviarion becween OUFP and US level
for a given concrece (Kocsovos 1984).
A niathemarical description of the nvo srrengch envelopes in Figure 3.23 may be obrained
by fining curves ro rhe experimenral data . Such an approach leads to the follo\\ring
expressions:
'~ '" - 0.944(0.lf, + 0.05)
0 (3.54)
·"'

srresses (cr.,, to) ar the ulrimate·screngch level, which appear norn1alised 'vith respect co the
uniaxia 1 cylinder compressive srrengrh ft " 'ere o brained from criaxial cesrs carried our ar
Imperial College on a \Vide range of concretes (\\rich ft varyin.g approxi1narely berween 15
and 65 MPa) subjected ro the axisyn1mecric stress scares 0 1 >cri=o3 >0 (criaxial 'compres·
siont), cr1 =o1 >o;>0 (criaxial 'exrension') and cr1 =<:ii >O> cr; (criaxial 'tension' C- C-T).
Full derails of rhese resrs can be found else\vhere (Korsovos a nd Ne\\rman 1977, Gerscle
ec al. 1978). Figure 3.23 indicares rhar, for rhe portion of rhe scress space invescigacedt rhe
ultimare·srrengrh envelopes are essenrially independenc of fn rhat is, rhe cype of concrece.
Furthernlore, since the scress·pach effecrs on ultimare srrength have been found sn1all enough
robe regarded as insignificanc for praccical purposes (see Section 2.3.3.3), che two envelopes
<Mf f, • 0.633(0. Jf, + 0.05)°·"'' (3.55)
Equations 3.54 and 3 .55 represent nvo open·ended convex envelopes rhe slopes of which
rend ro become equal ro thac of rhe space diagonal as cr., cends to infiniry. These expressions,
rogerher with Equation 3.53, define a n ulcimate·srrengc:h surface which conforms with gen·
erally accepced shape requirements such as six·fold symmerry a nd convexity \virh respect ro
rhe space diagonal, open·ended shape \Vhich rends ro become cylindrical as 0 0 rends ro infin·
i<y and so forth (f ranklin 1970). A chree-dimensional (3-D) view of chis ulrimare-srrengrh
surface is sho\vn in Figure 3.26.
100 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Modelling of concrete behaviour 10 I

o,

l
-i(llo/J.

Figure 1
. 24 A. unsystematic variability of 'failure' data obtained from tests using stress path I for concretes
with(. varying between approximately IS and 65 MPa; 8. stress-path effect on 'failure' data (or
a typical concrete (with fc• 31.7 MPa).

Figure 3.26 Three-dimensional view of the predicted ultimate-strength surface.

It will be oociced rhac che validicy of expressions (3.54) and (3.55) is limired by checonscrnim
chac tensile hydrosraric srress srares cannot exceed 5% of the uniaxial cylinder compressive
srrengch ft. This leads to consideracion of the quesrion of ·whar experinlental dara chere are for
srntes of suess i.o which ar leasr rwo of rhe principal stresses are rensile, and how che n1odel
describes rhe failure envelopes under such condicions. Experimenral evidence of rhis rype is \'ery
scarce and, moreover, is invariably associated wich large scaccer. Under such circun1srances~ the
n1odel sn1oothly exrrapolares the C-C- T porrion of the failure surface into regions where n1ore
rhan one pri1lcipa1 srress is rensile. A rypical cross section of rhe failure envelope is shmvn in
Figure 3.27 (correspo11ding to che axisymn1ecric case) (Kocsovos and Pavlovic 1986), and che
resulr is 3 smooth surface in che ·censio11~ region which provides a conservarive escin1are co a
paran1erer rhar is subjecr to a very large degree of unS)-sremaric variabilicy, and which, furcher·
n1ore, represents a sniall absolure order of n1agnirude (relacive ro or her sr.ress values) in rhe stress
space. (Ir is also imporranc ro recall che well-known facr rh.at che resring of brittle marerials in
tension is usually n10re problematic chan che derer1ninarion of rbeir compressive propenies; ch.is
was messed already by FOppl [Timoshenko 1953] and is scill largely relevanc coday.)
Oo che basis of expressions (3.53) chrough (3.55), checks may be carried ouc co ascercaio
wherher a scate of scress lies inside or outside Lhe failure envelope. The acrual procedure
consists of rhe follo,ving seeps.

• The octal1edral stresses and che rorationaJ variable (<J0 , t 0 , 1') are calculated either
Figure 3.25 A. unsystematic variability o( 'maximum stress' ~vel
exhibited by concretes with (. varying from che principal scresses (a1, cr1 , o 3 ) - compured previously on rhe basis of the global
between approximateJy IS and 6S MPa; 8. deviation of 'failure· level from 'maximum stress' srresses 0 11, char is, Co.a:., a1 , at, 'txyo tx-:' trJ - or direccly from the first, second and third
level forr a typical concrete (with f.. a <47 MPa). suess invarianr.s expressed in rerms of 0 11 (see Appendix A}.
102 Finite-element modelling o f structural concrete Modelling of conc.rete behaviour 103

(a) 2.4·~----------~
0 - Predicted envelopt>
o Eicperlmental data

(b)
- Predicted enwlope
-0.20 o Expetlmeiual cbta

2 3
~(2°)<1//,

Figure 1.27 Complete ultimate-strength envelope for concr ete under axisymmetric stress.

5
(<) -O.l - P<edictedenvelope /
• The u lrimate devi:noric scresses ar t) = 0 ° and 60° (i.e., ,.°"and T0 " respecti\•e,l y) are
o Experlmental data /
calculated (or rhe exisring stare of hydrostaric scress cr0 •
0 0
• The u lrimate ::le\•iaroric scress -r0 ,, for the existing rotarional angle t) is calculared on rhe ~ 0 0 ,/
-0.10
basis of che interpolarion formula defined by (r°"'' 'T°'" and 6).
• The values of t 0 and TOii are compared; if 'T0 > TQlo, rhe scare of stress lies ourside rhe 0
0
0 /'
failure envelope.
~
">i 0 0
0
./· .,
" •p .b ..
3.2.2 Accuracy of the mathematical m o del for the failure su r faces
It is imporranc ro assess the accuracy of rhe proposed n1odel by con1paring che predictions
-0.05
/./·
0

-,_,-
I/
with a wider body of experimenral dara chan rhar which provided che basis for che deriva· . __ _-0
Oo ....,...
~~5----0_.,....
. l~O---_..,._.
O.IS

rion of rhe mathemarical expressions. This wa.s done in Seccion 3.1. 3 for che scress-scrain
relations, and a sioilar exercise is carried our in rhe presenr seccion (or che screngrh enve·
lopes of concrece.
The incersecrions of the predicted ultimare..strengch surface with che planes a 1 = Oi
cr1 = 0, cr1 = 0 represent the u lcimare.. scrength envelopes for concrece under biaxia l scress.
Figure 3.28a- c sho-n• rhe biaxial strengrh en\•elopes (nonnalised -n•ith respect to l> for con·
crete under compression- con1pression (C- C), compression-cension (C-T) and rension- ten·
sion (T-T), respecrively, as predicced by the proposed general expressions. The figures also
include mosr of ch' experimencal dara published up ro che end of 1973 (Hannam 1974).
Figure 3.29 shows 1he biaxial strength envelope predicred for concrece under C- C, together
\\•ith experimencal daca obrained in rhe international cooperative project referred co earlier
in rhis chapter (Gerstle er al. 1978).
The larger scaner of che dara shown in all of che above figures is evident. In the case of
C- C and C- T, the mathematical model is seen co provide a fair average to such scaner. On
off,
Figure 1.28 Predicted biaxial strength envelopes for concrete with experimental values published up to
1973 (Hannant 1974) (it should be noted that the envelope 0 1 > 0 1 >0:3• where compression is
positive, has been adopted [Kotsovos 1979l): (a) compression-compression; (b) compr ession-
tension; (c) tension- tension.
rhe ocher hand, the model gives a lower bound for rhe T- T case, in an aue1npc co ensure a
conservacive escimace of a paran1eter which is especially sensit ive co rhe n1erhod of rescing
used; hence, even though rhe uniaxial censile scrength of concrece is ofren raken to be of rhe
order of 10% o( l, such a figure is halved in ch! present model.
As expla ined in Chaprer 2, che \Vide variation o( che experimencal data shown in all rhe
above figures has been anribuced 1nainly co che different resting techniques used and, in
10~ f inite·element modelling of structural concrete Modelling of concrete behaviour 105

1.0
- - - Expetin.e.nbl enwlopes:
1.4,-------------------,,
- - Experiment3.I envelopes
- - Ptedleted env-elOpe 1.2 - - Ptcdlct:od <>tw-ela·pc

LS
/ I
\ 1.0
I

I
I
I
OJI
/
....
~ 1.0
~ ~I I
) ~ i1 : I
I
I ~ 0.6
/
/ ' I I 0.4
/
o.s
/
/
0.2
/
0
0 o.s J.0
a,/k
..s 2.0
0

-0.~o"'.2---'o--
====
o.'-2--~-'-·--o-'-.6--0'-.s--1-'-.o---"
1.2
,____,
1.4
o,I/,
Figu~ J.29 Predicted biaxial strength envelopes for concrete under compression-compr ession with
experimental values published between 1973 and 1978. firure 3.30 Predicted biaxiaJ streoith e nveJope"i for concr ete with experimental e:nveJopes obtained in
tests for which •brush• platens were used.

parcicular, co rhe degree o( frictional resuainr ar rhe pla1en- specimen inrerfaces (Gerscle
er a l. 1978). Now, iris general!)' accepred rhar one of che mos r e(ficie1u \vays of 1ninim.is~
iog chis fricrional resrrainc is by loading through "brush' plarens, and it is by using such a
loading sysrem thac the biaxia l srrength envelope s hown in Figure 3.30 has been obrained
(Kupfer ec a l. 1969). Figure 3.30 also includes che predicredenvelope and it is significant thac
a close correlation berween predicted and experin1e11ral envelopes is no\V anained.
So far, rhe accuracy of rhe proposed strength envelope has been assessed by comparison
o( che mathe1narical pl'ediccion wirh available experin1en1al data obcained under biaxia l~
loading conditions. Nexr, results from uiaxial resrs are considered. Figure 3. 3la-c sho\v
rhe suength envelopes, expressed in cerms o( normalised principal scresses, predicred by
rhe proposed expressions for concrere under various uiaxial axisymmecric scress srares,
rogecher wich che experimenral values correspondi11.g to che daca published up to rhe end
of 1973 (Hannam 1974). Figure 3.32a and b show the same envelopes corresponding to
figure 3.31a and b, respecrively, bur now expressed in terrns o( occahedral scresses (and for
a given concrece), rogecher \Vfrh the experimencal valu~ obcained in rhe inrernarional coop..
erarive p1oject (Gerstle ec a l. 1978).
Thi! uuaJu.•<lral Mtl!11gd1 euvdvpt: prc:Ukte<l Uy tht" proposc:J <:xprt'".!t."lious Cur {) = 30" b.
shown in Figure 3.33, while Figure 3.34 depicrs the inre1secrion of che ulcin1ace-strengch
surface wirh the deviacoric plane a0 =34 . .5 i\ttPa. Both rhe.s e figures include experimental
values obtained in the international cooperative project (Gersde et al. 1978). As for che
ocher triaxial daca, che proposed analytical expressions are seen ro give a sarislacrory 6r co
experimenral resuJrs. li1 conclusion, rhe suggesred ulrimare·scrength surface appears ro pro..
vide a siinple generalised marhen1arical represencarion of fai lure in concrer·e s under any rype
of short·lerm loading condicion. The surface conforms co general!)~ accepced shape require·
n1enrs and has been found ro produce a close fir for n1osr biaxial and triaxial screngrh darn.
published co dace.
J.J DEFORMATION AL AND YIELD CHARACTERISTICS
OF RE INFORCING STEEL
The deformarion and suengch of rein(orcing s teel bars are adequacely described by reference
ro cheir uniaxia l propercies. (There(ore, as will be seen in larer chaprers, che reinforcemenl is
a lmosc invariably n1odeJled by means of line FEs possessing sriffness along their longicudinal
axes only.) Such n1arerial modelling is comparible wirh rhe negligible in1porcance anached
co che effecr of the soacalled do\veJ action in shear-transfer 1nechanisms, as explained else·
where (Kotsovos and Pavlovic 1986, Kotsovos et al. 1987).
Figures 3.35 and 3.36 show the cr1-linear diagran1s adopced for che srress- srrain charac·
reriscic of sreel bars up co and including cheir plasci6carion. The first of chese \Vas used in
che rwo-din1eosio11al (2· 0) version of the FE n1odel, which was developed \vhen che 1972
Code of practi<e for the structural use of co11crete (CPI 10) was in force (British Srandards
lnscirurion 1972). Such a diagran1, intended prim.arily for mild-s reel reinforcement, broadly
follo,vs this code's recommendacjons but rhe chird br:inch of rhe characcerisric is gi\'en a
sn1all sJope (inscead of being horizonral, as in rhe code) in order ro avoid che nun1etical dif·
ft\:ultit:':i. that would rl!suh i{ au aUrupt stiflu~~ '-:hangc: to E =0 Wt'tt' to ltf:t:ur (Bt:c.larJ 1983).
The diagran1 corresponding ro Figure 3.36, on rhe orher hand, was adopced in rhe 3-D
version of the FE model, this having been developed after the 1985 Code of practice for
structural concrete (BS 8110) became operative (Brirish Standard< lnsticution 1985). The
influence of che laner version o( che code ca11 be seen, (or example, in the face char high·
srrength sceels are equall)' catered for and, also, in che lack of differenriation becween cen·
sion and con1pression reinforcemenr.
As one '"'ould expecc, rhe choice ben,ieen Figures 3.35 and 3.36 usually has negligible
effecc on srrucrural behaviour predicted by the FE n1odel. ln both cases, che 6rsr rwo
branches of che characceriscic are complerely defined once f, (che yield scress in MPa) is
106 f inite-element modelling of structural concrete Modelling of concrete behaviour 107

(o) 5.0 (b) 5.0 (o) (b)

0 ft = 3L7N/mm2

45 4.5
,,.. 30 "'E 30
4.0
0
4.0
!-· 20 f
-· 20

35 3.5 10 - - Predk:ted enwlo~ 10 - - Predicted envelope

0 Expe.rfmental data o Experln,em:al <bta

~ 3.0
.; ~
.
'::;<
~
3.0
00 JO 20 30
0 11 (N/mm2)
40 50 60 00 10 20 30 40 50 60

.;
Figure 3.32 Predicted triaxial combinations of octahedral stress.es at uh:imate strength for a given con·
25 2.5 crete (with(.• ll.7 MPa) together with txperimentaJ value s published between 1973 and 1978:
(a)a. o·
60° (triaxial 'compression): (b) 1). (tiaxial 'extension1-

2.0 of numerical analysis. This avoids the uncertainty of (single) yielding derecced in the lasc
and non·converged load seep of che analysis and, furchermore, clearly helps to differentiate
ductile from brittle predictions.
- - Precbcted eiwelope 1.5 - - Predicted enttlope The cri·linear stress- strain diagram adopted by Gonzalez Vidosa \Vas complemenced \Yich
0 Ex:per'lmental data o Expetlmenul data an additional linear branch (COL(iOVOS 2004) describing sceel behaviour under cyclic loading
(see Figure 3.37). Figure 3.37 indicares thac this additional branch has an inclination equal
J.0 1.0 to thac of che first branch of che monoconic diagram, and, after yielding, ics distance from
0 o.s J.0 1.5 2.0 0 05 15 2.0
the origin of the laner is linked to che maximum stress of the cyclic load.
0 11ft = 03/ft

(c) -0.15
3.4 A SUMMARY OF CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF CONCRETE
- - PredK"ted eiwelope
-0.10 o Eicper'lmental dau RELEVANT TO MODELLING OF MATERIAL BEHAVIOUR
~ 0
.; -0.05
0 0
This chapter has been devoted to a detailed description of the machematical expressions
derived for che deforn1acional and screngrh d\aracceristics of concrete under rriaxial scares
0
02 0.4 0.6 0.8 J.0 i.2 1.4 J.6
o 1/ft =a,_lft

Figure 1.31 Predicted triaxiaJ strength envelopes for concrete under a.xisymmetric stress states with
experimental enve&opes published up to 197'3: (a) 0 1 > a, =o:3 > 0 (triaxial 'compression'):
(b) 0 1 =o! > o 3 > 0 (triaxial 'extension'); (c) a, =a,> 0 > a 1 (triaxial ' tension').

specified. The rhir:i branch has a n1uch smaller effecr on che behaviour of a scrucrure and
10 - - Predtcted eiwelope
hence is either given a sn1all nominal slope (approximately 1% of che initial slope) and a cu:·
o Experimental data
off ultimate strain e .. = 0.12 (2· 0 model), or ir requires che specification of the maximum,
char is, uhimare, s.cress {,,., and the corresponding ultin1ate suain e,.. (for the 3·0 modeQ.
(Since f. and E,,. are rarely reported for mild steel, the 3·0 version of che model auton1atically
assumes f. = 1.1 5{, and•. = 0.12 for such sreels [Gonzalez Vidosa 1989).)
le should be scressed that, although a bilinear diagram mighe appear to be more suirable Figure 3.33 ~edicted triaxial combinations of octal-iedraJ stresses at ultimate strength for a given con ·
in the case of mild steels (and is, in facc, recon1mended by the 1985 code), ie turns our co l:e crete (with f. • 3 1.7 MPa) under triaxial stress states w ith 1) • 30° together with experimentaJ
very convenient co predict earlier yielding of the steel (i.e ., che second branch) in the course values published between 1973 and 1978.
109 f inite-element modelling of structural concrete Modelling of concrete behaviour 109

Pttdkted envelope I
0 Experhnetll data I
\ I !.
\ 30 I
\
\ {
J,
a, o.sr,
20 cl.. B
~ I
"e I
~ I
\ ~ I
\ - 10 i-
\ I 0.002 ..
W,''
' \ I
a
1
' ' ''
a,
\1 a,
Figure 3.36 Constitutive and strength relationships for steel (3-0 FE package): A. high-yiekl steel; 8. mild
steel. (Note: for purposes o( clarity. onJy the salient features for the A characteristics are
marked on the vertical axis.)
' Hydtosbtic axJs

a, a l
a,
Plot Ofientatio-n

Figure 3.34 Predicted tria.xial strength envelope on the deviatoric pbne (10 • 34.S MPa for a. given concrete
(with(. • 31.7 MPa) together with experimental vaJues published between 1973 and 1978.

of srress. These expressions have been decived by regression a naJysis of valid experimenrnl
daca o btained fron1 rests carried out ar ln1perial College London.
The deformational characterisrics of concre[e have been expressed i11 che form of buJk Kand
shear G moduli and the inrernaJ .stress o"', the lacter describing the coupling berween srress
deviation--r0 and volmue change e01,,.. Both Kand G and o,., have been found robe independenr
of che rorationaJ variable t,, since Kand Gare func rions of the hrdroscatic 0 0 and deviatoric't0

=
E 2000 Nlmrnl

J,
O.Bf, I
I
I Fieure 3.37 Constiwtive and strenfth relationships for steel under cyclic Joadina:.
I
I
I
I scresses, respeccively, only. whereas o,., is a function of 0 0 a nd 't0 • The strengrh characreristics
I
! of concrete are represenced b)• a surface in stress space " rhich possesses six·fold syn1m.etr)'
E =- 200.000 Nlmml about che space diagonal cr1 = a 2 = o 3 and is fullr defined by irs meridians for 1' = 0° and 60t
I
I (i.e., che variacionsof t 0 \Virh 0 0 (or 0 1 >Gl =oJ and 0 1 = a 1 > al, respectively) and an interpol.a·
I
rjon function which describes the variarion o( 't0 \Virh 1' (0° ~ -{) ~ 60°) for any given 0 0 •
0.002 t., - 0.12 E le is imporranr to noce thar rhe single input variable required by rhe proposed expres·
sions for defining rhe strength and deforn1ational propenies of concrere under arbitrary
Figure 3.35 Constitutive and strength relationships for steel (2-0 FE package). n1ultiaxial srress condirions is ft - the uniaxiaJ cylinder compressive S((engch of concrere.
110 Finite-element modelling of structuraJ concr ete
Thus, boch rhe consricucive relarionships and rhe strengrh envelopes for concrete under uni·
axial, biaxial or criaxial stress srares are (ully and unequivocally derermined (irrespective
of the scress parh (ollo\\red) upon specifica1ion of ft. Such a paramerer is readily avai lable in
everyday engineering praccice, and rhis is in marked contrast wirh rhe paramecers required
by other, more complex n1odels of concrece for \Vhich rhe number of variables may be
large, cheir dererminacion difficulc and rht ensuing values of doubtful validiry. Many such
'cheories' are no more rhan curve-6.cring exercises (or a panicular set of experimenral dara
and, hence, ir is nor surprising that, besides the inherent awk\vardness, rheir accuracy is
usually limited co the parricular circum.srances and/or scrucrural form for which they \Vere
originally derived, more general problems necessiracing rhe adjusrn1ent of parameters or rhe
use o( altogether ne\\r models (or concrete behaviour. The model being proposed here, on
rhe orher hand, is applicable co all strucroral forms under any (shorr·l'ern1 scatic) loading
and/or boundary conditions, rhe generalicy of its predicrions being consistent \Yith rhe face
rhac a comprehensive description of concrtre response - all rhe \Vay to failure - is provided
by the simple uniaxial-suength parameter ft which could not possibly be che subject of
concroversy.
Jc should nlso be noted chat, at the matennl level, eon.erece is britde and that n fu ll descrip·
tion of ics response is en1bodied in rhe stress- strain characrerisrics up to che maxin1um
susrained srress. Such characteristics represent rhe complex processes of fracture initiation
and excension. The overall eHec-t of these have been approxiniated in a simple manner by
describing rhe ascending portion of rhe scress-strain relations as one due ro progressive
micro-cracking char can be explained wirh che aid of the 'inrernal compressive srress' con·
cept, rhe laner being equivalent to rhe release of censile-scress concenrrarions at the rips of
(usually barely - if at all - visible) cracks. Clearly, chis process is associated predominantly
Ytrith volume decrease, and minimum volume is reached a r che so·called OUFP level. From
rhis point onwards, volume dilation begins as a result of void forma rion and the peak stress
is quickly reached. Since rhe OUFP and rhe maximun1-srress levels are very close ro each
other, the fonner may be considered ro nurk, for all pracrical purposes, the failure of rhe
briule marerial, with rhe forn1acion of (now visible) primary cracks. Just as the non-linear
conscirurive relacions up to rhe OUFP level are associated \\'ith n1icro·cracking, che OUFP
limit icself may be used co define che strengch surface associated with macro-cracking. The
quasi-isotropy of concrere permics rhe description of rhe scress- strain re.lations in terms of
rhe nvo isotropic marerial paramerers as well as a rhird 'constant' which accounrs for cou·
piing berween deviacoric scress and ensuing hydrostacic strain. Strength envelopes indicate
chat failure is essentially a (unccion of deviacoric scresses and that permissible values of these
increase \Vich che level of hydroscacic stress.
REFERENCES
Barnard P. R., 1964, Researches into the comple-t: stress-strain cur\te for concrete, Magaii11e of Concrete
Rese1Jrcl1, 16(49), 203-210.
Bedard C., 1983, Non -li~r fin ite ele-rncnt an:1Jysis of concrete structures, PhD thesis, University of
London.
British Standards Institution, 1972, Code of p r:ictice for the structural use of concrete, CPl 10 (Part 1.
Design. m:ateri.als and workmanship), Brit:sh Stan dards Institution, London.
British Stand:ards Institution, 1985, British St::tndard. Structurnl use of concrete, BSSl 10 (Part 1. Code
of Prnctice for design an d construction), British Stan dards Institution, London.
CotsO\'OS D. ~1., 2004, Numerical in\testig.ation of structural concrete under dynamic (eanhquake and
impact) loading, PhD thesis, University of London, UK.
Drud.:e.r 0. C., 1967, lntroductioJt to J\1echaJtic; of Defom1able Solids, McGraw-Hi!~ New York.
Modelling of conc.rete behaviour 11 1
Franklin J. A., 1970, Cl:tssi6auion of Rock According_ to its l\+lech.anical Properties, Rock Mechanics
Report No. T.1, Jmperi.al College, London.
Gersde K. H., Linse 0. U .• Bcrtacchi P., Kotso\·os ~4. D., Ko J-1-Y., NC"Wm3n J. B., Russi P. et al., 1978,
Strength of concrete under multiaxial stress states, ProceediJtgs Douglass McHenry International
Sy111posium on Concrete and Concrete Structures, \1exjco Oty, ~·lexico, ACJ Publication SP-55,
Detroit, USA, pp. 103-13 t.
Gersde K. J-1., A.c;chl H., Bellotti R., Bertacchi P., Kotsovos M. 0 ., Ko f-1-Y., Linse 0. H. et :ti., 1980,
Behaviour of concrete under mulri:txi:tl strc'Ss states, JourntJJ of the Engineering Mechanics
Divisio,,, ASCE, 106(EM6), 1383- 1403.
Gonzalez Vidosa F., 1989, Three-dimensional 6nite de.mcnt analysis of structural concrete under static
loading, PhD thesis, University of London.
Hann.ant 0 . J., 1974, Nomog_mms for the fuilure of plair1concrete subjected to shun-term muJti-axial
stresses, T11e Structural Engineer, 52, 151- 165.
J lohbs D. W., Pomeroy C. 0 . .and Newman J. B., 1977, Design stresses for concrete structures unde.r
combined stttes of stTCSs, Tl1e Stntdttral Engineer, 55, 151 - 164.
Kutsovos M. 0., 1974, Failure criteria for concrete under gene.ralized stress, PhD thesis, Unjversity of
London.
Kotso\·os ~1. 0., 1979, Mathematical description of the stren~h propenies of concrete under gener-
:tliscd stTC"Ss, A11Jga:zi11e of Concrete ResetJrch, 31(108), 151 - 158.
Kotsovos M. 0 ., 1980, A mathcmatictl modd of the dcfomutional behaviour of concrete- under getl<'f'aliscd
stress br.tscd on fundamentaJ materiaJ propenics, J\1tJUrials & Stntctures, RILEM, 13(76), 289-298.
Kotsovos ~if. D., 1984, Concrete - A brittle frncturin£, material, MateritJls & Strudures, RILEM,
17(98), 107- 115.
Kouovos M. D., Bobrowski J. and 6bl J., 1987, Bdu'\iiour o( RC T-beams in shc-ar, 111e Structural
Engineer, 65B(1), 1- 9.
Kotsovos M. D. and Newm.an J. 8 ., 1977, Behavior of concrete under muJtiaxial stress, ACJ Journal,
Proc.eedings 749, 453-456.
Kotso\'OS M. D. and Newman J. B., 1978, Generalised stress-strain relations for concrete, Journal of the
Engineering Mechanics Division, ASCE, 104(E!\+f4), 845- 856.
Kotsovos M. D. and Newman J. B., 1979, A mathematical description of the deformational behavior of
loading under complex loading, Maga.Vne of Conaete Rese1Jrd1, 31, 77- 90.
Kotso\'OS l\+f. D. and Newman J. B., 1981, Fracture m('('.h:tnics and concrete behaviour, Magazine of
Concrete Research, 33(115), 103-112.
Kotsovos M. D. and Pavlo\•1c M. N., 1986, Non-linear 6nite element modelling of concrete structures:
Basic analysis, p henomenological insight, and design impfo:ations, b1gineering Comput1Jtio11s,
3(3), 243-250.
Kupfer f-1., Hilsdorf H. K. and Rusch H ., 1969, Beha,-ior of concrete under triaxi:tl stresses, AC/
Joumal, 66, 656-;;66.
Lowe P. G., 1978, Deformation and fractu re of plain concrete, Maga.zine of Concrete Research, 30,
200- 204.
NewmanJ. B., 1973, Deformational Behaviour, f':li lure Medunisms and Design Criteria for Concretes
Under Combinations of Stress, PhD thesis, UnjversCy of London.
Newman J. 8 ., 1974, Apparatus for testing concrete- under multiaxial states of stress, hf.aga.i.ine of
C'1ncrete ResetJrch, 26(89), 229- 238.
Newman J. B. and Newman K., 1978, Development of design Criteria for Concrete Under Combined
States of Stress, Technical Note 93, CIRIA, London.
Popcwics S., 1973, A numerical approach to the complete strc'Ss-stT!lin curve of concrete, Cement and
Concrete Research, 3, 583- 599.
Spooner 0. C. and Oougill J. W., 1975, A quantitative :ts!rssment of dam.age susttined in concrete dur-
ing compressive loading, Maga.Vne of Concrete ResetJrch, 27, 151 - 160.
Ttmoshenko S. P., 1953, History of Strength of J\1tJterials, ~·lcGrnw-tlill, New York.
Wilbm K.J and Warnke E. P., 1974, Constitutive model jor the tri.a:ci.al behaviour ofconcrete, Seminar
o n concrete structures subjected to tri.axi.al stresses, lnstituto Sperimentale Mocleli e Strutture,
Be~mo, Paper 111-1.
Chapter 4

Structure modelling for static problems

T he structure modelling is based on che fi nice -e lemenr (FE) approach which is so widely used
no\vadays - boch in pracrice and for research - rha r a derailed creannenc of ic in che present
work - where rhe rechn ique is employed n1erely as a numerical cool - \Vould be superflu·
ous. Instead , only the briefest of general outlines \Viii be given here, 1nain ly in order co fix
ideas and notation, and the ensuing condensed sun1mary \\rill forn1 che starring point ro
che subjec-r of interest, na1nely the non-linear finire-e le1nenc analysis (NLFEA) of concrete
structures. On che ocher hand, en1phasis will be placed on che description of che manner in
·which \videly used nu1nerical techniques have been n1odified and used for che developn1enc
of a non ..Jinear srraregy thar forn1s t he basis of che nun1erical schen1e proposed in rhe presenr
book as rhe n1os-r suirable one for rhe analysis of concrere strucrures.

4. 1 FINITE-ELEMENT METHOD

As is o fren remarked, much of the popularity of che FE method (FEM) seems from ics ready
visualisarion and obvious physical inrerpreracion. Thus, rhe n1odelling of a conrinuun1 by
d iscrerising ic inro a finire nu111ber of con1pone.ncs or ele111enrs has boch a 111arhemacical and
a physical counterparr in the solucion of accual discrece proble111s such as, for exa 111ple,
fra n1eworks, \Yhere nodes connecc sca ndard unics (i.e., sin1ple elements, rhe behaviour of
\Vhich n1ay be deduced once che relevant parameters - usually d isplacements - at th eir end
nodes have been derern1ined). In rhe case of a continuum, however, che implicir assumption
is usually n1ade char, in order co a crain th e exact solution, th e discrecisarion process should
be exrended ad infi11it11n1, a lthough, for engineering purposes, a fini te degree of subdivision
\\rill evenrually be sufficie ncly accurare. In this respecc, rhe FEM n1ay \Veil be compared \Vich
its analycical a na logue, the Ritz rechnique, \Vhere rhe assumed fields 111ust be adn1iss-ible
and, also, con1plere.

4 . 1. 1 Direct formulatio n of FE characteri stics

By far che n1osc popular FE approach in struct ural proble111s is based on assu111ed dis-place ..
n1enr fields. Consider a n individual FE, having a given number of noda l points along ics
bound aries. T hen rhe (continuous) displace111enr field \\rithin rhe ele111ent, 11 (\vhere che co111 ..
ponents of u depend on rhe d imensions of rhe problen1), is deen1ed ro be obrainable by
incerpolaring becween (i.e., by operating on) che relevanr noda l para 111eter d (such as dis ..
placen1encs and, possibly, rheir derivatives at rhese locations). In marrix (orn1

"=[N )d (4.1)

113
114 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Structure modelling for static problems 115

\ \ here [NJ is the nurrix of shape funcrjons relating the continuous field u co che disc-rere and, chrough che use of Equacion 4.1
1

sec d. The shape func-cions represenc che approxin1acing interpolacion to the accua I func..
cion \\rirhin che eJemenc (i.e., between nodes), \\1irh che kno\\rn nodal values d p:oviding •=IB)d (4.8)
che basis for che iruerpolation even chough che vector d itself \Viii usually conscituce also
an approxin1ation co rhe crue values a c che nodes. The number of parantecers that define a
given incerpolating function n1ust n1atch che nun1ber of nodal degrees of freedo1n (DOF).
As an exa1nple, consider a stra ight beam FE of lengch I \Vhich spans benveen nodes l (coor..
[BJ= [L)[N] (4.9)
dinnte x = 0) and 1 (x = /). Under the nssun1ption of a predomin::uuly flexural response, the
displacentenr field consiscs of a s ingle variable, nan1ely che cransverse displacen1ent ru. h is
usual co represenc che incerpolating funccions by polynontials. For the bea1n FE under con .. chat is, (BJ is n1ade up of differentials of rhe shape functions concained in (NJ. For inscance, in
sideracion, che cubic polynontial rhe previous bea1n example, che generalised scrain is sin1ply the curvature, chat is,£= -Jlruldx2.
Alremari,·ely, if c·wo·din1ensional (2.. D) proble1ns of plane elastic-fry are considered, \Vhere u
(4.2) consists of nvo variables, so rha1

consjsrs of four paramerric cons canrs, and hence four nodal DOF are required, chat is, nvo
at each of rhe end nodes 1 and 2 . le is cusro1nary co cake displacen1ents (tu1, rui) and slopes (4. 10)
u - [:]
(dtu 1/dx, drvz{dx) as rhe four nodal DOF. Then che vectors 11 and dare g iven by

u= tu (4.3) rhe strain vecror \Vould be given by

d-
"'•
a,
"''
(4.4) e -
•·e 1 [ d11/dx
- dv/dy
[y "' iJuliJy iJvliix
1
+
l -
[d/dx
0
iJ/iJy
(4.11)

a,
with the 3 x 2 marrix in Equation 4 .11 denning IL) for this particular problem type.
Clearly, rhe conscancs c 1 - ' " n1usr be adjusted so chac che relevant nodal para1necer(s) in Finally, che stress scare cr in the FE n1ay be obtained upon specification of che n1acrix of
dare obcained on S?ecificacion of che coordinaces of rhe given node. This is achieved by che cons cicucive relacions, [DJ, \Vhich links scresses and scra ins. In general forn1
follo\ving l x 4 shape..function 1nattix:
o = [DJ(£ - e.) + 0 0 (4.12)
[NJ= [N,N,N,N,] (4.5)
where, for the sa ke of completeness, the veccors of initial strains (e0 ) and scresses (crJ have
been included. although theS< are seldom considered. For the beam example. [DJ = El.
rhac is, rhe flexural rigidity, \Vhile in che instance of che plane·scress case in 2 .. 0 e,las cicicy,
3x2 2x' 2x' x' Equation 4.12 reduces (ignorir:g £0 and 0 0 ) co
N1 - 1- p+y; N2 - x - - -
1
+ 12 ;
(4.6)
3x 2
2x 3
x'
-- - + -
x'
N, - y · p;
[o,l 11··1
N ..
1' Oy • :-----z
E [1
V v1 00 t7 (4. 13)
~.,. l - v 0 0 (I - v)/2 y"'
le should be evidenc rhac, sj1lCe Equacion 4.1 is valid for all d, rhe N corresponding co a
g.iven node is unity ac that node and zero ac all the ocher nodes. (Ir should be noced rhac, in
rhe case of N 1 and N... chese n1usc be differentiated before rhe preceding check, \Vhich refers, The contpucation of che stre~ses directly from the nodal parantecers d 1nay be wrinen as
obviously, co di1nensjonally compatible variables, is applied; ho\vever, in all subse~uent FE
forn1ulations, relevant to the n1odelling of concrete scruccures, no such ntixrure of nodal o=[D)[B]d (4.14)
variable t ypes \\1ill arise as these consisr exdusi\•ely of displacentenrs.)
Once rhe displace1nenr field u has been obtained throughout a given FE, rhe \'eCtor of where, for nu1nerical purposes, ir is worch noting that [Dj((BJd) requires fe,ver operations
scrains, £., follo\vs upon operating on'' by n1eans of a suitable linear operator (LJ, chat is than ([D)[B))d.
The equilibrium of an FE subject co nodal acrions P. as \VeJI as loads Pr \Vhich are dis ..
•=IL]u (4.7) cribuced chroughout che ele1nent, 1nay be tackled by means of virrual ~\vork considerations
116 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Structure modelling for static problems 11 7

or through che principle of 1ninin1um potential energy. By adopting the forn1er approach, so-called sciffness 01 displacemenc method, \Vhich requires the solution of the sysce1n of
rhe applicacion of a se1 of vinual displacemencs &/ at the nodes \viii produce elemenr linear equacions
displacen1encs
[K)d=f (4.22)
Ou= [NJ&/ (4.15)
\\lhere d is no\V understood co represent all rhe generalised nodal displacen1ents co be deter-
and internal scrains mined, while f consists of the vector of generalised forces acring on rhese nodes, \Vhich is
obcained by sun11ning che conrributions of all eleinencs at every node. Similarly, rhe scrucrure
&=[BJ&/ (4.16) stiffness 1narrix [KJ is asse1nbled by adding rheco1uribucions of the various elen1ent sciffness
macrices [k]; chis process is based on rhe node nun1bering at che scrucrural level (rarher rhan
\V., che internal work done by rhe sr.resses through che volu1ne V of rhe elen1enc, is ch.en rhac of che individual elements) and on rhe scrucrure or global coordinate sysrem (hence
elen1ent sciffness matrices derived in a local coordinate systent must be transformed ro rhe
(4.17) structure axes - chis is achieved by rhe relevanc rransforn1ation ntatrices ntade up of rhe
direction cosines defining the relative oriencation bel\veen the two coordinate syscen1s or, as
in the case of che isopara1necric and Lagrangian ele1nents adopced for n1odelling reinforced
" 'hile \'V,., rhe exrernal \Vork done by che nodal actions and discribuced forces, amounts co concrece (RC) structures discussed in the follo\ving secrion, chrough rhe use of the Jacobian
macrix linking rhe derivacives of [N] \Vich respecc co the nvo sets of coordinates). Once [K)
(4.18) has been assen1bled, ic conscicutes a singular n1arrix since, ar rhac stage, rhe struccure being
modelled is free ro undergo any combination of rigid ..body n1oven1encs; che singularity dis ..
appears on specification of the relevant boundary conditions, and rhis is equivalent co rhe
re1noval of che ro\VS lnd colu1nns corresponding co the unknO\Vn reacrions a nd the associ-
On equating \V1 and W.., and recalling char rhe resulc n1usc hold for all va lues of &JT, che
ated kno\vn (usually zero) displace1nents, respeccively.
following is obtained
Since the superposition of rhe k .. n1atrices results in rhe overlapping of rhe stiffnesses of
only rhose elen1ents meecing at che co1nn1on node(s), rhe resulting [K] is sparse, and, \Vich
suitable nodal numbering, also 'banded', thar is, the non-zero coefficienrs cluster around rhe
(4.19)
diagonal. Moreover, on accounc of che linearicy of rhe problen1s be.ing considered, sciffness
macrices are sy1nmetric. All chese properries are used co advancage in achieving an efficient
merhod of solution to rhe ser of equacions defined in Equation 4.22.
where relations (4.15) and (4.16) have been used. The lasr term in Equarion 4.1 9 shows that On che basis of the foregoing, it is evident chat the approximacion inherent in che discre-
any distributed - and/or concencrared (if present) - loading chat is nor accing direcrly a t the cisation process described by Equacion 4 .22 is subject co auto1natic enforcen1enr of boch
nodes must be converted co nodal accions in a '\vork-equivalene manner chrough rhe use equilibriun1 and co1npacibiliry at che nodes, and that, in addition, compacibiliry is also saris-
of the shape-fu nct ion 1narrix; such 'consistent' nodal forces 1nay chen be added top,. and fied within each elemenc. On rhe orher hand, compatibility 1nay or may nor be satisfied ar
rhe combined result, chat is, rhe total nodal acrions, \\1ill be denored sin1ply by p. As a final rhe non-nodal ele1nent juncrions, depending on rhe rype of FE adopred. Furthermore, exacc
prelin1inary, the definition of rhe stiffness 1narrix for rhe elemenc is equilibriun1 is usually nor anained \Vichin elen1encs, nor across their co1n1non boundaries.
Ho\vever, provided thar cercain basic convergence criceria are n1et, 1nesh refinen1enc \\rill
[k] - ftBt[D)[B]dV (4.20) gradually reduce rhe~e local equilibriun1 violations and, if incompatible elen1enrs are used,
rhe effects of such inrer-elen1ent continuicy breakdo\vns. For a full description of such con·
vergence requiren1enrs and, indeed, for furthe r background co the FE n1erhod in general,
so thar che equilibrium scaten1enr soughc becon1es rhe reader is referred co scandard rexes on che subject (e.g., Zienkie,vicz 1977, Cook 1981 ,
Cook er al. 1989).
[k]d=p (4.21)
4 . 1.3 Finite elements selected
Evidendy, since rhere is a one-to-one correspondence between the respecrive OOF rhac
make up d and p, [k) is always a square matrix. Throughouc chis book, only rhree-di1nensional (3-0) analysis\vill be in1plemenced . Problen1s
of 2 .. 0 and axisyn1ntecric analysis of scrucrural concrete are fully discussed in Kocsovos and
Pavlovic (1995), \Yhere cases of 3-0 analysis of concrete structures under scatic n1onoconic
4 . 1.2 Generalisation to the whole structure
loading are also presented. The FE elen1ents selecced for rhis cype of analysis are sho\\rn
So far, ic has been assun1ed in1plicitly rhat d is kno\\1 n so rhac che co1npucacion of u, E and in Figure 4.1. Since all the elen1encs used are of the curved, isoparamecric type \Vich three
cr can proceed. The dererminacion of che kinemacic nodal OOF requires che analysis of che nodes along rhe varioos edges - arguably, the most \Videly en1ployed FEs in current praccice -
\ \ hole scrucrure, modelled by rhe full asse1nblage of FEs. Such an analysis is based on rhe much of rhe essential discussion pertaining ro their salient features is con1n1on to all of
1
118 Finite-element modelling of structural concr@:tc!
18
(•)
6 n1ent over linear-ele111ent fonnulacions) and complexicy (as che- nun1ber of OOFs per elen1ent
Figure 4.1 Finite elements used in 3-0 anatysis: (a) 20-.nocle serendipity brick element: (b) 27-node Lagrangian
brick element; (c) 3-node isoparametric line element..
rhem, as \viii becon1e evident in the brief outline thac (ollo\VS. (For a 1nore derailed general
background, see e.g., Zienkie,vicz 1977; \Vich regard ro the advancages of the isopara1necric
formulacion in respect ro non-linear concrece n1odelling in parcicular, a good sununary 1nay
be found in Philips and Zienkiewicr 1976.)
Solid brick elements are che basis for 1nodellingconcrete, \Vich chree OOFs (displace1nenrs)
at each node, the full stress and scrain tensors being given in the outpur. The 20-node seren-
dipiry unir sho\Vn in Figure 4.1a has been priinarily used for the analysis of srruccural 1netn-
bers under static ntonotonic loading (Korso·v os and Pavlovic 1995), \Vhereas the 27-node
Lagrangian ele1nent sho\vn in Figure 4.1b, despice rhe additional 21 OOFs required b)• the
insercion of one central and six n1id-face nodes, has been exclusi,·ely used for che analysis
of RC n1en1bers under scatic cyclic and dyna111ic (seisn1ic and impact) loading. The steel
reinforce111ent is assun1ed to consisc of line elen1ents, \Vhich are n1odeJled by n1eans of the
rhree-node FE bars sho\\rn in Figure 4.lc, \Vith a specified cross-seccional area and a coc:al
of nine displacen1ent OOFs, although irs stiffness is still lin1iced to axial properties only, so
rhac the bar ad111ics solely direcc stresses./srra~ns along ics length on account of its coca I lack
of bending rigidiry.
A narura l choice lor the shape, or inrerpoiacing, funccions in che case o( eien1encs \vi·rh
rhree-nodeedges - a feature co1nn1on to all o! the above FEs - is of che polyno1nial type th.at
yields a quadracic variation of displacen1enc(s) along these edges. Such shapes usually cake
rhe fonn of che \Vell·escablished serendipity or Lagrangian forn1ulacions on rhe basis of which
rhe elen1encs in Figure 4 .1 are derived. The adopcion of second-order polyno1nials ensures
displacen1enr continuity becween adjacent ele111enrs since a parabola is uniquely defined by
rhree points, in this case the three (con1n1on) nodes a long che incer-elen1enc boundary. A
direct consequence of chis is char the scrains, \vhich, for all the ele1nents under consider·
ation are functions of che fi.rsr derivatives of displacemencs (as e .g., in che 2--0 case given by
Struc:tur@: mod@:Uing for static probl@:ms 119
Equation 4.11), a l\\rays ren1ain finite ac the inrerfoce between. elen1enrs, chus satisfying the
usual convergence criteria. ln addition ro this consideration of C,,-continuiry, che quadracic
fan1ily of ele1nenrs provides a good balance ber\\1een accuracy (with an obvious improve·
is \Veil below those of higher-order n1odels, especially in 3· D problen1s). Furrhern1ore, the
quadratic interpolation functions provide the basis for rhe curved shapes of che e1emencs
in Figure 4.1 char enables rhe ready n1odelling of arhicrary geon1etric concours through
the isopara111etric formu lation, so111e of che relevanc feacures of \\rhich \\rill be sununarised
subsequencly. Before these are discussed, however, iris useful ro illustrace the cype of shape
functions used fM the e le1nencs adopted. In so doing, it may lbe helpful co imagine char the
various one~dimensional (1--0) and 3 -D unics have been temporaril)' 'scraightened' (rhus
consisring of lines and cubes, respectively) a lrhough, as in1plied above, rhe san1e shape func·
cions will also be applied larer co their curved councerpam.
The incerpolation functions [NJ of the various e1en1enrs are given in terms of local, ele·
ment coordinares., and it is usual practice to 1nake the laner dimensionless. These nacural or
incrinsic coordinates have origins ac the centre of the elen1enr, anaining values of ±I ar ics
ends (end nodes in 1-D and n1id-facets in 3 -0). Such local coordinaces are robe denored by
~'fl,~ (or~) in con.trasr ro che global or strucrure coordinates x, y, z (or x,). The various Ns
n1ay be checked - and, in face, are often accually construcced - by recalling char a given N 1
thac refers to node I is equa l to unity at char node and zero at all other nodes. The follo·wing
three cases (in increasing di1nensional and nun1be,r of nodes order) \Viii help ro illuscrate the
general approach usually adopred.
Consider firsc c:he bar (no\\r line) elen1enc \Vith ics origin ar che cenrral node bisecring the
elen1enr. The intrinsic coordinace ~ runs a long its axis and 'Che Lagrangian interpolation
funccions n1ay be wrinen in rerins of it as follo\\rs:
Corner node (~1 "±1): N 1" (112)~(~+~) (4.23)
Mid-side node (S1 = 0): N1 = 1 - s' (4.24)
\ \ here, as stared already, the subscript I defines rhe node in quesrion. Turning no'v ro a 3-0
1
exan1ple, the shape funccions for the 20 -node serendipiry elen1enc (no\\1 a cube) are described
in cernlS of rhe intrinsic coordinace systen1 ~. fl, ~(or~) e1nanacing fron1 che centre of the
unic.
C:Orner nodes (s1 = ±1, T\i = ±1, ~. = ±1):
N, = (1/8)(1 + sl;.)(1 + T\T\1)(1 + l;l;,)(C,!;1 + T\T\1 + l;l;, - 2) (4.25)
Mid-side nodes(!;,= 0, Jli= ±1, l;1 =±I; s 1 = ±1, Jli= 0, l;1 = ±1; !;, = ±1, T\i = ±1, ~. = 0):
N, = (114)(1 - s'Ht + T\T\1Hl + l;~,J for s, = o (4.26)
N, = (1/4)(1 - T\1)(1 +~)(1 + l;~,) for J1i = 0 (4.27)
N, = (114)(1 - 1;1)(1 + C,!;1)(1 + T\T\i) for ~' = 0 (4.28)
The shape funccions for each of the 27 nodes of the Lagrangian e le111ent in Figure 4. lb
are also described in cern1s of the intrinsic coordinate sysrem ~.fl,~ (or~) emanacing from
110 Finite·element modelling of structural concr ete Structure mo delling for static problems 111

che cencre of the unit. In \Vhac follows, chese are expressed in an explicic form for clariry N,. - {I +!;){I + ii•{I - l;,1 )14 - (Nu + Nu)/2 - N,./8 (4.46)
purposes.
lnrernal node:
Nu - {I - !;){I + tJ)(I - l;,1 )14 - (Nu + Nu) /2 - N,./8 (4.47)
N., = (I - (,1 )(1 - 111 )(1 - ~1 ) (4.29)

M id-face node<: C.orner nodes:

N , - (I - !;)(I - 11)(1 - 1;)18 - {N2 + N, + N 1o)/2 + (N, + N u + Nu)/4 - N ,.18 (4.48)

N 11 - {I - !;1 )(1 - 111 )(1 - l;,)12 - N,.18 (4.30)

N, - {I +!;)(I - ri)il - 1;)/8 - {N2 + N, + N11)12 + {N, + Nu + Nu)l4 - N ,.18 (4.49)

N 11 - (I - !;1)(1 - ri'){I + l;,)12 - N,.18 (4.3 1)

N 21 - {I + !;)(! + 11!(1 - !;,)18 - (N 12 + N,. + N,,)12 + (N11 + Nu + N,,)14 - N,.18

Ns - {I - !; 2)(1 - lJ){I - l;,2)12 - N 10 18 (4.32) (4.50)

Nu - {I + !;){I - ri'){I - l;,1 )12 - N,.18 (4.33) Ntt - (I - !;)(! + tJl(I - 1;)/8 - {N1o + N,. + N11)12 +{Nu + Nu + Nu)/4 - N ,.18
(4. 11)

Nu - {I - !;2 )(1 + ri)(I - l;,1 )12 - N,.18 (4.34)

N7 - (I - !;)(! - 11)11 + l;,)18 - (N, + N, + N,.)12 + {N, + Nu + N 11)14 - N,.18
2 2 (4.52)
N11 - {I - !;){! - •1 )(1 - l;, )12 - N,.18 (4.35)

N, - (I + !;)(! - 11)1! + l;,)18 - (N, + N, + N,.)12 + (N, + Nu + N 11)14 - N ,.18

Mid·edge nodes: (4.53)

N2 - {I - !;2 )(1 - •1){! - l;,)14 - {Ns + Nu)l2 - N,.18 (4.36) N 11 - {I+!;)(! + 111(! + l;,)18 - (N18 + N,. + N,.)12 +{Nu + N, 1 + Nu)/4 - N ,.18
(4.54)
N11 - {I + !;)(! - 111 )(1 - l;,)14 - {N11 + N,,)12 - N,.18 (4.37)
Nu - (I - !;)(1 + •1!{1 + l;,)18 - (N" + N21 + N,.)/2 + (N,, + N11 + N23)/4 - N,.18
1
(4.55)
N,. - (I - !; )(1 + lJ){I - 1;)14 - (N11 + N23)/2 - N,.18 (4.38)

N 1o - {I - !;){I - ri'){I - l;,)14 - (N:a + N11)12 - N,.18
N, - (I - !;1)(1 - '1)(1 + l;)/4 - (Ns + N11)11 - N ,.18
Ntt - {I +!;){I - •1 2)(1 + l;,)14 - (N,, + N 11)f2 - N,.18
N,. - (I - !;1 )(1 + 11)(1 + 1;)14 - (N11 + N23)12 - N,.18
N,. - {I - !;)(I - ri'){I + l;,)14 - {Nu + N 11)f2 - N,.18
The quadracic shape fu nctions for rhe adopced elen1encs \Vich chreeanode edges ha,•e no'v
(4.39) been presenced, and cht \Vay in which chose srraighc·edged unics can be disrorred so as ro
produce che cypes of FEs sketched in Figure 4.1 n1ay nexr be considered. Such a disronion of
scraighc-edged elen1encs through mapping co produce FEs \Vith curved boundaries char \\•ill
(4.40)
6.t more easily co1nplex problem geo1necries - and thus allo\\• coarser 1neshes for the san1e
degree of accuracy - n1ay be fonnulaced in several \Vays. ln general, che local (scraight) coor·
(4.41) dinates becon1e a ser of curvilinear coordinates \\1hen n1apped onto a global (Carresian) sec
of coordinates, che type and degree of discorcion depending on che shape funccions chosen ro
escablish such a coordinate cransformacion. Of particular inceresr is che case \\1hen the shape
(4.42)
funccions (N] adopted as che incerpolation funccions for rhe relevant para1necer in che FE
analysis are a lso used as che shape functions for che niapping t ransfonnation of coordinate
(4.43) geon1ecries. Such an isopara1necric forn1ulation is especially advantageous for rhe elen1encs
\ \1 irh chreeanode sides based on quadratic interpolacion functions, since che resulting para ..

N, - {I - !;)(I - 11)(1 - l;,2 )14 - (Ns + N,,)12 - N ,.18
N, - (I + !;)(! - 11)(! - l;,1 )14 - (Ns + Nu)12 - N ,.18
bolic disrortions of t he edges (as in Figure 4. t) are usually sufficient for practical purposes.
(4.44) In addition, displacentenc continu icy at inter..elen1enc boundaries of the parent units also
ensures the continuiry of che d isrorted elen1encs, \Vhile che cho ice of che n1id-side locations
for the non-corner edge nodes for che FEs of Figure 4.1 aucon1acically guarancees u nique-
(4.45)
ness, chat is, one -ro-one 1napping.
122 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Structure modelling (or static problems 123

Ar chis scage, ir n1usr be borne in mind chac, in che course of FE con1purations, elenienr and, considering, for exan1ple, che con1putacion of ics element stiffness n1arrix, the follo\\ring
scif(niess n1acrices and relaced load veccors (as defined by che firsc and lasc rer1ns o( expression can be \Vrircen as
(4.19D n1usr be evaluated in che form of integrals involving quancities char are co be operated
upon \Vith respecc ro global axes x,: e.g., (BJ in\•olves first derivatives of (N] \Virh respecc ro Ill

xlylt (in the presenc \vork [LJ - see Equation 4.9 - ahvays consists of tirsr derivatives of the cype
illuscraced earlier for che 2-D case - see Equation 4.11 - and readily excendible nor only to the
3-D unit hue also co che l·D elenient, as the latter possesses no bending stiffness); si1nilarly, rhe
infini1esin1al volu1ne dV throughout \Vhich che integration is perforn1ed is given by dxdydz. On
che or her hand, che N ,s are defined in cerms of local (no\V curvilinear) coordinates(,,, and hence
a transfonnacion is required berween global a nd local derivacives; and, similarly, che incegral
ir:self nlusc be con1puted chrough rhe use of local coordinates, so cha·c a funher transforn1acion
is needed to obcain che correct scale faccor, \Vith che conco1nitant change of incegration lin1its .
The transforn1acion involving firsr derivacives of N 1 can be derived by invoking che chain
rule for parcial differenciacion. This \Viii be illuscrared by reference co the general 3 -D case
which, clearly, also encon1passes ics simpler 2-D and l·D cou1uerparcs. In macrix fonn, che
required expression is
dy/dl;
dy/d11 (4.56)
dy/d'r,,
[k] - ff -1-1-1
f lBt[D)[BJ(der[J)d;dt1d!; (4.59)
Clearly, 2-D and l·D elen1encs \Viii be, essentially, of che sa 1ne fonn \\1hile, obvious ly,
consisting of double a nd single integrals, respecci,•ely.
lncegrals such as chose (orining the basis of the elemencas'£if(ness co1npurarions are ofcen coo
co1nplex co be calculaced exactly by analyt ical 1neans. This is particular~y true in che case of
the n1ore sophisticaced curved elen1encs sremn1ing fro1n the isopara1necric forn1ulation, so chat
resorc 111ust be made co nun1erical-integracion techniques (just as the in\'erse of UJ is also cal·
culared nun1erically in such proble1ns). In chese n1echods, the (unc-cion being incegraced (f) is
evaluared at a finite nu1nber of points within che elemenc, and each of chese values is n1ultiplied
by che lengch of che incerval associated \Vich thac F value, \\rhich lengch n1ay be choughc of as
an adequare \Veighting fac tor \V; che sum of all rhe produces \VF constirutes an approximacion
co, and in certain inscances actually coincides \Vich, che true value of che integral. With specific
reference ro the incrinsic coordinaces and integration limics associated \\1ith rhe isoparan1ecric
forn1ulati0:n, l·D, 2-D and 3-D incegrals n1ay therefore be expressed as follo\VS:

- 4W.F~)
I
To decern1ine the cons ciruenr elen1encs of che square Jacobian macrix linking che veccors I, - IF(~ (4.60)
3N1/1ffl;1 and fJN11-fY.c,, use is n1ade of rhe shape (unctions relating the t\VO sets of coordinates -:1
x, and t_.. Since the isoparamecric forn1ulacion has been adopced .. in which both displace·
ments and coordinaces are I I

x, y, z, I, - J JF(S,11)d!;d11 -
-1-1
LL
' I
IV,ll'l,F(;,111) (4.61)

[ aN,/dl; aN,lal; aN,ta; x, y, t1

UI - aN,ta11 dN1 /d11 aN,1a11 x, y, z, I. I I

aN,ldt, aN,la'r,, aN,tar,,

=1 (4.57)
I, - JJ J F(;,t1,l;,)cJSd11d!; -
- 'l - l - 1
LL~ \V,11'1,11'1,f(!;i,>11,l;,,)
I J
(4.62)

[I(dN1/dl;)x1 !(dN11d'l;)y1 rcaN,taslz1

" 'here che nu1nber of poincs (i.e., range(s) of i, j and k) are usually che sa1ne in all directions
- !(N,ta11)x, !.(N, ta11)y1 !(dN1/dq)z, (and are sym1netrically located ·wirh respec-c co rhe origin). \Vhen the a bove are applied roan
!(dN, ld'r,,)x1 !(dN,ldt,)y, !(dN11d'r,,)z1 incegrand n1atrix - as, for exan1ple, in Equation 4.59 - ic should be borne in mind chat each
coefficienc of [BJ'[DJ[B)(derLf)) musr be incegrared in rnrn rhrough t he relevanc formula
given in Equations 4.60 through 4.62; rhe resulranc I defines the single coefficienc k• in [k].
·where, in che last expression, che I may be leh out provided chat che repeated index is scill For a given number of poincs ac \Vhich Fis evaluaced, Gauss's n1ecl1od of nun1erical incegra·
underscood ro imply sun1n1acion. The vector fl-N1 /~ on che lefc·hand side in Equation cion or quadracure provides che besc degree of accuracy. These opcin1al sampling· poinr loc-a·
4.56 being also readily obtainable, che required veccor '6N/1Y.<, of derivatives \Vith respec-c cions and t heir respecci\'e \Veighting coe(ficiencs are readily available in cabulared fonn for
ro global coordinates is finally obcained by inverring UJ and multiplying rhe resulr by rhe
various incegracion orders n, a ll daca being specified ro a subsrancial nun1l,er of significanc fig·
array ftN1 1~1 • ures as required for precision purposes {see, for inscance, Zienkie\\ricz 1977 and Cook 198 1).
The second coordinate cransformacion, percaining ro che region of incegration, involves a Nunterically inregraced macrices obviously depend on che order of iinregracion adopced.
scalin g facror beC\veen the rwo coordina ce sysce1us \Yhich n1ay readily be sho\\rn robe s i1nply AccordingJy, differenc numbers of s.an1pling poincs \Viii produce diHerent sciHness 1natricest
che decern1inanr of LJJ - usually referred ro plainly as che 'Jacobian· (see e.g., Zienkie,vicz and che quesrion thus arises as ro che optin1un1 - or ac leasc an adequate - quadrarure rule.
1977, Irons and Ahmad 1980). Thus, for the general 3-D case Alchough such a choice varies from proble1n co problen1 - and can be ascercained only
chrough nun1erical experin1encation - a general guideline is chac as lo\\r an order of ince·
dV - dxdydt - (der(1])cJSd11d!; (4.58)
gracion is usually desirable provided chat it does not lead co nun1erical insrabilicy. Several
12'4 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete
argu1nenrs 1nay be adduced in favour o( lo\v.. order inregrarion. Firsr, there is rhe co1npura·
rion cin1e, ·which is quire considerable as irs order of 1nagnirude can be con1parable ro thar
of equacion solving. The consideration is o( special significance in non-linear \York, \Vhere
elen1enr sriffness matrices are usually constanrly updated. Bearing in mind char nun1erical
incegrarion is proportional co the square of che nun1ber o( DOF in the ele1nenr ti1nes che
number of san1pling poinrs, ic is clear chat che change from a nvo-poinc co a chree..point rule
\\rill n1ore than approximacely double - in 2-D cases - and rriple - in 3-D problen1s - rhe
incegrarion cosr. Another advantage of low-order quadracure algorich1ns is thar chese result
generally in a softening of the ele1nenr, thus counreracring the overly sciff nacure inherent in
FEs derived on rhe basis of displacen1ent or sti(fness (ormularions. A rhird favourable char·
acreristic associared \Vich fe,ver sa1npling poi1us refers to rhe locacions ar \Vhich srresses are
con1puced. le is \veil kno,vn that calculations o( stresses along edges or faces of rhe elen1ent
rend ro be inaccurate, especially ar che nodes. This is parricularly true o( che quadraric C0
elements used in the present \Vork. Ir rurns ouc char the opcimal locations at " 'hich stresses
should be calculated coincide wich the Gauss points in rhe interior of che element (if required,
stresses ac edges/faces or nodes may rhen be exrrapolared from che va lues obtained a t Gauss
poincs). No\V, che use of lo\v·order or 'reduced' integracion has often been found co provide
noc only superior ans\vers co chose anained by n1eans of 'full' (i.e., higher-order) integra·
rion buc also rhe oprimun1 locations for stress con1puracion. For exa1nple, such behaviour is
exhibiced by serendipity elen1encs where 2 x 2 integracion tends ro improve rhe prediccions
of rhe 3 x 3 rule and, in addicion, rhe stress-san1pling locations corresponding co rhe four·
point quadrature happen co be besc irrespective of \Yhich of rhe nvo inregracion ru((>S is used.
The above advocacy o( lo\v·order inregrarion algorirhn1s n1ust be tempered \Vich rhe
requiren1enr chat it should nor give rise to numerical-instability problen1s. Such dif6culcies
sten1 from rhe possible presence o( kinen1atic n1echanisn1s \\1hich, as is well knov.rn, lead
ro, and are dereccable b)•, singular syscen1s of equations or, in rhe present contexr, result
in sriffness ..n1arrix singularity. The cause of these singularities is traceable co zero ...energy
deformation modes, associated \Vith certain panerns o( nodal displacemencs con1patible
with a strain field \Vhich is zero ac all sampling points. No\v, it is obvious rhac, as che nu1n·
ber of such quadrature poincs decreases, rhe likelihood of occurrence o( zero-energy n1odes
beco1nes greacer. ln face, it can be argued rhac, i( the nu1nber of independent linear relations,
benveen che nodal unkno"1ns, rhac are available at all rhe incegrating poincs is belo\\r rhe
nun1ber of chese nodal paran1erers, the stiffness macrix \¥ill be singular (Zienkie\vicz 1977).
(The independent relations may be obtained by 1nultiplying rhe nun1ber of scrain compo·
nenrs per quadrature poinr ci1nes rhe nu1nber of such poinrs; che unknov.1ns are si1nply rhe
number of DOF per node cin1es rhe number o( nodes, 1ninus chose DOF \Vhich have been
eliminaced through the in1posicion of kinemacic rescrainrs.) To sho\V rhac singularicies \Yill
definiceJy nor occur is not so easy and, therefore, \Vhile the condition thac che roral number
of srrains should be larger rhan rhe coral nu1nber of DOF is a requiremenr for an element/
sysrem co be \Veil behaved, it is always advisable co conduct che eigenvalue cesc so as co
decern1ine che acrual nun1ber of zero-energy 1nodes (Cook 1981). As che eigenvalue resr is
usually perfonned on the full stiffness n1atrix of a given e le1nenc, char is, \\rithout intposing
rhe necessary nodal restraints necessary co prevent rig-i d-body n1ocions, a proper elen1enc
forn1u lacion should yield the correct nu1nber of n1echanisn1s associared \virh this type of
rranslation and rotacion in space (i.e., chree and six n1echanisnlS for 2-D and 3-D ele1nenrs,
respecrively); any additional 1nechanis1ns reveal rhe presence of zero-energy modes con·
nected wirh lo\\r•order numerical-incegrarion rules.
In vie\\• of the above, care musr ahvays be exe«ised \Yhen choosing, ar rhe outset o( an
analysis, reduced· integration cechniques, and rhis is parcicularly relevant in non-linear prob·
lems o( che rype considered here, where gradua l cracking 1nay gi,•e rise to drasric sciffness
Structure modelling fo r static problems 12S
changes within che elemenc(s) concerned. Nor surprisingly, therefore, decisions co under·
incegrare should be explored \Yirh due caution and chis is \Yhy such questions have been
given appropriate pron1inence in Kocsovos and Pavlovic (1995), where evidence is provided
·w hich sho·ws char che use of 20-node serendipity and 27.. node Lagrangian brick elemencs
\\rith 2 x 2 x 2 and 3 x 3 x 3, respecrively, inregracion rules pro\•ide si1nilar predictions of rhe
behaviour of RC n1en1bers under shorr-rerm static n1onotonie: loading.
4.2 NON-LINEAR ANALYSIS
The preceding secrion has dealc \virh the general problen1 of che FE discrecisacion process for
an arbitrary linear sysrem. Thus, linear1cy \Vas assun1ed ro apply ar che chree levels of statics
(equilibriun1 equacions \Vricren in the inicial, undefornted geon1ecry, as displacen1ents are
assumed ro be sn1all), kinen1acics (linearised strain- displacement compatibilicy equacions,
as strains are also taken co be small) and consritucive relations (Hooke's la'v or its gener·
a lised version deented to be applicable). Such linearisacion assumpcions lead directly to a
machen1atical n1odel possessing the follo\ving desirable features: uniqueness of solution,. use
of superposicion, and, n1osr in1porranc perhaps, che ready availabilicy o( efficient progran1s
for che solving of linear sysre1ns of equations based on well-established machen1acical cools
and a lgorich1ns. Although nacure cends to be discincrly non-linear - ofren highly so - ir twrns
ouc rhat a large nu1nber of structural-engineering problems 1nay be cackled on che basis of
linearly elastic concepcs, at lease for purposes of achieving an adequate level of perforn1ance
under ordinary '\vorking' or 'serviceabilicy' condicions. On che orher hand, the understand·
ing of u lrimace..Joad condicions or, indeed, the n1ore rational and/or econo1nic design of
strucrures necessiraces che consideration of non-linear eHecrs: rhis is especially crue in. rhe
case o( srrucrural· concrece problenlS. Unlike linear analyses, non-linear syscen1s cannot be
solved directly but rely on various icerative or 'search' rechniques; a ll of rhese, ho\\•ever,
are based invariably on repeated solutions of linear systents until convergence is achie'Ved.
O\ving co rhe possibility of non-uniqueness, care n1usr be exercised - ofcen by appeal ro
ph)•sical reasoning - in order co ensure char rhe converged solurion anained is accually rhe
correcr one.
The analysis of a non·linear structural syscen1, \Vhich has been disc-retised in accordance
with the sciHness formu lation, srill proceeds through che solution of che ser of Equations
4.22, but no\Y che sciHness 1narrix is a (unction of rhe load/displacen1enc level. For conve·
nience, chis will be denored by che sracemenc [K] = [K(d)]. In whac follows, only che briefesc
of outlines on rhe 1nain icerative procedures for non-linear problents \Viii be presented, '\Vich
prioricy of choice given eventually co incren1ental n1ethods. Discussion \\rill be rescricted ro
'sofcening• structur(>S, \\1here chis rerm is no\Y used co denote sysce1ns for \Vhich che f - d
parh is 'convex', in che sense thar rhe sciffness decreases \Virh increasing f, as in che case of
structural concrece \\•here a sready degradation o( sciHness occurs as rhe load is augn1ented;
'hardening' or 'concave' syscen1s (i.e., exhibiring a steady increase of stiffness \virh load·
ing) - which may require di(ferenr iteration srraregies - need noc be considered for presenr
purposes.
4 .2.1 D irect iteration method
It is useful to begin wirh a concise description of che n1ain numerical devices for actain·
ing rhe solucion ar a given load level in a single series o( iterations, without regard tC> rhe
previous f - d parh, char is non-incremencally; subsequencly, ic \Viii beco1ne evidenc char rhe
incren1encal cechniques are based essentially on identica l principles. Perhaps rhe n1ost basic
126 Finite-element modelling o( structural concrete Structure modelling (or static problems 127

I I

Figure 4.2 Direct iteration method.

solution cype is rhac of 'direcr ireracion· (also kno,vn as 'funccional iteracion· o: 'succes ..
sive subsrirucion/approxi1uarion'). In rhis merhod, successive solutions are perforr.ied, each
irerarion n1aking u.se of rhe previous solucion for the unkno\vn(s) d co predicr che irnproved,
current value of [K[d)J
d•• 1 - [K{d.Jr'f; n - 0, I, 2, 3, .. (4.63)
The initial guess is usually caken co be de= 0, and rhe process is deen1ed co have converged
\\rhen d,.. 1 - d,.-+ 0. Ir \\rill be found convenient co illusrrate chis mechod (and, also, subse ..
quenr ones) graphically by reference co che l·D case (i.e., f. d consrirure a single·DOF sys..
cen1), alchough, clearly, the s.an1e cype of iceracive behaviour extends co multi· DOF sysrems.
Figure 4.2 shows rhe imple1uencacion of direcc ireracion in the search for the solution cor..
responding co the .oad level fin che given non·linear response f - d, 'vich the ini:ial guess
raken as d0 = 0. Ir can be seen char che un.kno\vn.s are the displacements, the secanc slope
being used in each ireration. This 'secanc modulus' or 'variable stiffness~ appro2ch tends
co be expensive since (K] n1usr be revised and a ne\\r sec of linear equacions solved for each
iteration. Furthermore, syn1n1ecry in the n1atrix of coefficients need noc necessarily resole
" 'hen direcc iteracion is emplo)'ed (Zien.kie\\1icz 1977). and this 1ueans chat che 1uore efficienc
algorithnlS, based on. the facr chat (K) for linear proble1us is syn1n1errical, 1uay not a l\\rays
be applicable. Anocher dra,vback of the scheme is chat itS convergence is not guaranteed
and ca.n not be predicred a priori. In. addicion, as the nun1ber of DOF increases, coupling of
sriffness rernlS n1ighr lead co inscability of che irerarive rechnique (0\ven and Hincon 1980).
4 .2.2 Newton-Raphson method
A n1ore sophiscicared process of iteration is rhe well-kno,vn Ne\\1 ton-Raphson (NR)
n1erhod. This can be ouclined as foJI0\\1S. Un.less convergence has occurred, (K]d = f \\rill
noc be sacisfied at any scage of rhe ireracion, and hence a sysce1u of residual forces tlf can be
assu1ned ro exisc, so char
Af - f - IK)d (4.64)
rhac is if n1ay be vie\ved as a 1ueasure of the syste1u's current departure fron1 the required
s-rate of equilibrium. No,v, a bener approxi1uarion exists at
I ""· I M, I""' I
Figure 4.3 Newton-Raphson method.
d,. .. 1 - d,. + t.d,.; n - 0, 1, 2, 3, ... (4.65)
\\
1
here rhe NR approxi111arion for the incre1uent or correction ll.d,. may be wrinen as
Ad. - [K,(d.)J-' Af(d.); n - 0, 1, 2, 3, .. (4.66)
and \\1here che subsc-ripr in IKJ indicates rhac che laner is the rangencial stiffness n1atrix.
\Vith increasing number of iteracion.s n, convergence is achieved as 6{ and/or M,.-+ 0. The
process is sho\Vn sche1parically in Figure 4.3 for a singJe.. OOF syscem, \Vich initial guess d 0
(= 0 here) leading co 810 \Vhich, in rurn, yields che correction so chat d 1 = d0 + &J0 becomes
an. improved approxin1acion 1 and so on. ln chis figure, che slopes of rhe f - d characceriscic
at the locations corresponding co rhe various d,. are rhe 1·0 cou1uerparcs of che cangenrial
stiffness 1uarrix [K,J used in n1ultiple· DOF problen1s, as can readily be seen by invoking
rhe \Vell·known argumenr whereby Taylor~s series are curcailed berond che firsr derivacive
(Coo~ 1981). (For a version o( che NR rechnique in \\1 hich rhe 1uarrix o( coefficien.cs link..
ing 81 and tld is noc syn1n1erric, see O\\ren and Hinton 1980; [K,J, on the other hand, is
always syn11neuic, and hence conforms co those equation·solving a lgorichn1s char n1ake use
of this propeny.) ln general, 1he NR or 'cangential stiffness' n.1echod converges more rapidly
and exhibics superior stabilicy rhan the direcr-ireracion sc-heme. Again, ho\vever, there is no
guarantee of convergence, especially if che initial guess is not dose co rhe acrual solution
and/or con1binacions of 'con\'ex' and 'concave' characreristics are encounrered throughour
rhe region of iceration. As for the direcr-iceracion process, rhe NR rechnique is den1anding
con1pucarionally, since each 1reracion requires the assen1bly o( rhe updated matrix [K,] and
rhe conco1nit.ant linear-equarion solving.
4 .2.3 Modified
NR n1erhod inscead of tackling a ne\v sysce1u of equations for each iceration, che foJ10,\1ing
approxi1nation could be n1ade:
[K,(d.)] <fl [K.(d0 )] (4.67)
128 Finite·element modelling of structural concr ete
I f
d. d1 d'l d
tJ.d. tut, tul2
>I' >I' >l'A <
Figure 4.4 Modified NF: method.
so char
tJ.d. - [K,(d.lt' !J.f(d.); n - 0, 1,2,3, ... (4.68)
rhroughour the entire search process. This a lgorithn1 is kno\vn as the 'inicial/consranc stiff..
ness' 1nerhod, and also as rhe 'n1odified Ne\vron- Raphson· approach; its sche1na.ri< illuscra ..
rion is depicted in Figure 4.4 (or rhe J..o case (wirh d0 ~ 0). The cangenrial sriffneiS marrix
corresponding ro rhe inicial guess is asse1nbled only once and, on reducrion or faccorisation
o( rhe set of equarions and rhe scoring o( che resulr, solutions required in subsequenc irera·
rive cycles can be obrained at a n1uch reduced co1npurarional eHorr. This significanr sav..
ing in con1puring cost per ireration, ho\vever, is councered by a lo\ver rare of convergence
·when con1pared with che formal NR algorirh1n. Once again, alchough convergence is usu..
ally achieved, rhis cannor be guaranceed for all cases, and so1necin1es divergence n1ay be
encounrered in sicuacions where che more rapidly converging NR rechnique is successful.
· rhe relanve econonucs and con\·ergence rares of che 1n1t1al and rangennal snHness n1echods
depend on the degree and rype of non·lineariry of che systen1 considered. The oprimun1
a lgorithm is usually obtained by combining both methods so that [K) is updated to [K,) only
occasionall)' during irerarions.
4.2.4 Generalised Newton-Raphson method
As stressed repeacedly in che preceding paragraphs, none of che previous mer hods, in which
che unknowns \Vere: che roral displacen1encs d, converge in all cases. Only i11cren,e11tal pro..
cedures, \Vhere the unkno\vns are che changes &J due ro increments in loading ilf, can pro..
vide son1e assurance on convergence. Furrhermore, such 1nechods enable a fu ll srudy of
che load de(orn1ation behaviour of a scruccure ro be n1ade; besides irs obvious usefulness,
che co1nplece kno\vledge o( chef- d characrerisric (ollo\ved ar che scrucrural level becon1es
mandatory \Vhen rhe solution is dependent, noc only on rhe currenr displacements, but also
on rhe previous loading hiscory. Evidencly, wirh su(ficiendy small incren1ents, convergence
may be ensured and the local linearisation at each icerative seep beco1nes fully justified. Then
Structure modelling for static problems 129
Figure 4.5 Incremental with one-step NR correction.
rhe NR n1echod suggescs icself as a natura l iterative rechnique (its incren1encal version being
rermed rhe 'generalised Newron- Raphson' method)? \Vith the inicial value no\V al\\rays ca ken
as d 0 = 0. A possible general :1.lgorithn1 n1ighr be
[K,(d.)]tJ.d. - tJ.f. + tJ.[._1; n - 0, I, 2, 3, ... (4.69)
\\1here ll{,. represenrs rhe incren1enr in rhe acrual load, \Vhile 117,,_1 stands for che residual ouc..
o(..balance forces fro1n rhe previous load seep. This is often referred ro as the 'incren1encal
\ \ ith one· scep NR correcrion', and is illus crated (or the 1-D case in Figure 4.5 by n1eans of
1
rhe dashed lines. Ir is evidenc rhac, despite che fact thac che single residual-force corrections
result in effective load increments (11/0 ;11'1 + 11{o;11{i + 111.; ere.), a s1nall (usually cun1ula·
rive) drifr front the crue solution path occurs. On che ocher hand, \Vhen 117 - 0 in Equation
4.69, che algorirhn1 becon1es in essence che n1acrix councerparr o( Euler's nun1erical n1echod
for che solucion of a differen1ial equation; as can be seen by che pach indicated by rhe dot..
red li nes in Figure 4.5, che cun1ularive drifc no\V becon1es larger in rhis purely incren1encal
algorithm \\rithout correc-rions. Ac the ocher excren1e, by sening 11( - 0 in Equarion 4.69,
rhe forn1al NR 1nethod (1n us 1nc:re1nental forn1) 1s recovered, namely suffic1enc 1cerauons
are perfonned for each load incremenc in order co converge ro che actual solution before
rhe nexr excernal-load incremenc is applied . Obviously, any degree of rransition becween
the extremes tJ.f - 0 and !J.f= 0 could be specified: for example, many small external-load
incren1encs \Vich (e\V iteracions in each, or (e,ver buc larger external-load steps coupled \Vich
a subscancial nu111ber o( correccive iterarions for each of them. For O\•erall econo1ny, any such
g.r adacions n1ay be combined \\'ith rhe constanc..srif(ness iteration a lgorich1n.
4 .2.5 Concluding remarks
Reliable algoricl11ns for che non.. linear analysis o( concrere struccures by n1eans of che FEM
should en1ploy incren1enral rechniques. On the basis of che preceding oudine, a sumn1ary o(
rhe three n1osc widely used versions associaced \Vith che incren1encal NR n1echod (INRM} is
contained in Figure 4 .6. (Ir should be noted chac all plots refer ro a given load step or incre..
n1ent.) \Vhether on their O\\'R, in co1nbinacion, or s lighcly an1ended, rhey will be found ro
consciruce rhe backbone o( the iteracive-search process in che presenr \vork.
130 Finite·elem ent modelling of structuraJ concrete Structure modelling for static problems 13 1

associaced " 'ith rhe laner regjn1e, in \Yhich 'struccural' cracking rakes place once the failure
(a) : (bi: criterion for rhe n1arerial is exceeded. Thus, n1acro·cracking is generally more difficult ro
'
'' -,.--.,,.--~..,.
!if ;- ------ I
lifj-1-.-:rrrrr.=::::'"T---
--- - - n1odel and ics explosive nature 1nay lead co convergence problen1s. This is \Vhy the scraregy
adopted co describe such cracking \Viii receive separare treacment, and will follo\v rhe gen·
eral outline of che incren1encal fonnulation of non·linear concrece behaviour prior to the
reaching of the OUFP level "hich marks rhe onser of rhe n1acro·cracking regime.
The overall strategy robe discussed in rhe nexr nvo sections (one dealing \Vich the 1nodel·
ling of concrete, the second devored to a brief description o( the reinforcing steel} " •ill be illu.s-
ttared by reference co the 3· D proble1n. Ho,vever, it should be pointed our rhac the srraregy
.________,
.;/ _______ _ .___ _ _ _ ___,/UI_______ _ developed \Vas initially aimed exc-Jusively ac 2·0 (pla ne~stress or axisyn1n1erric) struccures
(Bedard 1983). Larer on, when the basic concepcs \Vere exrended to 3 -D problen1s, so1ne o(
the strategies \Vere changed, mainly \Vith a vie\\r to in1proving efficiency, convergence and/
(c) : or nun1erical srabilicy (Gonzalez Vidosa 1989), such changes either being necessary in rhe
I --- - -
3·0 context or si111ply sre1noing fron1 a narural 1naruring process built on rhe experience
!if r' -,..-..,----,,..,,,.-r- - - acquired through the develop111enr and use of che 2-D package. The overall straregy was
furrher in1proved \Vith che inclusion of criteria for 'crack closure' and ' loading/unloading'
in localised regions (Korsovos and Spiliopoulos I 988a, Korsovos and Spiliopoulos I 988b).
Both 'crack closure' and ' loading/unloading' occur due co redistributions of the srare of rhe
incernal srresses/strains that may result from che cracking process and/or reversals of the
external loading. ln whac follo,vs, the genera l outline of the developed stracegy (see Section
4.3.5) is preceded by a decailtd presentation of che strategy's 1nain constituents involving rhe
incren1encal forn1u lations developed for the description of the behaviour of concrete (up ro
Gd--------· [see Section 4.3.2], and for che modelling of [see Secrion 4.3.3], macro-cracking) and sreel
(see Seccion 4.3.4), as well as the inreracrion benveen concrece and sreel.
Figu~ 4.6 Incremental Newton-Raph.son methods (INR.Ms): (a) pure INR.M: (b) modrtied INRtt (c) mixed
INRM.
4 .3.2 Incremental formulat,i on up to macro-cracking
4.3 NON-LINEAR FINITE ELEMENT MODEL FOR 4.3.2 .I Incremental Newton-Raphson method
STRUCTURAL CONCRETE
The essence of the non·linear FE procedure is the incren1encal Ne\vcon-Raphson n1echod
(IN RM) d(>Scribed previous))'· Irrespective of che updating scraregy adopced, its basic (orn1u·
4 .3.1 BackgroWld and scope
lacion n1ay be sun1n1arised in flo\vcharc fonn as depicced in Figure 4.7.
On rhe basis of a readily adjusrable modular FE scheme including the quadratic-rype FEs The external·load vector is applied in load steps fl (cypically, 6l = 5%- 10% of che esti·
discussed in Seccion 4.l.3, che non·linear nun1erical n1odelling of concrete struccures 1nay maced failure load), to \Vhich che unbalanced nodal forces (i.e., rhe vector of residual forces,
no\V be outlined. Such n1odelling consisrs largely of careful implen1entarion of non·linearities 6{,,) of che previous ireracion 1nusc be added. Then, a decision on \Vhecher or nor to updare
rhrough the gradual updacing of elen1enc sriffness macrices \Vhich, in curn, are e~sentially the various D·n1arrices - and, hence, che incremental stiffness n1acrices (kJ - is n1ade. If the
described by the marrices [BJ and [DJ. Since che diinensions of ordinary concrere members currenr iceration is an updaring iceration, che r(>Sulr is an update of rhe incre1nenral stiff·
are such char large displacen1ents are usually pre\•ented throughout n1osr - i( nor the \Vhole ness n1arrix of the scrucrure iusually kno·w n as the rangenr k· marrix - see Sec-cion 4.2 .2). Ir
of - rhe loading regime (so that equilibriu1n n1ay be fonnulaced in rhe origina l ronfigura· should be noted char, a khough rhe incre1nenral k· 1nattix n1ay be rhe cangenr k·n1acrix, ic is
rion), and, in addirion, scrains being sn1all enough co allo\V linearised co1npacib:liry rela· noc necess.ary to use fully rangenc properries; in fact, any k·macrix derived from initial secant
rions co be adopted, geo111ecric non·lineariries are ignored in the present for1nularion. This or cangenr properties can be used. In the present \VOtk, \Vhenever updacing of the k-n1acrix
sin1pli fies rhe 1nodtlling quire considerably, che n1acrix {Bl ren1aining constant throughout is required, che 1narrix is only quasi·cangenr because it is n1ore convenient co use simply rhe
rhe analysis. There3ore, consideracion need be given only to n1aterial behaviour, as che pre· n1acerial tangenr n1oduli \Vhich, ir " rill be recalled (see Seccion 3.1.2.3), expressions (3.41)
don1inanc source of non·linearicy, che laner being introduced rhrough reforn1ularions of rhe through (3.43), neglect 0 14, so char rhe rrue constitutive la\V is nor acrually implemented. ((
conscit'ucive n1atrix [DJ. the system of equacions can be soh•ed, che incre1nents of the nodal·displacen1enr veccor ll.d
In describing the \Va)' in which the non·linear characceristics of concrece are deak \Vich are obcained, fron1 ·which rhe ne\v increments in strains(&) and scresses (00) at a ll Gauss
in rhe progran1, the disrincrion n1ade in Chapcer 2 benveen nticro~cracking and 1nacro· poincs are cakulared through the n1arrices [BJ and (DJ, respeccively; thus, the rora l (cuntula·
cracking phenontena beco1n(>S particularly useful. The gradual and n1ild nacure d rhe (or· rive) strains (e) and scresses (v) 1nay be ascenained. The ne\V total stresses are no\\r balanced,
mer behaviour, described through che consticurive relations of concrece, n1akes it relarively rhac is, rhey satisfy, at rhis s1age, equilibriu1n (namely, J[BjTc;'JV = f, ;e f,, \Vhere f, is the sec
easy co imple1nent, in contrast co the sudden occurrence and strong type of non-linearity of (nodal) inrernal forces), bur, in general, che)' are nor compacible V\•ith the acrual macerial
13'2 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Structure modelling fo r static problems 133

nor satisfy converge1lCe criteria, rhe exi ernal load is kept constant and fu rcher iterations are
cartied our; other,vise a ne\V external-load incre1nent is applied and che \Vhole procedure
repeated. There are only nvo possible reasons for stopping rhe analysis: unrealistic solutions
co the sec o( equarions (e.g., O\Ving co ill conditioning), or divergence o( residual forces. le
should be scressed ac chis point rhat the preceding outline, as \Ve.II as 1nuch of the subsequent
marerial in rhe presenr section devored to rhe n1icro-cracking regime is, clearly, also relevant
in che presence of 1nacro-cracking, alrhough, as seated ead ier, rhe specific fea tures of che
latter regime \Viii be covered in derail in (ollo\ving section.
An essenrial require1nent of any non-linear package is the abilfry co score incer1nediace results
which are then used co obtain 1nore accurate values as the iterative solution proceeds and con·
vergencecriteria are eventually 1nec. The need (or such a storage faciliry is even n1ore apparent
No ·when an incremental procedure is being in1plen1enced. Such a procedure imposes on che struc·
Update D-milfioes: cure under consideration additional external loading \Yhen the iterative solution has converged
lkl =l.IB!'IDJIBJdV at a given load le\'e.1, rhus enabling the progran1 co (ollo\v auconucically a 111onoconic loading
pach up to overall failure. le is clear that furcher storage is necessary here in order ro follo\v the
scruccural response ac each exi ernal-load level, \\•hich in1plies storing strains, srres:ses, d isplace..
menrs and cracking/yielding infonnacion. The storage of such vase quantities of data n1ight~ at
STOP. unable to solw!
first, appear so1ne,vhar wasceful, in che sense rhar, once a given external-load incre1nent has
achieved con\'ergence, inforn1ation on previous load steps could be dispensed with; however,
rhe recention of che data percaining co the \Vhole of rhe analysis is useful (or post-processing
Bafa.noed stresses purposes such as, for exan1ple, ploning and, 1nore generally, che capacity for scudying in detail
At: = (BJlld
llo- = (Djllt:
and ac leisure che various parameters at given solution stages. \Vhile the necessary storage
o- = o-~+/10- addicions a nd accon1panying progranuning scraregies are beyond rhe scope of rhe present d is·
Unb31anced stresses
cussion, the re.levanr background may be found in Bedard 1983; Gonzalez Vidosa 1989.
o-'= o- +Ao-, So far, no specific choice of updating srracegy has been 1nentioned, a ll INRMs sharing rhe
con1mon layout o( Figure 4 .7, as mentioned previously. Ho\vever, this question of updating
technique n1usr be addressed when. cercain aspeccs associated \Vit h che convergence an.d effi.
ciency of che adopted algorithn1 are being considered. Although che races of convergence of
rhe n1odified and mixed INRMs are slower than that corresponding co che pure INRMs (see
Deel&> on updating Figure 4 .6), che forn1er n1ethod s usually economise on co111puter rin1e since they cut do\\•n
on che high cosc of che nun1erical integration o( stiffness matrices. Furchermore, if inscead
of rhe sec of equations being solved by irerati\'e methods, a single reduccion or decomposi·
tion of che stiffness marrix is carried out, chen che forn1er n1echods (i.e., n1odified an.d mixed
INRMs) also save in che number of factorisations of rhe k .. matrix of the scruccure. No\V,
it n1usr be stressed ar this poinr rhac rhe analysis o( concrete structures has n vo sources of
high localised non-linearities which make che above reasoning about efficiency o( second·
ary in1porrance: cracking of concrete an.d yielding of sreel ar given Gauss points. These,
however, \Viii be d iscussed later (for concrete, see Secrion 4.3.3) and, before their occur..
rence, the solucion searches corresponding to the 111icro-cracking regime associated \\rich a
STOP. dlvergen~ n1uch milder form of non-lineariry 1nay (ollo\\1 safely rhe n1ixed IN RM in ·which the sci ff·
ness matrix is reforn1ulaced or updated only periodically. This con1bin ation of the pure and
Figure 4.7 Basic Rowchart for the non-ljnear an.aJysis based o n the increme ntal NR. method. modified INRMs represenrs a sensible compromise between rhe high converg·ence of rhe
former and the low cosr of rhe lan er (Philips and Zienkiewicr 1976; Bedard 1983).
stress- srrain relationships (unless, o( course, convergence has been obcained). Therefore, To sun1marise, cherefore, rhe incorporation, in rhe solution scraregy, of che constitutive
chese equilibra ced stresses are correcced so as to satisfy the constitutive equations (at chis relationships chroughout the micro-cracking regin1e consists, very broadly, o( che follo\\•ing
point, obviously, the coupling eHecc o,J 1nust (onnally be taken into account), and chis rhree specific seeps, \Vhich are catried our a c each incegrarion poinc:
requires che additional stress incre1nencs L).cr., \Vhich lead co the coral scresses o' chat are no'v
unbalanced (as equilibrium is no longer satisfied since /[B)To'dV = f,,. {.).
These correcrive • Ac each iteration, a check is n1ade that the scare of srress lies \Vi thin che failure envelope.
scresses 00, creace ne\V residual or unbalanced forces t:.f,, \vhich are applied to che srruccure • At each iteration, rhe scare of stress corresponding co che stace of strain generated by
in che nexc iteracion in order co re·establish equilibriun1 condicions. If unbalanced forces do che FE solucion is corrected so thar che conscicucive la\\'S are s.acisfied.
lllll Finite·element modelling of structural concrete Struccure modelling for sucic problems US

• \Vhen che updaring of the stiffness n1acrix is required, the concrere marerial properries \Vhich, in 3-D problen1s, is obcained by co1nbining Equacions 4 .71 chrough 4.77, the resulr
K,, G, and hence£,, v, ·which correspon.d co rhe actual s tare of srress, are obrained. being

In order to outline more fu lly rhe overall FE procedure described in Figure 4.7, rhe f0tr· At, b., 0 0
mulation of che B·, D· and k-n1atrices needs co be d iscussed in some decail, as \\re)) as At1 0 b,, 0
rhe residual-force in1plen1encation and che criteria adopted for convergence and d ivergence. dd:tJ
At, 0 0 b,,
Such aspects are dealt \Vith in che subsequent five secrions and, \Vhenever relevanc, chis \\1i ll
be done, in generic forn1, by reference to che 3 -D brick elen1enc. d y.t7 b,, b., 0 - M ,,
!ldtl
(4.79)

Ay,,. b,, 0 b.,

·4 .3.2.l Incremental strain-displacement relacionshlps d yyt 0 b,, b,,
The incren1encal version of Equation 4 .1 rhac link the 3 -D displacen1ent field and che nodal \\here b.,,b,,.bd(- 3N1!6x, 3N1!6y, 6N1 /fu) are fu nctions of x, y, z. These derivatives coin·
1

displacemenrs is given by plerely define the 6 x 3 block of rhe B-marrix corresponding ro rhe oonrribution of the dis-
placemencs of node I co che scrain increments at a given point ·within the element. Since, as
A11 - (N]Ad (4.70)
poinced ouc earlier, the analysis does nor include geomecrica l non-linearities, such deriva-
rives ren1ain constanr chroughout the analysis. Therefore, rhey are calculated for all Gauss
'\\'here 6J1 = (du_., 6J1y, at#z) are increments of d isplace1nencs, &J = (.. . , Ad_.1, &J,.,, il.d:.1··· ·) a.re poincs only once (at che firsc iteration of che analysis). Their calculacion, in cerms o( the local
incren1encs of nodal displace1nenrs and (N] is rhe matrix of shape functions. By reference to coordinates and che ensuing Jacobian n1acrix, has a lready been explained in Seccion 4.1.3.
brick elen1ents, (4.70) 111ay be \Vrinen as
4.3.2.3 Incremental stress·- straln relationships for uncroc:ked concrete

N, 0 0 The incren1enrs of srresses and scrains are related by the D-macrix adopted. By reference to

[
A11,l - [ ..
au,
dut
0
0
N,
0
0
N,
]- (4.71)
Equation 4.12, and neglecring inicial strains and/or scresses, its incremental councerpatt is
simply

Ao - [DJA• (4.80)

in \\1hich N 1 is che shape funccion of the hh node. For uncracked-concrete Gauss points, rhe D-n1acrix n1ay be calculared by re(erence co a
The vector of srrains E (~ e,., Et, yX>" Yu, Yr:) is defined on the assun1ptions of che linear che· linearly·elascic is0>tropic 1naterial which is usually described in che fol lo\\ring concise form
ory of elasticity (Timoshenko and Goodier 1970). Accordingly, che relevant expressions a.re
(4.8 1)
fx • 'fhtxft)x (4.72)
where G andµ are che shear a nd Lan1e's moduli, rhe fonner being given by (3.2) \Yhile rhe
lan er is a lso relaced ro E and v by the expression
•, - 1'h1,flly (4.73)
µ = vE/[(1 + v)(l - 2v)J (4.82)
., - ft11,/6z (4.74)
On the basis o{ (4.78), therefore, rhe incren1encal conscicutive relacions (4.72) rhrough
y., - fl11,/lly + f111, lfb: (4.75) (4.77) for uncracked concrete 111ay be \\rrircen as

Ao, 2G + µ µ µ 0 0 0 A•,
Yn • futxl6z + 611:f3x (4.76)
Ao, µ 2G + µ µ 0 0 0 ,,.,,
y,. - ft11, l6z + 611/l'ly (4.77) Ao, µ µ 2G+ µ 0 0 0 Ae,
(4.83)
A<., () 0 0 G 0 0 Ay .,
·where the (engineering) strain definirions adopred differ fro111 those cor-responding to rlhe d'fxt () 0 0 0 G 0 AYa-t
componenrs of rhe srrain rensor ••(- (1/2)(fhr.,/llx1 + 1'h1Jifb:1)). By reference ro Equation 4 ..8, dT1~ () 0 0 0 0 G Ay,.
the incren1ental scrain-nodal displace111ent re~ations are
\\1here (OO., oo,, ~crP Atx,.. A-t_
,q• At,.:) are rhe incremencs of direcc and shear stresses in global
At - [B)Ad (4.7.8)
coordinates, while G andµ are derived from che tangent shear and bulk moduli described
136 Finite- element modelling of structural concrete Structure modelling for static problems I37

in section 3.1.2 .3 (i.e., expressions [3.41) chrough [3.43)). C learly, rhe coefficiencs of rhe This [k]'i block is equal to i7. 1lki 1, where [kf 1 is the contriburion of rhe irh Gauss poinc
o ..macrix are functions or rhe scare of srress (i.e., G(r.:1), µ(00 ,-rJ), bur, at che san1e 1in1e, iris ro such a block. For rhe brick elen1enrs adopred herein, and (or the general case o( cracked
worch noring rhar the constirurive 1natrix is isotropic chroughout the 111icro-cracking regime Gauss points, chis concriburion is given by che follo,ving expression:

l
and, hence, invariant \\rirh respect ro any set of orthogonal axes.
Although rhe D -n1acrices for cracked Gauss poinrs \Viii be described in decail in Section
4.3.3, ic is convenient co nor·e at rhis stage rhac they are anisotropic and thar chey \\rill be
[kJ7 - ru1] 1
lb,,~ 0
b,,
0
0
b,,
b,,
b,,
0 b,,
0
defined \Virh respetc co cracked direcrions. Thus, all cheir coefficients in global coordinaces
will, in gc-ncral, be non-zero, sinoc cracked non-isotropic D-1natriccs require a transforma- 0 b., 0 b., byl I

rion from local ro global direccions (see Appendix B (or such a crans(onuarion). Ho,vever, ir d,, d,, d., d,. d,5 b,, 0 0
d"
is evident char axes transforn1ations do noc affecc rhe D-macrix in rhe presenc case of isotro- (4.87)
d,, du d,. dis du 0 b,, 0
pic behaviour before n1acro-cracking.
du d,. d,, d,. 0 0 b.i
d .. d., d" b,, b,, 0
4.3.2.4 Incremental force-dlsplacemt:nt r1:latlon1hlps
syn'metrf, d,, d,. b,, 0 b,,
The incre1nencal snf(ness n1acrix of an ele111enr connecrs che incren1encs of nodal forces and
du 0 b.i b,,
nodal displace1nents. The relevanr expression may readily be wrinen do,vn by reference ro
eirher Equacion 4 .21 or 4.22 'vhich relates total displace111ents and forces up co a given srag·e
of loading, the resulc being The sparsity of che B-macrix is evidenr: half or ics coe(ficiencs are zero and placed ac kno\\'n
positions. Thus, che number of computations may be reduced quite significancly once a ll the
/lf - [k).<ld (4.84) mulciplicacions in,•olving zero cernts are identified and lefc our of subsequent numerical opera-
tions. The D-n1acrix in Equa1ion 4.87 is nor sparse, as ir refers ro che general case of a cracked
with rhe expression for [k] given by Equarion 4.20. As explained previously, this k·ntacrix is Gauss poinr expressed in rerrns of global coordinaces. On che ocher hand, u11c-racked Gauss
calculated in g lobal directions by nun1erical incegracion and, hence, may be \Vriuen as poinrs are described by Equation 4.83 and, for such isorropic conditions, further reduction
of con1pucing efforr is clearly possible. Various ·ways of achieving such compucacional sav-

[kj - ~ ([BJi!D J1(B]1],)rv1 (4.85)

ings for boch isotropic and anisotropic marerial descriprions have been explored in Gonzalez
Vidosa (1989), \\1ith subsequenr implen1encarion in rhe co1npucer progra111 as appropriate.

where], and tu, are the Jacobian and the weighr of the ith Gauss poinr, respeccively, and n is
rhe rotal nun1ber of Gauss poinrs in the elen1enr. As \Vas che case \Virh che coefficients of rhe
B-n1atrix, Jacobians do not change chroughour rhe analysis and, hence, they are calculated
only ac the firsc iteration. Furrher1nore, as [k] is syn1n1erric, iris necessary co calculare only
rhe coefficienrs or irs upper (or lower) rriangle.
\Vhile [k) can becalculaced direcrly fron1 expression {4.85) \virhour reference co the accual
B· and D·n1acrices, ir is \vorth nocing char the expressions (or irs coefficiencs can be com-
pured n1ore efficienrly by raking into accounr any special (eacures (e.g., sparsi1y) or rhe
relevanr B- and D ..marrices. This ·will be discussed brieAy belo,v, as ir leads co efficienr pro·
cedures for the numerical calcularion of [k], and also prepares the ground for the discussion
(in Seccion 4 .3.3) of rhe effect of rhe sn1eared represencarion or cracking on che conditioning
of stiffness 1nattices.
Expression (4.85) can splic inm blocks of 3 x 3 coefficienrs relating ro rhe DOF of pairs of
4.3.2.S Resi dual forces
In accordance with rhe presenr FE n1odel, rhe non-linear force·- displacen1enr relarionships
ac the struccural level arise exclusively as a result or rhe non-linearities in che srress- scrain
expressions. The iterative procedure required co (ollo\v rhese non-linear er - e la\\'S relies
on rhe residua l-forces n1ethod, by n1eans or \Vhich scress correccions (ac che n1aterial level)
of balanced stresses cause rhe appearance of equivalenc unbalanced nodal forces rhac n1usr
be applied in the nexc ireration in order ro re-establish the equilibriun1 condirions for rhe
overall scrucrure. This n1ay be sun1n1arised through rhe follo,ving expression, in \Vhich rhe
equivalence benveen exrernal and internal forces is i1nplicir:
{, •ftBf o'dV + jlBJ1 (o - o')dV (4.88)

nodes. ler (k]1i be one such 3 x 3 block relaring ro rhe DOF of nodes I and}
\\rhere o and o' are balanced and unbalanced stresses respectively; and rhe first term denor·e s
node/ node j unbalanced (inrernal) forces(bur sacisfying che consriruci\'e relations) while rhe second rerm
re~escab l ishes o\•erall equilibriun1 condicions (buc causing, in curn, lack or co1npacibiliry
benveen scresses and srrains). Therefore, the residual forces are given by
(kJ" [kJ'' node I
[k] - . (4.86) /lf, • -jlBJT(o' - o)dV • f, - jlBJ' o'dV
node J (4.89)
[k]' [kJ"
\\rhere, ir should be recalled, the last rerm represents nodal incernal (orces.
138 Finite-element modelling of structural concr ete Strucizure modelling for static p roblems 139

a ll•. - [B)lld. (4.90)

(4.91)

Balanced scresses are next con.1puted using rhe D-macrix incorporaced inco the ser of
equacions

(4.92)
a
These balanced stresses are corrected b)' the fol)o,ving expression (see Figure 4.9)

a~ - a. - ID(o.))(•.(o.) - •.I (4.93)

Figure 4.8 Stress correction. by the standard initial-stress technique that achieves satisfaction of the con sti-
tutive law but distt1rbs the equilibrium of the previously balanced stresses CJ.
\Vhen rhe consciruci,•e la\VS are expressed in 'Che forn1 cr = a(e:), as is rhe case for cracked
Gauss poinrs (robe discussed in Section 4.3.3) and, also, for sreel Gauss poincs boch before
and afrer yielding, unbalanced srresses are \vorked our in accordance \Vich such la\VS in che
srandard 1nanner sho·w n in Figure 4.8. The residual stresses are given by rhe con1ponenrs of
00,= cf - a and musr be checked (rogether \Virh residual forces and, possibly, orher criceria)
for convergence.
The scress correc-cion for uncracked Gauss points, on rhe other hand, follo\VS an in.itial-
where [D(cr,.)J and e:..(cr,.) are, respecrively, rhe ran.gent D ·- n.1arrix given by Equation 4.83 and
srrains, boch of these being in accordance \Vich che consricurive la\v corresponding ro rhe
balanced srress level. The con1pon.encs of (6Er).1 = e:.. (a,.) - E,. are residual scrain.s rhac have ro
be checked for convergence. Ir is \vonh noring rhar rh.is initial-strain rechnique converges
very quickly in pracrice O\Ving to che n1ild nature of che uncracked 1narerial non-linearities.
(Cleady, \Vhile rhe standard inicial-srress n1erhod of Figure 4.8 involves rhe satisfacrion of
rhe n1acerial la\\r ar the end of every iceration, the initial·scrain cechn.ique satisfies neither
equilibrium nor che macerial la\\r ar rhe end of an iceracion unless, of course, convergence
has caken place.)
Once scresses are corrected ar a given Gauss poinr, rh.e numerical incegrarion of Equation
4.89 leads to rhe foJlo,ving conrribucion. co rhe residual-forces veccor
(Ao,),

I I
strain rechn.ique, since che consticutive la'v (fe>r uncracked concrete) is given in che forn1
E = e:(a) (see expressions (3.44) in Seccion. 3.1.2.3). Figure 4.9 su1nmarises schen1acically (llcr,),

~'1
rhe in1plemenred inicial-srrain rechnique for uncracked con.crece points. First, incre1nenrs of 0 0 b,1 b.,
(lla,),
srrain.s (and, rhen, che rocal scrains) are co1npured fro1n in.cre1nen.rs of nodal displacemencs I'll'·).
(ll/7 ), - - ru1fi b,,
0 b,, 0 b,, 0 (4.94)
(subscripcs orher than r indicare che irerarion number) (ll<...,),
(£1/,), I 0 0 b., 0 b., b,r ,
(6.Tx~),

(£1<,.), I

In che above expre<sion, [(ll/,) 0 (ll/7) 0 (ll{.),] 1 are rhe residual forces ar node I caused by a
stress correction [(00~),, (001),, (00~),, (6t:.-1),, (Ot..-~),, (O"T,.J,J ac the ith Gauss point.

4.3.2.6 ConYergence and divergence criteria

Figure 4.9 Stress correction, by the initial-strain techniq1Je. used for uncracked concrete points (for c racked
concrete points, and for all steel Gauss point s. refer to f igure 4.8).
The convergence of solurions obrained by irerative procedures can be checked in terms of
one or n1ore vector incren1ents of various paramerers, rhe norms or elentents of \\1hich 1nusc
all be s1naller than cenain prescribed values. The parameters in question include quantiries
such as displace1nenrs, residual forces, residual scresses and residual srrains (Bergan and
C lough 1972). In pracrice, only one of rhese vecror inc-re1nents is checked, since all of chen1
are in.terrelared. Displacemenr and force criteria are usually preferred co stress and scrain
crireria. \Vith regard to non-linear analyses of scructura l concrere, ic \Yould appear thar force
crireria have mostly been used (Suidan and Schnobrich 1973; Lin and Scordelis 1975, Philips
and Zienkiewicz 1976, Cedolin and Dei Poli 1977, Crisdield 1982).

140 Finite· element modelling of structural concrete
In the earlier pan of che work (Bedard 1983) che rwo resjdual·scress criteria
-:111o,(i)I < 0. 1 MPa (4.95)
(4.96)
\Vere adopced in recognicion of rhe (act chat a single crirerion 1nighc prove unrealistic for
rhe \Vhole of rhe loading pach. Thus, for exan1ple, ·while Equation 4.95 can ensure a rea·
sonable level o( accuraC)' in the early load seeps, at more advanced stages of che loading
such a residual·srress value n1ight beco1ne i1npractical ro achieve, especially as failure is
approached, \Vhen che nun1erical solucion cends co becon1e unstable. This is \vhy che second
convergence criterion - Equation 4.96 - based on residual scresses given as percentages of
rotal·scress values, is n1ore anracrive as one nears ulcin1ace·load conditions, and is in keeping
\\•irh the notion of accepting a larger force i1nbalance as the rota) load increases (Cedolin and
Nilson 1978). Clearly, the sarisfaction, ar each Gauss point, of either of the criteria defined
by Equacions 4.95 and 4.96 is sufficient for convergence.
In subsequenr \York (Gonzalez Vidosa 1989), several additional convergence criteria \Vere
srudied, of \Vhich the follo\\•ing were i1nple1nented in che non·linear procedure. Firsr, a max·
in1um residual strain of 2 .5 mn1/m, or less than 0 .5 of rhe coral strain, \Vas adopted for
uncracked concrece, \vhich \Vas found to be slighcly n1ore restricrive than rhe scress criteria
adopred earlier (i.e., Equacions 4.95 and 4.96). In addicion, once cracking was implen1enced,
it \Vas prescribed rhac no concrere Gauss poinrs should exceed rhe failure envelope, wich
a 1naxi1num residual stress of 0.1 MPa set as rhe lintic ar cracked Gauss poinrs. The laner
suess cricerion \Vas also adopted for steel Gauss points, and for these any change fro1n one
linear branch to anorher was creared as a lack of convergence requiring (urcher ireracions.
No\V, it \Vas found char rhese various convergence criteria are usually n1ec on specification of
rhe follo\ving (additional) residual·force criterion:
(4.97)
\ \ here IA.fl is the applied load seep (beC\veen 5% and 10% of rhe ulcin1ace experin1encal
1
load). This lase condirion is a very rescricrive require1nenr indeed \Vhen co1npared \Vich other
reporced criteria (see e .g., Suidan and Schnobrich 1973, Lin and Scordelis 1975, Philips
and Zienkiewicz 1976, Cedolin and Dei Poli 1977, Crisc6eld 1982 mentioned previously).
Ho,vever, all che abo\•e criteria \Vere kept (including Equation 4.97) in order ro avoid con\•er·
gence in cerrain situations, such as concrere Gauss poi1us being outside the failure envelope
('cracking' crlcerion) or ne\V yielding of rhe steel ('yield' crlcerion), as n1ay occur \\rich less
rescrictive convergence crireria. Neverrheless, ir should be said chac residual forces become
negligible as soon as n1arerial properrles are updaced, and no ne\\• cracking and/or yield
occur.
The inc-re1nenral process stops eicher because of divergence of residual forces, \Vhich is
raken co ha\•e occurred \Vhen
-'.16/,(i)I > 100 IFI (4.98)
\\here IFI is rhe roral external load, or because che system of equations cannoc be solved as,
1 of concrete in tension, ir has been sho\\rn char srrain·sofrening branches can be observed
\Vith exrensive cracking, che degradation of the sriffness n1arrix of che scrucrure leads ro a
non·positive or ill·condicioned fK]. The forn1er diverge1lCe criterion - Equacion 4.98 - is
'
Structure modelling for static problems 141
very roleranr and rhus rarely fulfilled. Hence, mosr runs srop when [K) becomes sufficiently
degraded. As a consequence, all ulcimare~load predicrions refer to the n1a.xi1nun1 susrained
load (MSL) in che analysis, \Yhich corresponds to the lasr converged load step.
4 .3.3 Modelling of macro -cracking
The presence of n1acro·cracking or 'scrucrural' cracks is unavoidable in most RC scrucrures,
and hence codes of praccice generally rake rhis inro account. For exa1nple, BS 8110 (British
Standards Inscirucion 1985a,b) suggests a maximun1 crack \Vidch of 0.3 n1n1 for RC (Parr
1 - chus ren1oving rhe earlier discinccion beC\veen normal exposure [0.3 mn1J and exposure
ro parcicularly aggressive environ1nenrs [>0.004 times rhe nominal cover to the n1ain rein·
forcen1entJ presenc in CP 110, British Srandards Institution 1972), whereas for pre·srressed
concrece meinbers (Parr 2) rhis lin1it is sec ar 0.1 n1n1 for con1ponenrs exposed ro parcicularl)•
aggressive environ1nencs and 0.2 nun for all other unirs. As an insrance, rypical load-deflec·
rion curves front rescs on Aexural beams exhibir a disrincr non·linear behaviour anribured
ro che onset of (n1acro) cracking ar load levels as lo\v as 10%-20% of the scrucrural fail·
ure level (Burns and Siess 1966). Accordingly, macroscopic cracks are nor only presenc in
n1ost RC structures, bur they are usually also present during mosr of che loading history.
Ir is nor an exaggeration, cherefore, to say rhar n1acro·cracking represenrs the key fearure
in the non·linear behaviour of scrucrural concrece, governing ics failure 1nechanis1n. As a
resulr, rhe successful nu1nerical rreannenr of cracking - the predo1ninanr non·linear effect
- is an obvious prerequisite for a reliable FE n1odel. In \Vhar follo\\1s, a descripcion of crack
representation \\1ill be outlined, \Vhile rhe gradual (or othenvise) implen1encation of crack
propagation - \Yhich 1nay give rise ro very serious proble1ns of nu1nerical stability - is fully
described elsewhere (Korsovos and Pavlovic 199.5).
4. 3.3. I Nature of st ruct ural crac king
As explained in Chapcer 3, rhe behaviour of concrere is diccared by che fracrure processes
that the n1arerial undergoes under increasing load. These fracture processes first take rhe
form of microscopic cracks (sonte of \Vhich exist \Vichin che marerial even before rhe appli·
carion of rhe load) rhar extend in the plane of rhe maximu1n and intennediare co1npressive
stresses, and propagace in che direccion parallel to the n1axin1u1n principal con1pressive stress
(or in the direcrion orthogonal to che 1naxi1nun1 principal censile scress). Such 1nicroacracks
develop in a scable n1anner up co che OUFP srress leve1 (rheir ef(ecr on deformacion, up ro
rhis poinr, being accounted for by rhe adopred conscirurive relacions), which, for practical
purposes, can be caken as rhe failure scress envelope. Once rhis level is reached, the n1icro·
scopic cracks link co fonn a limited nun1ber of n1acroscopic cracks: cracking no\\• becomes
an unscable process and concrece suffers a noriceable loss of macerial continuicy (macro~
cracking) in che direccion orrhogonal to rhe n1axin1u1n pri1lCipal censile (or 1ninin1um prin·
cipal compressive) scress, \Yhich leads ro a sudden collapse of concrece spec:in1ens unless rhe
fracture process is so1nehow rescrained. In chis respect, iris \Yorrh recalling che fully brinle
nature of concrete once che OUFP level has been reached. As deinonscrated experimencally
(see Secrion 2.2.1.2), the srrain·sofrening branches observed in compressive cesrs arise as
a resulr of friction benveen loading plarens and concrere specimens, so rhac, if friction is
eliminaced, a co1nplece loss of loadacarrying capacity beco1nes che mosr realisric description
for concrete behaviour in compression. Sin1ilarly, \Vich regard co the post·ulri1nare behaviour
only in cescs where che sriffness of rhe resting n1achine is steeper than rhe steepest portion of
rhe falling branch - ocher,vise, a sudden failure is deen1ed ro occur. Such tesring 1nachines
142 Finite- element modelling of structural concrete Structure modelling for static problems 143

in1pose large restraincs co che fracture processes of concrete chat are unlikely co hold for
concrece \\rirhin a scruccure.
The above observations are sun1n1arised sche1natically \Virh reference co a cypical uni·
axial a - £ curve (but equally valid for 1nore general - biaxial or criaxial - conditions).
Figure 4.10a represencs such a characceriscic in con1pression, rhe rising porrion covering che
various levels of micro-cracking, \Vhile A 1narks che peak load leve1 (defined by the u lti1nare
surface envelope) ar \\lhich (n1acro) cracking occurs. Beyond A, the loss in sciffness proper·
ties of che n1aterial is in1mediate and con1plete. A si1nilar n1odel is applicable to the material
characceriscic in tension (Figure 4.lOb). (The linearity of rhe stress- scrain relacionships in
cension n1ay be explained by che facr thar controlled crack propagacion [n1icro-cracking) up
co che OUFP level (\vhich practically coincides \Virh n1acro-crackingJ can occur only under
con1pressive stress scates. In the case of tensile scresses, any cracking in1plies fai lure and,
hence, since non-linearity refleccs n1icro-cracking fracture processes, rhea - £ relationships
for tension should be essentially linear up co failure (i.e., the stare of n1icro~cracking and
n1acro-cracking coincides). This may be argued furcher on rhe basis thac any deparcures
fro1n linear icy as a result of ocher causes (e.g., cime effeccsJ in che case of tension are much
less pronounced than in con1pression. Finally, any ane1npc ar refining che linear 1nodel
should be cen1pered by che large scaner inherenc in rensile-cesc results.) Despite che realistic
description of boch compressive and censile behaviour ac che 1naterial level, however, it is
only the laner characreriscic thac is of relevance in a concrece structure beyond peak-stress
Je,•els. As explained in Sec-cion 2.4, che peak level in con1pression is never anained \\richin
a scrucrure as censile failure precedes ic (\\1irh consequent redistribution of srresses) in adja·
cent regions. Therefore, although the rrue zero-sciffness model beyond A in Figure 4.10.a
\\rill be adopced in rhe present work, even che inclusion of (che non-exiscing) srrain sofren·
ing in co1npression would not influence che analytical predic-cion of struccural 1ne1nbers, as
\\rill be seen by reference co the exan1ples of Chapters 5, 7 and 8. Conversely, results \\rill
generally be affected by che chosen posr-ulcin1ace characreriscic in cension, and ir n1ust be
stressed here rhar che sudden unloading in Figure 4.10b, \Vhich is ro be used henceforch,
is in n1arked conrrast \Vich 1nosr current 1nodelling approaches which tend to assu1ne a
Figure 4.10b refers co rhe sciffness characreristics in the direction onhogonal co a crack.
\Virh regard ro che stiffness of cracked concrece in rhe direccion parallel to n1acro-cracks, ic
is a comn1on hypochesis in analyses ro assume chat concrete keeps irs uncracked stiffness in
those directions (such as, for exan1ple, chat defined by the ascending regions in Figure 4. 10).
Air hough a cercain decay may be expecced, it can be sho\vn char the reinains of specin1ens
subjecced ro triaxial tescs exhibit uniaxial o - E re,lacions si1nilar co chose of uncracked speci·
mens. Therefore, ir appears realiscic co assun1e chat concrere bet\\feen cracks;,, a struGture
recains its uncracked stiffness in rhe direc-cion parallel ro che cracks.
Some co1nmenrs \\rich respecc co the stress co1nbinacions causing failure ac a given point/
region \Vithin a struccure n1ay be n1ade by reference co Figure 4.11. Since cracking causes
unloading of rhe rensile scresses chat existed before its occurrence, ic leads co sraces of stress
thac can be sustained by concrete as chey are inside che failure envelope (see zones T-C-
C, C-T-T and T- T- T in Figure 4 .11 , \Vhere C scands for compression and T for rension).
Therefore, che process can be stabilised at both che 1naterial and scrucrural level, provided
rhac chose tensile stresses can be redistributed co adjacenr sceel or concrece elen1encs. For
chis cype of failure, \Yhere at leasr one scress componenc is tensile, the fraccure n1echanisn1
involves rhe presence of a relatively sn1all nu1nber of fissures \Vich che san1e orientation
'
'

y~· a,
gradua l unloading (usually linear), that is strain softening in rension, in 1narked disregard '
of proven experin1encal evidence on the one hand, and che difficulties inherent in censile· '
resr dara interpreracions on che other. '
'
''
A ''
'''
'
'
''
(b) a '' '' C- C- C
A
"
--...... ------ a,

~T-T T-C-C

~
+
Figure 4.11 Effect of stress combination or 'zone' on the failure of concr ete (Note: dashed [arrowed] lines
indicate loading paths that eventually hit the failure envelope. at which point sudden unloading
figu~ 4.10 Schematic: representation of a typical stress-strain curve for concrete: (a) in compression; (b) (towards the relevant axis a•. CJ, as shown by the arrows] leads to stress states that lie inside the
in tension (i.e .. in the direction orthogonal to the first crack). failure envelope for ca.ses T- C-V or C- T- T and ouuide n for ca.se(s) C-C- C).
144 Finite·element modelling of structuril concrete Slructure modelling for static problems 14S

·--
(orthogonal to rhe n1axin1um principal rensile stress), \Vhich suggests rhat the n1acerial .is
insignificantly dan1aged in a direccion para II el to these fissures. Ir n1ay be assu1ned, there·
lore, rhar any change of rhe stress stare will be gradual (fro1n triaxial to biaxial, or fro11n
(3)

I
/
, ...... -r--
~--- - '&A
~
biaxial to uniaxial or from uniaxial to a con1plete loss of load-carrying capacity). On the I
other hand, for fully con1pressive srares of st.ress (zones C- C- C in Figure 4.11), cracking I ~ ;;:: \
I \
B "-1acroscoplc cnck
" rould cause an i1nn1ediate loss of load·carrying capacity as indicated schen1atically in Figure J
4 .1 la. Therefore, local failures in con1pression are best presented as localised failures of the
material in che three directions (i.e., loss of stiffness in a ll directions). Afcer all, ac lease 0111e
I
I
I
~ff. "
I
I
I I
stress con1ponenr has a high con1pressive val1.1e (cercainly in excess of the uniaxial strength) I
and chis implies thac a relatively large nun1ber of fissures are presenc, suggesting thac exren· \
\
;"'!9 B I
I
si\'e damage is raking place in che 1naterial, which then loses all its load·carrying capaciry.
\
? I
f
This is \Vhy a distinction \\1ill henceforth be 1nade becween 'tensile cracking', termed si1nply
'cracking', and 'compressive cracking' which is equivalem to, and is chus denoted as, 'local di /

failure of the marerial'. Ho\vever, ic is in1porranr to recall the argu111ent put for\vard i.n
Section 2.4 (and a lso ntencioned above) that ' concrece in a structure never fails in compres· A~
-.... .__ ,__ ~-

sion', and, hence, che a bove discussion on che post·ulri1nate con1pressive-st.ress scares (local
failure) may be regarded as irrelevant. Nevercheless, as scressed in Section 2.5, the present
(b)
FE n1odel does noc prevent fully compressive stress scares front developing ac failure (th.is
lack of C- C- C failure n1odes \Viii be sho\vn i.n Chapters 5, 7 and 8 co be a result of analys.is
and noc an a priori in1posed condition): thus the need forn1ally to include this possibility as
one of the failure criteria.
In view of the preceding discussion, the n1ain ff"atures of the fracture n1echanisn1 in, an.d
subsequenc properries of, concrete relevant co the FE n1odel, 1nay be su1nn1arised as follo\vs.

• Under increasing scress, concrete behaviour is that of an isotropic continuum uncil

the scress level reaches a peak va lue. Beyond chis level, either ' loca l fa ilure· or 'crack·
ing' occurs. Should the forn1er be operative, \Vith the strength envelope reached i.n
con1pression (zones C- C- C), concrete " rould suffer a con1plete loss of stiffness in all
direccions and hence \\rould no longer be able to sustain any stresses. It is, ho\\rever, rhe
'cracking' 1nechanis1n \Vhich one invariably finds in che course of scructura l analyses
and hence its in1porrance in subsequent \Vork.
• A crack plane forn1s \\1hen concrece reaches the strength envelope in tension (zones
C- C- T, C-T-T and T- T-TJ. Such a plane is orihogonal to rhe maximum principal
rensile stress existing jusc prior to cracking. The presence of an open crack plane causes
a con1plece loss of material stiffness in ~rs orthogonal direccion, and, therefore, direcr
tensile and, in principle, shear scresses can no longer be transferred across che crack
plane (bur see subsequent sections for the presence and role of the so·called shear·
recencion factor). \Vhen cracking occurs:7 a discontinuity is incroduced inco che hirherco
continuous macerial, and this must be allo\ved for by suitable changes in rhe char·
acteristics of the stiffness 1natrix (by n1eans of either che sn1eared.. or discreteacrack
approach - see Section 4.3.3.2).
• Cracking cakes place predon1inanrly in zones of high tensile stress and strain concen·
rrations, thus relieving these (see Figure 4.12). As a result, stress redistribucion is also
associaced \Vith cracking; in this \Vay, rhe rensile stresses tharexisted before the forn1a·
tion of the crack have robe transforn1ed into equivalent residual forces and rediscrib·
ured to adjacent concrere and/or steel zones.
• \Vhile the cracking process tends to relieve the censile stress and stra in concenrracions
orthogonal to the crack, as a result of t:he ensuing stress redistribution, ne\V zones of
high tensile stress and strain concentracions are creaced near the crack t ips, orchogonsl
to the crack-extension pach. Depending on the an1ount o( stress 'rediscribution' \Vithi.n
Figure 4.12 Schema.tic representation of cracking in concrete. where A marks the zones of high tensile
suess concentrations near the crack tips. while 8 represents zones where the tensile stresses
orthogonal to the crack have been retieved: (a) plain concrete; (b) reinforced concrete.
the struccure, a given crack can be eicher stable or unstable. Ac a g iven load level, a
stable crack extends only to a certain length whereas an unstable crack propagates
until it induces structural fa ilure.
• \Vhen che crack parh intersects a reinforcing bar, loss of bond benveen sceel and the
surrounding concrete results over a certa in lengch of bar on boch sides of rhe crack,
as sho\\1n schen1atically in Figure 4.12b. This question of bond benveen steel and con·
crete \Viii be taken up again in Section 4 .3.4.
• Finally, ic is imporcanr co noce char che fraccure n1echanisn1 outlined above applies
merely to che initiation of a single crack . Cracking in RC strucrures under increasing
load involves rhe interaction of many such cracks, each of \\1hich initiates and propa ..
gates. Such interaction may be quice con1plex, and n1any propagation n1echanisn1s
are possible, as, for instance: all cracks exrend ac che s.ame tin1e; a fe,v cracks extend
first, with ocher cracks developing later; single cracks propagate one by one. Any of
rhese processes of crack propagation may be considered to occur in che course of a
146 Finite-element modelling o( structural concrete Structure modelling for static problems 147

given applied (6nire) load step, and che crack pacrern ac che end of the convergence
run should reAecr as closely as possjble rhe acrual panern of cracks rhac would ha\'e
resulted in che rea l struccure, bearing in 1nind rhac a 6nire load seep in an FE analysis
usually represencs a quicker race of loading rhan char in an actual cesr. In addicion,
rhe three cypes of crack propagation lisced above are also relevanc in che course of rhe
various icerations che1nselves \\1ithin a given load seep, as \\1ill be seen in Seccion 4.4.

4.3.3.2 Smeored·crack approach versus the discrete·crack approach

A characrerisric fearure of cracking is rhe inherenc discontinuicy char arises along ics parh,
/ I/
referred ro in che preceding secrion. On rhe orher hand, rhe FE model is essentially a con·
rinuum-n1echanics cechnique. Such an appa renc inco1npacibiliry benveen problem and 11100· ----ff A-----
elling cool requires the develop111enr of special schen1es \vhich, \\1hile in keeping \Yirh rhe
general nocion of 'concinuiry· in che FE solution, exhibir drastic and sudden changes in rhe
macerial at che locarion of cracks. Two basic sche1nes, rhac conscituce che fundamencal airer· (b)
natives to crack n1odelling, are rhe discrece-crack approach and rhe sn1eared-crack approach.
The discrere-crack approach introduces an acrual gap in the FE n1esh ar the locarion
o( a 1:rai.:k. h ai:hit'Vt'ir. this by Uuubliug an<l St'paratiug dtt' nodal i:ovrc.Jiuatt'ir. lyiug along
individual crack pachs. This implies ir.iporcanc changes in che nu111bering of nodes and
elen1enr connectivities which, in curn, affecr rhe g loba l stiffness n1arrix. The first discrece·
crack model ap)l<'ars co have been used by Ngo and Scordelis (1967). Early versions of rhe
discrete approach to crack 1nodelling were relacively crude since the crack·propagarion
path had to follo\Y rhe boundaries of existing ele1nenrs. Later on, a technique \Vhich auto·
n1acically rede6nes che mesh as cracking propagat"es, apparencly \Yirhour bias in respecr of
rhe orienrarion of cracks, \\ras proposed by Saouma and Ingraffea (1981). This appears ro
require inrric-are programn1ing cechniques and scill to be signi6canrly restricced in use since
con1plicared n1esh re6nen1enrs beco1ne necessary ro accomn1odace the propagacion of only
a fe\v discrete cracks. Figure 4.13 sho\VS a represenrarive FE n1esh necessicated by che pres·
(<) lp
ence of only six discrete cracks. This n1esh generated near failure should be co1npared \\1ich
rhe relarive sin1plicicy of che original mesh. Therefore, ic is evidenc chat, owing to practical
limications on rhe number of FEs, discrece..crack predictions are constrained by FE mesh
sizes, in addicion to che large efforr required for the constant redefinition of rhe mesh ropol· JI 9 ,. 7 12
6 3
ogy, even for plane..srress cases (see Figure 4.13); in chis respecr, it is in1portant to note
13 5
rhac che discrere-crack technique does noc seem ro have been applied ro 3-D cases (or e•.len
ro 2-0 axisymn1erric problenlS), for \Yhich praccical dif6culties can easily be appreciated.
T\VO furcher possible con1plications n1ar be envisaged as cracking progresses in che course
of discrece n1odelling: one is rhe fonnarion of 'elongated' FEs, that is those possessing large
© © © ® 0
ratios beC\veen sides (as in the case of many of the elen1ents making up rhe n1esh in Figure Figure 4.13 ExampJes of application of the discrete-cr ack approach: (a) initial f E mesh; (b) FE mesh configu-
4.13b), \Vich consequencly poor(er) numerical perforn1ance; che other possible difficulty ration near failure; (c) crack pattern near failure.
concerns the subdivisjon of the n1esh (in pares at least) ro such a degree rhar the n1aterial
data used for the analysis {and based on rhe average propercies of a resr speci1nen of finire
size) become of doubtful va lidiry. is rhe ability ro n1odel the high tensile stresses raking place ar che crack cips, and it is in rhis
le might be argued char che discrete-crack approach allows che nacural description of indi· respecc rhac a 1najor disadvanrage of rhe schen1e (or of rhe alcernacive approach, \vhere a
vidua l cracks and, also, it \Vould seem, of che phenon1enological processes char are deen1ed single crack \\1ithin an element is dealt \Vich by fracture mechanics- see Shenglin ec al. 1987)
ro occur becween rhese cracks. Therefore, rhe approach appears to be quire suitable, ac leasr, n1anifescs icself. For, rhere is sintply no reliable experin1enral data on rhe 1narerial behaviour
ro localised phenomena, such as aggregare inredock, concrete- steel bond and dowel action in che region of che crack rips, \Vhere high stress concentrations govern rhe iniciacion and
(see e.g., Tassios and Scarpas 1987). HD\Yever, n1eaningful constirutive relations for these subsequenc spread of cracking; and this proble1n is further compounded by the facr chat, ac
local phenon1ena are very sparse and, in addition, ir appears char such effecrs play a second· such microscopic level, che rrue heterogeneous nacure of concrete can no longer be ignored,
ary role on che n1echanisn1s of resiscance to applied load in concrere structures (Kotsovos rhus posing for1nidable proble1ns even to rhe po\verful analytical tools afforded by presenr·
and Pavlovic 1986, Kotsovos er al. 1987). Whac is imporcant in a discrece-crack approach day fraccure-n1echanics cheory.
148 Finite-element modelling o( structural concrete Structure modelling for static problems 149

The above outline of che discrere·crack approach was undercaken in order co sho'v \Vhy occurs is furcher cracking rather than any derailed/accurate description of deforn1ation in
ics alcernacive, che sn1eared·crack method, adopred in che presenr FE model, represents, benveen two consecutive cracks at a given location \Vhere, in any case, load is likely co be
in rhe currenr srare of kno'A1ledge (as regards, pri1narily, n1aterial data, bur also nun1erical shed CO\Vards uncracked regions).
capabiliries), che more realiscic - although, adn1ictedly, less ambitious - technique for crack The 3 ·0 isotropic D·matrix relating incren1encs of srresses and strains before cracking, is
modelling. The n1ethod, \Vhose first practical application seems co have been rhe predicted given by Equation 4.S3. When che stare of srress ar a Gauss poinc reaches the criaxial envelope
response of a nuclear pre..stressed vessel under inner pressure (Rashid 1968), and ·which involving at lease one principal rensile con1ponent for rhe firsr rime, a crack plane is assumed
has subsequently forn1ed the basis for n1osr FE analyses of srrucrural concrece, n1akes use to fonn in che direcrion orrhogonal co che n1axin1um principal rensile srress. As explained
of che drasric 111.aterial propercy changes caused by, and at the locacion of, cracking as a previously, such a tensile stress is sec co zero and transforn1ed inro equivalenc unbalanced
means of simularing discontinuicy. Such changes are achieved by re111oving or reducing the forces (to be discributed chroughour rhe surrounding zones), and rhe adopted incren1encal
stiffness properries in che direction onhogona l co the crack, \Yirhout introducing any gap in constitutive relacionships in local axes (defined \Yirh respect co rhe cracked plane - see the
the inicial n1esh, and leaving the larcer unchanged rhroughour the analysis. Since macerial systen1 (x: y', z-') in Figure 4.14) are subsequencly given rhe follo\ving n1atrix expression:
properties are evaluated only at specific poinrs in an element, such as che incegrarion points
or che nodes, rhe alceration of n1areri.il properries due co cracking consequendy affec-rs rhe t.o~ 2G + µ µ 0 0 0 0 L\a~
contributing region fro111 \Vhich chese properries are evaluated, hence snieari11g the effect of
L\o~ µ 2G + µ 0 0 0 0 L\a~
cracking over rhe \Yhole of rhac region. In face, a 'single' crack represents an infinite nun1ber
L\o~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 L\&~
of parallel fissures chroughout that pare of che e le111ent related co an integracion poinr or a (4.99)
node. As che present \Vork is based entirely on the isoparan1ecric fonnulation, che poincs L\T'..,. 0 0 0 G 0 0 t.y;,.
around 'A1hich the sn1earing of cracks takes place are ahvays the incegration poinrs. This L\T~.t 0 0 0 0 ~G 0 L\y~.t
'smearing' of 1uaterial properties over a fini re region of the element n1odels the relief of ren·
L\T)..t 0 0 0 0 0 ~G t.y;.
sile srresses orrhogonal co a crack (see Figure 4 .12).
The essence of smeared modelling, therefore, is rhe secting up of cracked areas by n1odifi·
carion of che sriffness properries and stresses (equilibriu111 conditions) ar rhe relevant Gauss \\•here the chird locaJ axis ft') is orthogonal to rhe crack plane and rhe first and second
poincs, rhac is, chose poincs used for the numerical inregrarion of stiffness matrices and for Carcesian axes (x: y') lie on it (see Figure 4.14). (le should be noted chat, as in previous
rhe calc-ulacion of residual forces. Tl:»Js, \Vhile discrete n1odels account for sriffness losses inscances, rhe above scress and strain incremenrs are due co subsequent load incren1enrs and,
by doubling che nodes lying on individual cracks, smeared models simply replace uncracked
D·n1atrices by cracked ones. (Equilibriu1n conditions are lose in both cases eicher as a result

~'
of n1esh ntodifications [discrece n1ode1s] or direcrly chrough stress correcrions [smeared
n1odelsj; subsequently, such equilibriwn is re·esrablished by 111eans of residua l forces in boch
cases.) The face, rh.ar no mesh n1odifications are required chroughout an analysis, based on
rhe smeared·crack approach not only constitutes a sign.al co1nputariona l advantage in chis
rec-hnique, as n1entioned already, bur also allo\\rs che elentenc size to be kepc similar ro rhac
of rhe specin1ens front \\1hich the cons1itutive relacions and fracrure criceria \Vere derived (rhe
laner, an i1nporrant practical considerarion, \Viii be couched upon later, when the effec-c of c '"
FE mesh size on nun1erical predictions is considered).

4.3.3.3 Incremental stress-strain relationships for cracked concrete

This sec-cion deals ·with che D·marrices for cracked concrete for 3 .. 0 analysis, \\•hi le che cases
of 2·0 (both plane and axisymn1erric) proble1ns have been fu lly discussed in Kotsovos and
Pavlovic (1985). \X' hile, before cracking, rhe D·1natrix is isotropic, obeying the consrirucive
la\VS applicable rhroughour rhe ascending branch (ac the n1aterial le\•el - see Figure 4.10),
afrer cracking, che macerial becon1es anisotropic and che previous consticurive rel.acionships
can no longer be used, as rhey were derived for concrere in the uncracked stare. Since chere
are fe"' reliable dara on rhe deforn1acional characteriscics of cracked concrece, it \viii hence·
forch be assun1ed char the properries of a cracked D·macrix ren1ain consranc during further
loading. (These properries are updated only if and \Vhen a second crack develops ac rhe same
Gauss point, and chen, again, rhe new stiffness is n1aintained constant; should a third, and
final, crack occurs - as, possibly, in 3·D or axisynunerric proble1ns - it \Vould lead ro the lase Figure 4.14 l ocal axes for a Gauss point with one and/or two c:racks (fi:rst crack parallel to plane OAS. sec-
updaring of rhe D·n1atrix.) Such an assumption is both necessary (in the absence of relevant ond cr ack parallel to plane ABC; it should be noted that. following the second crack. y" defines
experi111ental inforn1acion) and reasonable (since rhe 1uain governing faccor once cracking the direction o ( the only remaining direct stiffness).
ISO Finite·element modelling of strocwraJ concrete
hence, even rhough rhey are contpured by reference ro che principal directions exisring ar
cracking, rhe tO<tal stresses and srrains in such directions are no longer principal.) The consri·
rurive coef6ciencs at rhe relevanr Gauss point are ser equal ro che corresponding coef6ciencs
of rhe last uncracked D-marrix (under criaxial condirions) ar rhar point, even though it could
be envisaged, for zones of contpression \Vich one crack, thar che use of biaxial srress- scrain
la\VS on planes parallel ro rhe crack 1nighr be more racional (in a s111eared· crack model) until
a second crack fornts; ho,vever, chis represents too refined an approach, especially in vie'v
of rhe lack of kno,vledge on the conscicurive relarions for cracked concrece, as pointed our
earlier. Besides,. rhe presence of rhe fiG cerm.s (represenring residual shear sciffness across rhe
plane of rhe crack) in1plies thar the conditions along the crack's plane are nor quite plane·
stress ones, bur rhat the region srill represents son1e son of 'conrinuun1'. Therefore, it is for
these reasons rhat the coefficients 2G +µ,andµ, may ren1ain unchanged as Equation 4.83
beco1nes Equauion 4.99.
If the stare o( stress at a given Gauss point reaches the rriaxial envelope in tension a sec·
ond rin1e, rhen a second crack plane is assun1ed to form (unless the nvo planes of fracrure are
near-coincident}. This ne\Y crack plane is no\\r orthogonal ro the current n1axin1un1 censile
principal srress and, consequently, is noc necessarily orthogonal ro che firsr crack plane. The
con1binacion of the nvo fraccure planes only leaves stiffness in the direction of che incersec·
tion of both planes (direction y# or AB in Figure 4 .14). As for che one-crack case, some
residual shear stiffness has ro be kept in order to i1nprove che conditioning of the cracked
stiffness n1atric.es. Explicitly, rhe incren1encal consricutive relationships adopted for this case
are as follows:
ao; 0 0 0 0 0 0 at;
ao; 0 2G + µ 0 0 0 0 at;
ao; 0 0 0 0 0 0 at;
(4.100)
aT:;. 0 0 0 ~G 0 0 l!.y;.,
aT;~ 0 0 0 0 tlG 0 ay';:
a-r;~ 0 0 0 0 0 ~G l!.y;_
·where the ne\Y axes are no"' defined by the double primes in Figure 4.14. In line \Vith previ·
ous discussion, 2G + µ is retained ac present for the second diagonal term inscead of si1nply
E (for v = 0.2 e .g., che<e cwo terms differ only by a facror of I.I}.
If che state off stress reaches che failure envelope either in con1pression (i.e., all three prin·
cipal stresses - presenc in che global axes because of che 'conrinuum' implied by the ~G
factors - being con1pressive) or for a rhird rin1e in rension, t\\ro opcions n1ay be considered.
The first opcion is ro impose a zero conscicutive n1acrix, rhat is, a con1plere loss of sriffness
in a ll direcrions (Z3 macrix), and rhe second is to use a n1arrix \Vith only residual values of
fiG for rhe three shear-stress co1nponents (G3 1narrix). The laner option arises again for rhe
san1e reason as for one-crack and rwo·crack cases, its chief ain1 being che i1nprovement of
numerical scabiJity.
The n1arrices in Equations 4.99 and 4.100 are valid only in che local ser of axes sho,vn in
Figure 4 .14 and, hence, rhey require a rransforn1ation ro global coordinates (see Appendix
B). Therefore, all che coefficiencs of rhe consrirutive D-marrix for che stress- strain relation·
ships for one-crack and t\YO·crack Gauss poincs \Yith respecr ro 3 -D global axes (x~ y, t) \viii,
in general, be non-zero. On the other hand, boch Z3 and G3 n1acrices corresponding to a
third cracking (or, cheoretically, full co1npressive failures at any stage) are clearly isotropic.
Structure modelling for static problems IS i
The above oucline compleres the description of cracking at a single Gauss point. The
updating of rhe stiffness properries in a srructure \Vhen several cracks occur simultaneously
at various locations upon incren1enting the load YirilJ be considered in Seccion 4.4 as rhe
need for adequare crack·propagarion procedures and stiffness-updating scrategies becomes
evident.
4.3.3.4 Shear-retention factor: Its role on the conditioning of .ftlffness
matrices and actual physical eYldence
In Secrion 4.3.2.4, it \Vas sho\Yll ho\V rhe use of nun1erical integration leads ro expres·
sion (4.85) for che element sciffness n1arrix. It \Vas also pointed out there that rhe 3 x 3
block of coefficiencs of che k-macrix relacing co the DOF of any pair of nodes (block [kJ'' in
Equation 4.86) is the addition of the contributions of che 11 Gauss points of the finice elemenc
([kJ'1 - i:.,[kC1). Alchough chese blocks are noc calculaced in praccice, sucb blocks could be
obcained by means of expression (4.87).
Consider noYir the contribution of a Gauss point at \Yhich one crack has appeared. If,
for convenience, it is assun1ed char che loca l set of axes (fixed co the crack plane as sho\Yn
in Figure 4.14) coincide \Vith the globa l set of axes, substitution of che adopted D ·1natrix
(as given by Equacion 4.99) inco expre<sion (4.87) leads co che following expression for
block [kJ'I:
a 1n1n' 1 + G{n1nr2 + ~11;m3) a1n1nr1 + Gn11111
(kC' - 1u1fi a,n,m, + Gn,m, a 1n1nr1 + G{n1n'1 + IJn3m3)
[ ~Gn,m, PG111n'l
(4.101)
Yirhere, for clariry, n 1, n 2, n1 =b~,, br" b:,i; nr,, nr.2> m 1 =bx)' b11, bu; a, = 2G+ µ; a1 =µ.
If, 11ext, a uro value for ~ is assumed, rhe conrribmion of the Gauss poinr ro the (k] 1/
block of the stiffness n1atrix of the elen1enr reduces to rhe following:
a1n 11n1 + G1111n 1
a 1n1m1 + Gn 1m 1 (4.102)
0
This expression shows forn1a lly rhat, if~= 0 and the local axes coincide with global axes,
a one-crack Gauss point 1nakes no contribution ro che coefficients that relate forces and dis·
placen1ents in the third global direction; this is a consistent consequence of rhe con1plere loss
of stiffness in the direction orrhogonal ro the crack plane rhat the J).1narrix in Equarion 4.99
i1nplies. It follo\vs, rherefore, front Equarions 4.101 and 4.102 that, in the absence of a shear-
retention facror (SRF), and for an element \vith all che integrarjon poincs cracked in parallel
planes, the D-nurrix in Equatjon 4.99 leads ro either zero values in che diagonal of che ele·
n1enr stiffness n1arrix (if rhe cracks are parallel to one of rhe global planes) or ro ilJ.-condi·
rioning (othenvise). In praccical sicuations, ic is common to have \\1hole concrete FEs in rensile
zones so that all their inregracion points 1nay crack. Adn1irredly, such cracks \Viii seldom be
exacrl)• parallel. Ho\vever, sn1all pivots n1usr be expected. Thjs explains \Vhy che use of a
non-zero ~ is 11111nerica/Jy essential for brinle n1odeHing regardless of its physical 1neaning
(Gonzalez Vidosa er al. 1988). The presenr argument is reinforced by so1ne eigenvalue rests of
ISl Finite-element modelling of structural concrete
rhe k-n1auix for a plain-concrete elen1enr, n1odelled by brick elemencs of che serendipity (20-
node elemenr, used with bmh under-imegrarion (2 x 2 x 2) and full incegracion (3 x 3 x 3))
and Lagrangian (27-node e lement) rypes. The results are sum111arised in Table 4.1. (The
resulcs in Table 4.1 are, of course, independent of che adopted sec of axes, as rhe eigenvalues
of a k-1nacrix are invariants, since any k-n1acrix is a second-order rensor.) Ir is evident rhar che
nun1ber of 111echanisms increases as one goes front rhe uncracked co che cracked (j} = 0.1) case
and, signific.ancly, chis increase is even n1ore drastic \Yhen fi is reduced fron1 0.1 through 0 . (Ir
n1ay also be of i.nceresc ro note rhac che ratio of che n1echanis1ru for che cracked I~= 0.1] and
uncracked FEs is che san1e for all chree FEs used and char, rherefore, no conclusion about rheir
rel:nive performance in rhe present contexr of numerical scabiliry can be reached.)
As mentioned in Section 4.1.3, rhe 111echanis1ru of the stiffness 111arrix are chose n1odes
of deforn1arion of the DOF of che FE rhar do nor require any srrain energy co occur (Cook
1981). The elastic strain energy U associared \Vich a given sec of nodal displacen1encs dis
given by
(4.103)
LJ - (l/2)(Td - (lf2)d"'(k)d
where f is the corresponding sec of nodal forces (i .e., f = [k]d, as in Equation 4.22).
Therefore, if d is an eigenvector of the e le111enc stiffness 111atrix (i.e., [k]d =ad) of zero
eigenvalue, it follo\vs fro111 Equation 4.103 that U = 0. Hence, che number of zero eigenva l-
ues is rhe nun1ber of n1echanisn1s, and their corresponding eigenvecrors are rhe n1echanis1ns
of rhe elen1enc sci ffness n1atrix. Since a solid ad1nics chree cranslacions and chree rotations
wichouc straining (rigid-body 1nocions), ic is usually considered that che k-1narrix of a brick
FE should have six mechanisnlS (six zero eigenvalues); and any mechanisnlS in excess of
six are referred co as spurious n1echanisms. As may be seen in Table 4.1, even uncracked
under-inregraced elements present some spurious n1echanisn1s; neverrheless, rhey are often
regarded as beircer elen1enrs chan their fully incegraced councerparcs (Zienkie\vicz ec al.
1971). Ho·we\•er, as cracking secs in, che likelihood of (addiciona l) spurious mechanisn1s
increases, especially if the SRF is ser co zero; and ic is, rherefore, co 1ninimise rhis increase
rhar rhe brinle narure of the 111acerial n1odelling requires rhe assignment of a non-zero value
to Jl. (Thus e.g., Hand er al. 1973 [who referred to spurious mechanisms simply as 'unstable
cracked configurarions'] pointed our e111pirically that a zero SRF could noc be used. In chis
respect, expressions (4.101) and (4. 102) give a forn1al rational explanation for this, irre ..
speccive of che order of integration.)
\Vich regard co che conditioning of the k·n1acrix of che structure, rhe decay of ics coef-
6.cienrs rends robe less i111ponanr rhan char of che k·1uatrix of the cracked e1emenrs, since
Table 4.1 Number of zero eigenvaJues of brick-element stiffness matrix
(pla.in concrete, aspect ratio I x I x I)
Quadratic 3-0 element
Numbero( Serendipity (20 nodos) l.ogtangK>n (2 7
parollel aocks SRF 2x2x23x3x3 nodes)3x3x3
None 12 6 6
All G auss points 0.1 20 10 10
AJI Gauss points 0 36 29 36
Soutte: GonnJet: Vldosa F.. Kouovos M..0. and f'llvtovt.c M.N., 1988. Commt#lieodom il'I
Ap~ MJl'ntlfcoJ Methods. 4. 799-806.
Structure modelling for static problems ISl
Figure 4.15 Disconnection of the horizontaJ DOF of node I due to (near) parallel cracking of surrounding
FEs.
rhe presence of adjacent uncracked elen1encs and/or sreel eJen1encs intproves the numerical
conditioning. Neverrheless, Figure 4 .15 sho\vs an exan1ple in \Yhich the horizontal dis-
placen1ent of a node is racher loosely connected co che structure (Ji-. 0) or fully uncon-
necced (I!= 0).
\Vhar is the value acrually assigned ro Ji? Before ans\vering rhis question, it should
be pointed our char the SRF is a paran1erer clearly associated \Virh rhe nocion of 'aggre..
gace incerlock'. No\\r, contrary to the \Videly held vie\\r char 'aggregate interlock' plays an
imporcant role in transferring shear across cracked areas, experin1enta l evidence poincs
co the opposice conclusion (Kocsovos er al. 1987). The Janer has been reinforced by FE
n1odelling itself coupled \\1 ich earlier - but, originally, misinterpreted - experimenral dara
(Kocsovos and Pavlovic 1986), and chis has been presenced in Kocsovos and Pavlovic (1995).
Therefore, a large value of 13 (say between 0.5 and 1) is physically unrealistic; n1oreover,
its effec-r would be co (spuriously) a rtracr load on account of che large (ficririous) stiffness
associaced \Vith it (rhe numerical in1plicacions of \\1hich are fully discussed in Kotsovos
and Pavlovic 1995). On rhe ocher hand, ic has jusc been shO\\' ll char zero or small values
(say ll = 0.01) of SRF lead co ill-conditioning of che stiffness matrices of rhe cracked e le-
ments. Results of nun1erical experin1encacion (Bedard 1983, Bedard and Kocsovos 1986)
suggest char, in general, analytical prediccions are fairly insensirive co va lues of the SRF in
rhe range 0.1 ~ ~ ~ 0.5). As a consequence, therefore, ic appears that a suirable va lue for
fi is around 0.1, \\1hich is in keeping \Vich che negligible effect of 'aggregate interlock', on
rhe one hand, while n1eecing rhe conscraints i1nposed by rhe requiren1ents for nun1erical
srabiliry, on the ocher.
4.3.3.5 Macro-crack closure
Macro-crack closure is considered to occur ·when rhe scrain norn1al to rhe plane of a crack
beco1nes con1pressive and larger chan rhe value calculated ar crack fonnarion (as already
discussed, compression is assun1ed co be posicive). As for the case of crack formation, crack
closure is nu111erically described through rhe n1odification of the D-n1acrix of cracked Gauss
points ac \Vhich crack closure occurs and che calculation of rhe residual forces char n1usc
be applied in the nex'C iceration in order co re-establish the equilibriun1 conditions for rhe
overall structure.
For rhe case of a Gauss point \Vich a single crack (see Equation 4.99), crack closure is
effecred by replacing che relevant D-1natrix terms \Vith cheir values describing the behaviour
of concrece ac its uncracked stare (see Equation 4.83), whereas che calculacion of the residual
I S4 Finite-element modelling of struct ural concr ele Structure modelling for stalic problems ISS

forces is carried our as described in Section 4 .3.2.5. Si1nilarly, che closure of a crack at .a
Gauss poinc with nvo (see Equacion 4 .100) o r three (see also Equacion 4.100, bur, with zero
d iagonal tenns for a ll norn1al scress co1nponenrs) cracks is described by restoring mace· l!..dxJ
rial continuity only in the direction norn1al co che closing crack by follo\\1ing a n approach 11•, - (··-(dxlds)(dN1/ds) (dylds)(dN 1/ds) (dz/ds )(dN,lds)···J Ady1 (4.106)
opposite co cha t adopted for crack fonnarion (i.e., t he relevanc diagonal tern1s of t he relevan t Ad~1
D·matrix are replaced \\1ith rheir values des.cribing the behaviour of conc rere at ics scare
before che occurrence of rhe (no,v] closing cra ck).
In t he spiric of previous \\rork relating co concrete, che coefficients of [bJ in Equacion 4 .106
4 .3.4 Descript.ion of the reinforcing steel are derived b)' making use of the isoparan1ecric formulation. Thus, it should be recalled that
x, = N 1 X;1, where x 1 a nd xiJ are the ith global coordinate a nd che ith globa l coordinace of
O n the basis of deforn1ationa l and yie,ld characteristics of che sceel reinforcen1enc (Section
the Ith node, respectively. Therefore, dx/ds = X;1 N/ds. In addi tion, it is a lso necessary to
3 .3), che consticucive properties and failure cricerion for t he FEs representing the sceel bars
calcula te dsld~ in order co express derivatives \\1ith respecc co the lengrh coordinates in cern1s
may read ily be imposed. This is done by correcting che stress values (in accorda nce w ith
ol deriva<ives wi<h. respec< m the non·dimensional coordinate!'; (i.e., (dN,ldF,)(dF,!ds)). T he
rhe iniria l·scress technique - Section 4.3.2 .S) so as to s.a.risfy t he constitutive relationships,
deriva<ive d(,/ds follows from <he following expressions:
providing updated stiffness properties (£,) corresponding co the currenc stare of stress,
a nd perforn1ing fa ilure· criterion checks based on th e ulcin1are st rain value. As expla ined ' (111>
i n C hapter 3, perfecc plascicicy is never in1posed on th e fi na l branch of rhe stress- stra in dsld; - ((dx/dl;J- + (dyld;)1 + (dzJd;)'j (4.107)
plot even in t he case of 1nild steels \\1hich app.r oxi1nare such an excre1ne condition (in rerm1s
of average, buc nor actual, strains, bearing in mind che dyna n1ic nature of steel yielding, and hence
Pavlovic a nd Stevens 1981); instead, a sn1all,. buc finite, value is given to E righc up co th e
ultimare strain E.,.
dsld; - {Hx1 )(dN11d;)J' + [(y1)(dN 1/tf;)J' + [(z1 )(dN1/d;)J'}'"" (4.108)
In wha c follo\\1s, a brief oud ine of t he incre1nenral relations for steel is gi\'en by reference
ro the n1ore general 3 ·0 case. Additionally, the interaction benveen steel a nd concrete ~s
considered by reference co bond and cension stiffening, and, here, it \\1ill be sho\Yn ho\V t he Incren1enrs of stresses and strains are related by Young's 1nodulus
present sin1plified rrearn1enr - in t he contexc of snteared 1nodelling - avoids che unjusti fiably
laboured efforts often adopted in respecc to chese phenomenological paran1ecers. (4.109)

4 .3 .4 .I Incremental re lations for the t hree -node u nlaxial e lement while che incre1uen.tal sciHness matrix is gi\•en by the follo\ving integral, \Yhere A, is rhe area
o( the cross section of the bar elen1ent
For a curved· line e lement oriented \Vith respecc t o t he (x, y, t) set of Carcesian globa l coor·
d inares, lets represent che lengch n1easured a long its axis, so cha r t = (dxlds, dylds, dtlds) ls
rhen the tangent veccor. On the assun1ption tltac the displacen1ents are kept small, the long i· [k] - f'lb f F.(b))(A.)(dsld;}d; (4.1 JO)
rudinal displacen1enr, u" can be o btained front the scalar produce of rhe ta ngent vector and
r he vector of global displace1nents u = {u..11, "r uJ Finally, stress conditions give rise to residua l noda l forces whic h are calculated as follows:

u, - tu (4.104 ) llf, - -fHbt oo, )(A,)(ds/d;)d; (4. 111)

Since only che axia l stiffness of t he reinforcement is deemed ro be of significance, rh.e

single strain con1ponent of interest is che direct strain along t he e le1nenc. T his is sin1ply t he
equivalent of Equation 4.72 (bur, no,v, as t he tota l derivative)
(4.105)
Global displacemenrs are still rela ted to nod al displacen1enrs as in expression (4.7 1) (chis
being a generic type o f rela tion for a ny nun1ber of nodes \\1 ith three DOF). Then, by coin·
bining expressions (4.1 04), (4.105) and (4.71.), <he incrementa l ma in- nod al displacemenc
relarionship is obcained, rha<is, ti.£, = [b)lld (<ee Equation 4.78, bm wi<h (BJ= [b), the laC<er
serving as a ren1inder t hat t he problen1 under consideration refers ro a (curved) line e1en1enc).
Thus
Expressions (4.110) and (4. 111) are calcula<ed by means of Gaussian incegra<ion.
4.3.4.l Concrete-steel Intera ction
This co1nprises t\vo n1ain aspeccs.
Bond. T he quescion of bond n1odelling bet\veen steel a nd concrete is o ften given pronti·
nence in the course of develop1nent of a n FE n1odel for st ructura l concrere. Syn1pro1naric of
this anitude are the early a tten1pcs to analyse concrece scrucrures by FEs, in \\1hich spring
linkages were introduced co 1nin1ic bond slip through linear (Ngo and Scordelis 1967) or
non·linear (Nilson 1968) la\\1s. Alth ough 1nany subsequent investigations were based on t he
simplifying assump <ion of perfecr bond (e.g., Philips and Zien kiewicz 1976), much effon
is still being expended in imple1nencing bond·slip la\VS. In t he past, such ' laws, have ranged
156 Finite-element modelling o( structural concrete Structure modelling for static problems I 57

from arbitrarily assigned 'spring' constants to "theoretical' relationships, the larrer son1e·
(•)
rimes incorporating a cenain degree of experin1enral feedback fron1 rhe scarce, lin1ited and
(0) (200)
often dubious dara currendy available. llOO
The present nl!Odel adopts che perfect-bond assumption, implicit in che coincide1x-e, through· 83.Sls for lntetlor - - -
our the analysis., of rhe steel-element nodes \\rirh rhe nodes of rhe corresponding (adjacent) Unk11ge - ---=--- - - - - -
I
concrece-elenient(s) edges. (Since all elenienrs are of the second order and a unique parabolic I
interpolation can be adjusted benveen the three nodes of a given edge, the coincidence bet\veen .....6 600 I
I
steel and concrec:e-elen1enr edges guarantees rhe sa1ue displacen1enrs [i.e., perfect bond) for con· :lS
crece a nd sreel ac che sanie location.) Three argun1enrs n1ay be adduced for such a n approach. c I
; I u = 3606 x t03d
Firstly, rhe notion of perfect bond is compatible 'virh the chinking behind che sn1eared· ~
I - 5356 x 1<l>J2
crack n1odel, in the sense chat derailed description of loca lised effeccs is avoided. In rhis
respect, ic is important to srress rhar rhe earlier n1ention of bond loss benveen steel and con·
"
~
.&
400
Buis for I
1 + J986 x 109d 3
exterlot ~ (20)
crere in rhe vicinity of a crack (seeSec-cion 4.3.3.1 and Figure 4.12b) does nor concradict rhe
perfect-bond assun1ption since rhe smeared-crack approach spreads rhe effect of cracking ro
] linbg_e I
I
such an extent rhat integracion points in barele1uents represent, generally, bar lengchs \\1hich I
I
usually far exceed rhe localised regions \\1here bond slip occurs, thus precluding a 1ui nute I
account of che steel-concrete inte raction. I
Secondly, reliable experin1enral information of \vide applicability on bond-slip charac· OO!-----,2~00,..----
400~'----600±----,,!rJO)
reriscics is, as suggested above, noc available. In fact, experin1enrs ane1npting ro derern1ine Local bolld slip(µ ..)
bond- stress against slip- displacen1enr curves exhibit, typically, a large scaner of data as
regards boch individual investigations (see e.g., Ed\vards and Yannopoulos 1978) and rhe
overall picture thar em.erges front a con1parison of characteristics proposed by various
aurhors (see Figure 4.16 raken from Gonzalez Vidosa's [1989] adaprarion of rhe rele\'a nr
data in the ASCE Task Conllnirree's srare-of-rhe-an report on the FE analysis of RC scruc·
rures [ASCE Task Con1mictee on Finite Elen1enc Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Struccures
1982)). It is nor surprising, therefore, chat theoretical bond- slip curves used for non-linear
analysis often differ significancly fron1 each ocher, as may be seen, for instance, b)' refere nce
ro che characreriscics adopred by Nilson (1968) and Labib and Edwards (1978), depicred in
Figure 4.17a and b, respectively. \Vhen such variability and the fact rhar slip transverse to
rhe reinforcen1e.nr is governed by different characteristics are considered, it is ei,•idenr char

Figure 4.17 Some of bond-slip curves used in non-linear FE anaJysis: (a) Nilson (1968). (b) Labib and Edwards
( 1978). (From N;lson A. H .. 1968. AC/ Journal. 65. 757- 766: Lab;b F. and Edwanls A. 0 .. 1978.
Wahb Procttdings ofthe Institution of Civil Engineers, Port 2. 65. 53- 70.)
(external rona)

0.005 0.01
d(cm)

Figure 4.16 Some o( the proposed bond-stress versus slip- displacements.

158 Finite-element inodelling of stn.JcturaJ concr ete
any refinemenc i1npficic in the deparrure fro1n che perfec-c..bond condicion cannor be accepred
" 'ith a sufficienr degree of confidence.
Thirdly, and n1ost imporcandy, chere is che accual value of che bond stress icself. On rhe
basis of Figure 4 .16 (and, of course, Figure 4.17a), an order of 1nagnirude for che maxi·
n1un1 bond stress of around 5 MPa appears co be relevanr. For che failure envelope in cen·
sion (depicced in Figure 3.27) to reach such a va lue, che concrece strengch ft n1ust exceed,
approxi1nate1y, the 80 MPa n1ark. Ir is evident, cherefore, char che concrece in che vic-inicy of
the concrete- s teel interface will usually have crocked in tension be(ore the 1naxin1um bond
scress could be developed. Sin1ilar conclusjons may be reached b)' reference co che characcer·
iscic of Figure 4.17h, \Vhich suggescs rhac no slip occurs belO\\' a bond srress of 8(fJ1111J (\vich
f, in lb/in') or, equivalencly, 8((,112)'"" (with f, in N/mm1) (Labib 1976). This implies that,
for slip ro cake place, che bond scress 1nusc be around C\Vice che censile screngch of concretes
·wirh an l of around 20-30 MPa; and, once again, pariry benveen n1axin1u1n bond stress
and tensile scrength is a ccained only in che high·screngch concrece range of l =80 J\.LPa and
above. Hence, ir 1nay be concluded chat, for mosr scruccural concreces, rension failure occurs
in che reinforcen1er.c region before the developn1enc of n1axin1un1 bond scresses chere, so
char che assun1ption of perfecc bond in che analysis is justified on che basis chac chere is no
need to n1odel concrece once macro~cracking has caused ir co lose ics sciffness. (In face, since
chere is no guaranree char che bond·slip models in Figures 4. 16 and 4.17 necessarily hold
for ft >80 ~1Pa, che presenr argun1ent juscifying perfecr bond n1ighr even be excended co
encon1pass che upper range of high·screngch concreces.)
Tension stiffening. In che present n1ode1, once cracking in che viciniry of, and orchogonal
co, che reinforcen1er.t cakes place, che stiffness of che concrere is ser co zero, as for the case of
plain concrere. Such a simplificacion ignores che so~called 'cension sciffening' effec1 1 \ \1hich
may be illustraced by reference co a sreel bar encased in concrece and subjecred to rension,
as depicced schemalically in Figure 4.18. The stiffness of such an arrangen1ent exceeds th.ar
(•)
l
figure 4.18 RC tie subject to ten sjon: (a) steel bar encased in concrete with the latter continuing to carry
load away from macro-cracks: (b) 'tension stiffening' represented by the difference in stiffness
of the two systems. namety the composite structure and the bare bar. respectively.
Structure modelling for static problems I59
of the sceel a lone even afcer macro-cracking, 'vhich points co the face ch.ac the concrere in
benveen cracks (\vhere che stresses o are belo\\• f., che censile srrengrh) contribures to rhe
overall stiffness of che system, as rhe rensile scresses are transferred front sceel ro concrece
by bond accion. C learly, \Yirh progressjve cracking and bond descruccion, rhe sciffness of
the RC cie tends cowards char of che bare bar. Specific plocs follo\ving che generic trend of
che one sho,vn in Figure 4.18b may be found in a nun1ber of references, some of chen1 based
on analycical 1nodeUing (e.g., the shore eccencric rensile 1ne1nber analysed in Nilson 1968),
others derived fronl actu:il experinwnts (e.g., the ten.sion tes t described in Kollegser and
Mehlhorn 1987).
The neglecr of rension stiffening is n1ost unlikely co inAuence ulcin1are.. (oad predictions
(Lin and Scordelis 1975, Greunen 1979, Gonzalez Vidosa 1989), especially for scrucmres
exhibicing ductile behaviour, for \Vhich che 'cie' effect has nearly been reduced co char of
the steel acting alone (see Figure 4.18b). Deflec-cion prediccions n1ighr be n1ore sensitive co
such a simplificacion, bur che con1plexicy thac would resuk if concrece e le1nents adjacent co
sceel bars \Vere created differendy from 'plain concrere' e lemenrs else,vhere (\Yith consequenr
proble1ns of n1esh (re)definition) \Vould nor jusrify che exrra refine1nent. Therefore, \Vhile
recognising char local scress redistributions could be affecced by the lack of a llo\vance for
cension sciffening, chis simplificacion appears co be juscified on the grounds of borh ease of
n1odelling and rhe requisice accuracy of prediccions (as \Viii be seen in subsequent chapters).
Finally, a sn1all but percinenr poinr on che cern1inological confusion char is ofcen
encountered in che licerarure seems called for. Models (or rhe rensile characceriscics of
plain concrete \Yhich do nor recognise che brinle nacure of the n1acerial bur use descending
branches of che cype sho·w n in Figure 4.19 (\vhich, if ac all present in actual n1arerial cescs,
are likely robe caused by che iureraction benveen testing device and speci1nen, as pointed
out in Seccion 2 .2) son1ecimes have chese descending (i.e., 'strain sofcening') characceristics
referred to as 'r·ension sciffeniog·. The reason (or chis appears co be ch.at, hisrorically, rhe
..
'
'·'
Figure 4.19 Typical 'strain softening' models for the direction normal (orthogonal) to a crack plane.
160 Finite-element modelling of structural concr ete Structure modelling for static problems 161

conceprs associared \Vich 'rension sciffening· proper (as illus-crated in Figure 4.18) were also
graduall)' - and, i1 \Vould seem, large!)' in1percepribly - adopced (or plain concrete. The
possible confusion - or, ac lease, tern1inological inrerchangeabiliry - of \Vhat is implied by
"cension stiffening~ should be borne in mind so as ro discinguish benveen nvo quire discincr
phenontenological nocions.
4 .3.5 Overall non-linear strategy
The formulations described in Sections 4.3.2 through 4 .3.4 formed rhe basis for th< develop-
menr o( che non·linear srraregy sum1narised in no,vcharc forn1 as described in Figure 4.20.
The in1porcanr (earure of the stracegy is rhar ic con1prises rhe follo\\ring three disrincc srages:
• Inirially rhe k·marrix is updaced by using che inirial macerial properries in the D ..macrix
(see Equation 4 .83) and, for each Gauss poin1, i1 is established \\1herher concrete and/or
s1eel are in a sca1e of loading or unloading (as defined in Section 3.1.2.2). Once rhis is
escablished, rhis stare remains unchanged ro rhe end of che irerarive procedure of each
load incren1eoc.
• The second s1age makes use of the NR irerarive n1erhod and a llo\VS only cra<k closure
(see Section 4.3.3.5), \Vich the ireracive procedure concinuing unti l all cracks due for
closure do, in fact, close. \Virhin chin stage, only one crack closure is allo\ved ro occur
per iteration for rhe reasons explained in the nexr section. Follo\ving crack closure rhe
relevanr D· n1atrix is updated and che residual forces calculaced and added co che cur..
renr load incren1enc.
• Finally, \virhin the chird srage, the iteracive procedure 1nakes use of a n1odi6ed version
of che NR merhod, in d:ar rhe o ..n1acrices are updated as soon as "srrong' non·lineariries
occur, and allo\\IS only crack forn1acion, \Vith che iteracive procedure concinuing uncil
either a convergent solution is obtttined or che run stops due to ill-conditioning. Here,
it should be poinced ouc chac, as discussed in rhe nexr section, cracks are a llo\ved ro
form in a sn1all (prederern1ined) nun1ber \\rithin each irerarion.
Dividing che above iceracive procedure inro chree discincr scages has been found co prevenc
nun1erical instabilities \\1hich are ocher,vise inevitable due 10 che built up of large resjd..
ual forces and che rapid de\'elopment of spurious mechanisms (Kotsovos and Spiliopoulos
1988a,b).
4.4 MATERIAL AND PROCEDURAL FACTORS INFLUENCING
FE PREDICTIONS

I SH ln.ltfa.I mate.rb.I propertk-s
I Calcul::lte curl'tnt stresses a1td smlns
I Current stresses and strains I
Figure 4.20 Schematic representation o( non-linear strategy.
I Following its appearance in che mid·l950s (Clough 1980), che FE method has become the
most \\1idely used nu1nerical rechnique in engineering analysis. A decade afcer its incepcion,
rhis po\ver(ul computational cool began co be applied co rhe non·linear analysis of concrete
I structures (Ngo and Scordelis 1967, Rashid 1968). However, despice the relarively rapid pro-
Jiferarion of works in chis area by rhe early 1980s (ASCE 1982), ir was quickly recognised
rhac rhe use of non·linear FE packages for structura l concrece \Vas seldo1n adopced in design
(ASCE Task Con1micree on Finite Elen1enc Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Srruccures
1981), in spice of the gradual- bur ever \Videoing - acceptance of 1he limit..stare philosophy
in codes of praccice; and, now, more than rhree decades larer, che anicude of rhe practising
engineer re1nains largely unchanged. The 1nain reason (or chis appears robe che general lack
of confidence in rhe o\•erall reliabiliry of the prediccions of the various FE models proposed
for concrere, as most of rhese are nocoriously deficienc \Vich regard ro evidence of cheir
applicability, namely rhe assurance \Yith \vhich rhey n1ay be used co analyse arbitrary scruc..
rural forms racher rhan the S?ecialised strucrure(s) for \Vhich rhey have been devised and/or
againsc \Vhich rheir predicrions were •cuned' or simply rested. Such an outcon1e steins from
rhree n1ajor factors. Firsrly, there is ofren scanc anention given co the rrue response of con ..
crere at the macerial level, ei:her because of licde regard co accual experi1nenral daca or on
account of dubious in1erpreracion of experimental resulcs in an ane1npr ro 6c preconceived
conscirucive rheories. Secondly, 1nosc of rhe nun1erical packages proposed ro dare cend ro
be lacking in a chorough stcdy of cheir objectivity, namely of rhe effecr on predictions of
changes in the various paramecers rhac n1ade up rhe basic 1nodel; \\•hile so1ne of rhese para1n ..
ecers have been discussed already, all of them v.rilJ be enun1erared in chis seccion. Thirdly,
many of the exisring packages are also nororiously deficienc \Vich regard to rheir general·
ity, that is, cheir applicability ro arbirrary srruc-cural forms rarher chan ro rhe specialised
srructure(s) for \Vhich they t:ave be·e n devised and/or againsr which rheir predictions \Vere
resred: char che presenr FE nt:>del does possess such a feacure \\rill becon1e apparenc through
a scudy of rhe \Vide range of proble1ns described in Chapcers 5, 7 and 8.
In order co overcon1e rhe 6rst of rhe abo\'e shorrcomings, special care was raken co incorpo..
rate into rhe proposed FE n1odel a realiscic dese:riprion of n1arerial behaviour (see Chapcer 3)
based purely on en1pirica l d.i.ca obtained chrough the cescing of concrere under generalised,
162 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete
rriaxial and - above all - definable stress conditions (see Chapcer 2); and a signal advancage
of the n1arerial model is the face thar both fai lure and conscicutive la\VS require only a single
paramerer (f:) for their full definicion which, in addicion ro being readily obtainable, pre-sen cs
less scaner rhan any other n1aterial characcerisric. [n \\1hac (ollows, before anentpring - in
Chapters 5, 7 and 8 - ro demonstrare rhe generaliry of che proposed n1odel, anenrion is
{ocused on ascercaining the key contponenrs or parantecers char n1ake up che basic n1odel
and have a don1inanr effecc on che analysis p.rediccions.
ln the evaluarion or che objecriviry of the model, rhose contponenrs or paran1ecers of the
analysis n1ay be d iscinguished on \Vhich chere is a broad agreen1enr front ochers on \\1hich rhe,ce
is no obvious general consensus ar chis scage of developn1enr (see e.g., Gonzalez Vidosa 1989;
Gonzalez Vidosa 1989 er al. 1991). In rhe 6rsr caregory, rhe following can be included: the
l\VO \Vell-escablished techniques of crack nl-Odelling, name,ly sineared and dise:rere cracking;
rhe use of residual forces so as m follow the non-linear constiturive relarions while adhering ro
rhe equilibriun1 requiren1encs of the srruccure; rhe strengch envelopes for co11crece under ntul·
riaxial srress condicions; and che non-linear stress- srrain relations up to about failure. Clearly,
rhese \\re.IJ-escablished 1nodel co1npo11encs are of a basic or •printary· nature on account of
rheir cardinal signi ficance to successful nun1e:rical analysis. By conrrasr, 1nany of rhe contpo·
nenrs 1naking up rhe second category of paramecers, \\rhich are ofren still che o bjecc of wide~y
differing vie\vs, son1ecin1es tend ro be regarded as being of secondary i1nporrance a lrhough
son1e of them may, in face, play a key role in cercain sfruations. In any case, a rigorous scudy
of a ntodePs objectiviry requires char careful consideration should be given ro chese 'second·
ary' paranteters, a lchough their large numbec precludes an exhausrive investigario11 of each
one of rhe1n. Such 'secondary• n1odel compon.enrs 1nay conveniently be subdivided into ntate·
r ial parameters (pose-peak charac-ceristics of che stress- srrain relations, 'aggregate interlock',
"tension stiffening•, 'do\ve1 accion', bond bet\veen sceel and concrete), and para1necers associ·
ated with procedural effeccs sten11ning direcdy from che numerical schen1e adopced (icerarive
mechod, nun1ber of cracks allowed ro fornt or close per iteration andlor cracking sequence
{ol)o,ved, FEs chosen, numerical-integracion rule used, n1esh definition/size, loading path).
The presencarion of che subjecc n1aner in hand, nantely rhe 'secondary' paran1eters, \\ri ll
{ollow rhe above subdivision bet\\reen 'n1aceriaP and 'procedural' faccors. Clearly, \Vhile
son1e of chese faccors n1ight sensibly be ascerrained on the basis of existing evidence, conclu-
sions regarding others have been reached \Vith reasonable cercainry through a ser of nunteri·
ca l experi1nenrs (as described in Korsovos and Pavlovic 1995).
4 .4.1 Material parameters
iBesides che key source of objecciviry of che ntaterial n1odel (i.e., che choice of ft co define
behaviour up ro failure and failure irself), 'srrain sofrening' and 'aggregate interlock' appear
robe the nvo paran1ecers most likely co affect prediccions. The contplece lack of pose-peak
characceriscics is in keeping \\rirh boch a proper interpretacion of available n1eaningful experi·
mencal evide1tce (as discussed a c lengch in Chapcer 2), and rhe fact thac the peak stress in
co1npression is never accually reached in a scruccure (as explained in Seccions 2.4 and 2 ..5,
and a lso borne out by a ll che case srudies gachered in this book). Thus, even if any hyporheti·
cal 'strain softening' relations in contpression \Vere robe included in che analysis, they \Vould
make no difference to che resulcs, and, hence\" che question of their objectivicy need noc arise
ar all. Descending branches in cension, on the ocher hand, \Vhich are a lso discarded in the
presenc n1odel (as opposed to n1any ocher packages), not only do noc have a reliable experi·
mencal basis either, bur 1nay even lead ro nun1erical difficulcies (Korsovos and Pavlovic 199.S).
The lack of any strain-sofcening branches is, of course, a consequence of che britcle-n1aterial
model follo,ved. Anocher consequence is che notion rhaccracked concrece n1akes only a 1ninor
Structure modelling fo r static problems 163
contribution to ov.erall structural screngch and, in this respecr, rhe lo\v value of SRF adopted
accords 'virh the vie\\r (espoused in Secrion 4.3.3.4) chat 'aggregate incerlock' plays an insig·
nificant role in the load-carrying capacicy of a n1en1ber. Thar the chosen ~ value(s) is (are)
capable of reliable prediccions while, ar che sante cin1e, providing rhe necessary degree of
numerical srabilicy has been justified in Kocsovos and Pavlovic (1995).
There are three factors rhar oughc ro be considered in the ntodelling of chose regions of
the struccure \Vhe·re reinforcemenc is locaced, and of chese the first concerns che so· called
'do\vel action' of che bars chenlSelves. Here, rhe sole sciffness con1ponenr along che a.xis of
rhe reinforce1nenr is compatible \\1irh che vie\\r char the effecc of any "do\vel action• is insig·
nificant, as described else\vhere (Kotsovos ec al. 1987, Jelic ec a.I. 1999). The second faccor is
the question of che bond benveen steel bars and surrounding concrece, the justificacion for
perfecr (full) bond having been given a lready (Secrion 4.3.4.2). Finally, rhere is the 'tension
sriffening' facror, an effect chat is not considered in the presenr model which, in accordance
\ \ irh rhe sn1eared-crack philosophy, assumes all che ntaterial in the region of che cracks ro
1
have lose its sriffness in rhe direccion orchogonal ro che cracks. The arguntents for such a
sintpli fication have also been outlined in Seccion 4.3.4.2, \Yhile recognising che face chac chis
mighc have son1e bearing on the accuracy of con1pured defonna tions by underestin1acing rhe
stiffness of the relevanc pares of rhe srruccure.
4.4.2 Procedural parameters
As regards the six procedura l factors lisred previously, past experie1tce has sho,vn thar rhe
use of arbicrary non-linear a lgorithms in the FE analysis of concrece structures is, generally,
noc feasible, and that specific srrategies 1nusr be evolved \Vhich allo\V for rhe special charac·
teristics of che ma·rerial 1nodel. Therefore, che opci1nun1 choice of non-linear srraregy would
depend, for exa1nple, on \Yherher brittle or srrain-softening fearures \\1ere adopted and rhis
is dosely relaced ro the decision on whac cracking sequence and/or number of simulcaneous
cracks is to be adopted. If che marerial n1odelling includes post-cracking strain softening,
scress release and rediscribution cake place gradually as cracks open. Thus, nun1erical pro·
cedures associaced \Virh such n1aterial n1odelling rend robe n1ore stable chan chose involving
che bricde ntarerial n1odel, \Vich \Yhich che sudden and contplece release of censile scresses
as a result of cracking can by icself lead to divergence of che numerical algorirhn1. In chis
respect, account rnusr be taken of rhe face thar the residual forces caused by a 'single' crack
may be of the order of magnimde of rhe exrernal load srep heing applied. Hence, if all pro·
spective cracks are allowed to occur (or close) ar onc.e (che 'tota l-crack approach' [TCA]),
numerical diverge1tce is very likely co be affecred. Ho\vever, cbe strategy adopted is one by
\ \1 hich cracks are allo\ved to occur (or dose) one by one or in small nun1bers (che 's ing l e~
crack approach' [SCA]), while other prospecrive ne\V cracks scand by unril the numerical
process is Scabilised; as a resulr, ic causes a gradual release of residual forces and, cherefore,
in1proves che stabiliry of che nunterical procedure.
In order co further in1prove nun1erical scabiliry, che SCA approach wascon1bined \Yirh N R
cechnique, hue the rangenr sti(lness updating \Vas i1nplen1enred only (or chose elen1ents thar
contained ne\V cracks forn1ing (or closing) in che course of the parcicular iteration of that
load srep (as well as ar sceel locacions \\1here yielding cakes place~. This dealr successfully wich
rhe h igh non-linearity associated \Vich crack forn1ation (or closure) and yielding sreel, and
avoided updacing of che stiffness 1narrix on che basis of the remaining elen1enrs (uncracked
or cracked previously) as the non-linearicies in these are of a ntild nature. Once che crack
was stabilised, che ireracions proceeded \\1ith a conscanr stiffness n1acrix unril either a ne\V
crack appeared (or dosed) (in \Vhich case the procedure updace-d che sciffness of rhe relevanr
element) or t he next load seep \\ras reached (and rhen globa l updacing cook place).
164 Finite·element modelling of structural concrete
The use of che smeared·crack n1odelling of che SCA, \Vhich allo·ws rhe i1nple1nenrarion of
critic-al cracks co occur (or dose) firsr, is also compatible ·wirh che physic-al nacure of crack
propagation (or closure) ·within a srruccure, 'vhere srress redistribucions subsequent co crack
initiation affecr tht scress conditions in neighbouring zones. In principle, i( the load seeps
were co be in6nices:.mally s1nall, sequential single cracking would generally result unless dif-
ferent locacions \Vere ro arcain rhe sa1ne level of (n1axin1un1) scress sin1ulcaneously. ln vie'v
of the above argurnencs, it \Yould seem char che allo\\rance of all pocential cracks ro occur
::at once does not 1nodel 2dequ:uely (or, :u l e~sr, 'r:uion.!ally') rh.e :lCt u2l l\2ture of structur2l
fracture.
The opinion has been expressed char the SCA is dangerous fron1 a nt1111erical standpoint in
thac che resulcs can heavily depend on the icerarion procedure adopred (de Borst in Gonzalez
Vidosa ec al. l 989i H o,vever, chis n1ay also be crue of any ocher procedure, namely chose
procedures \Yhere s-everal cracks are allo\ved to forn1 simultaneously in a given ireracion.
In facr, ic n1ay be teadily argued that, since the forn1acion of each crack usually gives rise
to large residual forces, the SCA is, in general, likely co be n1ore scable (numerica11y) than
other procedures. After all, che SCA is si1nply a n1eans of reducing the risk of nun1erical
inscabilicy. This is quite acceptable, since, in non·linear analysis, ic is pern1issible ro iterate
in any manner, prnvided chat convergence is achieved \Vith all constraincs (equilibrium,
c-on1pacibility, c-onstirucive relations, failure criteria, etc.) satisfied at rhe end of che algo·
rithm process adopced. Finally, despite clain1s to the concrary (Philips in Gonzalez Vidosa
ec a l. 1992), che SCA does nor lack objectivity since ic ahvays aUo\\rs a crack co occur at the
most critical srress-co1nbination location independently of load-seep size (allo\\rance of 1nore
than one crack is sin1ply an economic option in the case of a large nun1ber of Gauss points).
Furthermore, the load level in actual cescs is increased until unloading occurs as a resulc
of crack propagation, char is, until failure (cracking) conditions are n1ec ac che 1nos-c highly
srressed part of che scrucrure; therefore, the SCA appears co be quire realistic eyen fro1n a
pheno1nenological point of vie\Y.
The genera l suitability of che various quadratic e le1nencs chosen is \Veil established for
linear problenlS. In the case of non..linear analysis of concrere scruccures, che second -order
elen1encs of che serendipiry fantily have also been widely used (in addition ro che consranc-
strain triangle) by invescigacors in ch is field (see e.g ., Gonza lez Vidosa 1989). H o\vever, rhe
per(orn1ance of rhe larcer isoparamerric--elen1enc types n1ay be influenced by rhe inregracion
rule adopted. As pointed our in Seccion 4. 1.3, n1ajor economies in computing time resuh
from che use of under-incegracion, and predicrions n1ay even be i1npro\•ed over those of their
more forn1al fully integrated counrerparcs. h is for these reasons that the analyse~ of 2·0
proble1ns have been carried ouc by 1neans of under·incegraced elen1encs (Bedard 1983). The
use of under-i ntegration has been juscified else\vhere (Gonzalez Vidosa 1989, Kocsovos and
Pavlovic- 1995), \Vh~re che objectivity of predictions have been looked a c by reference to rhe
numerical-integration rule en1ployed for the serendipity elemencs; ic has been shown chere
thac the \\rarnings againsc under·incegrarion in non-linear FE n1odelling of strucn.iral con·
crete that are so1necin1es raised by a nalyses need noc cause undue concern. More recently,
alchough che Lagrangian elen1ent requires a larger compuracional efforc than che 20 -node
FE, ics use has been adopced nor only because ic 1nay improve 20 ·node predictions by reduc-
ing round·off errors (Fried 1971), bur also because it allo\\1S a n1ore flexi ble distribution of
bars due co its mid -face and centre nodes. This is parcicularly the case for rhe FE modelling
of scrucrural· concrece n1embers designed in accordance \Vich current codes for rhe design
of earchquake-resiscanc structures. As will be seen in subsequent chapters, such structural
n1embers are characrerised by very dense reinforcen1enc arrangen1encs.
~+fesh configuration and FE size are pocenciall)• imporcant faccors in both lir:ear and
non·linear problems, as chey govern che degree of approxi111acion to the continuun. For
Structure modelling (or static problems 165
linear srress analysis, ic is usually agreed thac, as the n1esh is refined, accuracy improves:
such n1esh re6nen1enr is especially recomn1ended in zones \\1here localised effects take place
(e.g., load concentrations, suCden changes in geo1netry, etc.); and a lchough, in principle,
accuracy can increase only up co an opti1num number of DOF, after 'vhich a substantial
decay in accuracy follO\VS (Fried 1971), sec by the pracrical lin1icacions connec-ced \Vich
unavoidable round-off errors in che course of solucion of large equacion secs, present-day
con1pucing power is usually suf6ciend y large co ensure chat quire fine nteshes can be used
even for the rnore complex struc1ur2I proble1ns.
In t he case of non-linear problems in \Vhich failure is associated with cracking, rhe
lan er can induce deceptive effeccs in rhose local regions rhac are either subjecc co srress
concencracions/singularities or contain previous cracks. For such inscances, che finer rhe
mesh, rhe sooner crack inicianon occurs for a given value of applied load so chat, in prin·
ciple, FE a na lysis involving cracking based on a strength cricerion would, in che limit of
mesh refinen1enc, converge - incorreccly of course - co\vards a zero-load predicrion (Bazanc
and Ob 1963; Bedard 1983). Even for 6nice (bur, 'suf6cienrly' small) mesh sizes, mess redis-
tribucions induced by early cracking in some regions can affect numerical stability locally,
precipicacing premacure structura l collapse as successive iterations spread these local d isrur-
bances throughout che struccure. One possible way of avercing such difficulcies is to sciffen
rhe mesh locally as, in face, engineers and/or experin1encalisrs actually do \\1hen designing
suitable ronstrucrion details at support or anchorage zones. A 1nore general and elegant
approach ro avoiding 1nesh-size dependency, ho\\fe\•er, is si1nply co adopt a 'coarse' 1nesh,
rhus bypassing rhe possible predon1inan ce of loca lised effects over the overall behaviour o(
rhe structure \\1hich, afcer all, is of prin1ary inceresc. This notion mighc be difficult to accept
from an analysc's point of view buc \\rill readily be acceprable to an engineer. Moreover, ic
is in keeping \Yich the chjnking pern1eacing ch is book, namely a realistic n1odelling of scruc-
rural concrete on rhe basis of exiscing and reliable n1acerial data. Bearing in n1ind that the
experi1nencal condicions under \Yhic-h the consricucive relations (ac the engineering leve.I)
\\rere derived involved n1ea.suren1ents raken front strain gauges that \Vere approxin1acely nvo
ro chree cin1es larger cha n che maxi1nun1 aggregate size used in che conc-rere 111ix, ic is dear
rhac a lower-bound limit co rht size of an FE is provided by such a gauge length (see Section
2.1. 1). This also ensures char the assun1pcions of hontogeneicy and isotropy of t he macerial
mighc safely be invoked; otherwise, sntall FE sizes would require d ifferenc conscicucive rela·
cions for the aggregate particles and cement pasce, involving a lso separace discretisacions of
these, as well as adhesion andlor bond characcerisrics benveen the nvo separace macerial
consciruents. \Vere such ro1nplex (n1icroscopic) relationships even currendy available, ic is
evident cha t che adoption of mesh sizes lower chan the suggested 'cwo~to ·chree ti1nes t he
aggregate size· \Vould quickly lin1ic che range of scruc-cures \\1hich ic \Vould be feasible to
model fro1n a computing perspective. The preceding philosophy a lso has in1plicarions for the
generally accepred nocion of convergence ro rhe correcc solucion as the 1nesh is refined: in the
present concexc, rhis is noc considered to be meaningful, as che ntaterial characreristics scent
fron1 a C)'linder or cube cesc \\rhich is sufficiently large co enable the average ntacerial proper-
ties of what is really a hecerogeneous mix co be sensjbly derived, incerpreted, and evencually
incorporated into (large~sca l e) scrucrural analysis.
\Y/hile che validiry of che macerial daca establishes che Jo,ver bound of FE din1ensions, the
upper bound that \Yould be needed (or adequate accuracy ren1ains largely a some,vhat sub·
jecrive cho ice co be based n1aioly on the analyst's engineering judgen1enc. As Bedard (1983)
suggests, rhe upper bound should be compatible \Vith rhe n1axin1um size that is considered
represencacive of scrucrural behaviour. He goes on to give two illuscracive exan1ples, na1nely
a plain-concrer·e prisn1 compressed concenrricaHy by strip loading (requiring a n1inin1un1
of nvo 'column' ele1nents on either side of the (sy111n1etrical) cencreline so as to allo'v for a
166 Finite·element modelling of struct ural concrete
reasonable stress-gradient description), and an RC bean1 under rwo-poinc loading (demand-
i ng at lease nvo co chree 'layers· of elements above che reinforcen1enc in order ro decec-t t he
stress discribucion ch roughouc che con1pressive zone and depth). Bedard a lso points our th e
desirability of ensuring thac the 'shape ratio' {i.e., che ratio of longest to shortest sides of an
e len1enr) does noc exceed about 3 (alchough 'shape ratios' above this va lue have also been
used in some problenlS, \Vithour apparent d i{ficulries), and argues that as regular a grid .as
possible th roughout th e scruccure should gen~rally be a i1ned at on account of both accuracy
and ease of auco1natic n1esh generacion (Bedard 1983).
Finally, an1ong the procedural factors that need co be considered, there remains rhe effect
of loading path on predictions. In discussing ch is parameter, it is useful co distinguish
between load incren1encs char precede first cracking and t hose that are applied subsequently.
Jn principle, a single load increment should suffice up to the forma tion of the firs t crack(s)
i n the scructure O\Ving co the fairly ' 1nild' non-linear nature of the (isotropic) conscicuci'\•e
relationships corresponding to the ascending stress- strain branches, an d a lso because t he
fa ilure enve1ope is nor stress-pach dependent (see Section 2 .3.3.2). Therefore, it is clear th_at
rhe onset of cracking \\•ill nor be affected by che loading pach and char a relatively small
number of iceracions \Viii suffice for converg.ence to che correcc solution (corresponding ro
i nitial cracking) in a single load step. An esti n1are of t he size of load step required could be
provided by a preliminary linear con1pucer run that \Viii indicate che location of che 'critical'
rensile stress a nd the 1nagnirude of the applied load a c \Vhich ch is would occur.
Thar recourse co increinencal techniques ought co be n1ade after cracking has begun is
apparent on account of che 'srrong' nacure of che non-linearicies associared ·w ith sudden
crack forinarions. The sudden appearance of man)' sin1ulcaneous cracks could produce
results char depend on che size of rhe load step used and, furrhermore, could easily give rise
10 nun1erical instability. Ideally, exrremely s1nall load steps, \Yhich \Vould ensure char each
1in1e load is incremented a single crack would forn1 (or, in special cases, a sn1all number
of cracks ac different locations ·where che failure envelope happens ro have been reached
sin1uhaneously) \Yould ren1ove n1osc of rhe u ncenaint ies associated \Yith possible load-path
dependency. Such an oprion is c learly unrealistic, ho\vever, \Vich regard co che con1pucational
effort required. Instead, relarively fe\V load seeps are applied a nd, in che course of each, sev-
eral cracks usually ca ke place; ic is for rhis reason char care n1ust be exercised in follo\ving a
suitable crack-propagation scraregy \\1ithin ea ch load step a nd, also, ireracion.
In pracrice, ic is found convenienr co adopr a conscanc size of load seep chroug:h-
our the enci re loadi ng h istory. The load-in.c remenr size is usually taken to be be n veen
2% and 10% of the escin1ared ulcimare load, ·w hich ensures that only 10 - 50 load seeps
are needed for rhe case o f ntonoconic loadin.g, \Vhile adequate accuracy is achieved for a ll
practica l purposes.
4 .4.3 Tentative recommendations
As regards th e 1narerial para 1necers, co1nplece lack of 'strain softening', 'aggregate interloc k'
and 1do\vel action1 are in keeping \Yith a prope-r interpretation of available 1nean ingfulexperi-
mental evidence as discussed ac lengch in C hapters 2 a nd in preceding sections of rhe present
c hapcer. Such evidence sho\YS cha c rhe pose-peak behaviour of concrete is characcerised by
a co1nplece and i1nmediare loss of load-carryi ng capacity, \Vhereas che notions of 'aggregate
i ncerlock' and ·dowel action' a lso contrast the ntechanism of crack ex1ension \vhich does nor
i nvolve a ny 'shearing· ntoven1enr of che crack's face char may result to 'aggregate incerlock'
and 'dowel acrion'; a crack extends in rhe di1tection of th e n1aximun1 principal co1npressive
stress and opens in rhe orrhogonal direcrion.. O n rhe orher hand, rhe condirion of 'perfec-c
bond' adopred is con1patible with, nor only rhe thinking behind rhe sn1eared-crack ntodel,
Structure modelling for static problems 167
bur a lso \Vith t he large variability of experi1nencally establis hed bond-slip curves, \\•hich
precludes a ny refineinenc in1plic-ir in the deparrure from rhe perfect-bond condition. Finally,
' tension sti ffening' is ignored on t he grounds ch at, a lthough its effect 1nay have an effect on
deflections under service loading conditions, rhe complexity that \vould resulc if concrete
elen1ents adjacent to steel were created d iffe rencly fro1n 'plain ..concrere' elen1enrs else\vhere
\\rould nor justify che excra refin ement.
The paran1erers associated \Vich procedural effects stemn1ing direcrly fron1 the nun1erical
scheme adopred have been ascertained on t he basis of exisring evidence, a part of \\•hich
has resulced front nu1nerical experiments. \Virh regard ro the procedure for che n1odeHing
of crack propagation, a lchough che results obtained from p.lain-concrece prisnts in dicate
rhac che predictions of rhe 3-D model is racher insensitive co the adopted procedure, rh e
SCA is recon11ne.nded as a general scraregy. \Vich respect cc> rhe type of che FE, rhe use
of both under-integrared 20-node and Lagrang ian elen1enrs appears ro lead co practical
approxi1narions co u kin1ace load, crack pa crern an d load- deflection curves. With regard
ro rhe irerarive method, th e con1parison of computer runs for RC beams failing in shear
sho\YS char rhe results may be sensitive co adopced iterative rechnique, on account of lack
of convergence (modified NR n1echod) or early divergence du~ to rhe propagation of spuri-
ous n1echanisn1s (1nixed N R n1erhod); the i1nn1ediare update- of st rong bur - usually very
localised - non-linearities ('selective' NR n1erhod) is definitely reco1n 1nended. The recention
of che residual ~G (shear) sti ffness, e\'en \Yhen rhe chird cracking rakes place, is desirable
from a nun1erical vie\\1 poinc. \Vith rega rd to mesh-size dependency, ic is recomn1ended ro
adopr a 'coarse' n1esh; che s1naller size of rhe Gauss point region should be raken equal ro
approxin1are1y nvo co t hree cin1es larger chan rhe n1axin1un1 aggregate size used in che con·
crere ntix. Finally., ic is found convenient co adopt a conscancsize of load seep chroughour the
ent ire loading history. The load-increment size is usually rake n co be benveen 2% and 10%
of the estin1aced u lri1nare load, \Yhich ensures char only 10- 50 load steps are needed for rh e
case of n1onoconic loading, \\1hile adequare accuracy is achieved for a ll practical purposes.
4.5 A BRIEF OUTLINE OF THE SMEARED -MODEL PACKAGE
This section conrains a brief description of rhe 1nain feacures of rhe non-linear FE progran1
developed for the a na lysis of srruccural concrete. The outline is dra\vn fron1r he 1nuch n1ore
derailed presencarion of che 3 -D model by Gonzalez Vidosa (1989). The non-linear feamres
o( rhe analysis have been implememed w ichin a srandard linear package (FINEL) (Hirchings
1972, H itchings 1980). In addition co rhe s1neared analysis u n der staric loading rhus incor-
porared into the n1odular scrucrure of FINEL, C\VO post-processing programs were devel-
oped for plorcing , and chese consciruce a n imporcanc pan of t he non-linear package as will
beco1ne apparenr \\1hen rhe deflected shapes and crack panerns of rhe various problems co be
discussed in subsequent chapcers are presenced. The present section, however, is concerned
with rh e ireracive flo\V o f modules of the sn1eared a nalysis, describing a lso che ntain 1nodi fi-
cations in troduced in th e linear stress n1odules so as to account for n1aterial non-linearit ies,
number of cracks allo\\•ed per ireracion, and NR updaring scra regies.
The linear scre:ss a nalysis of FIN EL provides rhe backbone for rhe s1neared analysis, as
is evident fron1 Figure 4.21, which shO\VS che flo\Y of n1odules of che non-linear strategy. A
rypical input file .required to run an actua l non-linear exa1nple appears in Figure 4.22: rhe
problen1 in quest ion represencs a plain-concrete prisn1 acred upon concentrically by strip
loading across hal f ics end faces. le may be seen chat options can be input by using rhe Jn
and Rn regiscer facilities (e.g., LET J4 020202 specifies 2 x 2 x 2 Gauss poims). By reference
ro Figure 4 .21, iris clear rhac, once an ireracion is perfonned, che progran1 rerurns eith er
168 Finite-element modelling of structural concr ete Structure modelling for static problems 169

Mesh genent1on

Nod31 tenwnberlng

Renumbering edi.tlon

Assembly

Boundary conditions
(b) !'-113.lysls stress-smeated
: eoncrete prfsm unde.ra Sll"lp lood
UT'" 020202 • 2 ,., 2 ,., 2 G a uH pol.ob,
UT JS 000202 ; SRF D· mtx. 2 cr~ks/lttt, ·sinde crack""':
Extunal loadlng: LIT)6 035001 ; 3 lter/up. 50 load steps. MlXl'll"R:
UT 'RO 0.1 ; 0.1 MPol: maxlmwn resklttal sttess (co1wergtnoe);
UT RJ 0.01 ; n1axlmum rela.tlve teskl~I sttess (rom't'tgtnce);
LIT R2 100. ; n1axlmum tesklual force (dlvergi?nce):
LIT R3 O.OOS ; n1axlmu.m tesklu:al fortt (CM..-etgi?nce):
Solution µT R4 0.J : She3.t tetentloll factot;
: otesh genetatlon

Stress c3kubtlon RIGICOOR 0. 0. 0. 101.6 0. 0.

0. 101.6 0. 101.6 101.6 0.
0. 0. 203.2 101.6 0. 203.2
0. 101.6 203.2 101.6 101.6 203.2
ELEM HX20
MATE STIF 20000. 0.2
MATE STRENGTH 26.9
~IGISHIX I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2 1 2

Figure 4.21 Flowchart of modules in the smeared analysis. : dtst lteration

co che assen1bly n1odule (updacing icerarion) or co che solucion module (non-updating icera-
t ion) depending on the NR stracegy adopced. Upd ating irerarions requ ire reformulation o(
COOR GENE
FIXEFAC'E I
FIXEFACE I
FIXEFACE I
FIXEFAC'E 33 I
2 6
2
•3 2
2
6
39 40
3
I
2
I
I
I
..
......••
D-n1atrices (and hence also of k-n1acrices) while non-updacing iceracions folio\¥ a consranc- FIXEFAC'E 33 I 39 40 2
LOADUDSL - 1. 3 3 3 I 39 40 44
sriffness scracegy. The ireracive no,v of n1odules is achieved by execurive co1nn1ands in rhe ~}~D STRS
non-linear input file (see Figure 4.22). The inpuc daca required for rhe first iteration goes up : oon-updating Jternlon
ro che first END STRS card, while che nexr chree sets of cards are for a non-updacing irera- Rl-ESLVE
E}~D STRS
tion, an updacing ireration and a ne\Y load-step incre1nenr respeccively. Before the 111odifica-
rions o( the linear 111odules through rhe ediring of t heir execucive subroucines are discussed, : updatlng Iteration
ir should be pointed our char some additional storing facilities h.ad co be in1plemenced in RI-EAstvfB
E}~D STRS
order to save incern1ediace resulcs which are required at d ifferenc stages of che analysis. In
this \\ray, che follo\ving could be dealt \Vith daca in respecr of rhe analysis (such as the N R : oew load·step
strategy, convergence va riables, number o( cracks a llowed per iceration, nun1ber o( ne\V RI-EA.stv18
cracks); daca relacing ro t he FE and its Gauss poincs (i.e ., nodal nun1bering, scra ins, scresses, LOAOUDSL - 1. 3 31394044
~ND STRS
cracking in forn1acion); and scorage o( son1e long arrays (e.g., in cren1encs of applied nodal
forces, increments of nodal displacentents, coral nodal displace1nenrs, coca I reactions, resid- END JOB
ual nod al forces, various scacistics (especially cracking-in forma cion arrays] for each load
step, ere.). Also, and as 1nentioned earlier, l\YO programs \Vere \Yriuen for ploning purposes Figure 4.22 Example of <4>Plication of the non-linear program to static ultimate-ktad anaJysis: FE dtscretisa-
(it should be noced char an y inpuc file o( chese nvo is an output file of a previous))' executed t:ion; (bl smeared-analysis input file .
170 finite·element modelling of structural concrete
progrant). These progrants provide plors of deflected shape and crack parcern of a reference
seccion, one plor per converged load srep plus one plot of rhe lasr per(orn1ed ireracion. The
ti.rst progranl reads and processes deflection and cracking infornlarion of con\'erged load
sreps and, also, of ehe last perfornted iteracion. Ir chen drops so1ne redundant in(orn1atiC>n
and provides an ourput file \Vich rhe strictly necessary daca for che plors. The second pro·
gram queues this file ro a ploner; as rhe laue:r progran1 is rhe one rhae includes calls to plot·
ring subrourines, ir is ploner dependent.
le is evident front Figure 4.21 char the firse rhree nlodules (the one for che nlesh generatiC>n
and rhe nvo renumbering modules) are equally suired co both linear and non-linear analyses.
Therefore, the ac-rual modifications necessary to in1plen1enc the sn1eared-analysis strategy
are carried ouc only for the remaining six linear n1odules. A brief sun1n1ary of che n1ain fea·
rures of such n1odificarions is given belo\V. Ir should be noced thar, since rhe s1neared 1nod·
tiling of cracking requires the D·matrices oE the Gauss points, most of the changes relare
10 the assembly a nd the mess-computation modules (ASMB and STRS, respectively). Thie
assembly n1odule ASMB perforn1s rhe nun1ertcal inregrarion of rhe t angent sci ffness maerices
of the e len1encs and rhen it assen1bles the tangent stiffness matrix of the srruc-rure; it als:o
i ncludes several initialisation subrourines. In fact, the firs t eime rhe subroutine is called, thae
is, ar the firsr iteracion of rhe analysis, it perforn1s son1e inicialisacion casks, including priO't·
ing of ntesh conneccivit ies and perforn1ing a du1nnly assen1bly co setup some asse1nbly var i·
ables, such a.s ehe block size by which che program splits the sciffness nlacrix of the structure.
Ocher tasks include the reading of any relevant data specified by the In a nd Rn registers i.n
rhe inpur file (see Figure 4.21), including options such as nu1nber of Gauss poinrs, NR upda·r ·
i ng srraregy and number of cracks allo,ved per iteracion. There is a lso inirialisarion of rhe
D-n1atrices of all concrete Gauss poincs ro values in accordance \virh che n1aterial n1odelling
described in Chaprer 3 (therefore, any Young's 1noduli and Poisson's ratios specified in rhe
in put file for concrete are ignored). The initialisation scage is completed by the calculation of
B·nlaerices a nd Jacobians for all concrete and steel Gauss poincs. It should be recalled char,
since che a nalysis assun1es sn1a ll displacen1encs and scrains, boch B-n1acrices and Jacobians
keep rheir initial values (calculated in g lobal coordinares by rhe relevant elemenc subrou·
rines) chroughour che a na lysis.
The nun1erical incegration of che cangent stiffness macrices of che ele1nenrs is performed
by eirher of nvo subroutines. One of rhese (which includes two optional ineegration schen1es
(Gonzalez Vidosa 1989)) recalculaces sciffness 1narrices for all e le1uencs (concrete a nd sreel ),
w hile ehe oth er recalculares sciffness maer ices of only chose concrete e le1nenrs thar contain
ne\vly cracked Gauss poincs plus che stiffness n1acrices of all sceel elen1enrs (since the laner
elentenrs require relatively linle con1putacional efforr, their sti ffness n1acrices are a lways
recalculated). The choice berween the cwo subroutine options relates co rhe chosen N R
updating strategy as d iscussed in Seccion 4.3 .5. Finally, it should be noted thar, although ic
'\\rould seen1 natural ch ar the updating of D-maerices should be carried our in this n1odule
(ASMB), iris acrually done in 1uodule STRS. That fact is due ro che possibilicy of seleccive
updating of D-n1acrices ar the end of module- STRS, since the selective updacing decision .is
1aken jusr afrer rhe end of the current iteration (module STRS) so t har any related in forma-
rion is readily accessed in thar ntodule.
The BNCN n1odule sers up nvo veccors that relate ro boundary conditions: rh e first vecror
conta ins rhe nun1bers of DOF being rescrained, \Vhile che second conrains the values of these
rescrainrs (non-zero if t here are applied displacen1encs). This in fornlacion is specified b)•
command FIXE in the input file (e.g., FIXE FACE in Figure 4 .22). The executive subroutine
of rhe non-linear module differs from rhe one of the standard FINEL only in char the former
is constantly bypassed fo)Jo,ving che first iteration of che analysis.
Structure modelling for static problems 171
The module CHOL factorises che rangenr stiffness macrix of che scrucrure by means of
Choleski's method ([K) = [L][U]). As for the boundary-conditiollls module, its executive sub-
roucine is praccically idencical to che standard subroutine of FINEL. The difference lies
in char the lan er perforn1s rhe facrorisaeion provided thac rhe sciffness maerix is posici\•e
definire, even rhough che 1uarrix may be ill·condicioned, \Vhereas this is nor the case in rhe
non-linear version. This difference \Vas in1plen1enced in order ro avoid an excessive number
of iceracions for che last non-converged load seep (which, in spice of the introduced 'short-cur'
usually still rakes abouc one-third of che total nu1uber of iterations), and co ensure rhac any
converged load srep was arcained \Virhour ill-conditioning of the tangenc sriffness n1atrix.
Jc should be recalled chat the increment of nodal forces is the addirion of applied (external)
forces and residua I forces. The laner appear for equilibriu1n purposes as a result of srress
corrections introdwced at rhe previous iceracion in order ro follo\\r a non-linear scress- scra in
relationship. The external-loading module LOAD, however, calculates only those equiva·
lenr nodal forces d ue to applied loading, rhac is, loading caused by either applied forces or
non-zero in1posed displace1nents (- [K.fJ6d, as \\1ill be sho\\•n belo\v). Residual forces are cal·
culaced in n1odule STRS (previous iceracion), \Vhere stress corrections take place, and added
ro applied forces (if any) in 1nodule SLVE. Therefore, che executi \•e subroutine of che n1odule
LOAD is execured onl)• ar the first ireracion of each load step.
The n1odule SLVE calculaces incre1nenrs of nodal displacen1ents an d incre1nenrs of reac·
rions, and updates their coca) values. Subscripts 11 and r denoce unrestrained and restrained
displacen1ents (and forces associated \Vith rhenl), respectively. Upon rearrange1nenr of coeJ..
fic-iencs, rhe ser of equations of a given iceration can be parcicioned as follo\\rs:
l [K- J
(K~J
[K~Jl
Ik,,.I
I/id·] -I/;.'·]
lid, lif,
(4. 112)
·where [K11J are parricions o( rhe tangent sriUness n1atrix o( the scrucrure ([K.,.J is the deflated
rangenr stiffness n1atrix, rhar is, the macrix relevant to che case ·when M,= 0 and t:.ff is nor
required); 6.d,., 6d,,., are incren1enes of displace1nenrs; and tif•• 6ff are incren1enes of nodal
forces (/,being che rf"ac-cions). Front the above equation, M., tif, are found ehrough
lid. - [K,.f' (/if. - [Kw].<ld,) (4.11 3)
1!.f, - [K~Jl!.d. + [Kw]lid, (4.114)
\Vhile che sca ndard executive subroucine SLVE includes the calculacion of M,. by Choleski's
merhod ((K,.J is facrorised and scored in t he ZFILE in module C HO L), the non-linear sub-
roucine version a ls.o indudes che con1pucarion of reactions f,.
le is the stress 1nodule STRS \\1hich contains most of che sn1eared-analysis rasks and hence
ir di((ers (undan1entally front its linear counterpart. Broadly, nv·o diUerent parcs n1ake up ics
execucive subroutine. The first pan is a block of stress con1pucations: it calculaees and cor·
recrs roral scresses,. sers up Gauss poinrs \Vhere ne\V cracks form or close, and calcul:nes the
residual forces due ro stress corrections. The second pan checks \\1hether or noc convergence
is achieved for the currenc load srep and rhen a decision is made on che rype of updacing for
rhe next iteration.
The role of rhe Ifirsr pare of the STRS n1odule is quite substanrial. lncren1ents of scrains
and stresses, stress correc-cions and residual forces are calculaced fron1 incre1nenrs of nodal
172 Finite- element modelling of structural concrete
displacen1enrs in. nvo subroutines, one for con.crece and che other for sreel Gauss points.
\Vhile rhe subroutine for concrece Gauss points \viii be described in decail lacer on., ic should
be nored ar chis srage thar ir checks \\1herher or noc the scares of scress ar chese Gauss points
are outside the failure envelope described in Seccion. 3.2. Those concrece Gauss points char
exceed che envelope form che ser of prospective crack locations; ho\vever, che present sub·
roucine n.eirher secs up an.y ne\V crack(s) nor correcrs an.y scace(s) of stress outside che failure
envelope. Wirh regard co sceel Gauss poin.rs, irs subroucine a lso checks \Vherher or nor any of
chem change from one branch ro another of rhe rrilinear stress- strain relationship (Section
3.3). The next seep depends on. che crack·propagarion crireria adopted. If che •total crack'
criterion is specified in che inpuc file, rhen all prospective cracks are serup (rhe accual crack
in1plemenracion is carried our by a subrourine especially earmarked for chis cask), char is,
rhe nu1nber of n.e\\t cracks is equal co rhe number of prospecrive cracks. On rhe ocher hand,
if a 'single crack' crirerion is specified, rhen only on.e (or a s1nall nun1ber of) ne\V crack(s)
is allowed in rhe currenr ireracion. In che laner instance, prospective cracks are sorred ouc
according ro rhe percentage by \Vhich cheir scare of scress exceeds rhe failure envelope (i.e.,
t /to. - see Seccion. 3.2), so rhar only those \Vhich exceed failure conditions by the larg·
esc n.1argin are acrually serup in che current icerarion. Clearly, while chere are prospeccive
cracks, convergence cannoc be fulfilled and che excerna l load is kept con.scant, as \Viii be
discussed be1o\\r. le should be borne in. 1nind thar any stress correcrions in. the preceding
subroutine compon.encs ,,,ithin 1nodule STRS give rise co residual forces that are scored for
rhe n.exc iteration.
The a bove cwo subroutines for concrece Gauss points, dealing \Vith failure criteria and
crack in1plemenration, respectively, require further description. The first of these subrou·
tines, based on checks for possible n1acro-cracking or crack closure, begins by calculacing
incre.n1encs of globa l scrains fron.1 incremenrs of nodal displace1nenrs, and chen updaces coca I
strains. If a Gauss poinr is uncracked, chat is, nor cracked in previous iterations, conc-rere is
assu1ned to be isotropic and i.ncren1encs of stress can be direcrly calculated in global direc·
tions, since its D ·n1acrix is invariant for any sec of axes. On the ocher hand, if che Gauss
poinc is already cracked, then che n1aterial is anisocropic an.d ics D ·n1acrix is only valid in
local (cracked) direccions, as discussed in Section 4.3.3; hence, incren1encs of scrains are
rransforn1ed co local direcrions in order co contpuce scress in.cre1nencs and coca) st resses in
rhese local direccion.s. The next step depends on che type of NR updating scraregy for the
current run. For exa1nple, if a given Gauss poinc is already cracked bur ics D ·macrix has
noc been updaC"ed co allow for this crack occurrence (i.e., an isorropic D ·n1acrix is kepc),
rhen irs scare of stress has to be correcC"ed (nan1ely by sening co zero che scress orchogonal
co rhe crack plane); orher,vise, the s-rress Stace of che cracked Gauss point \VOuld nor be in
accordance \\1ich che ne\\r s-iruacion implied by cracking. (That the use of irerarive proce·
<lures \Vhich keep D· macrices either permanently or cen1porarily uncracked (i.e., modified or
mixed INRM, respectively) accraccs direct tensile scresses across crack planes in subsequenc
ilerations \\1hich have co be sec equal to zero is illustrated sche1narically in Figure 4.23. (le
should be noced rhac, even. chough che assumption of uncracked properties is implicit in the
lack of the updating of rhe D ·n1atrix, che inicial·scress approach is used in recognition of the
fact char cracking has been signalled in the ireracive procedure.) This gives rise co successive
residual forces \Vhich, somecin1es, 1nay lead co non.-con.vergenc solutions (n1odified INRM)
or co early divergent analyses as a result of propagation of spurious n1echanisn1s (mixed
INRM). This cask of stress correccion. across cracks is perforn1ed by a specia l subroutine
\ \1 hen eicher constanr·stiffness or 1nixed NR strategies are follo,ved (i.e., Figure 4.6b and c).
Once rhe stace of scress in local direcrions has been correcced, stresses are rransforn1ed co
globa l directions. It is rhen rhac a check is perfonned to ascertain 'vhecher or noc che scare of
srress is oucside che failure envelope: chis requires the calculation of principal and occahedral
Structure modelling for static problems 173
I~
..
Figure 4.23 Residual tensile stresses across a cr ack plane for a modified or mixed INR.M (the latter with a
fixed sequence of non.-updating/updating of iterations. of which only the former are shown in
the figure).
stresses. Finally, any scare of stress inside che envelope is correcced simply in accordance
\\rich the consricucive relations as ouclin.ed in Seccion 3.1.
The subroucine for the in1plemenracion of cracking 111ay be described by reference ro rhe
case \\1hen a firsr crack is set'up at a con.crere Gauss poinc. Second and chird cracks (or, in
principle, compressive failures) are secup in a si1nilar \Vay, consistent \virh che D·mactices
defined in Section 4.4.3. Firsr, che variable char defines the cracking siruarion ac thar location
is updaced. Then, there follows rhe calculation of principal stresses and directions, and of
rhe relative n1agn.irudes of the principal scresses. This ordering of srress n1agnicudes is used
so as co determine \Vhich colun111 of rhe 1narrix defining the axes change re.laces co \Vhich
principal scress. Ploning informacion is then calculated by a subroutine \Vhich determines
the inrersecrion angle of the crack plane \virh the ploning plane and a lso checks whether or
noc borh plan.es forn1 an angle sn1aller than 45°. Finally, and consist'enc with che notion of
cracking, che 111axi1nun1 rensile stress is sec ro zero, local stresses are rransforn1ed co global
directions and residual forces are co1nputed. le should be noted thar the D·macrices are noc
updared here, for char operarion depends on. subsequent updating decisions.
The second pare of the STRS n1odule is concerned \Vich convergence and updacing deci·
sions. Firsc, a check is 1nade on \Vhecher or noc rhe convergence criceria discussed in Section
4.3.2 .6 are fulfilled. This requires convergence of residual magnit'udes (i.e., forces, deforn1a·
cions, stresses, strains), and ic also requires 'yield' and •cracking· convergence, that is, chac
no steel Gauss point has changed front one linear branch co anorher and that rhere are no
prospective crack formarion.s or closures left. In practice, rhe cracking cricerion is usually
rhe mosr restrictive, for residual forces decrease very rapidly \Vhen there are no ne\V cracks
co forn.1 or open. In chis respecc, Figure 4 .24 sho\VS che number of prospeccive cracks an.d
residual forces for a cypical converged load seep (chis is raken from Gonzalez Vidosa 1989).
If all convergence criteria are fulfilled, rhe next iteration follo\vs a ne\\r load incren1enc. le
is then rhac a decision is 111ade on rhe cype of updating for rhe next iceracion. Three NR
strategies n1ay be considered: che inicial·sciffness n1echod; che n1ixed NR merhod; and a
selecti\•e·updacing n1ethod (recon1n1en.ded in Secrion 4.4.3) chac updates only ne\vly cracked
concrece locations as \Veil as sreel locations \Vhere yielding rakes place, rhac is, it updates
only D·macrices relating co 'strong· non.·linear changes, \Vhile it does noc update marrices
relating co 'n1ild' n.on·linear changes (chis selective updating, \Vhich \\fas in1ple1nenced in.i·
cially co improve efficiency, ·was also found co in1prove numerical srabiliry \Virh respect to the
174 Finite-element modelling of struct ural concrete
Iteration 1\umber
Figu~ 4.24 Typical c urves of number of prospective crack ktcation.s and r esidual forces for a converged step
(load step • 25 kN. two cracks allowed per iteration). (From GonzaJe:z Vidosa F., 1989. Three-
dimensional finite eleme nt analysis of structural concrete unde r static loading. University of
London. PhD thesis.)
mixed N R ntethO<l). Finally, Damacrices are updated: ch is n1ay be done either ar a ll Gauss
poincs or selecrively, depending on the updating subroucine chosen.
The above overvie\V of rhe s1neared FE package encontpasses the key fearures of macerial
and srrucrural n1odelling ouclined in rh is and rhe previous chapter. The application of the
non-linear FE model to 3-D problems forms the subject of Chapter 5.
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011 Cot11putational Mechanics of Concrete Stntctures-Adva11ces and Applications, Delft, pp.
35-42.
Timoshenko S. P. and Goodier J. N., 1970, Theory of Elasticity, 3rd edition, l\•lcGraw-Hil~ New York.
Zienkiewia 0 . C., 1977, Tl1e Finite Ele111ent Method, 3rd edition, McGraw-H ill, London.
Zienkiewia 0. C., Taylor R. Land Too J. ~1 . , 1971, Reduced integration t«hnique in general an:ilysis
of plates and shells, International Journal of l\fu1uerical J\<Jethods in Engineering, 3, 275- 290.
Chapter S

Finite-element solutions
of static problems

As pointed out in Seer ion 4.4, \Vhile che srudy of the objec1iviry o( a gi\•en numerical model
deals wich the sensiriviry of irs analytical prediccions to che factors incorporaced inco the
compura1ional srracegy, a model's generality implit>S chat it can successfully predict the
behaviour of arbitrary structural configurations. Ir is, cherefore, in order to cesr ics general·
iry that tbe 3·0 FE n1odel, incorporating the material and procedural faccors recommended
in Section 4.4.3, is no'v applied co a \vide range of problems. In what follo·ws, emphasis
is placed mainly on problems concerned \Yich the behaviour of reinforced concrece (RC)
structural configurations under load reversals. However, although che modePs generality
for che case of monotonic loading has already been demonstrated (Korsovos and Pavlovic
1995), a limited nun1ber of such cases are also considered in order co investigate the effect
of crack closure on the predicted behaviour, since this effec-c \Vas initially assun1ed co be
negligiblr.
Besides che allaiinporranr sttuc-rural scrength (i.e., che most relevant characceristic from
rhe vie\\rpoinr of liniit..srare design philosophy), consideration is also usually given co the
predicred crack panerns and defonned shapes. Wirh regard :o che plorcing convenrion for the
laccer rwo aspects of scructural response, ic should be mentioned char, in all cases, the plors
are superimposed onto che mesh lying on the plane parallel co the reference plane xt, as \\rill
be iJlusttaced by subsequent examples. The symbols used for rhe various cracks at the re]a
evant Gauss poinrs are co be interpreted as follo\\rs: oriented dashes represenr the intersection
of a crack plane \Vith the ploning plane .\'Z whenever che angle subtended between chese nvo
planes exceeds 45°. Ho,vever, if these planes (orni an angle smaller chan 45°, then che crack
plane is siinply indicared by a circle (hence, t\VO cracks boch fonning an angle less than 45°
to xz at one location cannoc be distinguished one from the other). Three cracks ac che same
Gauss poinr are indicated by an ascerisk symbol. The presence of sceel bars is marked by
dashed lines eirher superimposed onro che edge(s) of che 2()..node isoparametric or extended
bet\veen ;uccessive Gauss poincs in che x or z directions for the 27anode Lagrangian cona
c-rete element(s); displacement shapes ac the various load levels are suitably magnified, and
che appearance of very large and/or distorted shapes helps ro identify quickly the onset of a
IHtXhaui:;in (wht'dtt't rt'al or llUlUt'Tit:al iu uatUTt'); liually, loa<l Mt.'p '117' plots rdau.• 10 Utt'
lase performed iteration in an analysis (at che load srep thac follows the maximum sustained
load [MSLJ), while, if ar all specified, D.M. = N indicates rhar displacemencs have been mag·
nified N 1in1es.

177
178 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Finite- element solutions o ( static problems 179

5.1 EFFECT OF CRACK CLOSURE ON PREDICTIONS

OF STRUCTURAL-CONCRETE BEHAVIOUR UNDER
MONOTONIC LOADING

S.1.1 Background
For che invesrigarion of the generality of the proposed model \Vhen. applied for the case of
scrucrura)..concrere under monoronic loading che assumprion has been implicic rhac rhe pre ..
dicced behaviour is essentially independenr of crack closure occurring on accounr of internal
scress/scr.iin d istributions due to cracking (Kotsovos and ?avlovic 1995). ln \Vhat follows,
I 1 1I I I I I I I I·o/ gJt
- 1s29 I ?°'! I i - I1561-
rhe validiry of the above assumption is invescigared rhrougb a comparati\•e study of C\VO secs 1~.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--·
of results regarding rhe behaviour of rhree rypica l rypes of RC scruc-rural elements (bean1,
slab, wall) obcained by analysis in which che effect of crack c losure \Vas either allowed for or Figure 5.2 RC beam with stirrups under central point load. FE mesh for one-quarter of the structure con·
ignored (Kocsovos a nd Spiliopoulos 1998a). sisting of 30 br ick elements with superimposed dashed lines indicating the position o ( reinforc ini
bars (all dimensions in millimetre).

S.1.2 RC beam s in shear
Figure 5.1 summarises rhe design derails of RC beam A-I for which the numerically pre ..
dicced tMhaviour is also reporced in Korsovos and Pavlovic (1995); full design and experi-
menral details are g iven in Bresler and Scordelis (1963). The compressive (cylinder) strength
of concrtce was 24 ~'1.Pa while rhe yield stress was 556 MPa for che tension bars, 345 NlPa
for the compression bars a nd 325 MPa for rhe stirrups.
The FE mesh adopted for the analysis is shown in Figure 5.2. Onlr one.. fourch of che beani
was analysed on account of sy1nmetry and the FE mesh comprised 30 serendipity 20-node
(•I
elements (with a 2 x 2 x 2 incegration rule) for rhe concrere and 95 bar elemencs for rhe
steel indicated by che dashed lines in rhe figure. As the figure indicates, rhe mesh adopted
provides onlr a crude representation of che acrual beam \Vich rhe cover of the cension rein·
forcemenr being neglecced and che compression reinforcement being placed ac rhe cop face of
rhe beam, while the spacing of the scirrups is almost equal co thar of rhe actual bi?"am (203
inscead of 210 mm) and, hence, rhe adjustmenc required ro keep rhe area per u nit length t he
s::une \V:lS minim:il.
Figure 5.3 shows the crack panerns ar rhe various load levels up co fa ilure predicred b)'
both methods of analysis. Although for load levels beyond a value of approximately 50%
of rhe MSL internal scress rediscribucioo due co cracking led co some crack closure, rlu
crack panern.s were fou nd ro be essentially un.affecred by such effecrs. Inclined cracking
occurs gradually as load increases (see Figure 5.3 for 175, 225, 300, 375 and 450 kN).
Ir is interesting ro noce rhar loss of load-carrying capaciry is preceded by spliccing of rhe

trr
compressive zone \vhich initiaces a c 375 kN, but does not lead co i1nn1edia ce collapse since
rhe stirrups suscain the tensile scresses that cannoc be susta ined by concrete afrer splining.
As ir can be observed by reference ro che crack panern of the lasr performed icerarion (load
step '777' [475 kNJ in Figure 5.3), failure occurs as a resoles of extensive spli!!ing of the
ft = 24.1 MP:. compressive zone which is in good agretmenc \Vith the experintental mode of fa ilure (see
Compression. stttlf,.: 345 MPa 2 b3:rS 12.7 db. Figure 5.1 b).
51 The negligible effect of rhe use of rhe numerical procedure allo·wing for crack closure in
~ SdrrupsJ,.= 325 MPa6.4 dla. cases where strucrural elemencs are subjecred to monoconic loading is also apparent from
Figure 5 .4 . The figure sho\VS che experintencally established load-deflecrion curve together
. Ten.slon steel!, = SSSMPa 4 bus 2.8..9 dla.
63 5 " 'ith chose predicred by analysis, rhe lacrer being softer rhan the former. Nevenheless, ic
63.5
should be recalled char rhe cover to the rension reinforcenten.t has be·e n neglected in rhe FE
~ discrerisation. No,v, while chis has a negligible effect on. the collapse...Joad predictions, ic
<loc:s play a notii.:eabh.• rolt" wh~u b~aut c.1t":lt"ctious art" ~!olimau.•<l, a.s puiutt"<l out iu Kotsovoll
and Pavlovic (1995).

S.1.3 RC slabs in punching

F'igure 5.1 R.C beam with stirn.Jps under central point load: (a) member characteristic.s (aJI dimensions in
mm); (b) observed crack pattern at ultimate load (all dimensions in millimetre).
The slab srudied here is an RC square slab, denoted as 814 by Elstner and Hognescad (1956),
and reporced fully in rhis reference in respecr ro rhe relevanc experin1enca l decails, some o(
which are summarised in Figure 5.5. The percencage of che cension sreel \\ras very high (3%)
and rhe slab lacked shear reinforcement. The compressive (cylinder) scrength of concrere and
the yield mess of the steel were 50.5 and 325 MPa, respectively. The RC plate was simply
180 f inite-element modelling o f nructural concrete Finite -element solutions of static problems 18 1

300 kN Load step 12 l

--
/

/ I/ / - I / / I
/ / I / -1- / ..;...-- .f- / I / / I
/ //
/
.,,. .... .,. ,t- -f- I' I / I+ I I I I I
0 / / / I I I I I I y I I )' I I I I I
;l ,.,.
125kN LoadstepS ! 375 kN Load step 15

.,. -- -
/

JJJ+J11
/ IT / //If / / _.,.I / , I
,,,
0 "
.,.,, /
0 / /
... .,,.~ .;. ;.
.,,. .,,. -1-1~ ""' /
I+
L Jl/ JI// I

11 1 I I
I .f- .,.. ,( l -/- I (> I

-'
/ / /

/If / / I I I I / I.< ~I " ~" ""' ""' I I I

0

;l
,.,.
450 kN (MSL) Load st.ep 18

475 kN Load step m l

/ / - /
/ / / I
/ / / -f / -I / I I / I
// ~.-. .,,. .,,. .f- .,,. I V /II '
/

/ 'I I
/ / / / I I I I II I If I II I Ii I 11 I
~ ii;-
Figure 5.3 (Cont.in~ RC beam with stirrups under central point load. Crack patterns and deformed shapes
F'Jfure 5.3 RC beam with stirrups under central point load. Crack patterns and deformed shapes at various at various stages.
stages. (Continued)

supporced ar the edges and corners and subjected ro a concencrated square load ac mid·span
monotonically increasing co failure. Failure occurred as a result of punching at a load of
578 kN, before any yielding of the cension bars.
The derails of rhe adopced FE mesh are shown in Figure 5.6. The mesh con1prised 25
Lagrangian FEs (363 nodes and 1089 DOF) for concrete and 110 bar elemencs for the ten-
sion steel indicated in che figure by the dashed lines. Alchough only one-fourth of the slab
is analysed on account of sy1nmerry, ic is clear th.ac additional savings \Vould be achie\'ed
by implementing 'edge (i.e., tri.angular·based) brick e1emenu, so as co also n1ake use of the
symmecry with respecr to the diagonals and hence to analyse one...eighrh of the whole slab.
\Virh regard co the choice of rhe Lagrangian FE mesh, ir sh0tuld be noted chat, before its
choice, rhree other serendipiry meshes \Vere considered (a ll incorporacing under·inregrared
serendipity meshes); chese were based on 5 x 5 x 1 20-node elements (228 nodes, 684 DOF),
5 x 5 x 2 20-node elemencs (360 nodes, 1080 DOF) and. 9 x 9 x 2 20-node elemencs (1040
nodes, 3120 OOF). Ho,vever, che Lagrangian mesh was preferred for rhe follo·wing reasons.
The first alternative n1esh had only rwo Gauss points acr~ the thickness of rhe slab, and did
n()C allo\\r a good descripcion of the tension steel in planN Therefore, chis disc-reris.ation \Vas
considered roo rough. The second alrernarive mesh had four Gauss points across the rhick·
ness, bur still invoh•ed a poor n1ode1lingof rhe scee1 in plan. Fin.ally, che third alternative mesh
was discarded on accounc of the steep rise in computer resources inherent in chis scheme.
The load- deflection curves obtained from che analysis cogether \Vith n1easured values are
presented in Figure 5.7, while che crack parcerns at rhe section rhrough che mid·span of rhe
slab, boch jusr before and during failure, are shown in Figure 5.8. Although for load levels
beyond a value of approximately 50% of the failure load incern.al srress redistribution due ro
182 F1nite-element modelling of structural concrete F1nite-element solutions of static problems 183

'I

~3.10
] 2'.l0 +-~~~-7"'-~•.-..~~~~~~-'-~~~~~---1

J'.)()

S
Olspbcen~tn (mm)
JO JS
Figure 5.4 RC beam 'fllith stirrups under central point load. Load-deflection curves.
cracking led ro some crack closure due ro unloading in localised regions of rhe slab, allo\\ring
for such effeccs only marginally improved che predicced load-deflection curve (see Figure
5.7). le is also incerescing to noce t hac as for che case of che beam in che preceding section, in
spire of rhe crude FE mesh used, che analyses yielded a close prediction of che load...carrying
capacity and che mode of failure, \Vhile che prediccions of defection near the MSL deviate
fron1 the measured values. This deviation coincides \Vich the occurrence of a large number
horizontal cracks (spliuing) \\rithin che compressive zone at load seep 13, which causes a loss
of overall sri ffness of t he slab.
/x
figure 5.6 R.C slab exhibiting punching failure. FE mesh for one-quarter of the structure. consisting of 25
Lagrangian elemenu with superimposed dashed lines indicating the position of the reinfor cing
bars (all dimensions in millimetre).
On the other hand, che crack pauern remained virruall)• unaffecced by such effeccs for a ll
load steps considered in Figure 5.8. The crack pan ern at the last perforn1ed ireracion (load
step '777') sho,vs that divergence cakes place as a result of a local mechanis1n in the zone
of rhe concenrrared load, \Vhich occurs before yielding of che reinforcement. (For a more
derailed explanation of che punching-fa ilure mechanisn1 in sJabs,see Korsovos a nd Kotsovos
2009, 2014, Korsovos and Korsovos 2010).

S.1.4 RC structural walls under co mbined edge compressive

and s hea r stresse s
Co11clusions similar to those dra\Vn from chf preceding case scudies n1ay also be drawn for
che case of che structural \\ra JI scudied here, denoted as S4 in Maier and Thurlin1ann (1985),

700

600

500

~ 400

! 300
- -Exped n,em
200
- - Analysts allowing for cr.K'.k dosu1-e
JOO ----+-- - - - ..Aiulysis not aD°"'1ng: for crack closure
~ofultlmate 441#. of uJdmate 'T1S of ultimate AtukJm:ate 0
0 s JO JS 20
Figure 5.5 RC slab exhibitin& punching failure. Experimental data: (a) dimensions. and detailing of reinforce- DlsjUcement (mm)
ment (all dmens.ions in millimetre): (b) cr ack pattern on the tensile face at various load stages
(all dimensions in millimetre}. figure 5.7 RC slab exhibiting punchin& failure. loackleflection curves.
18·'4 Finite· element modelling of structural concrete Finite· element solutions of static problems 185

91 kN(l1%) Lo:adstep 3 419k:N(72K)

19< kN (33'\) LMd step6

1 rnrm
:I: :
4MkN(84"}
1
0
l 548 k:N t9W) (MSI.) Lo.ldsttp 17
1
290kN(501') Lo3d step 9

:I: : J.
' ;/; !

387 kN (67'S) Load step 12

0
1
l
F'igure 5.8 RC slab exhibiting punching failure. Crack patterns and deformed shapes at various stages (Note:
the percentages refer to the ratio of the analytical to experimental failure loads to facilitate
Figure 5.8 (Continued) RC slab exhibiting punching failure. Crack patterns and deformed shapes at various
stages (Note: the percentages refer to the ratio of the analytical to experimental failure loads to
facilitate comparison with Figure S.Sb).
compariso n with figure S.Sb). (Continued)

and fully reporred in rhis reference as regards co its experimental derails. The geomecric
characreristics of rhe \Vall are summarised in Figure 5.9, \Vhile che compressive (cylinder)
srrengch of concrete and che yield srress of the steel were 30 and 575 MPa, respecrively. The
wall \Vas fully fixed ar rhe bonom edge and subjecred co uniformly distributed norn1al and
shear scresses at rhe ocher edge. Failure occurred under a horizonral load of 397 kN which
---- ••
led rhe diagonal \\reb cracking to penecrate deeply into the lefc bonom corner of rhe \Vall and
cause verrical splicring of the concrete. P.· 1.0l,_
The FE mesh adopted for the analyses comprised 16 serendipity 20-node (with 2 x 2 x 2 p1 • 1.051'
incegrarion rule) brick elements for rhe concrece, and 80 chree..node bar elemencs for the steel
placed along the boundaries of che brick elements as indicaced in Figure 5.10. Figure 5.11
depiccs both rhe analyrical and rhe experimencal load- deAection curves, \Vhile Figures 5.12
and 5.13 present rhe experimentall)• escablished crack panern of rhe \Vallar failure rogerher
\\rith ics numerically predicted councerpan. It becomes apparenr fron1 rhe figures chat, as
I 11so I
for rhe preceding case studies, rhe analyses yielded close predictions of the behaviour escab· .--·-----.· 1 JOO
lished experimentally. Similarly, che results obcained also indicate thac the effect of crack
closure on the analysis predicrions is insignificant as rhis parcicular case of rhe normal srress
applied ro che v.raJI before the applicarion of the shear srress was insufficienr co cause rhe
T
formacion of cracks. Figure S.9 RC u ructuri.I wall: detign deta.ib (dimemciont in millimetre).
186 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Finite-element solutions o( static problems 187

/ / / / /

'/ I/ I/ / /

I/ I/ I/ / /

I
I/ I.I I/ / /

I/ / v / /

Figure 5.10 RC structuraJ wal : FE mesh compriting 16 brick elements with superimposed dashed lines indi-
cating the position o ( the reinforcin:: bars.

300 Figure 5.12 RC structural wall: ExperimentaJ cr ack pattern at failure.

collapse analysis) monoconic (and, in rhe case of muki·loads, proportional) loading assump·
cion. \Vhat the above simple laborarory rests rarely provide are points of conrra· flexure, in
sharp contrasr to rea l scrucrures under praccical loading condirions. Moreover, ir has been
reported thac nlany earthquake failures occur precisely in regions o( che strucrure associ·
ated \Vich contra·flexure points, suggesring possible design \Yeaknesses in current codes
- - Analysis allowlng for crack closure
- - - • Analr sls not allo.....tng for crack dosutt
O+-~~,._~....,~~-+~~~~~ ....~~...~--o
0 5 6 //
/ //
Figure 5.11 R.C structural wall: l oa.d- deftection curves.
// //
5.2 PERFORMANCE OF STRUCTURAL-CONCRETE MEMBERS
EXHIBITING POINTS OF CONTRA-FLEXURE UNDER
SEQUENTIAL LOAD ING

5.2. 1 Introduction / //
// //
/ / / ,,.,.,,--

//
----
Mosr available experimental dara used (or ca libraring nun1erical models (or srructural
-- - - -
concrere are based on cests carried our on sratically decerminare (and, usually, sin1ply
supported) beam elemencs. Furthermore, the loading en1ployed in such rests is almosr
invariably monoronic. In pracrice, ho\\rever, accual structures are multi·element systems o(
a (somerimes highly) starically indererminare narure; and, in addition, sequenrial loading
conditions ofren need to be raken inro account besides the 'neater~ (especially in limit· srate
I I //
/
-- -- --
Figure 5.13 RC structuraJ wall: Analytical crack patter n at failure.
188 Finite- element modelling of structural concrete Finite-element solutions of static pr oblems 189

of praccice, \Vhere no special provision is made for chese regions (Kotsovos and Pavlovic
200 1). This \Veakness has been confirn1ed froo1 the results of t·esrs on simply supported RC ~ , ~,

~ ~ i i i ~ ~: 1fi ~ i b
bean1s \Vith an overhang under both proporcional and sequencia l loading (Kotsovos and
Michelis 1996,Jelic er al. 2003); che beanlS were found ro fail premacurely in a brinle man·
ner in che region of the poinc o( contraaflexure which characterises structural behaviour
under che loading regimes adopted for rhe rests. In an anempr co cesr che abilicy of rhe FE
model to provide realistic predicrions of rhe behaviour of scrucrures exhibiting points of
concraaflexure, the resulrs obcained from che above experin1enrs \Vere reproduced nun1eria ~ ~
cally by Korsovos and Spiliopoulos (1998b) who also invesrigared rhe causes of premature -- .. ,,---,.--·
- - -!-•--<-:- -
failure. ln what follo·ws, che informacion presenced has been excracred from che above work
__ ~-l- J. .~ _
o I t I

where full derails can be found.
The simply supporced RC beams investigaced are sho,vn in the simpli fied form adopted
for rhe analysis in Figure 5.14. The beam din1ensions, position of longitudinal rein forcea
n1enr, boundary conditions and loading arrangement \Vere the same for all beams. In
order ro establish che effect of the amounc of longitudinal reinforcentenr on srrucrural
behaviour, rwo types of longitudinal reinfC>rcemenr were used; 14 mm diameter bars
(A, = 154 nun 1) wirh yield srress f, = 600 MPa and mengrh f. = 750 MPa, resulting in an
underareinforced seccion, and 16 mm diameter bars (A1 = 201 mn1 2) \Vi th f., = 545 MPa
and(,,.= 680 MPa, resulcing in a seccion \Virh a reinforcen1enr percentage just higher chan
that corresponding to the balanced section. The amount and arrangements of transverse
reinforcemenc used varied depending on whecher che beams ·were designed in con1pliance
with either the code provisions (Eurocode 2 (EC2), 1991, Technical Chamber of Gr,,.,ce
1991) or rhe compressive force path (CFP) method (Korsovos and Pavlovic 1999). The
cover to che rein(orcemenc v.ras ignored in all cases in order to simplify the FE modelling
of the beams . The derails of rhe FE mesh used for rhe analysis are given in Figure 5.1 5. The
mesh consisced of 24 Lagrangian 27anode brick elemencs for concrete and 198 3anode bar
elemenrs (or sreel, che laner indicated in the figure by the dashed lines. h is imporcanr to
note in che figure char the FE mesh adopted imposes a constant spacing of che transverse
reinforcemenc, equal to 100 mm, in all cases in\•estigated. Ho\vever, che amount of ch is
rein(orcemenr was adjusted so as to confonn co the specifications of the design method
employed.
Portion between cuts a.-11 and b-b
--- ---~- __.,.,_
Figure 5.15 RC beams with overhang. FE mesh with the in sert indicating the position of the r einforcement
for a typical portion of the beam between sections a- a a.nd b-b.
5.2.2 Beam designed in complianc e with the Greek co de
The design de1ails o( the beam are summarised in Figure 5.16, whereas rhe experimencal
informacion presenced in the follo\ving has been excrac-ted from Kotsovos and Michelis
(1996) where full derails can be found. The beam, denoted as BlGRC, was designed in com-
pliance w irh the Greek code of practice (Technical Chamber of Gre<"ce 1991) so as ro even-
tually fail in flexure. And yet, in contrast \Virh the code prediccions, ir \Vas found to fail in
a britcle n1anner under a total load of 130 kN significantly sn1aller than the code predicted
value of 153.5 kN.
The nun1erically predicted and experimencal curves desctibing t he relacionships between
rhe applied load and rhe deflections of the points of application of loads P, and P1 are
sho,vn in Figure 5.17 which also shov.rs the loading hiscory of che beam. le is interescing to
note char, in spire of rhe crude FE modelling, the analysis provides a very close prediction
o( che loadacarrying capacity and an adequate prediction of rhe deformational response of
the bean1. le is imporcant ro note chat the prediccion of the loadacarrying capacity corre-
laces closely \Vich rhe experimencal findings which indicace chat compliance \Vith che code
of praccice specifications could nor safeguard the intended scrucrural behaviour (Kocsovos
er al. 1994).

r· P, i 200 I-
The close prediction of the beam loadacarrying capacity is anribured to the brirtle model
of concrete behaviour adopted for the analysis. The use of such a brinle model intplies

::=
thac che bean1 cannoc function as a truss ar its ultimare linlit state as assumed by rhe code
I :JL
I
-1 200 1 800
I 800
l~I 800 P, 1200 P2 I JOO 100
. 1- --1 I 30

200 -l ~ 014or 016

Dimensions: In milUmetre 11:
608@150 708@105
: 608@75 1l
~ Sttdon l-1
230I i j +30
_

- 1 100 I-
100
t R,
1600

R,
t 500
I
Dlme.nsloru: ln mUUmeue
014

figure 5.14 RC beams with overhang. Simplified representation adopted for the analysis (dimensions in
milimetre). Figure 5.16 RC beam BIGR.C under sequential loading. Design details.
190 Finite-elemef'l t mo delling of structural concrete Finite-element solutions of static problems 191

J>(kN) P- = J53.5kN - - - Experhne.u

(P = P1 +PJ - - - - - - Analysis (allowing
l40 P- = 132kN p.. = 130k.N tOt crack closUtt)

- - - Expetlinet1t
- ~ • - - - Analysis (::tllowing for'
ct::tek closure)

'
'p~
12kN · ··· ,
,
: p'2

(' (' ! (+)

( ' .,.
.lt ..... Is,
H, rs,
-2 2 4 6 10 -6 -1 -2
S(mm)
• 6 8 10
&(1um)

Figu~ 5.17 RC beam S IGRC under sequentiaJ loading. l oad- deflection curves. Figu~ 5.19 RC beam 82CFP under sequential loading. load- deflection curves.

adopted method of design. This is because the negligible load-carrying capacity of cracked
concrece precludes rhe form.arion of inclined scruts wirhin che \\teb o( the bean1.
5.2. 3 Beam designed in partial compliance with the CFP met hod
The present beam, denoted as B2CFP, is similar ro that in Section 5.2.2 except for che rrans·
verse rein(orcemenc which ·was designed in accordance \Vich the CFP concept (Kocso\'OS and
Bobrowski 1993, Kocsovos and Lefas 1990). Full design details are given in Kocsovos and
Michelis (1996) and summarised in Figure 5.18. (Although the above concep1 also specifies
rransverse reinforcement \Virhin the compressive zone of the beam in che region of poinc
loads, such reinforcement was not used in che present case; irs significance is srudied in rhe
following secrion, where the resuhs obtained from the presenc analysis are con1pared wich
those obtained by rhe analysis o( a bean1 designed in full compliance \Vich the CFP concepc.}
Jr is imporranr to nore that the toral amounc o( links specified for rhe beam was less than
hair rhar of the bean1 designed ro the code, with the links \Vichin the overhang being merely
25% o( the amounr specified by the currenr code provisions for the design o( e3rthquake-
resisranc RC srructures.
And yet, the bean1 \Vas found experimenrnlly co fail io a ductile nlanner under a coca!
load (156 kN) sligh1Jy higher than rhe expecied value siemming from the CFP predicrion
(153 .5 kN). The numerica ll)' predicted a11d experimenta l load-deflection curves are depicted
in Figure .S.19 which also shows che values of rhe load-carrying capaciry predicced by the
CFP concepc and the code. As for rhe case o( the bean1 discussed in che preceding sect ion,
rhe analysis provides a very close predicrion o( the load-carrying capaciry and a sarisfactory
descriptio11 of che deforn1acional response 1 in spire o( rhe crude FE 1nesh used ro model the
beams. Such a predicrion sharply conuascs rhe code prediction chac che beam is only capable
o( susraining approxin1ately 85% o( load P1 acring alone.

5.2.4 Beam designed in full compliance wit h the CFP method

The beam, denored as B3CFP, is the same wich rhat discussed in t he preceding section in a ll
respects except for rhe provision of additiona l uansverse reinforcement \Vithin rhe compres·
sive z.one as indicaced in Figure 5.20. The figure depicts on ly rhe addirio1lal reinforcen1enc
rogerher with the physical models \\rhich underlie rhe CFP method (Korsovos and Bobrowski
1993, Koisovos and Lefas 1990, Kocsovos and Pavlovic 1999). As indica1ed in Figure 5.20b,
the bean1 model consists o( nvo •frames· \Vich inclined legs ried Dy rhe flexural reinforcement
2200
and interacting through rhe provision o( a rransverse tie ac the cross section including the
poinc of contra-flexure; che additiona l uansverse reinfo-rcemenc \Vas placed so as to enclose
Figu~ 5.18 RC beam 82C.FP under sequential loadin:i- Design details. che horiz.onral members of che ·frames' of che model.
192 Finite-elem ent modelling o f structuraJ concr ete Finite -element solutions of static problems 193

P(kN)
(•)
!'"
R
200>
P2 = 190.2

150>

-
(b)

2.
7'1
-5
~ 0 JO 15 20 25
A(mm)

Figure 5.21 RC beam 83CFP under sequential k>ading. l oad-deflection curves (the curves for 82CFP are
al.so induded for purposes of comparison).
2

500 JOO, 1800

(•) 1 - -= - - iJ ,i-------~=---------

I 608@100 19010@100

I~ :ZS:
Stttion 1- 1 JOO
(b) f-1- - '600
=----11 l- - - - - - - '1'-'"'--------
100 1
Figure 5.20 RC beam 83CFP under sequential loading: (a) physicaJ model of beam during the first stage 708@100 18010 @100
of loading sequence: (b} physicaJ model of beam during second stage of loading sequence: (c}
detai s of transverse r einforcement enclosing the horizontal members of 'frames' of physicaJ
I :ZS:
models (dimensions in millimetre).
1100 JOO 600
(c) 1 - - - - - - --'-"'"------1, 1-1- ---""'--- -!

Figure 5.21 shO\\'Srhe predicred load-deAecrion curves describing rhe relationship berween
rhe applied load and che deflecrions ac che poinrs of applicacion of loads P, and P1 • The
figure a lso includes rhe corresponding load- deAec-rion curves predicted for beam B2CFP
(already sho\Vn in Figure 5.19), rogerher \\rich che load-carrying capaciry corresponding ro
flexural capacity. Ir is inrerescing ro note in che figure rhar rhe provision of the additional
rransverse reinforcement enclosing rhe compressive zone resulced in a considerable increase
in ducriliry which \Vas followed by a shorr strain-hardening branch leading ro an increase
in load-carrying capacity. ln fact, rhe analysis predicred a value of load-carrying capacity
which essencially coincides \Vith rhe value corresponding ro flexural capacicy as che laner is
cakulaced in compliance with current design conceprs assuming a ll safery fac-rors equal ro 1.
5.2.5 Beams designed in accordance with the European code
The present case scudy includes rhree RC beams designed in accordance \Vich Eurocode 2
(1991) and Eurocode 8 (EC8) (1994) for high ducriliry (beam B4ECH), moderace ducriliry
(beam B4ECM) and lo\\r duccilicy (beam 84ECL). Their rransverse reinforcement derails are
shown in Figure 5.22. The beams a lso differ from chose discussed in rhe preceding sections
in rhac rheir longitudinal reinforcen1enc comprises 16 n1m, racher rhan 14 mm, diamecer
1807@100 1} 7D7@JOO
Dlrnenslons In mllUmetre
Figure 5.22 RC beams under sequential loading. Details of transverse reinforcement designed in accordance
with the current code prOYisions for (a) high ductility (beam 8'4ECH). (b} moderate ductility
(beam 84ECM) and (c) low ductility (beam B<ECL).
bars. As discussed earlier, che FE modelling of the bean1s (indicated in Figure 5.15) does nor
allo\v for rhe varying spacing of rhe cransverse reinforce menc specified by rhe code for rhe
different levels of ducrilicy; ho\vever, rhe amount of chis reinforcemenr \\fas adjusted so as co
conforn1 ro the code specifications.
Figure 5.23 depicrs the load-defleccion curves predicced by the analysis of rhe beams
rogerher \\rirh rhe load-carrying capacicy predicced by the code. From che figure, ir can be
seen rhar, a lthough che amount of rransverse reinforcement (for a ll chree beams invesrigaced)
was higher chan char required to safeguard against shear cypes of failure, the beams are pre·
dicced ro fail prematurely, well before rheir Aexural capacicy \Vas exhausted. Such behaviour
is similar co char predicted for che beam in Secrion 5.2.2 and it appears co be independenr of
194 Finite-elem ent modelling o f structural concr ete f inite-element solution s of static problems 195

(P : P,; P,)

l----'1" 0'"-D:!@" -'l"-0 . ._ ~ ?_D-'8@~1_00_:_1 I

/>(kN)
P = 218..?kN
200 (a) ,__
SD_?=@_IOO
__,, 3,DS@li , _ _
P(~l<N)
p A: 900 A: ~
90 1--------i1001 --400--1p~,...---=600
=-- -11

'
I

84ECH
{ 84ECM
84ECL 600 800

....... ~'
-5 0
A(rnm)

Figure 5.13 RC beams B<IECH. 8'4ECM and 8'4ECL under sequential loading. l oad-defection curve.s.
400

rhe am10unc of the longirudinal re.inforcemenc. (le is re1ninded rhac for the beams discussed
in che present seccion rhe longirudinal reinforcemenc compr~ses 16 mm. diameter bars, as
opposed co the 14 mni diamerer bars used for rhe beanis discussed in Secrion 5.2.2.) The
causes of the pren1arure failure are discussed in Secrion 5.2.7.

I~
5.2.6 Safeguarding against sh e ar types of failure
In rhe presenr section, ir is anempced cos.a feguard againsc shear rypes of failure by adopcing
nvo differenc design approaches: rhe first is based on the CFP mechod \Vhich \Vas used ro
design beam 85CFP, and rhe second on che concepcs underlying rhe currenc code mechods .figure 5.24 RC beam BSCFP under sequential loading. Details of transverse reinforcement (a) reinforce-
used for designing beani B5COR. Borh beanis are similar co chose discussed in rhe preced.. ment extending throughout the beam height (b) reinforcement enclosing compressive zone.
ing seccion except for che rransverse reinforce1nenr which is shown in Figures 5.24 and 5.25 (dimensions in millimetre).
for beams B5CFP and B5COR, respectively. Figure 5.24 indicares that for beam B5CFP
rhe cransverse reinforcemenr includes not only links exrending rhroughouc rhe beam depch -
\\rirh rhe roral amounr of such links being significanrly lower rhan char specified by currenc
codes - bur, also, links enclosing rhe con1pressive zones of rhe bean1 - such links nor being
deemed essential in current design practice. For beam B5COR, Figure 5.25 indicares thar
rhe arrangemenc of rransverse reinforcement is similar ro rha·c indicated in Figure 5.22 for 100J2@100
rhe cas.e of rhe bean1s designed in accordance wirh rhe European code, bur irs amount \\'as
nearly double char specified by rhe code for high ducriliry. On rhe basis of the chinking _ _ _ _ _900
_____ ,100..-_ _ _ _ __,_1400-""'------~--t
underlying che code provisions, such an an1ounr and arrangemenr of rransverse reinforce·
menr should be considered as 'O\'er-reinforcing· rhe beam agaiinsr a shear rype of failure.
Figure 5.26 sho\VS rhe load- deRecrion curves predicced by analysis for che above beam.s
cogerher with the values of che load-carrying capacicy corresponding to the flexural capaciry 01.mensloos in mllUmecre
of the beams. The figure indicaces rhat, as for rhe case of bea1n B3CFP, designing in compli·
ance w·irh rhe concepc of rhe CFP achie\•es rhe design objecrives for load-carrying capaciry
I~
Section l · J
corresponding ro flexural capaciry and adequate duccilicy. Oill rhe ocher hand, the pren1a ..
rure failure of bean1 85COR in shear indicates rhac even a significanc increase of rhe code
specified amounc of rransverse reinforcemenc is insufficient 'CO impro\'e srructural behav· Figure 5.25 RC beam BSCOR under sequential loading. Transverse reinforcement details (dimensions in
iour. h appears, rherefore, char rhere is a link berween shear failure and rhe arrangen1enr millimetre).
196 Finite- element modelling o( structural concrete Finite-element solutions o( static problems 197

the 'rigid joint~ assmnpcion is racher crude, since concrece is \Veak in tension and therefore
P(kN)
all structural e1emencs, joints inclusi\•e, may suffer cracking fron1 early load scages. As a
result, che displacemenrs and rocations cransferred by a joint to rhe adjacent linear e.lemenc
200 ends may be affec-red by t he cracking of the joint, and this effecc, \Vhich may also affec-r
overall structura l behaviour, is not reAected on the results obtained by pracric-al FE analyses
employing. linear elements.
P(~~- P, Amongsr che \Vork published co date on che invesrigation of the effect of cracking of the
P, ioinc on overall scruccural behaviour is thac of Cotsovos and Korsovos (2008) \Vhich was
p
based on the use of the proposed FE package. Indicative results of this \York are presented
&, t
in che follo\\ring, since not only \Vas the package found capable ro produce realistic predic-
(' (' tions of che behaviour of be-am-column join cs, but also proved to be invaluable as a research
tool. The results presented are concerned \Vich the behaviour of one of the RC beam- column
- BSCFP sub..assemblages denoted as A2 in Shiohara and Kusuhara (2006) \Vhere it \Vas investigated
'"·' B5COR
experime1ually as pan of a bench1nark rest progranune for the validacion of n1achematical
models of RC beam- column joincs. lc is firsr sho\vn chat the proposed FE package is capable
-5 10 l5
of producing resulcs thar correlate closely \Vich the experimencal findings and, then, the
~(mm)
effecc o( cracking in the joint on structural behaviour is investigated chrough a comparaci\•e
study of che predicred behaviour of the beam-column sub-assemblage \Vith thar of che san1e
Figure 5.26 RC beams 8SCFP and 85COR. under sequential loading. l oad- deflection curves. strucrure buc \Vichour allowing cracking in the joint.

of transverse reinforcement, since the differenr arrangen1ent of rransverse reinforcen1enr 5.3.2 Struc tural form investigated
specified by t he CFP n1ethod led to structural behaviour \Vhich satisfied the performance
A schematic representation of che RC be-am- column sub·assen1blage investigated is sho\\rn
requiremencs of current codes. in Figure S.27, whereas ics cross..sec-cional characteristics and reinforcement details are pro-
vided in Figure 5.28. The longitudinal reinforcemenr in boch the be-ams and the columns
S.2.7 Causes of premature failure of beams design ed comprises 13 mn1 diameter bars (013) with a nominal cross..sec-rional area of 139 mm 2 and
to the Euro pean code a yield mess ((.) of 456 MPa, in che beams, and 357 MPa in rhe columns. For borh beams
and colum.ns, the transverse reinforce1nent con1prises 6 mn1 d iamecer stirrups (06) {nominal
The inability of current code.. adopced methods for the design of concrete srructures to
cross ..sectional area of 32 mm 2) with yield scress of 326 MPa and a spacing of 50 1nn1. The
always produce solutions thar safeguard che code requiremenrs for structural performance
n1ean compressive scrength (J:) of concrete was 28 MPa. le should be noted thar che design
has been anribured to the lack of a sound underlying cheory (Kotsovos and Pavlovic 1999,
was based on the Japanese Code of Practice (AIJ 1999), rhe requiremenrs of which for eanh-
Kocsovos 2014). More specifically, as discussed in Chaprer 1, the development o( these merh..
quake-resisram srrucrures are similar ro chose of ACI 318 (2002) and parcly of EC2 (199 1),
ods invariably relies on che use of truss or srruc..and-tie mode.ls for the description of the
alchough the laner code specifies a larger amounc of srirrups \Vithin the joint. However,
physical scare of srructural concrete at its ultimace limic scare, rhe implication of chis being
there is experimental evidence (Ehsani and \Vighc 1985, H\vang et al. 2005) which shows
thac, in concrast \Vith the experimencal evidence presented in Chapter 2 which indicates
thac concrece is brinle in nature - and therefore suffers a complete and immediate loss of
strength as soon as visible cracking occurs - cracked concrece is assumed to be characterised
by srrain-sofrening behaviour, which is a prerequisite for the formation of inclined struts. Ir Dimensions In mlD,mette
is, therefore, this conflict berween assumed and rrue concrete behaviour that is che undedy-
ing cause for che premature fa ilure of che bean\s designed in accordance with che European
code (see Section 5.2.5).

5.3 RC BEAM- COLUMN JOINTS UNDER CYCLIC LOADING

S.3.1 Background
Practical structural ana lysis of fran1e.. type srructures is normally based on the as:sun1ption 1450 1450
thac the common portion (joint) of intersecting beam-column elements behaves as a rigid
body. Thus che displacen1ents and rocations of the joinr are direcdy transferred to the ends
of the linear elen1ents which incersect at che joint. For che case of RC structures, however, Figure 5.27 RC beam- column sub-assemblage. Schematic r epresentation.
198 Finite-element modelling o f structural concr ete Finite-element solution s of static problems 199

.,. orr
35 so 65 65 so 35 35 67 66 67 35 (>l .
H rr rM N .r .r ;~~'
I
I
·- ~ - ·r'

Dr
SxDtl
rt - -,.'
. -·
2xD13
4xD13 • • l:
65
300
-
'' -:= r~ --~. -:'' -..
~ I
2xD13
5xD13
65
so
35
4xD13
4x013
e e
35
35 _ 1 -1-~H- i-,'-1 -
. t-
' . ' ' .....
'' '' -·'
.'' --·''
~ -

'' ,-
' '

I 300
I I 300
I 1 -1-H~- '-1 ' -.- , -
I-, .. r ' ~ ' -r ' -,-'
.
'
-·r -, - " T -, - -r

.
Column S..m
I. J_ .L
'. '
I

.- -·.'
(b)

_J
Section l·I

fH { - -,'
. ;

figure 5.30 RC beam-column sub-assemblage. finite-element mesh with brick e~ment:s (modelling concrete
and shaded ends o ( beam<olumn members) indicated by conOOuous lines and u uss elements
(modelling steel reinforcement) indicated by dashed lines in (a) and thick dots in (b).
35

I
1 35 expressed in rhe form of srorey drift rario, chat is, rhe value of lareral d isplacement of the top
end of rhe coluntn element divided by the verrical distance benveen rhe column ends.

5.3.3 FE discretisation
Figure S.28 RC bea.m-cotumn sub-assemblage. Design details.
The FE n1esh adopced to model the beam-column joint sub-·assemblage is sho\\rn in Figure
S.30. The structure is subdivided inco 48 brick elements as sho\\rn in Figure 5.30a, \Virh
rhac a larger amount of stirrups than t hat recomn1ended by ACI-318 n1ay be decrimental co
rhe load being applied through prismatic members (shaded end porrions of rhe FE mesh)
rhe struccural element behaviour and chis is, in facr, confirmed in the following.
monolithically connected to the end faces of the bean1 and colun1n e lements; these members
The scrucrure wassubjecced co checombined action of a consranr axial load (equal co 216 kN)
were subdivided into 2 x l x l = 2 brick e1emencs, as indicated also in Figure 5.30a. The line
and a lateral displacemenc-controlled load in1posed ar che location sho\\rn in Figure 5.27 in
elements represencing the sceel reinforcement were placed along successive series of nodal
rhe manner indicaced in Figure 5.29. In the laner figure, rhe in1posed laceral displacemenc is
poincs in borh vertica l and horizoncal directions as indicated in rhe figure, \Virh Figure 5.30b
showing a rypical cross section of rhe beam-colun1n joinc sub-assemblage. Since the spac·
ing of these line ele1nenrs \Vas predefined by rhe location of r he brick elemenrs' nodes, their
6 cross-sectional area was adjusced so thar rhe coral amount a_nd position of che geomecrical
5 centre of the compression and long·icudinal tension, as well as che coral amount of che rrans·
• verse reinforcen1enr comply \vich che design specificarions.
As discussed in Secrion 4.4.2, rhe size of rhe 27-node Lagrangian brick FEs used is die·
3
g raced by rhe philosophy upon \Vhich rhe FE model adopted in rhe presenc \York is based,
2
I!" I
~ which does not employ small FEs. This is because che n1ater.ial model adopted is based on
data obtained from experimencs in which concrece cylindrical specimens \Vere subjected ro
.: A A fl fl I A
~ 0 v
;:-
S:
~ v
vv v v various rriaxial loading condicions. Consequently these cylin ders may be assumed ro con·
sricute a 'material unic' for which average material properries are obta ined and hence rhe
.,, - 2
- 1
volume of rhese specin1ens provides a guideline to rhe order of n1agnitude of the size of rhe
-3 FE thar should be used for rhe modelling of concrete struccures.

-·
-5 ---~ ---~ - 5.3.4 Results of analysis and d iscussion
Front Figures S.31 and 5.32, it appears chat the correlation benveen numerical and experi·
Figure S.29 RC bea.m- column sub-a.ssembJage. Transverse loading history. menral results is realistic; not only are the predicted values of boch load-carrying capaciry
200 Finite-elem ent modelling o f structural concr ete Finite-element so lutjons of static problems 20 I

and maximum horizonra l storey drifr similar ro their experimental counrerparrs, bur also
rhe area enclosed by rhe hyscereric loops of rhe numerically predicced storey shear- store)'
2 so drifr r:uio cut"ve is: sinlil::ar in si2e to the 2re2 enclosed by the experim.ent::ally ~t::ablis.hed h ys:-
rerecic loops, \Vi ch rhe deviacions of rhe pred>ered from rhe experimenrall)' esrablished values
~ 0 1--- --.,,.+-7'"7.'fl'. being of che order of 10% . In facr, rheclose corre,lacion benveen analyrical and experimenral
~

e resulrs is more clearly sho,vn in Figure 5.32, which depiccs rhe scorey shear- storey drifc
~ - SO !;_;~~'.::;:;Ji~~ rario curves of individual hysrereric loops extracred from Figure 5.3 1 and corresponding ro
maxin1um values of rhe srorey drifr racio equal co 1%, 2% and 4%.
In order to invescigace rhe effect of crack formation wirhin rhe joint on scrucrural behav-
-2 0
Storey delft C3t1o (")
• iour, rhe scruccure \Vas also analysed wirhour allo\\ring crack formarion ro occur \\rirhin rhe
joincs. The resulting srorey shear- srorey drift rario relationship (designared as ' 1') under
Figure 5.31 RC beam-column sub-assemblage. Numerical (continuous lines) and experimental (dashed lines) monoronic loading is shown in Figure 5.33. The figure also in cludes rhe storey shear- storey
relationships between applied load (storey shear) and storey drift r atio under cyclic loading. drifc ratio re,lacionship (designated as '2') obrained by analysis \Vhich did noc allo'v crack
forn1acion wirhin che joincs, rogerher 'vich fh e levels of loadacarrying capaciry (designated
as '3') assessed by hand calcularion based on the assun1pcion char these levels correspond ro
(•) 80 rhe flexural capacity of che beam componenrs of rhe srrucrural fornis invescigared. It should
- - Experimental also be noted char rhe suffixes'+' and•- · ro che designacions ' 1', '2' and '3' ind icare rhe
~ 40 - - Numerlc:al direction of loading : ' +• fron1 lefr ro righr and•- · from righr ro lefr. From rhe figure, ir is

~
inceresring ro nore char, for rhe suucrural e1e111ent analysed wichour allo\ving cracking ro
0
~
occur \\rirhin rhe joi1u, rhe analysis yields values of loadacarrying capaciry larger ch.an rhose
e assessed rhrough hand calcularion by an average value of around 10% . Such a d ifference
& - 40 in the p redicted values of load-carrying capacity should be attributed to the approxirnate
- 80 nature of the assun1pcions u nderlying rhe hand calcularions.
-J -0.5 0 05 From rhe same figures, rhe comparison of curves '1' and '2 ' ind icates rhar cracking
Storey delft(") \\rich in che joinr reduced nor only the load-carrying capacity of the srrucrural forms inves-
(b) JOO rigared, bur also their sciffness, a nd hence led co a nearly 50% increase of che srorey dri fr
- - Experiment ratio \\rhen rhe load exceeded a value of around 25% of che srructure's load-carrying
~ so - - Aiulysls capaciry; in facr, this load level appears ro mark rhe srarc of cracking within che joinr (see
~ 0
Figure 5.34).
i§ - SO
The significa nt cracking suffered by the joinr can be observed in rhe numerical predica
rions presenred in Figures 5.34 and 5.35 which depic r che predicred crack pan ern and rh e
"' - JOO deformed shape (with the deflections being magnified by a facror of 10) of rhe beam- column

-2 - J 0 J50~--~~--~---~--~

Stor<"y dtlft ("')

(c) JOO
t---t. . . . . . . . . . .t~~;;;:j~:=;;;::::j
~
JOO
-y-
2 so 50 ,___ ____,>------+- ---+-----<

....~ 0 !z 0 ___ _ ___,>------+---

/ -_
=-_::-
i~

~
-so
-- ,, '~
.;; -50 ..----+---.. l+---- --·
. .. . . 3.
3- -

-·
- JOO
-2 0 r~
;:.;~
;.;;.-
~·~
~~~
~·~·-~o/'_'_·_··~>_.._._.._.._.--Jl___-I
Sto~y dtlft (%) - 100 ...
-2 0
Stor~y drift ratio R (~)
Figure 5.32 RC beam-column sub-assemblage. Numerical (continuous lines) and experimental (dashed
lines) curves extracted from Figure 3.31 indicating the relationship between applied load (sto-
rey shear) and s-.:orey drift ratio for individuaJ hysteresis loops at values of the storey drift ratio Figure 5.33 RC beam- column sub ·assemblage. Numerically established relationships between storey shear
equal to: (a) '"· (b) 2" and (c) 4". and storey drift ratio under monotonic loading: (I: cracking of joint allowed: 2: cr acking: of joint
not allowed: 3: hand-calct1lated value o1 load-carrying capacity.•+• indicates load applied from
left to r ighc ·-· indk.ates load applied from right to left).
202 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete
(b)
Figure 5.34 RC beam- column sub-assemblage. Predicted crack patterns under a load equal to 25% of its
predicted load-carrying capacity under static monotonic loading when cracking o ( the joint area
(a) was and (b) was not allowed to occur. (Short lines within finite elements represent the trace
o ( cracks intersecting the plane o ( the specimen.)
sub-assemblage a r nvo critical leveb of che applied load increasing monoronicall)' ro failure:
at the level of crack forma rion \Vichin the joinr (see Figure 5.34), and at load-carrying capac-
ity (see Figure 5.35). For purposes of comparison the figures also includes the corresponding
crack parcerns predicced from che analysis of t he same strucrure, but, this cin1e, \vithout
allo,ving crack formation within the joinr. From the figures, it can be seen thac, excepr for
the joinr area, che predicced crack pan erns were similar: cracking firs r in itiated at the lefr-
hand side beam; for the case \Vhere ic \Vas allowed also ro occur \Vichin the joinc, cracking
quickly extended ro the joint area at a load (storey shear) level of approximarely 25% of the
predicted load-carrying capacity, and progressively covered a large pan of the upper col-
umn of che specimen, also penerrating within the Jo,ver column in ics region adjacent co rhe
joinr. Although allowing cracking to occur \Vithin the joint appears ro have caused a larger
horizontal storey drifr of che cop end of the colun1n component of the specimen, in rhis forn1
of representarion, the effecr of joint cracking is not as pronounced as it is when the resuks
are expressed in the form of the storey shear- storey drifr ratio curves sho,vn in Figure 5.33,
since in che former case this effect is overshado,ved by the significant d istorrion of the speci-
men's shape caused by che n1agnification of the deflecrions.
The effect of crack formation within the joint on the overa ll deformational response
becon1es even more apparent \Vhen the structure investigated is subjecced to cyclic loading.
Figure 5.36 sho\VS the storey shear- storey drifr ratio relarionship established by a nalysis
Finite- element solutions o f static problems 203
Figure 5.35 RC beam-column sub-assemblage. ~edicted crack patterns at the predicted load-carrying
capacity under static monotonic loadjng when cracking of the joint area (a) was and (b) was not
aJlowed to occur. (Short lines within fmite elements represent the trace of cracks intersecting
the plane of the specimen.)
which allowed crack fonnarion \Vichin the joint (curve denoted as ' 1') rogeth er \\rith its coun·
terpart (curve denoted as '2') also established by anal)•sis, but without aJIO\\ting such crack·
ing to occur. The figure also provides an ind icarion of the values of load-carrying capaciry
assessed by hand calcularion assuming that these values correspond to the flexural capaciry
of the beam components of the elemencs. The storey shear- storey drift ratio curves of rypical
individual hysreresis loops extracted from Figure 5 .36 are sho,vn in Figures 5.37 and 5.38.
From the figures, it can be seen char, for rhe case \Vhere cracks were nor allo,ved to forni
\\rithin the joint core, rhe srructure exhibited a load<arrying capaciry higher than that cor·
responding to rhe flexural capaciry of rhe beam con1ponent as assessed by hand calcularion.
However, che most interesting fearure of srructural behaviour under cyclic loading is the
significant loss of stiffness that characterises the strucrure when cracking of t he joint is
allo,ved to occur: ar any given level of che storey shear, the srorey drifr rario appears to be
larger than that of its councerpan element, for \Vhich cracking was nor allo\ved to occur in
the joint, by a facror exceeding 2 at load levels close ro the structure's load·carrying capac·
iry. This sjgnificanr loss of stiffness, which characcerises RC srructures comprising linear
elements e\•en under service loading conditions (as indicared in Figure 5.37 ex-cracred from
Figure 5.36) is nor allowed for in practical scructural analysis of RC skeletal scructures. As a
result, the use of such analysis n1ethods as che n1eans to c heck wheth er che (often stringent)
204 Finite- element modelling o ( structural concrete Finite -element solution s of static problems 205

100
80
__ ,
- - 2
60 - - 3+
40 --3-
~ 20
5 0
~
~ - 20
0
;; -40

-
- 50
-60

- 100 -IOO.j----~----~---~-----1
-4 -2 0 2 -4 -2 0 2 4
Stoteydrlft tatlo R (%) Storey dtlft rado R (")

Figure 5.36 RC beam-column sub-assemblage. Num erically established relationships between storey shear Figure 5.38 RC beam- column sub-assemblage. Numerically established relationships between storey shear
and storey-drift r atio under cyclic loading (For notation see Figure 5. 33). and storey drift r atio for the individual load cycle at maximum storey drift ratio 4% extracted
from Figure 5.36. (For notation see figure S.33.)

performance requiremenrs of current codes for earthquake-resisrant design are satisfied

appears to be ineffec ti\•e. resulr, in che authors' opinion, anempts ro improve a na lysis resulcs chrough rhe use of con-
Recent anempts ro provide a solution ro rhe above problem have been predominantly sricutive models of ioint behaviour are unlikely co be successful in rhe not roo disranc future.
directed cowards developing, and incorporating into analysis packages suitable for use in O n the other hand, analysis models, such a.s che one used in che presenr \York, rhough free
praccice, purpose..developed ronsrituci\•e models of RC joint behaviour (see, e.g., Morikawa of che problems described above, are essencially research rools, not user friendly anid costly
2007). The developmenc of such consticutive models usually places emphasis on rhe descrip- for pracrical applicarions.
rion of rhe posr-peak characcerisrics of joinc behaviour and relies on che use of experimencal le would appear from the above, cherefore, that an a lcernacive approach would be ro
data for the calibrarion of the models. Ho·we\•er, such d ata are dependent on rhe inceraction aim for an improvement of current design mechods so as to safeguard the condiJtion for
benveen specin1en and resring device, \Vith r!he effecr of rhis interaccion, although ofren sig- rigid joint behaviour rhat underlies current merhods for fran1e analysis. HO\\rever, such an
nificant, being rarely, if ever, considered in the developmenr of che consriturive ntodels. As a improvement is unlikely to be achieved chrough an increase of the amount of rransverse
reinforcement within the joint, in excess of rhea.m ount specified by current codes, since ir
has a lready been establish ed by experiment that rhis approach is ineffecrive (Ehs:ani and
60 Wighc 1985, Hwang er al. 2005). This was, in face, a lso escablished in che presenr work by
comparing che srorey shear- srorey drift ratio curve for rhe struccure \Vich its cour.nerpan
obra ined by ana lysing che s.ame struccure with chree cimes che amounc of rransverse srirrups
30 \\rithin che joint (see Figure 5 .39). From the figure, ir can be seen rhac srrucrural behaviour
~ decerioraced, racher rhan improved. The causes for such behaviour appear co be linked \Vich
rhe findings of an earlier work which demonsrrated chat providing arcificial confinement ro
!•
0
0 concrece \Vhen such confinemenc is naturally provided by che surrounding concrere is inef-
feccive (Korsovos and Pavlovic 1995). In rhe case of rhe structural element invescigated, such
;; natural confinement ro concrece in che joint is naturally provided by rhe beam a nd column
- 30 elements incersecting a t rhe joint; the provision of cransverse srirrups, beyond che amounc
-- 1 specified by current codes, as the means ro arrificially safeguard confinement ro che joinc
- - 2 appears, nor only ro be ineffecrive, but also ro reduce che effecri\•eness of the intel'seccing
- 60 beam-column e.lemencs to provide confinen1ent.
- 0.6 -0.3 0 0.3 0.6
Storeydtlft ratio R (1')
5.3.5 Concluding remarks
F'igure 5.37 RC beam- column sub-assemblage. Numerkalty establish ed relationships between storey shear
and storey drift ratio for the individual load cycle at maximum storey drift ratio O.SX extracted The proposed FE model is nor only found to produce realiscic prediccions of rhe behaviour of
from figure S.36 (For notation see Figure S. 33). beam-colun1n elements under cyclic loading, but also to demonsrrace rhac crack formation
206 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Finite-element solutions of static problems 207

50

~
~
~
•
;;
0 08
O= - UlO
i-
>==

- 50 06.25

_v v
/
260 >==

04--- """'
-
-100 ----~---~---~---

-· -2 0
Storey dl'lft rulo R (")
F=
~
A 130 A

-
Figure S.39 RC beam-column sub-assemblage. Effect of an amount of transverse stirrups. in excess of that
specified by ACI. on the behavioor of beam-column joint elements under cydic loading. A. ····-- ·······- --·~ ··--·- ..... .A
F=

within che joint of che beam- column elements has a significant effecr on rhe overall struc..
rural behaviour; as a resulc, scrucrural analysis based on rhe assumprion of rigid joints yie1ds
results of dubious validiry when applied co RC srruccures.
ln vie'Ar of che above, it appears char there is an urgent need for in1proving current design
merhods so as co safeguard the condition for rigid joint behaviour chac underlies current
!
n1erhods for frame analysis.

5.4 STRUCTURAL WALLS UNDER CYCLIC LOAD ING

-l 250
650
250 I-~
The presenc case study is concerned with a numerical invesrigarion of che behaviour of
SecdonA-A
srruccural ele1nenrs (or which, as (or che case discussed in preceding section, rhere is pub ..
lished information obtained from C)'clic tests. The srrucrural elements considered are three
of che RC scrucrnral walls denoced as walls SW31, SW32 and SW33 in Lefas (1988) where ID D
fu ll derails of rhe experimental invescigarion are provided. ln whac follov.rs, only the main
Figure S.4-0 RC walls. Design details.
results of rhe numetical investigation are presenced; full details can be found in Cotsovos
and Pavlovic (2005).

S.4. 1 Wall details
AlJ ,valls \Vere 650 11101 \Vide, 1,300 mm high and 70 mm thick. The values of rhe uniaxial
cylinder compressive screngrh (/J of the concrete used \Vas equal co approximately 35, 53
and 49 MPa for walls SW31, SW32 and SW33, respecrively, whereas rhe values of che yield
mess ((1 ) of che sceel was 420, 520 and 470 MPa, for che 4, 6 and 8 mm diameter bars used,
respecrively. An identical arrangement of reinforcen1enc was used for all three specin1ens
and this is sho\\rn in Figure 5.40. During che experiment each \Vall \Vas monolithically con·
nected co a rigid RC prism ar both cop and bonom. The bonom prism was firn1ly bolted
ro rhe laboracory strong floor in order to resemble a rigid cype of foundarion, while ar rhe
end faces of rhe top prism the exrernal loading was imposed through t\\ro 50 -ton jacks. The
prisms were designed so as ro remain undamaged throughour the course of che experimem.
Each \Vall \\'as subjected ro dif(erenc cyclic loading conditions. Afrer a prescribed number
o( load cycles, rhe load increased monoronically up ro the full loss of load·carrying capacicy.
The loading histories used for the rescs are presented in Figure 5.41. On che righc·hand side,
rhe loading history is presented in the form o( imposed displacen1enrs, \Vhereas, on the lefc..
hand side, it is presenced in rhe form of imposed forces.
S.4.2 FE modelling
Concrete was n1odelled by using 27·node Lagrangian brick elements whereas 3·node iso·
paran1erric truss elements were used for che modelling of rhe reinforcen1enc. The scruc ..
rural \Valls discussed above were discretised as sho,vn in Figure 5.42. The sceel e,len1encs
were placed along successive rows and columns of nodes in che longirudinal and transverse
208 Finite -element modelling o f structural concrete Finite -element solution s o f static problems 209

(3) 120 --~-~-~-~-~ 27 Node Node

80 I 18+--~-~--+---1~--1 -
Node
21 22 23 24
~ 40 U11--f/1l--fl11--f/11-~ l---I 9 t--+--+--+--~f
:;; 0 f--\--1--\ · ~ 0 5 10 15 20

~ -40 +-- tJr+--\<r+--••r+---\•,,_--1 ~ - 9 +--+--+--+--+----! I= =

!

. •
- 80 - 18 -I---+---+--+ 9 14 19
- 120 +--+--+--+--~--1 - 21-t--......- ......- ......- ......---1 I= =
0 2 3 5 0 4
No ofcycles No of cycles

(b) 120 ..--..--..--~--~ 27..--~-~-~-~-~ ... -

3 8 13 18

80 +••--+ll--+-A--_,~.--+I
I£
~ 40
:.- 0 g
•8
9 h ---h.--f-.- -<-.- -"1---1
0
... -
2 7 12 11

~ -40 ~ -9 +-~'-1---'-+-~<-~+----< I 6 II 16

- 80 g - 18 l-- + - - + - - - - + - - - 1
Mesh
2
No ofcycles
-27+--+--+-~--+---I
0
No of cycles
• -ID--+ -+ -+ -B f-·'
,
Sx l x.4
...............................:....~

(c) 120
27 Figure 5.42 RC walls. FE model.

z
80 l -- + - -+l>-+ll--+1--1
40 H •\-~l·\--lll-\--ll l--<1----1
1 l8 +-- - - 1 - - - - + ·l-----I
9
c, 0 6 0 5-4.3 N umerical results
J -40 l --\J'f---- \ J! -+ l r---·Wl---1 i - 9 l -- - - l --'-- - - l - - - - I T he resulrs of rhe analysis a re presented in Figures 5.43 rh rough 5.45 in rhe form of load-
- 80 l - •8 +-- - - 1 - - - - + - - - - - 1 displacemenr curves, whereas typical results describing the cracking process t har specimen
- 27+---...---+-----I SW31 un dergoes during che 6rst loading cycle are presented in Figure 5.46. The cracks
l
Noof<:)'C'les
s 0 2
Noor cycles
• 6 begin m appear in the bo!!om left area of the specimen (where the tensile stresses are most
crit ical) a r che value of the external load of 10 kN. As the innposed load increases (from
0 chrough 64 kN), new cracks form . During unloading (fre>m 64 t hrough 0 kN) many
Figure 5.41 RC waJls. Load histories adopted for walls: (a) SWll. (b) SW32 and (c) SW33. cracks gradually sra n ro close. When the ex1ernal load is imp()sed in t he opposice direction
(fron1 0 to - 64 kN) th e crack-closure procedure continues (air hough rhe number of cracks
rhar need ro close no\v are signi6candy less), bur a t rhe same rime is followed by t he opening
d irections in a n1an ner rhar marched, as closely as possible, che amounr and location of rhe of new cracks due ro t he change in d irecrion of rhe imposed load .
acrual reinforce1nent. On che rop, a layer of rigid brick ele1nenrs was added co represent rhe
rigid RC prisn1 1nonolirhically connected ro che cop of each \Vall. Because of rhe symn1etry of
5.4.4 Discussio n of numerical results and c o mpari s on
rhe specimen's cross section 'vich respect ro the venical plane in the direction of rhe applied
with experimental data
load, only one half of rhe acrual specimen \Vas modelled. As a result, a s1naller nun1ber of
FEs were used, th us reducing rhe compucarional cosr. The above syn1mecry in rhe FE model A comparison benveen th e numerical predictions (cyclic and 11nonoronic case srudies) and
was effecred by restra ining the displacements norn1al co rhe pla ne of symmerry. Finally, rhe experimental data for specin1en S\V31 is presenred in Figure 5.43 . Ir can be seen that
rhe bonon1 face of the FE mesh \Vas 6xed in order ro represenr the rig id rype o f foundation under monoronic loading specimen SW3 1 had a load-carrying .capacity of 130 kN, whereas
imposed in rhe experin1enr. lr should be nored char, a khough rhe experin1ental load \Vas under cyclic loading irs residual load-carrying capacity \Vas fou nd co be 104 kN. It is also
applied in rhe form. of imposed displaceJnents, in che actual an alysis che srate of develop~ evidenr rhar the ducrilit)' anained u nder n1onotonic loading \Was nvice rh ar reached u nder
menr of rhe sofrware ar th e time the \Vork \Vas carried our allowed loading ro be applied cyclic-loading condirions. This should mainly be anribuced ro che fac r chat th e specimen
only in rh e fonn of imposed forces. Although this mighr ha\'e led co some deviation of t he suffered excessive cracking u nder successive load cycles, t hus lowering ics ulri mate strength
nun1erical resuhs from their experimenta l counrerparrs a r load levels near rhe \Vall's load· and ductility.
carrying capacity, such deviarion was minimised chrough th e use of che smallesr possible The maxin1um load applied to specimen SW3 1 a r each loading C)'cle \Vas 64 kN, which
load incremenrs. is approxin1acely 50% of che (num.erically predicted) ultimare srrengrh under monoronic
210 f inite-element modelling of structural concrete Finite-element solutions of static problems 21 1

- -- -- --
(•) 14-0 (•) ISO
120 ·-
100
80
, - --h-
100

/,
~
1i
60
4-0
20
•
I
r -
Z' so
e
"'~ 0
.s 0 - - Expeti.me.1ual
-
- - - N'umedcal monotonk _
- 20
-4-0
-60
•.•' - - N'un'lt'l'lc:t.I cyclic
I I I I I
-
- SO f----+~-F:ol'iif'--l- ······ Nwnerlcal monotonic

- 100
- - Nwnt>rlcal cyclic

-80
I I I I I - IS - 10 -S 0 s 10 IS 20
- 10 0 10 30 so 60 Dlsp~ment (mm)
Dispbcement (mm)
(b) 100
(b) 80

60 so
4-0 !
20 ] 0
! 0
] - 20
- SO

-4-0 - 100
- 12 -8 -4 0 4 12
-60 Oispbe'.'t'~nt (mm)

- 80
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
Displacement (mm)
Figu~ S.43 RC walls. Comparison between numerical predictions obtained for the monotonic and cyclic
case studies w;th experimental data for specimen SW)I: (a) full loading range: (b) region o (
cyclic loops magnified.
loading and 62% of che (numerically predicced) residual load· carrying capacicy when ic \\ras
loaded ro failure a frer ic had been subjected ro rhe prescribed number of loading cycles. Ac
these levels of loading che program did nor sho\v an)• signs of nun1erical instability during
rhe solution process.
The numerical results obcained from rhe cyclic·loading case scudy are similar to rhe
experimencal dara (rhis can be seen n1ore clearly in rhe magnified Figure 5.43b), indicac·
ing chat rhe program is able co realistically predicc the behaviour of RC struccures when
subjec-red ro this n1ediun1 level of cyclic loading. The maximum deflection at each load
cycle and rhe corresponding applied load are nearly identica l for rest data and numerical
predictions, the deviation becoming somewhac larger mainly when the load \Vas eventually
increased monotonically co failure. The experimencal resulcs sho\V chat specin1en S\-V31
had a load·carrying capacity of 119 kN \Vhereas rhe numerically predicred load·carrying
capaciry of rhe same specimen subjecced to the same loading conditions \vas 104 kN, rhar
is, 87% of the value of rhe uhimate screngrh established experin1entally. Similarly good
agreement \Vas found for the values of defleccions at failure established by experimenc
(23 mn1) and analysis (30 mm). Furthermore, rhe areas enclosed by che h)•sterecic loops
formed by che excernal load- displacement cun•es established by experiment and predicted
analysis ate similar. This area expresses the energy dissipaced by rhe RC wall due to rhe
Figure S.44 RC walls. Comparison between numerical predictions obtained for the monotonic and cyclic
case studies with experimental data for specimen SW3'2: (a) full loading range: (b) region o (
cydic loops magnified.
non-linea.r behaviour of concrete as a result of cracking and yielding of the reinforcement.
The facr that in both cases - experin1enr and analysis- chis area is approximately rhe san1e
shows rhac the proposed FE model is able co realistically model the crack opening and do·
sure procedures rhar che RC wall undergoes during each load cycle.
For the case of specimen SW32 the (numerically) predicted ultimare strength was 115 kN
under monotonic loading and 96 kN under cyclic loading (see Figure 5.44a). As for the case
of specimen SW31, specimen SW32 under crclic loading failed at a lower load and exhib-
ited smaller maximum deflection when compared ro its monotonically loaded councerparc.
The maximun1 load applied ro specin1en S\V32 ar each loading cycle was 84 kN, \Yhich is
approximately 73% of the specimen's (numerically predicted) ultimate screngrh \Vhen sub·
jeered ro monoconic loading bur 87% of the specimen's (nun1erically predicted) residual
load..carrying capacity when loaded co failure afrer it had been subjected ro che prescribed
number of loading cycles. Even ac these high le,•els of loading che program \Vas found co be
numerically stable.
By comparing successive cyclic loops of the horizontal load- displacen1enc curve, ir appears
rhac rhe size of these loops increases \Vich che number of cycles. The area of rhe cyclic loop
corresponds co che amount of energy lost due to the non·linear behaviour of concrece caused
by che cracking of concrete and the yielding of steel. The higher cyclic-load level (84 kN)
imposed on specimen S\V32 appears co have caused more significant cracking and hence a
loss of energy larger than thar suffered by specimen S\-V3 I which \Vas subjected ro a lo\\rer
level of cyclic load (64 kN).
212 f inite-element modelling of str uctural concrete Finite- element solutions of static problems 213

(a) 150 ,...------~------------~

··········· .. ' ' ..

'"'
.. '
'
"' ' '
'

~ 50
, .
"".,,j >-
·-. " .. ' ' ,_ ' ' .. ' '
~-~-
1:-:-; --~.·
--~~ - '
"". '
- 50
- - Uperimm.ul
• • • • • • Numttielll monotoni~
, . r , '
'
_, ..
"'' ' '
- - Numttic:al cyclk .._,_ ~ ~
-
- JOO
- JO -5 0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-. -' .. -- -- - -- "'

Dispb~nt (mm)
lO l:N 20kN 30kN <OkN
(L) JOO

....
80
' ' '

' '' ' '

' '
'

''

~
20
'
' .. ' ' ,, . '
'
'] '.. '' ' ' ''
'
-w
.....
........
'
'' '
-- ' - ~'
·.
- - Ex~rimental
-
- ' '' ''
"
-- ,. ,
' ' ~ \

- - NWTtC"riol ' '',,

- JOO - --- ' '
-- '
- JO
-· -6 -4 -2 0
Dblpl:ac~nt(mm)
• JO >-
~~~~~~
r- L
[
_'_ - i-- - ' - +-

50kN 60kN 6HN 60kN

figure 5.45 RC walls. Comparison between numerical predictions obtained for the monotonk. and cyclic
case studies with experimental data £or specimen SWl3: (a) futl loading range: (b) region of - - .-r-"'

cyclic loops magnified.

' '' ' ' '
'' ' .' ''
As (or the case of specimen SW31, rhe numerical resulcs obcained for specimen S\X'32 '' ' '
under cyclic loading are sin1ilar co rheir experiment.al counterpans (see Figure 5.44), indi· '' ' ' ' \
' '
'
caring th:u rhe program used is capable o( realistically predicting rhe behaviour o( RC srruc ..
ru.res even when rhese are subjected ro successive levels of loading dose ro the ulcim.ate '' '
srrengrh o( Lhe specinten. The n1axi1nun1 displacement ar each load cycle and the corre ..
sponding load are similar for both experin1enc and analysis. furchennore, as in rhe case of
SW31, che area enclosed by che hysterecic loops formed by the external load-displacement "
cut\'es p.redicred by borh experinienc and ana lysis are sin1ilar, rhus proving once again char +- ~ -
che FE model adopred in the current invesrigarion is efficient in modelling rhe cracking pro..
cedure char concil'ere undergoes. Under cyclic loading, che experimencal resulcs indicare thar SOkN 4-0kN
specin1en S\V32 had a load-carrying capaciry o( 112 kN, whereas che nun1ericall)' predicted
load-carrying ca.paciry of the specin1en under rhe same loading condfrions ·was 96 kN or figure 5.46 RC walls. The development of cracking in specimen SW3 I during the first cycle of the cycfic-
approxi1nately 86% of che u lcimare screngrh escabli.shed experin1enrally. loading regime. (Continued)
However, a discrepanC)' in the maximum anained displacemenr is nociceable in rhe last
srage \\•hen che load increased monotonically co failure. Experimencally, this n1axin1um
displacement \Vas recorded co be around 20- 25 mm, whereas che numerical prediction is
214 f inite·element modelling of str uctural concrete Finite·element solutions of static problems 21S

durarion, and cannot be re.lied upon in safe design: chey are really manifestarions of p<.>st·
failure phenomena and, as such, are of no relevance ro designers.
' ~'
In che last case study, the ulcimare screngrh of specimen SW33 predicred by rhe progran1
was 120 kN when subjected to monoconic loading bur, under cyclic loading, rhe progran1
''
" '
.. .. .
\
was unable ro complece all che prescribed loading cycles: name.ly, in che experiment chere
had been fi\'e cycles follo\\red by n1onoronic loading co failure, while in the FE anal)~sis
failure occurred during the fifrh load cycle due to premature failure of che specimen during
rhe 6frh load cycle (Figure 5.45). The maximum load applied to specimen SW33 ac che rwo
'' ' -- ' , ' inirial loading cycles was 64 kN whereas for rhe nexr rwo ic \\ras 90 kN. Afrer concluding
' '
rhese loading cycles che specimen fai led ar che Jase prescribed loading cycle ac a load level of

.-
--~
- .--
,' '
-.
100 kN \Vhich is close to the specimen's (experimenrally determined) load-carrying capaciry
(112 kN).
The experimental maximum displacemenc at each load cycle and che corresponding
IOkN OkN - lOkN - 20 kN
applied load are similar co che displacements predicced by rhe program and che correspond·
ing imposed load (see Figure 5.45). The maximum load applied ro specimen SW33 during
l
_,-- - - che first rwo loading cycJes \Vas 70 kN, \Vhich is approxinlacely 53% of rhe (numerically pre·
dicred) ultimate screngrh under monotonic loading and 70% of the (numerically predicred)
' ' '
. residual load·carrring capacicy 'vhen it \Vas loaded co failure afrer it had been subjected
'''
'' .. ro the prescribed number of loading crcles. Then, che n1aximu1n load applied ro specimen

.. SW33 during loading cycles 3 and 4 was increased to 90 kN, \Vhich is approximarely 75%
of rhe (numerically predicced) ulciniare strengch under monoconic loading and 90% of rhe
' .'. '
(numerically predicced) residual load-carrying capaciry in rhe cyclic case scudy. Ac these
levels of loading the FE scheme did nor shO\V signs of numerical instabiliry during the solu·

..'
cion process, proving again that rhe program used is capable of rea lisrically prediccing rhe
' >

..
>- . The experimenca l results indicare rhar specimen S\V33 had a load·carrying capacicy of
- 30kN -40kN - SOkN - 60kN -64k}.'
Figure 5.46 (Continued) RC walls. The development of cracking in specimen SW31 during the first cycle o(
the cyclic·loading regime.
9 mm. The main reason for such differences is rhe facr chat in rhe numerical invesrigation
failure is considered to occur when rhe scrucrure's sciffness marrix becomes non-posici\•e
definice whereas in che accual experiment failure occurs \Vhen che RC scrucrural form under
invescigacion suffers roral loss of ics load·carrying capaciry. In rhe presenc case, chis occurred
due ro rhe disruption of the concinuiry of conc-rerecaused by excessive crack formarion in rhe
lower area of the RC wall. Afrer che degradacion of che concrere \Vichin the Jo,ver regions
of che wall, che accua l struccure used in che rest may still have been capable of mainraining
ics load..carrying capacity chrough alcernacive resistance mechanisnlS such as, for exam·
pie, dowel action. Ho,vever, rhis cype of behaviour cannor be described numerically, as che
developmenr of such alcernarive resistance n1echanisms are nor allowed for by rhe analysis
procedure developed. Ir is significanc co note char, \Vhen observing che experimenta l results,
ir is clear rhar in the final scages of rhe loading procedure the load-displacemenc cun•e
becomes pracrically horizontal beyond a displacemenc of about 13 n1m (comparable \Vich
che numerical prediction of 9 mm) which means, rhat ar rhis point, che RC \Vall suffered
excensive cracking (especiall)' in ics lower area) which led its stiffness co drop dran1acically
and char rhe RC wall resorred co a lrernarive resiscance mechanisms. Evidendy, such a irer·
native mechanisnlS (noc catered for by rhe numerical model) are highly unstable, of shorr
behaviour of RC scruccures \Vhen subjected to levels of cyclic loading close ro the ultimate
s-rrengch of che specimen.
around 112 kN, \vhereas che nunierically predicred load-carrying capacity of rhe specin1en
under rhe same loading condicions \Vas 100 kN, or approximacely 89% of rhe ultimare
srrengch escablished experimencall)'· Furchermore, che maximum displacemenc established
experimencally \Vas found co be abour 25 mm whereas in the numerical investigation ic
was found co be 17 mn1. Moreover, as in the case of S\X/31 and S\V32, the area enclosed
by che hysterecic loops formed by rhe external load-displacen1ent curves predicted by boch
experimenr and analysis are similar, chus proving chac rhe FE mode.I adopced in the current
invescigarion is efficienr in modelling che cracking procedure chat concrete undergoes even
during load cycles in which the level of loading reaches che load·carrying capacity of rhe
specimen.
The premature failure of che specimen (in terms of rhe number of cycles anained, namely
four and a half insread of five and a half) of the specimen in the Jase load cycle and che
snlall deviacion benveen experimencal and numerical predicrions could be anributed to
che fact that, as in che case of RC wall S\V32~ failure, during che numerical invesrigation,
is considered ro occur when rhe srruccure's stiffness marrix becomes non-positive definite
and rhar at chis scage the RC srruccure is resorcing co a lrernacive resistance mechanis.m s
such as, for example, dowel acrion, in order to exrend (albeit very briefly) its load-carrying
capacicy.
5.4.5 Conclusions
Through the comparative study berween che numerical predictions and rhe experimen.ral
data, it is established rhac che non-linear srrategy adopred is able co describe the hyscerecic
216 f inite·element modelling of structural concrete Finite·element solutions of static problems 217

behaviour of concrete e\•en when rhe RC specimens are subjected to high levels of loading,
Total amount()( reinlOt"c~nt ;ag;:a.inst punching; 4 • 2834 = 11.336 mm1
that is, close to their load-carrying capac-iry. Any deviation between experimenral resuks
and numerical predictions are \Vich in the order of accuracy of structural engineering design - - Lbcalion <i longitudin;al reinfOt"c~nt
and are due ro a number of causes. These inc lude pose-fai lure phenomena, applied load con- 0 Lbcalions ol ind~ displ~merrt
trol insread of displacement control (especially relevanr when large increases in displacen1enc • Lbcalions ol shear reinl<wc~nt (2); 17•• mm1@ I00
under constant load are experienced, as in rbe case of specimen S\V32), and time~dependenr 1.ocations ol she".i.r reinlcwcenM:nt (I); 28 mm1@t00
effeccs (Lefas 1988) \Vhich are noticeable in scaric cyclic tests (as those presendy modelled)
where cracking in the concrere medium continues to evoh•e even when the externa l load
re1uains consca nc (such effeccs becoming 1nore apparenr as the value of the applied load
increases and approaches the load-carrying capacity of che specimen), \Vhereas rhese effeccs
are much less prominent in dynamic analysis.
le may be concluded, therefore, chat, despite che small divergence benveen experimental
and numerical resulcs, che non-linear procedure adopted in t he FE model used in the present
·work was found to perforn1 satisfactorily, providing a realistic description of che hysterecic
behaviour of RC srructural elen1ents under cyclic loading even when ch is \Vas of a severe
and s tatic nature. The use of ch is model to describe the behaviour of RC scructures under
dynamic cyclic loading (Cotsovos 2004) yie~ded equally satisfactory resuks, as is reported
in Chapters 7 and 8.

5.5 NUMERICAL EXPERIMENTS ON FLAT SLABS

The FE nlodel has ofren been used to conduct numer1cal experin1enrs for the verification of
new conceprs which are considered to provid e a berter understanding of strucrural concrete Oimcnsions in miDimetrl'
and t heir implementation in practical structural design n1ay lead to an improvement of the
behaviour of RC structures. One such concept has led to the development of a uni fied ulti· Figure 5.47 RC flat slabs. Design details in accordance with the CFP method.
n1ace limit-st.ace method - the CFP nlethod (Kotsovos a nd Pavlovic 1999, Kotsovos 2014)
- for the design of concrete structures. The effectiveness of the reinforce1nent designed in TOb.1 a.mount ()( reinf0«m.ient ag;Un.u punth.ing; 4 • 1608 = 6432 mm1
accordance \Vith the CFP method for safeguarding against punching of flat slabs \Vas verified
© l..oc.ttiUns ofi.nduo:d dhpl:ia-ment
by carrying our numerical tests, through che use of the FE model, with the resuks obtained
• l..oc.ttions of War rrinlorttment: 67 mm~IOO
showing a significa nt improvement of flat slab behaviour when compared with that of similar
sla bs reinforced in compliance with the mechods implen1enred in currenr codes such as ACI ~ 0
3 18 and EC2 . A concise description of the above numerical-tesr programn1e is presented in I
; ..
whac follows, w ich fu ll decails being provided elsewhere (Kotsovos and Kocsovos 2010).
...
S.S.I Slabs investigated ... .....
•• •
...
0

111 ....
The slabs investigated are square in shape wich 2000 mm side, 200 n1m depch and flex-
ural rein forcen1ent racio (p) of 0.77%. The uniaxial (cylinder) con1pressive strengch of con- 400 0
crete and the yield scress of che long itudinal and shear reinforcemenr are taken equal ro 9000
f, = 30 MPa, {1 = 500 MPa and f.,. = 220 MPa, respeccively. The slab is considered co be I I
monolithically connected to a column \Virb a square cross section of 400 n1n1 side, and
subjected to a monoconically increasing u niforn1 displacement imposed on poinu; arranged
sy111mecrically about the slab's axes of symmerry so as to forn1 a near circular curve \Virh ics
centre coinciding \Vith the geometric centre of the s lab and its radius being approximately
equal co 900 mm (see Figures 5 .47 through 5.49).
The figures also provide an indication of rhe reinforcen1enr arrangen1ents resulting fron1 1-----~2=
000
~-----11
the n1ethods investigated. It should be noted chat, in concrast w ith rhe codes which specify Diml"Nions in millimctre
only r.ransverse reinforcen1ent within a predefined distance from the column-slab interface,
che CFP mechod specifies both horizonral and vertical reinforcemenr for susraining rhe censile Figure 5.48 RC flat slabs. Design details in accordance with ACl3 18.
219 f inite· element m odelling of structural concrete
Total amount of reJnfotttment aplnst puochlng; 4 • 1272 = 5088 mm2
@ LoeuJons orl.iKI~ dlspbcement
• LocuJ011s of shear ttlnforcemlnt; S3 mm1@100
®
;
;
... ..
....
• • • • 0
4001111-:.:.L...... 9000
0.
I I
Dlnlensloos In mlllimette
Figure 5.49 RC flat slabs. Design details in accordance with EC2.
srresses developing \Vithin che compressive zone. The CFP specified reinforcement is disrrib·
uced \Vithin rhe scrips \Vith widrh u1, + d (\vhere ru,is the sjde of checolumn'scross seccion and
d the effec-ci\•e depch of the slab) intersec-ring ar che column head and excending in parallel to
the slab sides from the column-slab incersection to a distance of 2.Sd from the location of
rhe imposed displacen1enc. (As discussed lacer, disrribucing rhe venical reinforcement within
a str1p \Vich rhe aforementioned \Vidch is found ro produce the n1osr effeccive design solution.)
Moreover, rhe CFP method also specifies cransverse reinforcen1enc along the perimerer of rhe
region extending radially from rhe column's centre co a discance of 2.Sd from the geomerric
locus of rhe imposed displacement. It. should also be nored that, unlike che codes, che CFP
n1erhod ignores any conrribucion other rhan rhac of the reinforcement ro che slab's resistance
ro punching once the tensile screngrh of conc-rere in rhe compressive zone is exhausred.
In all cases rhe srirrup spacing \Vas taken consranc and equa l ro 100 mm, \Vich t he amounc
of stirrups being expressed in rernlS of the scirrup c-ross·seccional area rather chan diameter
for purposes of easier comparison. Depending on che mechod of design, rhe slabs are referred
ro as CFP, EC2 and ACI, \Vhereas chose without shear rein forcement as CON (control). Ir is
inceresting to note in the figures cha t che CFP merhod specifies a significantly larger amount
of rransverse rein:force1nent chan char specified by currenc·code mechods: moreover, rhe pro·
posed mechod also specifies a layer of horizontally placed bars across rhe slab strips in rhe
region of their co.mpressive zone adjacent co the column- slab interface.
5.5.2 Mesh discre tisatio n adopted
Due co t\\rofold syn11nerry only one·quarcer of rhe slabs is analysed, \Vith ch is portion being
discrerised as sho\Vll in Figure 5.50. Concrece is modelled by means of 27-node Lagrangian
brick e lemencs. Longicudinal and vercical reinforcemenc is represenced by 3·node line
Finite· elem ent so lutions of static problems 219
O 1..oc3irionsof
lndt.teed
dtspl:icemeot
z
Figure 5.50 R.C flat slabs. FE mesh.
elements of appropriate cross-secrion.a l areas possessing axial sti ffness only. The line ele·
mems used to model the steel reinforcement are not shown in the figure for clarity purposes;
rhese elemencs are placed along consecutive nodes of che brick elemencs so as co n1ainrain
the amounc and arrangen1enc of various cypes of reinforcen1enc per u nit area equal ro thar
of the sla bs shown in Figures 5.47 through 5.49.
5. 5.3 Results of analysis and discussio n
The verification of rhe a na lysis package used has fonned che subject of rhe preceding sec·
tions; for the purposes of the present work, howe,•er, it is considered essential co provide
addicional evidence of rhe package's ability ro yield realiscic predCcrions of flat slab behav·
iour. Such evidence is provided in Figure 5.5 1 which sho\VS the load- displacemenc curves of
nvo ty pical flac slabs (\virh and without transverse reinforcemenc) with geometric characrer·
iscics and boundary conditions similar to chose of che slab used as rhe basis for invescigar·
ing rhe validity of the proposed design method. The figure also shows rhe exP<'rimenrally
escablished values of load-carrying capacity, \Vith the lacrer being also shown in Table 5. 1
rogerher \Vith che slabs' design details; full desjgn and resc derails are provided e lse,vhere
(Kinnunen er a l. 1978). From both figure and cable, ic can be seen rhar che predicted values
of load·carrying capacity correlate closely with t heir experimenta l counterparts, with rhe
forn1er being s1naller rhan rhe laner by less chan 5%.
Having escablished the package's abilicy co yield realisric prediccions of slab behaviour,
iris firsc used ro establish rhe most effecrive spread (wr) of che vercical reinforcement speci·
fied by che CFP method across the slab·srrip \\ridrh. Three case-s of tu, are invesrigared:
220 Finite- element modelling of structural co ncrete finite -element solutions of static problems 221

1000
900 1400
800
1200
700

600
~
:;; 500
~ 400
300 400

200 200 - - 600

- - · 400
100
•Displacement
2 4 6
Displa.cemem (mm)
10 12 .. 2 6 8
(mm.)
10 12

FJgure 5.52 RC flat sl.abs. Analytical relationships between Joad and displacement for a typical slab with
the vertKal reinforcement designed in accordance with the CFP method distributed at various
f'igure 5.51 RC flat slabs. Analytical relationships between load and displacement for two typical slabs with
widths (800, 600 and "400 mm) across the slab strips specified by the design method adopted.
(denoted as I) and without (denoted as 0) conventional transverse reinforcement and experi-
mentally establtshed vaJues (indicated with the prefix E) of load-carry.-.g capacity for the cases
of flexural reinforcement ratios equal to 0. 34~ and 0.8%. flexural capacicy assessed chrough the use of the yield line theory and used as the basis for
d1e design of che transverse reinforcement a nd (c) the va lue of the load corresponding ro
punching failure as assessed in accordance with the CFP mechod. From the figure, it can be
tll, =tu,+ 2d = 800 n1n1, tll, =iv,+ d = 600 mm and iv,. = 1u,= 4(l0 mm. The results o btained, s.een thac designing in accordance \Vith the proposed n1ed1od leads to a realistic prediccion of
expressed in the form of load- deflection relationships, are shown in Figure 5.52 . From tB1e load-carrying capacity, since che predicced va lue is snnaller than the value corresponding
the figure, ir can be seen thac distributing the vercical r einforcement over a \Vidch to flexure capacity by less than 9%. In face, chis margin may even be smaller, as the lan er
w, = tu,+ d = 600 mn1 yields a small, yet distinct, increase in l oad~carrying capacity. It is pro~
posed, therefore, co distribuce the vertica l reinforcen1ent specified b)' che proposed mechod
across the slab strips to a discance (w, + d)/2 on either side of their axes of sy1nn1etry. This 1600
rule has been followed chereafrer when designing in accordance ·w ith the proposed n1ethod. - - CFP
An ind ication of the effect of the amounc and arrangen1ent o{ the cransverse reinforcement
specifie d by the proposed and che code methods investigated herein is given in Figure 5.53.
1400
- - EC2
- - · ACI
1200
The 6g.ure includes (a) the load- displacement relationship pred icred for rhe conrrol slab (slab • ••• • OON
without transverse reinforcement), (b) the value of load ..carrying capacity corresponding to - · CFP·DO
1000
- - CFP-Dl
a 800
Tobie 5.1 RC flat slabs. Design details and comparison between experimentaJ and analysis predicted "'~
uttimate loads (P.) 600
MoteriaJ
400
properties
Ome"""1s (mm) (mm) P. (kN)
Ma;., 200
re;nf. Stimups Testl
Slob"'(. d (, f, p x f()-J (mm') Test Anolyris onofysis 0
S2. I 200 250 2.'400 2U 6S7 8 603 S83 1.03 0 6 JO 12
Displacement (ntm)
Sl. 1s 19S 250 2.'400 24.9 SOI 8.2 2S 13 894 848 I.OS
S2.3/S2.4 200 250 2.'400 25.4 668 3.4 489 490 1.00
F~gure 5.53 RC flat slabs. Analytical load-displacement ctJrves for a typical slab without (curve CON) and
S2.3s/S2. 4s 198 250 2.'400 24.7 671 3.4 1256 SS2 S4S 1.01
with the transverse reinforcement designed in accordance with the CFP. ACIand EC2 methods.

.....
Note: d Is the slab's eff~d\'e depth: c b sidt" of dW' squu-e loMI~ area: o Is the sbb span:p h tht" fltxi.nl stttk'elr'l6ot"teme-m Lo ad-carrying capacities assessed by the CFP method for the sl.ab with and without transverse
reinforcement are indicated as CFP-0 1 and CFP-00. respectivety.
222 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Finite-element solutions o f static problems 223

value, as discussed a bove, has been assessed b)' yield line rh eor)' which is know-n co produce
values chat cend to overestimate load-carrying capacity. The value of load-carr)'ing capac-
ity predic ted by analysis for th e control slab appears also to correla te closely \\•ith rh e va lue 1400
assessed in accordance with the CFP mechod. On th e ocher hand , designing th e cransverse
1200
reinforcement in accordance \Vith. che code adopted methods leads to analytical predictions
of the load-carrying capacity \Vhich are considerably snialler chan che design value.
It could be argued cha r such a difference in behaviour may be anributed t o the consider-
a bly larger a mount of transverse reinforce nient specified by the proposed mechod, \Vhich
is approximately ru•ice as large as chat specified by the code methods. And )'et, Figure 5.54 600
indicaces that an increase of che amount of transverse reinforcement designed in co1npliance
co code provisions ro rhe level specified by che proposed method, bur withouc changing irs 400 .1-- - l=--- - 1 - - - - 1 - - - - - CFP
a rrangen1enr, is essentially ineffective. Ir appears from the a bove, therefore, that the superior - - CFP-cc
••••• ACI
perfonnance of che slab designed in accordance \\•ith che proposed meth od should be pre-
- - · EC'2
don1inandy a ruibuted ro the specified arrangement, rather tha n a mount, of the cransverse
reinforcen1ent.
T he beneficial effect of rhe cran sverse reinforcement arrangement specified by che pro-
0
•
Dispba-ment (mm)
• lO l2

posed method is also demonscrated in Figure 5.55. The figu re shows che load- deflection
cun •es of rhe slabs designed in compliance \Vith the code specifications togerher wich that
of che slab designed in accordance \Vich che CFP merhod modified so as to allow for che
contribution of concrece to t he punching resistance of th e slab. Alchough chis n1odification
results in a significant reduccion o f che an1ount of che rrans\•erse reinforcen1enr ro a level
comparable co the code specified amount, the figure indicates cha t it leads co a consider-
able improvement of che sla b load-carrying capacit)' \Vhen compared \\•ith che load-carrying
capacity of t he slabs designed to the code specifications. However, the results also indicate
chat che contribution of concrece is not as effective as che contribution of che additional
transverse reinforcen1ent specified \Vhen the co1uribution of concrece is ignored.
An indication of the validity of che con.c epts u nderlying che proposed method n1ay
be o btained by investigating \Vhether che causes of punching do indeed rela te \Vith che
1400
Fig ure 5.55 R.C Rat slabs. Anatytic:al r elationships between load and displacement for a typical slab with the
ver tical r einforcement designed in accordance with the ACI. EC2 and Cf ,p methods. as well as
the CF,P method mod rfied so as to aJlow for the contribution of concrete to the slab resistance
to punching (CF,P-cc).
cransverse tensile stresses deveJoping \Vich in che con1pressive zone of che slab scrips. This
ma)' be achieved by con1paring che load- deflection curve obtained for a slab \Vith the verci-
ca l reinforcement within the slab strips ex"Cending chroughour che slab depch \Vith char of
che same slab \Vich che same venical reinforcement bur this rime exrending to half che slab
deprh, che laner being slighcly larger chan che con1pressive zone deprh. Such a comparise>n is
n1ade in Figure 5.56 \Vhich show's chat placing vertical rein forcement \Vich in che compressi\•e
zone only is sufficient for the sla b co ana in its design load-carrying capacity, thus conform-
ing chat che development of such tensile stresses is one of che underlying causes of punc hj ng.

1200
1600
--;-\--i-; - -
,
1000
MOO
: \ ....
...a
~
800

600
·M·
: \
.
\
I
I
I
""
z 1000
1200

400 - - • AClx:l.83
"'~
~ 800

600
- - EC2x2.2
200

I
•• • •• AO
- EC2
200
0
0 • 6
Olspl!acement (mm)
JO
4 • • lO 12
l>ispl.xement (mm)
Figure 5.54 R.C flat slabs. Numericalty established relationships load-displacement C\Jrves for a typical slab
with the transverse reinforcement a.rran.ged in accordance with the ACI and EC2 methods in Figure 5.56 RC flat slabs. Analytical r elationships between load and displacement for a typical slab with the
the amoonts specified by the proposed (curves ACI X 1.83 and EC2 X 2.2) and the code meth- vertical reinforcement designed in accordance with the Cf P method extending to either half
ods (curves ACI and EC2). (112) or the fuJI (I) slab effective depth.
22"4 f inite-element mo d elling of s-cructural concrete
14M
1200
~ 1000
~ 800
] REFERENCES
600
400
200
o_ _ ___,,___~--~--~--~----<
0 6 8 10 12
Dlspl:teemem (mm)
F'igure S.SJ RC flat slabs. Effect of the various types of transversE reinforcement specified by the CFP
method o n the numerically established load- displacement relationships. (Notation: 'cfp' indi-
cates full compliance with design method; 'cfp-h• slab without compression reinforcement: 'cfp-
vl' without the vertical reW'iforcement specified for the r egion of abr upt change in the direction
of the CFP: 'dp-v2' with the amount of vercicaJ reinforcement specified for slab strips reduced
to a nominal value.)
An inGication of che significance of che various rypes of transverse reinforcemenc speci·
6ed by rhe proposed method may be obca ined rbrougb a comparison of cbe load- defleccion
curves sho\\rn in Figure 5.57. From the figure, it can be seen that on1iuing e icher the horizon-
tal compressi\•e reinforcen1enc (curve cfp·h) or the \'enical reinforcement a long the perimeter
of che region extending front the colun1n's centre to a distance of 2.5d from the geomecric
locus of the induced displacemenrs (curve cfp-vt) resulrs in a small reduccion of both the load·
carrying :apacity and the maximum deAection of the slab. The los:s of load·carrying capaciry
becomes significanc when reducing che \'errical reinforcement of the slab strips (curve cfp·v2)
to a nominal amount, and this is a furrher ind icacion of the significance of such reinforce·
menc in preventing failure due to che developmenc of transverse tensile scresses \Vichin the
compressive zone. In fact, che slab behaviour without such rein forceme nt is sin1ilar ro that
of the slabs designed in compliance \Vich che code provisions, as indicated by comparing the
relevant load-deflection curves in Figures 5.53 and 5 .57.
5.5.4 Concludin~ remarks
The CF P method specifies transverse reinforcemenr \Vhich d iffers from rhat resulting fron1
the n1erhods adopred by currenc codes in both arrangement and quanciry, and, in contrasr
wirh code niechods, ignores che concribution of concrere to a slab's resisca nce co punching.
The apphcation of the CFP mechod for safeguarding against punching is verified by numeri·
ca l tescing through t he use of the NLFEA package presenced in rhe preceding chapter which
is found 10 be capable of yielding realiscic predictions of che behaviour of concrece scruc..
tures, Aa: slabs included.
Through such numerical rescing, ir is fou nd 1har in contrasr \Vich che code merhods the C FP
nlethod achieves the design a im for load·carrying capacicy, with the transverse rein forcemenc
f inite-element solution s of static problems 22S
arrangement underlying the differenc srrucrural behaviour exhibired by the sla b when designed
by different methods. In fact, iris fou nd thar the effec-r of increasing rhe code specified amoum
of vercical reinforcemenc ro the amount specified by the CFP mechod is ineffec-cive.
The effecr of the various types of rran.sverse reinforcen1ent specified by the CFP mechod
on slab behaviour has also been establisl:ed by numerical resring, which also provided evi·
dence in supporr of the validicy of che concepcs underlying che proposed method.
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fu r Baustarik und Konstuk tion {Eidgenossische Tech.nischt' Hochsc:hule), Zurich.
Morik:.twa H., 2007. Finite element analysis o f ben chmark test on P/C bea~olumn jo ints under cyclic
loading. AC/ Ted1nical Session on Bliltd Predidion~ AC/ Conference, Arlan t:t, GA.
Shiohara, H. and lCusuhara~ F., 2006, Be11chmark Test for Validation of Mathematical Models for
Nonlittear a11-d Cyclic Behaviour of RIC Beam-Column Joints, Departmen t of Ar chitecture:. School
of Engintt:ring, University of Tokyo, http://www.rcs.arch.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp/shiohar:.tfbench mark/
Technical Chamber of Greece, 199 1, Code for the Design and Construction of Concrete Structures (in
Grcc:k)
Chapter 6

Extension of finite element modelling

to dynamic problems

6.1 BACKGROUND

Dynan1ic analysis is b)• ics nature a non-linear problem since che equarions of morion are
funccions of nor onl y che displacements, bur a lso of che firsr and second derivatives of rhe
displacemenLc;. This chapter presents a \Videly adopted method through which che dynamic
proble1n can be convened inro an equivalent scaric one, the solution of \Vhich is achieved as
described in C bapcer 4, thus extending the applicacion of che finice-elemenc model presemed
in che p:receding chaprer co dynamic problenlS.

6.2 EQUATION OF MOTION

\Vhen s ubjecred co a dynamic external force, a srruccural elentenr is sec inro n1ocion. This
causes defonnacion of rhe element and a n internal force (Fi._r) field to develop resisting the
element's defonnation (u). The internal force is g iven by the producr of the element sriffness
(K) and! the imposed deformation (u), char is, Fm, = K u. Because of rhe element morion,
forces due ro inertia and damping also develop. Iner ria forces (F,) oppose che change of
velocit)' (acceleration) and their value is defined as the product of mass (M ) and acceleration
(ii), that is, F1 = M ii. Damping forces (F,), on the ocher hand, OJ>POSe che change of displace-
n1ent \\'i th cime (velocity) and cheir value is g.iven as the producr of the damping consrant (C)
and velociry (£1), chac is FJ - C1i. The work of the dan1ping forces F11 represents a percencage
of the energy of morion chat is losr. The damping conscant C is difficulc ro quancify. le is
usually assessed experimentally but a high facto r of uncerraincy remains since che value of
C depends on mulciple paramecers, the effect of \Vhich is noc clear.
In view of rhe above, when forming the equation of equilibrium, the forces due to inertia
(Ii - Mii) and damping (f, - Cu) cannot be overlooked. The e.quacion of equilibrium is no
longer a simple a lgebra ic equation bur a second·order differential equation of morion:

M ii(I) + Cit(I) + K( t) 11(1) - f~(I) (6.1)

6.3 NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF THE EQUATION OF MOTION

Because of rhe non· linear macerial behaviour present in the problen1 under consideracion,
Equario..n 6.1 is solved numerically (Hincon and Q,ven 1980, F.<arabalis a nd Beskos 1990,
Bathe 1996). This can be achieved by using a number of methods. All of these methods are
based on che nocion chat, for each cime step tu, a solution may be achieved by cransforming

227
228 Finite-element modelling of structural concrrete
rhe second-order differential equacion of mocion into a simpler algebraic equacion. char can
be easily solved. To accomplish chis, che acceleration ii and che velocity 1i of the scructure
are expressed as funccion.s of the change in displacement Au. Some of che mosc common
mechods used ro accon1plish chis are those developed by Houmbolt, Ne\vmark, Wilson and
rhe a -merhod. A full descriprion of rhese nun1erical methods is given elsewhere (Hinron an.d
Owen 1980, Cook ec al. 1989, Karabalis and Beskos 1990, Bache 1996).
By using one of che above mechods rhe equacion. of mocion \Vichin a gi\•en rime srep can
be transforn1ed into an equivalenc scaric problem, \Vhich can be expressed by che follo\\ring
simple a lgebraic equation:
(6.2)
where K• is rhe effective stiffness n1acrix, and /lJt and /.if• are rhe vecrors of che incren1encs
of displacement and effecrive force, respectively.
As will be seen in Section 6.4.1, the effective sciffness matrix K• and che effeccive force
veccor M• are functions of the scrucrure's stiffness matrix Kand rhe force increment vecror
AF, respecrively. as well as che struccure's mass Mand damping C matrices and the time step
used in order ro solve the equation of morion numerically. These funccions depend on rhe
parcicular merhod used for rhe numerical so~ucion. of rhe equation of morion. (the mechod
adopted in. rhe solucion. technique proposed herein makes use of the Ne\\rmark family of
approximations and is fu lly described in Secuion 6 .4). Finally, rhe numerical solution of rhe
equacion of mocion (6.2) can be accomplished by using eicher the explicit or che imp/it.it
mer hod.
6.3. 1 Explicit method
\-Vhen using che explicic merhod (Hinton and Owen 1980), for each rime seep, che evalua·
rion of che acceleration and velocity is carried out only once follo,ved by che con.scruction
of che effeccive sciffness and rhe force incren1enc vectors. Then, Equarion 6.2 is solved ro
evaluate the displacen1enr increment. The ri1ne step used in chis mechod must be extremely
sn1all for che error co remain small an.d for che accuracy of che n1erhod co be maximised.
The advancage of this method is thar che for1nacion of rhe effeccive sciffness and loading
macrices is carried ouc only once during each rime seep. As a result, che compucaciona l cosc
of che nun1erica l procedure per tin1e seep is lo\V. However. the use of a small rime seep may
increase che overall computational cost of the \Vhole problem, especially if che problem has
a long duracion. Moreover, rhe error ar every rime step is accumulaced, as it is added co
rhac resulcing at che next rime step, rhus lead:ing in a concinuous increase of che divergence
benveen rhe numerical predicrions and che acrual behaviour of the srrucrural e lement or
srruccure analysed. A possible fonnula cion of rhe explicit method may comprise the fol·
lowing steps:
1. Ar rhe beginning of each rime step (at), initial values for che ve1ociry £t and the accelera·
tion. ii are assessed chrough the use of n1echods such as that discussed in Secrion. 6.4.
2 . Because of che approximate values selec!Ced in step l, rhe value on the lefc.. hand side of
rhe equacion of equilibrium (6.1) differs from char on rbe righr-hand side. The differ-
ence benveen chese t\\ro va lues represents rhe residual force 'f'. Thus, neglecring damp·
ing, Equation 6.1 can be wrinen as
Extension of finite element modelling to dynamic problems 229
3. The effeccive sciffness n1acrix K• is assessed through rhe use of expressions such as
chose presented in Seccion 6.4.l.
4. Having assessed che sciffness matrix in step 3 and che residual force vecror 'f' in s::rep
2, che algebraic equacion K• ,."'~1° 1 =,."''t' ... 1 can be solved . The solurion yields rhe
incremental change of displacemenc 1 •D.16Jf• 1 correspon.dingro iteration i + l . From rhe
values of 1 •41. !J.111... 1, the values of the increments of strain ,."'6£1• 1 and scress ,.41.6d ... 1
are decermined, \Virh rhe values of che incremencs 0 ""flu1 • 1 and 0 "'~o.. 1 being added
ro che total displacemencs ,.""u' and stresses 0 "'ct to produce 0 "'1t• 1 and ,.,\,G"• 1,
respectively.
5. Afrer evaluating rhe rotal stresses, the incernal forces are obcained by integration of rhe
coral scress vec-cor.
The n.ew internal force vecror \\rill be used to define rhe residual forces of rhe nexr t ime
step.
6. Using rhe va lues of rhe incremental change of displacement decermined in step 4 it
is easy to determine ne'v approximace values of che velocicy and rhe acceleracio11 of
rhe srrucrural element by using an approxin1acio11 merhod such as chat described in
Secrion 6.4.
7. The values of displacement u, velocicy U and acceleracion ;; represent the final values
for the time step t +Ill and chey are scored:
8. The process is repeaced in rhe nexr cime step.
6.3.2 Implicit method
In che implicit method (Hincon and Owen 1980), che solution process used in rhe expnicic
merhod described in che preceding seccion is repeated until convergence is accomplished,
rhac is, unril the difference benveen rhe calculated and true values is sn1all. For each itera ..
rion, rhe values of velocity and acceleracion are assessed, rhe effective sciffness and force
n1acrices are constructed, and Equacion 6.2 is solved in order ro eva lua ce che displacentenc
incremenc. If che difference ber,veen incernal and exrernal forces (residual force) is coo high,
ch.en, the residua l force is reapplied to the sysrem as an external load and rhe whole proce·
dure is repeared. \Vhen che difference becomes smaller chan a predefined value (i.e., che dif..
ference satisfies rhe convergence criceria) rhe solucion procedure moves on to the nexr ri me
step. A possible formu lation for the implicic mechod is- described belo\\r:
1. As (or rhe case of rhe explicic merhod, initial values for che velocicy ,_-, and che accelera·
tion ii are assessed ac che beginning of each rime seep (tJ) chrough the use of expres·
sions such as chose presented in Secrion 6.4.l.
230 Finite- element modelling of structural corcrete Extension of finite element modelling to dynamic problems 23 1

2 . Owing to rhe approxin1are values selecred in step 1, rhe value on rhe le(r-hand sjde of
rhe equacion of equilibrium (6.1) differs from char on the righr-hand side. The differ-
ence berween chese t\\ro va lues represencs rhe residual force 'f'. Thus, neglecring damp-
ing, Equation 6 .1 can be \Vrinen as
3. The effeceive stiffness marrix K• is assessed in a n1anner similar to rhar adopced for rhe
case of ehe explicic mechod.
4. The assessmenr of the stiffness matrix m seep 3 and rhe value of rhe residual forces 'f' in
seep 2 is follo\ved by rhe solurion of ehe algebraic equation I\ t•DlllJl'• 1 ='•"''f' 1.. 1• This
produces rhe incremental change of displacement tt-N&1• 1 corresponding to ireraeion
i + 1. Fron1 che values of 0 Al6J.t1• 1 rhe values of scrain r+At6£1• 1 and stress 0 "'&:1• 1 are
determined, \Vich t he values of rhe incre1nenrs 1 •.NilJt• • and r•Dll!Jd• 1 being added ro rhe
rocal d isplacements 0 Dlu' and scresses 1• D.tr:f ro produce 0 N111.. 1 and t•Na .. 1, respecri\'ely.
5. Afrer evaluacing the stress, the internal forces are obtained by integration of rhe stress
veeror
6.-4 NUMERICAL PROCEDURE ADOPTED FOR
STRUCTURAL CONCRETE
An exrensive literature survey has sho\vn rhar che Newmark fam ily of approximations is
rhe mosr commonly used approach for rhe numerical solucion of the equation of motion
(Corsovos 2004). An explicit procedure is usually adopced when dealing with problents
involving high races of loading occurring in a small period of rime and rhe numerical solu-
tion n1akes use of a very small cime step (Belyrschko 1976). For che nun1erical invesrigation
of problems involving events of longer duration, such as earrhquake problen1s, rhe use of a
very small rime seep \vould resulr in a large increase o ( che compurarional cosr; therefore rhe
use of an implicit scheme is preferable (Belyrschko 1976). Ho,vever, as regards srrucrural
concrete ic has been suggested char an implicit scheoe can also be adopred (or problents
making use of a very small time step - proble1ns involving high races of loading such as
impacr and blast (Corsovos 2004}; this is because the use o f an explicit procedure ofren leads
ro predictions exhibiting excessive deviation from rhe 1rue srrucrural behaviour as a result of
rhe processes of cracking (both opening and c losure oi cracks) which produce large residual
forces not accounted for in a n explicit procedure.

H:\t F;;1 • f B oNct•'JV 6.4.J Newmark family of approximations

v In rhese approximarions, rhe acceleration ii a nd rhe velocity i1 of rhe struc-cure are repre..
sented as funcrions of che change of rhe displacement tl.J1. This is accomplished chrough rhe
The new interna l force vecror will be used to define rhe residual forces of the next use of che follo\ving expressions:
iteration.
6 . Using rhe va lues of rhe incremental change of d isplacement determined in step 4 ir (6.3)
is easy ro decermine new approximate values of rhe velocity and rhe acce1erarion of
rhe srrucrural elen1enr by using an approximation merhod such as char presented in
Section 6.4. ,..,,,.,• j3id/l
u l [...,, ' ·-·· •.2(12 -p·)···]
I - 11 - u.i. 11 - t..U II
(6.4)
7. Convergence is accomplished \Vhen rhe maximum a bsolute value of the residual
forces is less rhan a small predefined positive value e, cha r is, if l,."''l'""'I
s e, conver-
gence has been accomplished and rherefore che process continues co seep 8, \Vhereas where
ifl,.N'l',..
1
1 > e, convergence has nor been accomplished and che process rerurns ro i is che number of che iteration
srep 2. y, Pare constants of rhe particular Newmark approximations; rheir va lues are a lways
8. The values of displacemenc u, velociry ii and acceleration ;; are considered as final for smaller chan 1 a nd dependent on che Ne,vmark meehod adopted
rime seep t + 61 and are srored: uN11o 1 r•Ar ii•• t •At ;; • rhe values of displacement velocity and acceleration art+ 6.t
1 1

of irerario~ i + 1 •
111, '1i, 'ii are rhe final values of displacement, velocity and acceleration art

For nvo sequential ice rations i and i + I, Equation 6. t takes the follo,ving fornu:

(6.5)

9. The process is repeated in rhe nexr rime srep. (6.6)

ln conrrasc with rhe explicit mechod, che compuracional cost of rhe implic it merhod during Replacing velocity and acceleration in rhe above equations \\rirh their expressions (6.3)
each rime seep is much higher since rhe solurion process is repeated as many rimes as neces- and (6.4), respectively, and then by subcracring Equation 6.6 from Equacion 6.5 1 t he equa-
sary to satisfy che convergence criteria. However, because of che irerarive procedure used, rion of ntorion for iceracion i + 1 becomes
rhe rinte seep may be much larger than chac used in rhe explicit nterhod which results in a
reduction of che computational cost othenvise incurred. K*ll11 - ll.P (6.7)
232 f inite-element modelling of str uctural concrete Exten sion of finite element modelling to dynamic problems 233

" 'ith A11 = l•N11•• 1 - 111 being rhe incremental change of displacen1enr ac t + t!J ac iteration
i + 1, \Yhereas K* is rhe effeccive stiffness expressed in che form IJ.F• • tJ.F + M [ l ('
~II -
,_.,.1)1 + -I 1('.
1 - ,_.,..)
II+ ( I- - 1) (,..
II - ,_.,.ti.. )] (6. 14)
jltJ.r jl!J.t 2tl

K* - Cjl~t+Mtl~+K (6.8)
However, as ic \Viii be seen in Chapter 7, chere are cases in which rheeffecr of dan1pingcan·
not be O\'erlooked. Such is the case of srrucrural eJements subjected to shake-cable exciracion;
in such cases che deveJopmenr of additional damping is mainly arcribuced to the inreracrion
and ilF', che effecrive load vector, which may be expressed either as a func cion of che va lues
benveen the test specimen and the experimenral ser-up used ro investigate the srrucrural ele-
of displacen1enr ('11), velociry (';,) and acceleracion (1ii) predicced in the previous rime seep ment response and, rherefore, cannot be ignored. h should be stressed, ho\\'ever, rhac a llo\V·
ing for such damping is nor linked in any \Va)' to rhe propercies of che concrere and steel
t;.P - tJ.F + ..-!-,
plJ.1
2
Ml' II + lJ.1'11 + IJ.t (0.5 - tlY ii) reinforcen1enc but accounts for energy loss d irectly reflecting rhe rescing procedure effecrs.

(6.9)
6.4.2 Stability cond it ions
The va lues of Ji a nd yin che Ne\vmark approximarions are sun1marised in Table 6.1. For
each pair of values, there is a suitable rin1e srep chac must be selecred in order ro obrain a
or as a funccion of the values of displacement ('u and , ... ,.vtt), velocity(' ,_., and , _11.1 U) and accel· stable solurion (or rhe dynamic problen1. The critica l rime seep &a (srabiliry condirion) is
chosen by using the largest (frequency) eigenvalue w,. of an n· degree-of-freedon1 sysrem
eracion (1 ii and r-.vii) predicted in C\VO previous rin1e steps (Barbe 1996):
which is linked to the corresponding period T = 2nlw. The values of rhe crirical time step are
also shown in Table 6. 1. The use of a rime srep larger rhan che critica l time srep may resuk
IJ.r~ • tJ.F
+
c[IJ6.tl
y (' ,_.,) +lii'
(y
II - - I\(,.
J
II II -
,_..,.)
II
( y l\(•··
+/.1lllf3 -) II - ,_.,. .. )]
ti
in insrabiliry of the numerical procedure, whereas che use of a much smaller rime srep may
provide a more accurate a nd derailed solucion hue at a higher compucarional cosr.
All approximarions presented in Table 6.1 are linked to a srabiliry condition, \Virh rhe
+M[
1
iiil('11 -
1
•-"u) + - -(' i1 - , _.,ii) +
jltJ.t
(..!...
2jl
- 1) ('ii - ,_.,ii)] (6.10) exceprion of rhe average acceleracion approximacion. This laner approximarion is uncondi·
rionally srable, \Vhich means rhac, by using any rime step, rhe procedure remains sra ble and
always provides a solution. Ho\Ve\'er, when using a large time srep rhe solution provided by
rhis mechod may prove inaccurate (Karaba lis and Beskos 1990, Barbe 1996). In such cases,
Expression (6.7), a lthough an algebraic equation thar can be easily solved, is equivalenr
ro rhe second .. order differenrial equa1ion of relarion (6.1). lcs solucion produces rhe change rhe use of a smaller cin1e srep may give a different resuk from char obtained for a larger cime
srep. Therefore, iris evidenc chat, alchough rhe srabiliry of this parcicular approxin1acion is
in displacemenc thar occurs during iceration i + 1 fron1 \Vhich che values of scra in and scress
independent of che cin1e srep used, che accuracy of rhe solurion obrained is not. To ensure
increments are readily o btained.
rhe accuracy of rhe solution, a number of resr runs muse be made, each time using a smaller
The \Vork of the forces due 10 damping represents a percencage of energy thar is losr dur-
rin1e seep, until the solutions obtained converge. An initial rime seep chat can be used in rhe
ing the n1otion of rhe strucrura l e lement. In RC scrucrures che energy loss during n1otion
average ..acceleration approxin1acion is one-tench of rhe period char corresponds ro rhe larg·
and deforn1ation is primarily caused by the non-linear behaviour of che materials involved.
esr eigenvalue (frequency) of che srrucrure in\'esrigated.
As the compucer program used for che numerical analysis o( rhe RC srrucrura l elen1encs
incorporates constinui\'e models describing the non-linear behaviour of sreel and concrece,
it is considered thar rhe accion of rhe damping forces (F, - Cit) is taken inro consideration by
6.5 IMPLEMENTATION OF THE DYNAMIC SCHEME
rhese consrirutive models. Consequencly, the damping forces F, \Viii nor be explicirly used,
and so che second-order differencial equarion of n1otion (6. 1) and irs equivalent algebraic
The scheme adopted for rhe nun1erical solucion of rhe dynamic problem is based on rhe
equacion (6.7) are simplified as follows:
Ne\vmark approximarion functions of velocity and acceleracion inrroduced in rhe preceding
Mii(t) + K(t)11(t) - Fm(t) (6. 11)
Tobi< 6.1 Newmark's family of approximations

(6.12) Method ~ y Stability condition

Average acce&eration 1/4 112 Unconditionally stable

whereas Equations 6.8 and 6.10 becon1e linear acceleration 1/6 1/2 "'10 • 2 ·(./3/ w.)
Fox-Goodwin 1/12 112 Alu • J6/w.
1
K• • M - - + K (6.13)
jltJ.12 Central difference 0 112 Alu • .fi./w.
23-4 f inite- element m odelling of structural concrete Extensio n o f finite element m odelling to d ynamic problems 235

secrion. This scheme has formed che basis of rhe modificacions implen1enred to rhe original 6. Convergence is accomplished when the maximum absolure value of rhe residual forces
FE model in order co exrend ics use co the solucion of nonalinear dynamic problems. The is less than a s1nall predefined posirh•e value e, rhac is, ifl,.A.r'J1'• 11 :so e convergence has
main sreps of che proposed scheme are as follo,vs: been accomplished a nd therefore seep 7 is bypassed an d the process continues t o step
8; if J14 ""'V14 1 1 > e con,•ergence has noc been accomplished, and che process concinues
1. Through cbe use of rhe values of d is-placement ('u and r-..vu), ve1ocfry ('ti and r-.u;;) and
ro step 7.
accelerariol'.l {'ii and r- .u ii) predicred in previous cime sreps, rhe effective forceaincre1nenr 7. Having assessed the values of che residual forces,., in step 5 and by reasse1nbling rhe
n1atrix ('•«~f•') is assessed front. Equarion 6 .10, thar is, effeccive sci ffness macrix (as in seep 1), che a lgebra ic equacion K• 1 •N6z11• 1 ='+Nlp'• 1 is
solved and a new value of che inc-remenral change of displacen1enr 1•""1lt11• 1 correspond a
ing to iterarion i + 1 is obcained. From rhe values of 1•AldJf ... 1 rhe incremental values of
""•f• """•F
u - u +
c [13&12
y. ('" - ,_.,) (y I\("
" + ~ j3 - J It -
, _,..) •tr y
u + u ~ 2fl -
!\(,_
J It -
<-M··i]
" scrain 1 •"'6£1• 1 and stress 1 •11..rM• 1 are determined, 'vich the va lues of che incremenrs
1•"'JlJt• 1 and t+Nfl.a• • being added ro the total displace1nents ,..Al,,, and stresses u«a ro

+ M [.,...!..,.('11 - ,_.,II) + - 1
-('ii - ,_"'i1) + (..!... - 1
)('ii - ,_.,ii)] produce 0 °'111+ 1 a nd r -.Nct• 1, respectively. Then, che process returns ro srep 4 .
jlllr jlllt 211 8. If convergence has been accomplished, che values of dlisplacemenr 11, velocicy 1i and
accelerarion ii are considered as final (or rhe time srep t + 61 a nd rhey are scored:

whereas the effecti\'e stiffness marrix is assessed from Equacion 6.8, rhat is,
1 1
K• - C - - + M - -2 + K
jl.<1.t jlllt
2. Fo llo\ving che as-sessmenr of rhe effec-cive force inc-ren1enc and s-riffness matrices in step
1, rhe a lgebraic equation K• 1•°'&1 1= ~F· can be solved. The solution produces the
incremenral change of displacemene 1t-&6z1 1 corresponding to the inicial ieerarion (i =
0). From rhe values of 1 •AIAJ1 1, che in cremental values of srrain ,...v&1 a nd s-rress 1•Noo 1
are determined, \vich the values of the increments 1 •""AJ1 1 and 1•Noo 1 being added ro the
roral d isplace111enrs ,..N" and stresses 1•Ncr ro produce tt-Nu• and , .. ..vo 11 respecrively.
3. Using rhe values of che incre1nenral change of displacement detern1ined in rhe previous
s-rep, ie is easy ro derern1ine ne\v approximate values of the velociry and acceleration of
rhe strucru ral element from che Ne,v1nark approximacion functions as follows:
!+At 1"1· 1- 'ti+ dt[(l - y)' ii + y hAlii'J
4. Afrer evaluacing the stress, the inrernal forces are obrained by inregracion of rhe srress
vecror:
,.,,,, F."n;' - Jn,.""d•'JV
v which yields rhe inc-remenral change of d isplacemenes 611, srrains & and stresses 00 during
The ne\v inrernal force vecror will be used co define the residual forces of the nexr
iteracion .
.5. Because of che approximate values selecred in step 3, the value on the leftahand side
of rhe equacion of equilibrium (6. 1) may differ from tbar on rhe rigbc-band side. The
di fference berween rhese C\VO values represenrs rhe residual forces 'f'. Thus, Equation
6 .1 can be 'vrinen as
h/J.r ••
11 -
hN ••l•l
"
9. Srep 1 rhrough to seep 8 is repeated in rhe next rin1e seep.
The implic ic method used (or solving numerically the dyn.amic problem is essencially an
iceracive procedure, che convergence of which is checked at rhe end of each iceracion. During
each ireracion, rhe evaluation of rhe stiffness macrices (Kand K•) a nd rhe solution of rhe equaa
rion 'II" K•llll by invening the effective stiffness matrix K• a.re carried our a1 least once. To
accomplish convergence within a ny one given rime srep, several irerarions must be executed
and it is, therefore, obvious rhac che computarion time for chis mechod is very high. H o,vever,
because of rhe repeated checks for convergence, the rime step does nor need to be exrremely
small in order ro a\•oid numerical problems and rhis n1oderates rhe computarional cosr of the
implic ie mechod. The length of the rime srep used can be defined as a percenrage of che period
rhac corresponds co che largest eigenvalue of rhe srrucrure, as discussed in Section 6.4.2.
T he modificacions implemenced co che sracic progran1 in order co extend ics use for rhe
solution of dynamic problems are indicared in Ao,vchart for1n in Figure 6.1. From rhe figure,
it can be seen char rhe parr of the flo,vchart encompassed by che doned lines is rhe Aowa
charr of rhe original scatic problem (see in Figure 4. 20), which (orms the basic unie of rhe
dynan1ic program. The effective sri ffness n1acrix K• is used \Vi chin rhe equation F= K•t;,u
each iterarion.
6.6 VERIFICATION STUDIES FO R THE DYNAMIC SCHEME
The verificacion of the proposed dynamic scheme has been based on c\vo linearly elasric case
srudies (Cotsovos 2004). The firsr case study is concerned \vich rhe dynamic response of
rhe column sho\Vn in Figure 6.2. The column is fixed a c irs lower end and supporrs a mass
monolirhically connecred co its upper free end (vertical cantilever). le is 3000 mnt. long \Vich
236 f inite-element modelling of structural concrete Extension of finite element modelling to dynamic problems 237

Gakubte the effective stiffness \'ector based on the ~ues of

the dlspbttment \•e-Joclty and acceleration obtahled from
pct"Yklus Lood steps
F(z)
(l, I
____ •IOO
,

""!>£" • .... , • c{;tl;i•-""4·It-•)!•--•)·"'·[?ii-·~· ....l]

...[-'p.....'· ---~·-'-r•-
p·4< ··io)+.!....,~·
?·p -·-.i]
Impose new lncttment
of the extetnal IOdld
(new time-step4t)
xt{
z
/ 3000

YDI~
~z
. figure 6.2 Case study I.
I Set Initial nutetbl propetdes
I 'TI>t stlCf.neilS mautx used
Is the effective stiffnt'!ls m3ttix:

Evalu:at!loo. of strain :uld sttesses: using the lnltbl

material properties
I K' · C·fi·ll.\t • M·p·1~.,x

I Check fot loading or unlooding

I II Rtt>kul•don of"""· I
straln and residU3.I fortts u.sing
1 the Ne\\·ton- RapMon method
1
I Checlc fot cnck closure
I Figure 6.3 Case study 2.
YES
I
NP a rectangular cross secrion 400 mm high x 300 mn1 \Yide. A ti1ne-dependenc exlernal force
I RecaJcubtion of stres5., strain
and residual f(l(~ uslng the F{t) acls ar che mass cencre as s ho\vn in Figure 6.2.
l
~k for the opentns of new
I Newton- R:aphson method
I The second case study, shown in Figure 6 .3, differs from the firsc one in rhar rhe upper
end o( rhe column is no longer free; ic is a llowed to uanslare fr·eely onl)• on che Y- Z plane
I <H<k
I (i.e., rocarion about che X, Y and Z axes and cranslario11 along che X axis are constrained).
YES- Both the above case srudies involve sin1ple .strucrures for \Yhich analytical solutions
describing their mocion under various loading conditions are readily available. The input
inforn1atio11 required for obcaining the analyrical solutions is provided in Table 6 .2. Such
solurions \Vere used ro verify che validicy of rhe dynam.ic scheme introduced in rhis chapter
I Convergence check I NO
by reference, for no\V, ro linear elascic problems only. Thus, che solutions obtained from rhe
YF.s proposed FE program are con1pared \Vich cheir analytical councerparts and che correspond·
ing deviations are considered ro provide an indication of t he valfdiry of che dynantic schen1e
•
Evaluat~apptoxlinAte Yalues of \'e-Jocity ::u>d acttlet11.tlon:
developed.
Two different FE meshes, shown in Figures 6.4a and b, \Vere used to represenc che column in
......,., · '• • ru((• - r/'• •r"•"'] ,.•.,..• ~ ,.•.,,•••• .,.••• .,..[t-~l""J each of rhe case studies considered. f or' boch FE meshes, 27-node brick Lagrangian e lemencs
with a 3 x 3 x 3 integration rule were used. Moreover, che resul cs of rhe numerical analysis
1 depend on rhe selection of an appropriare rime s rep. 111 general, numerical instabilicies asso-
U\kufate tesidual fom.-s ciated \vith rhe linear-acceleration merhod adopred for the analysis are avoided by usi11g a
''"V • M.''"';/"'•'."F::.' ·'·"'r:::
rin1e srep sn1aller rhan a 'critical' value. However, in order to obrain a solution as accurate
I
.,._"'>t
1
ConvetgM«" check ... Toble 6.2 Input information required for the analytical solution of the case swdies consider ed
Ma<Mus of Momeni
ofinmio
Cos• dasOOry E S,;ffn<ss K MassM 8gm P.nod Critical time irme step
trgure 6.1 Proposed scheme for the dynamic non-linear program. va1u. (l)
study (Ml'o) I (m') (Nim) (kg) T (s) st•P (s) used (s)
I 56.808 0.0016 10.099.200 203,874 7.038 0.892 0.492 0.02
2 56.808 0.0016 40.396.800 203.874 14.076 0.446 0.248 0.02
238 Finite -element modelling o f structural concrete Ex-tension of finite element modelling to dynamic problems 239

(>) , , (>) 2000

1500
/

,, ~ 1000
~
,f
3000
,, 500

,,
,, 200 Tlme(s)

Dhnenskltu ln mUlhneue

(b)
0.08

3000
0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
Tlme(s)
(c) 0.18

200

0.12
!"'
Figure 6.4 Finite-e&ement mesh for the two study c:ases: (a) mesh I. (b) mesh 2. .g
~ 0.06
>
as possible, che cin1e srep must be much smaller, usually less ch.an a centh of che period of the
scruccure, and rhis was ensured chrough che use of che values sho\\rn in Table 6.2.
For each case srudy, £\\' O different loading hisrories are considered. The resulrs obtained
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
include the values of displacement, velocity and acceleracion of che mass, in the direcrion of Time(s)
che imposed ex·cernal force. The loading histories, the analycical (closed-form) solution and (d) 0.6
rhe numerical (proposed dynamic sche1ne) results of che above case studies are sho\vn in
graphica l form in Figures 6.5 chrough 6.8.
-;;; 0.3

!c
6.7 GENERAL REMARKS ....
l!
0

By comparing the numerical and rhe analytical results obcained, it can be seen that the
divergence is small for both case studies. The main sources of divergence are che concen· ~ --0.3

crated lumping of borh stiffness and mass in che single degree·of-freedom ana lycical solution,
whereas che FE mesh distributes both these characceriscics throughout che strucrure. In addi·
cion, che analytical solution relies on che Bernoulli assumption of (one dimensional) beam Time(s)
behaviour while che FE modelling is based on che more form.al 30 elasticity approach. \Vithin
rhese discrepancies (in the fundamental sense bur, clearly, minor for praccical purposes as Figure 6.5 Case swdy I: (a) loading history I. (b) displacement response of mass. (c) velocity response of
che beam cheory is, for che problems presencly considered, quite accurate), che resulcs of borh mass, (d) acce&eration response o ( mass.
case studies suggest char che dynamic sche·m e proposed in chis chapter within the modified FE
package appears robe adequate and robust, leading co accurate and reliable resulcs.
240 f inite-element m odelling of structural concrete Extension of finite element mo delling to dynamic problems 2'4 1

(a) (a )

I~ ____
1500

MI I]
1200
J....-"'"
~ 900
!..--'
~ 600
~

<f ~
__.
I ..______. 300
__........ I
0 0.4 0.8 J.2 l.6 2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Tlme(s) Tl.,. (s)
(b) 0.03 ,.._
.. &-·
.. -,---
o.os --

--·- _.v
0.025 - -A03.lydc:al ---·Mesh l Mesh 2
~ O.<M ..__ _,._ __,__, 'JI"
~ 0.02
"~~ I
0.03
i 0.015 .,,
}
o
0.02 ~--J.--,.-1-- --1-----'1.-1-
~• O.OJ
0.01

0.4 0.6 0.8 l l.2 1.4 J.6 1.8

~
0 o.oos
0
0 0.1
I/ 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 O.? O.il 0.9
Time(s) Time (s)
(<)

0.06
~
,,.
S 0 +""--1-~-i-~-f~--i~~l-,/--i-~~-~o-i-~-i-~~ !"',,.
~ --0.06 8
~ ;i'
--O.l2
O.OJ

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 l.2 1.4 J.6 1.8

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Time (s)
(d) 0.5
0.4
0.3
0.4
.;;;- 0.2
! g 0
0.J

..
f
c

--0.4
·~ -0.J
,,
8 --0.2
" ~ -0.3
i --0.8
--0.•
--0.5
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 I 1.2 1.4 l.6 1.8 2 0 0.J 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 O.? Oll 0.9
Tlme(s) Tl.,.(s)

Figu~ 6.6 Case study I: (a) loading history 2. (b) displacement response o( ma.ss. (c) velocity response o( Figure 6.J Case study 2: (a) l oading history I, (b) displacement response o( mass. (c) velocity response o(
mass. (d) acceleration response of mass. ma.ss. (d) acceleration response of ma.ss.
242 Fini:e-element modelling of structural concr ete Extension of fi nite elem ent modelling to dyn amic problems 243

(>) 350
Adminedly, che dynamic scheme incorporated into che non-linear FE static progran1 has
I been rested for linear e.lasric cases only. Ne)(t, ic is to be res-red for the more general problen1s
300
I for \Vhich it \Vas intended. name))• for che cases where the non-linear n1acerial propenies of
250
I I concrete ands-reel are taken inco consideration. le is necessary co investigate how the newly
~ 200
incorporated dynamic scheme interacts \Vith the existing non-linear static FE program and
I I
] 150
I I ro ensure rhac the various software components are completely compatible, thus yielding a
100
I
- nun1erically s-rable scheme. The mos-r seri1>us source of numerical insrability is the crack·
50 ing procedure chat concrete undergoes when s-ubjecred co external loading . To esrimate t he
0 efficiency a nd effectiveness of the dynami-: program in chis non-linear range, a number of
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Tlme(s) non-linear c-ase studies are ana lysed numerically in the chapters co follo\V, and their results
(bl 0.02 compared \vith available experimental dara. This enables assessmenc of the capabilities
and limitations of the proposed schen1e, and points co any necessary corrections needed co
0.016 increase its effec-riveness and robuscness.
~ 0.012
~~ REFERENCES
0.008
~ Mesh 2 Bathe K. J. 1996, Finite Ele1nen1 Procedures, Prcnricc-J-l:iU, Upper S:iddle Ri\'er, NJ.
6 0.0<» lklytschko T., 1976, A survey of numerical rtKthods and computer programs for dynamic structur:.ll
analyses, Nuclear &1gi11eering & Desig11, 37, 23- 34.
0 Cook R. D.• Malkus 0. S. and Plesha ~·I.E. , 1989, Concepts a11d Applicatio11s ofFinite Ele111en1 Analysis,
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 2nd edition, John Wiley &. Sons, Inc., New York.
Time (s) Cotso\'os D. ~·f., 2004, Numerical modelling of structur:.ll concrete under drnamic (carthqu:tkc and
(<) 0.08 impact) loading.. PhD thesis, Unjvcrsity of London.
Hinton E. and Owt:n D. R. J., 1980, Fi11ite Eleme11ts in Plasticity: Theory a11d Applicatiou, Pinc.ridge
0.M
Press, Swansea.
Karabalis D. L. and Bcskos 0., 1990, Numerical methods in eanhquakc engineering in Computer
'.<: A11alysis and Design of Earthquake Resist.mt Structures: A Handbook, edited by D. E. lksl:os and
_§. 0 S. A. Anagnostopoulos, C~1P, Southampton, pp. 1- 104.
~·
~ - Obi

0.1 o.i 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

Time(•)
(d)
I I I I I
0.75 - - Anal) tic$1 ---·.M eshl • • .. • Mtsh2 --
0.5
1 o.is
./~
'~
~
i"t, -
• 0 /
.. /
... 4"
,

'-
~
] -o.25

<
~ -0.5 "~ .A -· --F
-0.75 f-

- I
0 0.1 0.2 o.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
T Une (s)

Figure 6.8 Case study 2: (a) loading history 2 . (b) displacement r esponse of mass. (c) velocity response of
mass, (d) acceleration response of mass.
Chapter 7

Reinforced concrete structural

members under earthquake loading

7.1 INT RODUCT ION

The abiliry of rhe FE model described in Chapter 4 to produce realistic prediccions of suuc..
rural behaviour under shorr.. tern1 sraric (borh monoronic and C)'clic) loading has been dem·
onsrrared in Chapter 5. Through a comparative srudy of the model's prediccions ·with rhe
results of shake· table cescs on a number of typical RC suucrural fonns (columns, frames,
walls, ere.), rhis chaprer is intended ro sho'v chat rhe modifications implemented in Chapter
6 resulced in a stable numerical scheme capable of a lso producing realistic predic tions of
srrucrural response under seismic excitation.

7.2 APPLICAT ION OF THE EARTHQUAKE LOAD

In rhe case s cudies presented in rhis chapter, che seismic exciracion is applied incremen·
rally as force rarher chan d isplacemenc. Because the RC srrucrural forms analysed are
sin1ple and can be modelled by syscems \Vith a small number of degrees o( freedon1, che
applicarion o( the exrerna l load in the form of force, racher displacement, incremencs do
not aHecc che accuracy o( rhe predicrions obrained. This can be shown by making use
o( a simple one-degree-o(-freedon1 system, such as char adopred (or modelling che RC
frames discussed in Seccion 7.4. In Figure 7.1 , che frame model is depicced ar two differ·
enc moments in rime. Initially, for t = 0, no load is applied co rhe frame model. Fort= 't
rhe model is subjecred ro earthquake loading in rhe form of rhe displacemenc tt1 o( ics
(oundarion, with " 1 being che displacement (due co che de(ormacion of rhe frame) of che
mass lumped ac che geon1ecric centre of che r igid beam connecring rhe two columns. On
rhe basis of rhe above, che coral displacement o( rhe mass is equa l to rhe sum o( u1 and
11 1, rhat is,

11 = 111+"1 (7.1)

and, by differenriaring Equation 7.1 PNice, a similar equarion is obrained for che acceleration

(7.2)

The current problen1 is a one-degree-of.freedom problem, since rhe m.ass o( che frame has
been assun1ed co be lumped ac the geometric centre o( rhe rigid beam connecring che nvo
columns. Furchermore, che lumped mass is assumed co move only horizoncally considering

24S
246 Finite· element modelling of structural concrete Reinforced concrete structural member s under earthquake loading 247

response and che applicacion of the seismic excitation either as a displacement ac rhe bonom
o( the scrucrure or as a force on the masses may give results \Vith significanr differences.

7.3 RC COLUMNS

Figu~
n r
7.1 One-degree-of. freedom model of frame at times t • Oand t.
·1·:."'I i
'
The firsr case study considered has been extracred front Cocsovos (2004), where full derails
may be found; it involves an RC column invescigaced experimencally by Takeda er al. (1970).

7.3.I Design details

The column \Vas fixed co rhe shake table used ro impose the earrhquake excirarion. The sec..
up used in rhe experimencal investigarion is presenced in Figure 7.2, whereas che specimen
dimensions and rhe arrangement of the reinforcemenc are sho,vn in Figure 7.3. The yield
rhe verrical component of mocion to be insignificanr. On rhe basis of che above assumpcions,
rhe equarion of n1orion n1ay be \vrinen as

mil+ ku1 - 0 (7.3) "'" ......., Solt

where L']_L'1f'i-f-1'\A3 •
k is rhe sum of che sriffness o( the nvo columns and
1n is the concenrrared mass siruared ac the geomecric cencre of the rigid bean1. ~DC.iit:i;::::::=::t::t::::'.:::::j:~~ .
Depending on che selection of rhe merhod for applying che earrhquake load co rhe frame,
Equarion 7.3 may cake rhe nvo fonns described in the follo\ving:

FornJ L By using Equation 7.2, Equation 7.3 may be cransformed as sho\\rn be)o,v:

(7.4) 36. I 36. I 36.

Oret:tilof
OexuttjOint
The resulcingequation o( morion cakes inro account che earrhquake loading as a force, rhe
value of which, at each cime step, is equal wirh the product of rhe value of che accelerarion Figure 7.2 RC column under seismic excitation. Experimental set~p. (Adapted from Takeda T.. Sozen M.A.
(provided by an accelerogram) and che mass. The force is rhen applied incrementally ac rhe and Nielsen N. N~ 1970.JoumoJ o(Structurol Enginttring.ASCE:. 96. 2SS7- 2S73.)
node ar which rhe concenrrated mass is siruaced.
685.S
FornJ 2. By using Equarion 7.1, Equarion 7.3 may be cransfonued as shown below:

1nil + k(u - u,) - 0 => nJn + ku - ku1 - 0 => nJil + ku - ku1 (7.5)
60'>.6

In chis case rhe equarion of morion cakes in co account the earrhquake loading as a displace..
ment which is rransforn1ed inco an equivalent load by mulciplying its value by che stiffness
o( che fran1e. h can rherefore be concluded rhac, for che case scudy currently exan1ined, rhe
applicacion of the exrernal load in rhe form of force, rarher chan displacement, incremencs
have no significanr effec-c on rhe predicrions obcained because, as already demonsrraced,
borh opcions (\vhen used for the analysis o( systems with a small number of degrees o( free ..
dom) are equivalent and yield practically rhe same results. The san1e ser of equacions and
rhe resulting conclusion can be excended to che resr o( rhe RC srructural fornlS invesrigaced. t 228.6

However, it should be pointed out char chis conclusion is noc valid in the case of structural
systenlS \Vich n1ultiple degrees of freedom. Such scrucrural syscen1s have a more complex Figure 7.3 RC column under seismic excitation. Design details.
248 f inite·element modelling of structural concrete Reinforced concrete structural member s under earthquake loading 249

stress({.) of rhe longicudinal reinforcemenr \Vas 350 ~.fPa, \vhereas thar of rhe transverse
reinforcen1enr was 276 MPa. The uniaxial cylinder compressive srrengrh of the concrete
used \\ras l =30 MPa. Ar rhe column's cop end, cwo sreel masses of 914 kg \Vere hung on
either side on a lain sreel shafr resting on ball bearings. To restra in rhe large rorarions of
rhe steel masses, cwo 0.25 in pre·scressed rods tied rhe mass co rhe plarforn1 as shown ir.
Figure 7.2.
7.3.2 FE discretisation
The FE model adopced for che RC column is shown in Figure 7.4. (r comprises seven layers
of nvo 27·node Lagrangian brick elements with che upper layer provid ing a sin1plified, yec
effeccive, represenrarion of rhe arrangen1enc used ro supporr che mass. The laner is anached
at che geomerr·ic centre of che layer 'vhich was forced to behave as a rigid body by assigning
ro ic a large nlodulus of elascicicy (char of sceel). As che seismic exciracion \Vas induced along
rhe longitudinal axis of symmerry, as sho,vn in Figures 7.4 and 7.5, and by making use of
rhe sy1nmecry of the column's cross seccion, only half che cross section of the column ''ras
modelled (see Figure 7.5), rhus reducing rhe size of the numerical problem and minimising
rhe con1puracional efforc needed (or irs solution .
As already mentioned, 3·node cruss elemencs are used ro model rhe reinforcen1enc bars.
The cross·sec-rional area of the longicudinal bars \Vas distributed ro the nodes of che column
cross sec-cion so as co be equivalent, in cenns of boch cross·sectional area and location, ro rhe
four longitudina l bars of rhe real column (see Figure 7.5). The same reasoning \\ras follo\ved
for modelling rhe trans\'erse reinforcement.
7.3.3 Static loading
The invesrigation of S[rucrural response under earchquake loading \Vas preceded by rhe
::auei;-i;-ment of the lo::adac::ar-rying c::ap::acity, defot1n::ation::al response ::and cr::acking process of
rhe colun1n under scaric loading. The column under an axial load (N) equivalenc ro rhe
weight of che mass anached ro iu; upper end was subjecced co a horizontal load (P) ac rhe
centre of rhe mass and increased in seeps ro fa ilure (see Figure 7.6). The column's response,
in che form of base shear- displacement curve and crack panerns ar various load levels, is
sho,vn in Figures 7.7 and 7.8, respectively. From rhe figures, it is seen thar rhe column's
load-carrying capacicy reached rhe code predCred va lue of 26 kN, \Vhereas cracking firsr
appeared in rhe lower part of rhe column and gradually exrended upwards \Vich increasing
load. Failure e\'enrually occurred ac che lo\ver pan of the column when rhe flexural cracks
penetraced deeply inro rhe compressi,•e zone.

495.3
Dimensions ln mUUn\Hre

Flxed bound~

F'igure 7.6 RC column. Applied loading and reactions under static loading.
,,
Axis along whJch the selstnic exdt:.tion Is lndue«I
28
Figure 7.4 RC column under seismic excitation. FE model.
24
v

-F-
20
~
-
f?t-·
Axis o(syrnmetry along whkh the seismic t'Xdtnlon Is Jndu.ced
16

·~J ·: tJ{- ~L . . J
~j 12 -
8

,/ -~ - -~ -~-

I 1143 I I Dlmensl<>os In mJIU..,.ttt l52.4

0
0 2 6 8 10 12 14
l52.4 Dispbetmient (mm)

Figure 7.5 RC colullVI under seismic exciution. Modeling of cross section. Figure 7.7 RC column. Base shear- displacement curve under static loading.
250 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Reinforced conc.rete structural members under earthquake loading 25 1

figure 7.9 RC column under seismic excitation. One-degree-of-freedom elastic model.

0.4
0.3
Load step 1 Load step 4 Lood step 5 Load step 6 lood step 1 Load step 8 L.oo.d step 9
(OkN) (6kN) (8kN) (!OkN) (12kN) (14kN) (J6 kN) 0.2
3
5 0.J
.£ 0
~ - 0.1
<
- 0.2
- 0.3

Time (s)

figure 7.10 RC column under seismic excitation. Original El-Centro acceleration record.

Lo:MI step 10 Load step t l Load step 12 Load step 13
(18 kN) (20 kN) (22 kN) (24 kN)
Figure 7.8 RC column. Crack patterns at various load levels under static loading.
7.3.4 Dynamic loading
Before carrying our rhe dynamic analysis, an imporrant faccor rhat needs ro be considered
is the assessment of a sufficiently sn1all rime step in order ro minimise rhe likelihood of
numerical inscability due ro the development of excessive residual forces resulting from rhe
forma rion or closure of cracks during each iteracion. As discussed in Section 6.4.2, such a
rinte step may be a fracrion of rhe period of a simplified elastic n1odel of che column such
as the one...degree-of-freedom model shown in Figure 7.9. Through che use of the elascic
properties of concrere and assuming cross-sectional characcerisrics equivalenc ro chose of rhe
gross cross seccion of rhe RC column, che period of che model is found co be T = 0 .03 s, and
rhe time srep selecred is l!.T = 0.001 s.
The acceleracion record to which che RC column V\ras subjecred during che shake-cable
resr is sin1ilar ro rhe El Centro 1940 accelerarion record (Figure 7.10), except that rhe rime
lengch v.ras compressed to a sixth (meaning that, although chf' original accelerarion record
lasted 30 s, rhe one used in rhe experimencal [and adopced for rhe numerical] investigation
lasted only S s), whereas che values of che acceleration record were multiplied by a factor
of about 4.3 in order co achieve a maximum accelerarion of 1.28 g (instead of 0.3 g of the
original record). The variarions " 'ith cime of rhe imposed base acceleracion and che recorded
displacement response of the mass are presenced in Figure 7.11. The acceleration record used
{or che anal)•sis was essencially char used in the shake-table experiment (see Figure 7.12),
whereas che predicred response of rhe specimen is presf'nted in Figures 7.13 and 7.14 in rhe
forni of displatenienr-rinie and base shear-rime mrve~.
7.3.S Discussion of the numerical resu lts
Alchough che predicted maximunt va lue of the displacemenc correlaces closely with its experi-
n1encal counterpart, chere are differences between che predicted (Figure 7.13) and recorded
(Figure 7.11) variacions of rhe displacement \Vich rime. These differences have been accributed
co che rotacion of the stee1 ntasses auached to che cop end of che column, \Vhich could nor be
complecely prevented by the sceel rods used co cie che mass to rhe shake cable (Cotsovos 2004).
Fron1 Figure 7.11, it can be seen char rhe n1axin1mn displacement exhibired during rhe
shake-table resc is just over 0.4 in (10.16 mm). In che Stacie monoronic case study, chis
leve.I of displacement corresponds to an applied load close ro che load-carrying capacity
of rhe specimen, \Vhich, as indicated in Figure 7.7, is characcerised by ductile behaviour.
The dynan1ic analysis also prediccs ducrile behaviour, since rhe predicted maxin1um values
2S2 f inite-element modelling of scr uctural concrete Reinforced concr ete structural members under earthquake loading 253

15

10

I
I...•
0

-5
(b) 6 - 10

01 U U U U M U U U
Tlnw-(s)

F"igure 7.13 R.C column under seismic excitation. Numerical predictions of the displacement response com-
pared with the maximum displacement predicted for the case of static loading.
'fln~(s) 40
30
Figure 7. ti R.C column under seismic excitation: (a) acceleration input used in shake-table test and (b}
resulting displacement response of the R.C column. (Adapted from Takeda T.. Sozen M.A. and 20
Nielsen N. N .. 1970.Joumal o(Structural Engjneering.ASCE. 96. 2SS7- 2S7l.) ~ 10
~ 0
of displacement (see Figure 7. 13) correspond co near constant values of the applied load -;;
(expressed in rhe fnrm of base shear in Figure 7.14). j - 10
Numerically, failure of the RC coluni n occurs when the scructure's stiffness macrix - 20
becomes nonapositive definice due co disrupcion of the continuity of concrere caused b)•
- 30
excessive cracking of t he lower part of t he column. Although che accual column cesced in t he
shake table suffered similar disruption ac irs lower pan, collapse \Vas prevenced by che rods 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
used to tie che mass co the placform which allo\\red the developn1ent of alternative resistan ce Tlnw-(s)
mechanisms. Ho,vever, this stage of behaviour - which, clearly, is neither stable nor sustaina
able - cannot be described numerically, as che development o( such akernarive resistance Figure 7.14 R.C column under seismic excitation. Numerical predictions of the base shear compared with
mechanisms are not allo\\red for by t he numerical procedure adopted. Nevertheless, the the maximum base shear predicted for the case of static loading.
numerical n1odel clearly serves the purpose of predic cing, \Vich sufficient accuracy, the maxia
n1un1 values of load a nd displacement. The approximate time of failure of the specimen - an around this rin1e (i.e., benveen 1 and 2 s) that the measured displacen1ent of che column
arguably less imponanr parameter - is predicted at around l s: it is interesting that it is seems co experience a change in behaviour (see Figure 7.1lb) \Vhich mighc signal structural
failure in a classic sense, followed by some further response under more unstable conditions
stemm ing front ocher more complex postafailure n1echanisn1s.

:3 0.5 7.-4 RC FRAMES

g
.i.,, 0 The scructural (orn1 discussed in whac follows has also been excracted from Cocsovos (2004);
~ - 0.5 it is one of the four RC space frames (denoted as frame \-V050) investigated by M ino,va er al.
< (1995) and consists of four RC columns wirh their lower end fixed on a shake rable a nd rheir
- L.5 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _...,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _...
upper end monolirhically connecred ro a thick rigid sreel slab (see Figure 7.15). The frame
was subjecred to one·dimensional (l·D) excitations a long its long icudinal axis of symmerry.
0
Tllne(s)
7.4.1 Design det ails
Figure 7. 12 R.C column under seismic excitation. Acceleration r ecord input adopted for the numerical The column had a height of 850 mm and a square cross seccion \Vich a side of 130 mm as
investigation. shown in Figure 7.16. A dead weight of 300 kN was uniformly distributed on the sreel slab.
2S4 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Reinforced co ncrete structural members under earthquake loading 2SS

(•) 2000

Additional ma~ UlOO

• ->-
RIgid steel plate
>- -
>- - ->-
Steel rigid 450
->- ..._
Con
375 >- -
>- - ->-
"""'
2050 Axis: a.long whlt'h thoe u-ls-1nlc.'
exdtatlon Is lndu.ced
1600

Figu~ 7. t7 RC frame under seismic excitation. FE model.

and a suengch f. =490 i\.f Pa. The srirrup spacing for each of the four columns \Vas 50 n1m
(see Figure 7.16).

Ads along whkh W .sfts:mk

uc:lt:itlo1l was lndu.ced
(b)
Steel rigid plate
Concrete columns:
Figu~ 7.15 RC frame under seismic excitation. (a) 2-0 and (b) ) . Q views.
The slab irself was 450 mm rhick and had a span of 2000 mm. The uniaxial C)'linder com-
pressive srrength of concrere used was l = 26 M Pa for all colun1ns. 1l1e column~s longicudinal
reinforcement consisted of four 16 mm dia1neler bars \Virh a yield srress f1 = 380 MPa and
an ulrimare scrength f. = 544 MPa placed ar che four corners of rhe cross section. The uans ..
verse reinforce1nent conslsred of 6 mm diamerer stirrups with a yield suess = 392 1v1Pa
7.4.2 FE d iscr etisation
Owing co che syn1n1e1ry of che induced 1.. 0 excitations, only half che frame represented
by the 2-0 model shown in Figure 7.17 was ana lysed. The FE mesh of each column of the
fran1e consisred of 2 X 6 = 12 27-node Lagrangian brick elements. Such elements were also
used for modeUing boch che column- slab ioints and the rigid slab, which, however, were
forced to behave as rigid bodies by assigning ro chem a very large n1odulus of elasriciry (chac
of sre·el). The mass was lumped at rhe geomerric cenrre of che slab. Once again, due ro rhe
symmetry of the column~s cross secrion, only half rhe cross section needs to be considered
(see Figure 7.18). As for che column discussed in Section 7.3, 3-node truss elements \Ve.re
used ro n1odel t he reinforce.menr bars. The cross·sectional area of che long.irudinal bars was
discributed co all the nodes of the colun1n cross section so as ro be equivalenc, in rernu of
both cross..secrional area and location, co the four longitudinal bars of the real columns (see
Figure 7.18). The san1e reasoning \Vas followed for n1odelling rhe cransverse reinforcemenr.
7.4.l Results of the analysis
The load..c.arrying capacir)', non·linear tesponse and mode of failure of che RC frame \Ve.re
r., initially escablished under Stacie loading. Then~ rhe RC frame was anal ysed under seisn1ic

Dl6 Axis of symmetry :1.long ~·hl<:h the seismic.' excl.ttlion Is lndt.teed

Dt6

· [:i s
1606@50

! 32 - - - -V
32 32 31 68 31
Dlmens.Jons in millunette
II tt 11 11 130

1- -1"'30'--- I I •30 I
Figure 7.16 RC frame under seismic excitation. De.sign details. Figu~ 7. 18 RC frame under seismic excitation. Modelling of column cross section.
1S6 Finite-element modellln& of sttuctun.I concrete

'
Reinforced concrete structur·al members under earthquake toadin& lS7

n
~r-~--,.--~-.-~~...-~--,,...-~--.
~ -;
'°
60 I
I

- 50
~ <O

] JO
20
to from che opplaed lood and tbe resulting •-alues ploned ag;tinsc che corresponding horizonC31
o~......,......,,__......,~......,......,~......,......,~......,---1 de11<citons produ«d curve 2 in Figure 7.19. From che Jantt curve, che load-carrying c:ipac-
0 <O 60 too ory of che frome w.is found co be 54.7 kN.
DMpl r••lltllllt(mm)

F"cure 1.19 R.C fnmeundtr sudc: ~ Honi.ontal ~d-dupbcement curve. 1.4. 3.2 Dynamic loadln1

excit.3rion pracri<ally idenucal to 1u experimental counterpart (Minowa ec al. 1995). The As for the c~se of t~ RC column discussed in Section 7.3, rhe seleccion of an approprbre
main re<ult< present<d tn what follow< were exuacted from Corsovos (2004) where che full "me srcp hos been based on cbe use of a simplified represenurion of che frame chrough cbe
results are provided. use of che one-degree-of-freedom model shown in Figure 7.21. Using rhe elasric propenies of
concrete and assuming cross-secrion.al characteristics equivalent co those of rhe gros~ cross
sccrion of the RC columns of che frame, che period of che model was found co be Ta 0.14 s,
1.4. 3.1 Static load ln1 and rhe time step selecced w15 &T = 0.00128 s.
The fran\e under rhe weight of the 1nass s upporced b)• its horizontal men\ber was subjecced The inductd dynamic excitation formed parr of the acceleration record presented in Figure
ro a horizontal poinr load applied at the 1nass centre. The verrical load \Vas also imposed as a 7.22. It corresponded, roughly, to rhe lase pare of che excirarion actually used (or rhe .;h:1ke-
poinr lo:td in one load incremcnr, since it \Yas only a snrn.11 fraccion of the axial load-carrying table experiment (see Figure 7.23). By lnspec-cing the displacen\enr and accelerarion re.;pon<oe
capacity or rhe columns and insufficient to cause crack forn\acion. The horizontal load wa.s of the 1113.SS or the specimen recorded during the shake-table experinlents (see Figure<; 7.24
gradually increa.;ed ro fai lure in snrnll load incrernents in order to obra in a prediccion of rhe and 7.25), it is apparent that only small deflec-cions a nd acceleracions were recorded up ro
non-li1\e:lr behaviolar of the specimen, as accurace as possible. npproximntely the 18th second or the seismic exciration. During ch is rime, rhe behaviour
Ir should be poinred out rhat the analysis carried out does nor a llow for geometric o~ rhc structure ~vo.s essentially elastic and, therefore, rhere \Vas norhing of p3rricukar sig-
non-line:lririe". As a resulr, rhc prcdlc:ted load-displacen\enc curve (curve l in Figure 7.19) nificance to n10111ror. Thus, the acceleracion record used in rhe numerical invescigarion cor·
does nor rake inro nccoun1 second-order (P- 6) effects whic-h appear co be significant due ro re"ponds to th:it pan or the original record chat produced significanr values or ac-celerarion
che brge denecrions occu rring for load IC\·els beyond 50 kN. The figure a lso includes che and defornlation during the experinlenc. \X'ithin this srage of the experimenr, rhe non-linear
lo3d-dispbcenle1u cur\'e corrected so as ro allow for the P- .6. effects (curve 2}. The correc-· response o r conc rete progressi\·ely becomes n1ore and n1ore pronounced~ wir.h crack fornla·
rion of rhe horiz.onral load (V), AV• A1,"""lh, has been based on the assessn\enr of rhe addi· rion nnd extension, eventually leading to failure.
riona) n\On\enr Ai,~ • PA due to the horizontal displace1nent (A) of the verrica) load (P) (see
Figure 7.20). This corrccuon, which has been made for e\'ery load step, has been subcrac-red ts
+ +
~ o.s
~ 0
~
~ -45
_,
-t.S
II 19 10 21 22 23 2• 25 16 rt 21
Tuow(s)

F"cure 7.21 ~C fnm9 Ynd.r seismic excitation. Acceleration record used in me numerical inttstipdon
F"cure 1.20 RC frame under sc:adc Joacbna. Deformed sh~ ¥\d correspondmia: actions.. 1nclat"'c thrt dura.bon of the n...-nerical investiption.
258 Fini[e -elemen[ modelling of structural concrete Reinforced concr ete structural members under earthquake loadin.& 2S9

30

I ---
Dur11.tlon of the numerlea.J 15
~ o.s inwstlption
- - Num.erlc11.l results
s ~ 20
-~ o t--------~~--~fWliWllftlUt
~
~ -0.S l- - - - - - -
•~ 15
- - - • Expe.rlmenta.I resuh.s

- 1
a-
;;
10
ii
-1.s +--------+---..;..---0----+----< 2
0 10 IS 20 2S 30
~ 5
Tlme(s) :r
0
Figu~ 7.23 R.C frame under seismic excitation. AcceJeration record used in the experimental investigation.
-5
18 20 22 24 26
TJ.,.(s)
30

~ 2S -~
I I I I I
Dutatlon of nu~nHk'al hwestlg_::nlon F'rgu~ 7.26 R.C frame under seismic excitation. Numerical and experimental displacement respon se.
I - ~~I
5 20
--
-~

!
f
IS - I
+ + 1- - f--
i~
Adopring only char pan of che acceleracion record afcer rhe 18th second resulted in a
more efficienr use of che available compucer resources, \Yichouc compromising cbe aims of
ii
10
I I the numerical invesrigacion. The numerical results are compared with cheir experimental

i:r
0
-S
I
I
.
.L
.
councerpans in Figures 7.26 chrough 7.29. The maxinllim values of the displacen1enr pre·
dicced numerically compare well wirh rheir experimencal councerparts up ro around che
23rd second 'vhen cheanalysis predicted failure~ \virh the prediccions slighdy overeslimacing
' I I
- 10 the experin1encal values (see Figure 7.26}. The n1aximum values of rhe acceleracion (Figure
0 2 6 a 10 12 14 16 1s ~ n ~ u ~ ~
7.27), the veloc.ity (Figure 7.28) and the base shear (f igure 7.29) also compare well with
n n,e (s)
rheir experim.encal counterpans up co rhis rime of 23 s, \Y-hen rhe numerical n1odel predicted
failure. lr should be nored rhac ooly displacemenr and acceleration response values \Vere
F'1fute 7.24 RC frame under seismic excitation. Horizon[al displacement r esponse recorded during [he
shake· table exper iment.

• ~-~ 1-
:ij M
d f: ~ \ ( :"d
1
~Ml~Vri
0.6

'o~ 0.4
.,s, 0.2 t--+-+--f--1--t---+-.-I~•
!
i
.i<
-0.2 •--+-+-,f--1--t--+-+--l-"-
i( -0.4 t--+-+-,f--l--t--+-+--1-
5 ~.'- - - Numerk:ll results
.. -0.6 - !

~ -O.Jl t--+-..;..-~-1--+--+-..;..--1~~-+--+-~--1-~--1 ••••••• Exp.e:rimenl3l tesolrs

0 6 10 12 14 16 18 ~ D M U ~ ~
Tl.,.(•) LS 19 20 21 2223242526"l728
Time{s)
Figu~ 7.2.5 RC frame under seismic excitation. Acceleration response r ecorded during the shake-[able
experiment. Figure 7.Zl RC frame under seismic excitacion. Numerical and experWnencal acceleration response.
260 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Reinforced conc.rete structural members under earthquake loading 261

80
Under static loading, duccile behaviour is indicated by the large increase in displacen1enc
for small load incren1encs characrerising the load-displacement curves of Figure 7.19 for
- - Numerical tesuJts
60 load levels close co the load-carrying capacity. Under dynamic loading, rhe ductile behaviour
Ex:pttlmental results of the specin1en is indicated in Figures 7.26 and 7.29 by che fact char, airer rhe 2tsc second,
4-0
the maximun1 displacement gradually increased with rime (Figure 7.26), \Vhereas che maxi-
"'e,,. 20 mum value o ( rhe base shear ren1ained essentially conscanr (Figure 7.29). Such behaviour is
considered co indicate rhac che specimen had formed plastic hinges in che areas of n1aximun1
"'j 0 bending moment. Failure occurred at rhe 23rd second when rhe load reached the specin1en
load-carrying capacicy (indicated in Figure 7.29 b)' che horizontal line) under Stacie loading
~ - 20
(see Figure 7.19).
-40 le appears from Figures 7.26 through 7.29 rhac the numerica l analysis predicled failure
-60 co have occurred ar che 23rd second rather rhan at the 27ch second indicated by the experi-
mental va lues. Although chis discrepancy berween the predicted and che measured va lues
- 80 is noc excessi,·e, it is important to dra\\• a discinccion berween the definition of numerical
18 22 24 28 failure and its experin1ental counterparr. During rhe shake~table experin1ents rhe loading
Tlme(s)
procedure ended afrer the specin1en had suHered severe destruction o( the lower and upper
regions of che colun1ns \Vhere concrete disintegrated. In (ace, concrece disintegration n1ay
Figure 7.28 RC frame under seismic excitation. Numerical and experimental velocity response. have been che cause o( rhe abrupc increase of che verrica l displacen1enc of the frame slab
which started just before rhe 24th second and increased ra pidly thereafter as indicated in
directly n1easured during che experiments, wich che corresponding values of velocity and Figure 7.30. On che ocher hand, nun1erical failure occurs when che structure's sciffness
base shear shown in the figures being obcained indirecrly. The velocity was obtained by dif- macrix becomes non·posicive definite. In rhe present case, chis occurred when rhe geon1erry
ferentiating the d isplacement record, whereas che calculation o ( che base shear was based on of rhe columns changed dramacically due to the disrupcion of the concinuicy of concrete
rhe use of the equation of morion. caused by excessive crack formation.
le \Vould appear fron1 above rhac, afcer the severe descrucrion of concrele \Vichin rhe upper
7.4.3. 3 Discussion of results and lo\\rer regions o( rhe columns, che real scrucrure n1ay have scill been capable of sustain-
Under both scaric and dynamic loading, che specimen behaviour \Vas duccile. Cracks (onned ing, for a fe\v seconds, rhe induced excitacion, as indicated in Figures 7.26 through 7.29, by
within rhe top and bocrom regions o ( each column since the bending moment \Vas higher in resorcing briefly co ahernacive resistance mechanisms, such as, for example, dowel acrion.
rhese areas. As the exrernal load increased, che cracks began co gradually spread throughout Ho,vever, chis srage of behaviour - \Vhich, clearly, is neither scable nor sustainable a nd as
rhe whole column. Before failure, rhe longicudinal rein(orcen1enr yielded in cension in the upper such, of no real significance for design purposes - cannot be described nunterically, as rhe
and lower regions of rhe colun1ns, chus enabling the specimen co exhibit large d isplacements. development of ahernaci\•e resistance mechanisms such as che above are nor allowed for
by rhe numerical model, as already expla ined. Nevenheless, the nun1erical model clearly
serves rhe purpose of predicting, \Vith sufficient accuracy, the maximum load a nd displace-
2,00,000 ment values anained and che approximate rime of fa ilure of the specimen. The excenr of rhe
Numerical predittitm ol
l.S0.000 load·Qrrying c-.i.pxity under
fTIOnolonk lo;iding 2
1.00.000 I
"E 0 ---
g 50,000
"'~ - 2
l

-P=
0
B
i - 50.000 ......•
~ -4
-6 --
- l.00.000
Numt'fiQ I prediCliOU of ·''E
lo;id-carrying capKily undtt > -8
- l.S0.000 monolonic lo;iding
- 10
,
- 2,00,000
IS 19 20 21 22 23 24 2S 26 .,, 28
22 24
n me(s)
28

T imt-(s)

Figure 7.30 RC frame under seismk excitation. Record of the vertical deflection of the slab durWlg the
Figure 7.29 RC frame under $Ci$mic. exc:ita.tion. Numeric.-a.I Mad expe:rimenta.I value$ of baK thear. >hil<•· tabl• mt from th• 22nd to tile 27th >e<ond.
262 Finite-elemen t modelling of struct:ur•I concrete Reinforced concrete struct:ural members u nder earthquake loading 263

C4H

CL•

Figu~ 7.31 RC frame under seismic excitation. Experimenta.lty established mode of failure. (Adapted from
Minowa C . et al.. 1995. Nudeo.r Enginttring ond Qesjgn. 156. 269- 276.)

damage caused ro rhe fou r columns o( che RC fran1e in rhe shake·rable resc afcer inducing
rhe seis:rnic excication can be seen in Figure 7.31. From chese figures, ir is e\•ideoc char con·
crete in che upper and lower areas suffered exrensive disinregracion and rhac rhe specimen
(jusr prior ro fa ilure) resorted co alcernacive resisrance mechanisms in whar could be consid·
ered as a posc·fa~Jure regime (in a classic srruccural sense).

7.5 THREE-STOREY RC WALL

The present case srudy is concerned wirh che behaviour of an RC \Vall for which, as for
rhe cases discussed in Secrions 7.3 a nd 7.4, rhere is: published inforn1arion obcained froni
shake· table rescs: (Les cuzzj ec a l. 1999). The \vall, which \Vas considered ro represent a scaled
do\vn three-srorey building, has a 900x 100 mm cross section and a 3 m heighr; duee 12
con masses \\rith 1 n1 spacing along rhe heighc are anached co rhe \Yall as: indicated in Figure
7.32. Each mass, which is considered robe the mass of a floor of rhe equivalenr chree-scorey
building, is: supporced by a separace rigid chree-srorey sceel frame (see Figure 7.32) and
can move only in the horizonra l direcrion. There(ore, ir can be assumed char che inerria
of rhe nusses affeccs only rhe horizontal morion of cbe wall. The \Vall is a lso subjecred ro
 ,-

264 Finite- ele ment modelling of structurat concrete Reinforced concrete structural members under ear thquake loading 26S

concenrric a xial .cornpression equal ro approxin1arely 30% of rhe \Vail's load·carryiog capac· 7.5.1 FE discretisation
ity under such lood ing.
As shown in Figure 7.34, rhe FE mesh adop1ed for modelling t he RC wall cons isrs of
T he un iaxial (cylinder) con1pressive srtengrh of che concrere used is equa l ro approxim acel)' 3 x 15 = 45 27anode Lagra ngian brick e lemenrs. As (or checase s rudies presenred in Secrions
35 MPa, wh ile 11he values of 1he yield scress and ulrimace mengch of che various reinforce- 7.3. and 7.4, rhe seismic excitarion is induced along rhe long.i rudinal axis o( symn1euy of rhe
mem bars used varied berween approximarely 480 a nd 570 M Pa a nd 580 and 670 MPa,
\\'all's cross secrion and, therefore, only ha lf che \Vall needs co be ana lysed (see Figure 7.35).
respecrively, wit h che arrangemenc of rhe reinforcentenc being depicted in Figure 7.33. Full
The strengthened regions of t he \Vall \Vhere che masses \Vere airtached {see Figure 7.32) are
design decails can be found in l esruui er al. (1999).
represented b)• h ig hlig hting \virh a lighrer shade horizonral srrips where cracki ng \Va.s not
allowed to occur, rhus allowing - in an ef fec ti,•e, yet s in1ple, manne r - for the effect of t he
DS.2 ~
os<C : :::::1 Loo
08 \

900 I D4.2
-~ ---
-
- Lumped mass
t2 tons

L D4.2@50
I ...
2"08

T
200

83 ? -
- - - i---. I"- 2x8DS.2@JOO
- -
- l wnped tuass
12 tOn$

1360
100/
-- ,_ " 83
~
['-...
JOO
4080

mo

--
...L
200
1-
....!__
--..
~ D4.2@100
-
• l umped m:tU
12 (00.$

' 1 1360
04.2~0

I
1360
\ Axh alo 1lg which the selsrnk exclutlon Is Induced

...L ,-r-- I Figure 7.34 Three--stor ey RC wall under seismic excitation.. FE model (dimensions in millimetre).
--
-,-200
__1_
Axis or synl.tnetry along "''hlc:h the selstnlc: e::u:ttariott is lnd~
/ \
1360 Dimei\sloM ln mOllmet:rt
100 I1E---------Y-----~---=---]--~
900 \
_}s '

Strong Inst
·=·:--.: . ..... . ,. . \ . .·.
! I I I

I
1'500
I -- t : t : i : t ~

r.,ure 7.13 Three-stor ey RC wal under seismic excitation. Design details (dimen sions in millimetre). Figure 7.15 Three--storey RC wall under seismic excitation. Model of waU cr oss section.
266 f inite-element modelling of structur-al concrete Reinforced concrete structur-al members under earthquake loading 267

local srrengchening in srructut3 l behaviour. The n1asses are considered ro acr at cbe geornec..
?O r--~-~-~---~----~
ric centre of rhe above srrips.
Three..node truss eJen1enrs are used co n1odel both che ct3ns,·erse and che long:icudinal 60

reinforcement bars. The cross-sectional area of rhe reinforcen1enr bars is disuibured co rhe Z' so
~
nodes of che FE 1nodel adopted so as co be equivalent in cerms of boch cross-secrional area •IO
and locarion \Vich che teinforcemenr bars of rhe actual specimen. ~
'i 30 -1-~t- - - Jst tloor response
~
<li 20 - - 2nd floor respoose
7.5.2 Results of analysis - - 3rd Door res-ponu-
10
7.5.2. I Static loodlng 0
The \Vall, under rhe conscanc axial load of 25 kN applied ac its rop end, is subjec-ced ro three
0 • 12 16 20
01.spbct>nw?m (mm)
24 28 32

equal horizontal loads (P) at the locarions indicated in Figure 7.36. The laner loads, rhe
sun1 of \Vhich is equal co che base she.at (V), are increased in seeps to failure and the \Vall's F'igu~ 7.37 Three-storey RC wall under static loadini; Base shear- displacement curve.
response is descr,ibed in Figures 7.37 and 7.38 in che form of base shear- displacement curyes
and crack panerns ar various load steps, respecci\'el)'. In conrrasc \Vith the frame discussed
in Section 7.4, Figure 7.37 shows chat rhe horizonral displacen1enrs are small rhus resulcing
in insignificanc second-order effects rhac can be ignored withouc any loss of accuracy. The
figure also shows char the \\raJI is capable of suscaining a base shear of 64 kN. Figure 7.38
shows rhar cracking firsc appears in che bonom region of the wall, and, wich increasing load,
boch spreads upwards and exrends towards the side face in compression. Evenrually, failure
occurs 'Arhen cracking ar the wall base penetrares deeply into che compressive zone, wirh che
upper region of rhe \Vall ren1aining essenrially free of cracking.

7.S. 2.2 Dynamic loading

The seleccion of an appropriace rime seep for rhe dynan1ic anal)•sis rhar ensures a srable
nun1erical procedure bas been based on rhe use of rhe chree..degrees--of freedon11nodel of che

LClad st~p I Lmd !i:ttp S Load step 10 loachtep 12 l..c»d t:lt'p l4

(3kN) (2HN) (30 •NJ ('16 kN) (42 kN)

1-- - --<
- t>
----
4-080

t----1 - t>

l.o;id ~p 16 lo:.K! Step l8 Load u~p20 Lo:idMep21

(48kN) (~lkN) (WkN) (63kN)

F'igure 7.38 Three· storey RC waJI under sutic loading. Crack patterns at various &oad levels (the figures in
Figure 7.16 Three-ttorey RC mn under $e1$rrUC: e.xc:itation. Applied load$ and reac:tiom. brac:k.eu denote the v~uet of ba$e $htar i.e.. the total horii.ontll toad ac:t.ing on the waJQ.
268 Finite- element modelling of structural concrete Reinforced concrete structural members under earthquake loading 269

-
/'
(o)
'°
30
I
20
I
I 10 - -- - - I

I I 0 ..J
\,i fl if w~ ~~--~··' .. :···
2720
5

~
- 10
- 20
f I- '
• •• •• • 1st floor response
I
·

1
- 30 - - 2ndJ1oottts:ponse- ·
-40
I I
- -3td Ooor response .
136
- 50 I I I I I I
0 4 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 IS 16 17 18
3
nme(s) "'
figure 7.39 Three~storey RC wall under seismic excitation. Three-degree-of.freedom model for selecting
(b) 0.3
time step for dynamic an.alysis.

wall shown i1l Figure 7.39. Assuming geomerr ic characrerisrics and mare rial propercies simi· 0.2
Jar ro those of the real structure, the s1nallest of rhe chree periods of the model was found ro
be T = 0 .057 sand, o n rhe basis of rhis value, rhe rime incremenrse lected is tff = 0 .000625 s. ..
3
0
0.1
As in me case o( the RC frame discussed in Section 7.4, rhe dynamic load is applied in me ...1!~
form of an acceleration record, which is presented in Figure 7.40. The full response of rhe sped .. 0
x
men during rhe e.xperin:tental investigation is presenred in Figure 7 .4 l a-c in rhe fonn of varia· ~
rions wich cinle of displacement, acceleration and base shear~ respectively. From Figure 7.4 l c, ~ -0.l
it can be seen char che maximun1 value of dte base shear under Stacie loading (indicaced by the <ii - - 2nd floor respoose
-0.2
horizonral lines) pracric.ally coincides \vid1 its shake·rable counterparcs. - -3td Roor response
In rhe case of che RC frame discussed in Seccion 7.4, the energy lost during seismic exci·
racion was primarily anributed co the non·linear strucrura l response. In che present case
srudy, energy is a lso lost due ro rhe inreracrion berween the \Vall a nd rhe franle strucrure
-0.3
0 2 3 • 6 7 9
Tlme(s)
10 II 12 13 .. IS 16 17 18

supporcing che 1nasses \Vhicb are connected ro che \Vall. This addirionaJ loss of energy is
accounted for through rhe use o( a damping mauixcontainingconscant values of che damp· (c) 80
• ~'umi'rlcally p<edicted lo.:ad-eanying
ing coefficienrs Cat locations corresponding to the nodes where the masses are anached. 60 capsdl)' under nM)f')O(onic loading
A compa rative study of rhe predicted and experimentally established responses of rhe wall
for values of C (kNmls) equal to 0, S and 10 revealed chat, although realisric predictions as
regards load·carrying capacicy and maximum displacement can be obtained for all three ~
'°
20
values of C, C= S kNm/s was found to lead to che closest correlation berween numerical and :. 0
experimental results as indicated b y che variations of rhe displacement and base shear \Virh -i
~ - 20
,z
-40
3 0.15 ..(,()
N'u.medcally p<edk:ted lo.:ad ·cattylng
• capadty uade:r 1nonotonk lo:!dlng
s 0.05
-80
"'~~ - 0.0S 0 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
~ T0ne(s)
< - 0.15
Figure 7.41 Three-storey RC wall under seismic excitation. Response of the RC wall recorded during the
• 6 8
Tlme (sl
10 12 16 18 shake-table experiment: (a) horizontal displacement; (b) acceleration; (c) base shear.

Figure 7.40 Three-storey RC wall under seismic excitation. Acceleration record used in the numerical and
e:xpe:rinental invenigation.
270 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Reinforced concrete strucwral members under earthquake loading 271

rime sho,vn in Figures 7.42 and 7.43, respeccive.ly. As regards failure, ir was found rhar rhe so~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
smaller the value of C, the sooner failure occurs; such behaviour being consistent \Virh rhe
fact char as C decreases a larger pan of the seismic energy is dissipaced in causing disruption 60
in rhe form of cracking. 40
However, in general, failure is predicted to occur earlier than \Vhac che experimencal
results indicate (see Figures 7.42 and 7.43). As explained for the case scudies discussed in ~ 20

Sections 7.3 and 7.4, rhis difference benveen the predicced and rhe experimental values of c
-;;
0
rhe cimeof failure reflects secondary tescs effec-rs which enable rhe strucrure, after disruption 1 - 20
- 40
(a) 10
- -Uperiment:M te'M!lts - 60
.! -80+-~~.-~~ ....~~....~~.....~~..-~....
5 0 2 4 6
1~ TUn<(s)
- 8.
"! ~~ 0
ii• 0g Figure 7.43 Three-storey RC wall under seismic excitation. Variation with time o( the predicted (for
C • S kNm/s) and experWnentally obtained base shear.
]- -5
0
during cescing, ro resorr co a lternative n1echanisnlS of load cransfer 'vhich are unstable in
4 5 6
nature and constitute posc·failure phenomena.
Tlaw-(s) Under scatic loading, the duccile behaviour is indicated by rhe large displacements under
small load increments characcerising rhe load-displace.menc curves of Figure 7.37 for load
(b) 25
levels close ro the load·carrying capacity. Under dynamic loading, the ductile behaviour is
20
~ indicared in Figure 7.41 by rhe fact thac, even though rhe maxin1um. deforn1acion reached
<"< 15
a high value at a relatively early stage of che shake..table cest, rhis maximun1 deformacion
·n
.s &.
10
5
continued co increase gradually \Vith time (see Figure 7.41a), \Vhile rhe maximun1 value of
the base shear (figure 7.4 lc) increased quickly up co a cerrain level and from then onwards
i~ 0
-5 remained practically consranc. Such behaviour is considered to indicate an early formacion of
~j -10 a plastic hinge in the region of \Vall base which is rhe key characteristic of duccile behaviour.
]- - 15
0
- 20
7,6 TWO -LEVEL RC FRAME UNDER SEISMIC ACTION
3 4 6
n rne (s) The work described in che following has been exrracred from Cocsovos (2013). Ir firsr shows
(c) 45 that che proposed FE package is capable of producing realiscic predictions of che seisinic
- -ExP"ri:mcnul rcsuJu behaviour of a nvo·level RC frame, which is a scrucrural configuration more complex than
"!! 30 rhose discussed in rhe preceding sections. The fran1e investigaced, denoced as L30, is one of
'"; rhe frames subjected co shake.. table excication in a research programme concerned with rhe
'E ~ 15
verification of the validicy of rhe European code provisions for the design of earrhquake..
E =
~t 0 resiscant scrucrures (Carydis 1997). The nun1erical resulrs obcained are then compared \Vich
~8 rhose resulting from rhe analysis of che same fran1e, but '-'' ithouc allowing cracking '-'' ithin the
~ c - 15 beam-colmnn joinrs of the frame, in an anempt to establish rhe effecr of cracking of che joint
.~ on the overall behaviour of che frame, chus complementing previous \Vork on che subject by
Q - 30 Corsovos and Kocsovos (2008) described in Section 5.3.

2 3 4 6 7,6, I Design details

Tirne (s)
The frame was designed in accordance '"'ith EC2/£C8 for lo\v ducrility and ics design
Figure 7.42 Three-storey RC wall under seismic excitation. NumericaJ (for C • S kNmls) and experimentaJ (both geomecric and reinforcement) derails are sho,vn in Figure 7.44. The uni.axial cylinder
displacement r esponse: (a) first floor: (b) second floor. (c) th.ird floor. compressive strengrh of the concrere used \Va.s f, = 50 MPa, \Vhereas the yield scress of the
272 f inite·element modelling of structural concrete Reinforced concr ete structural members under earthquake loading 273

3200
2200
A' 8'

~
~
] - 1 ·-~~~+-~~~
<

-3 -1-~~....; ......~~-1-~~~~~~~-1-~~~
0 JO 15 20 25
Tlme{s)

Figure 7.45 Two-level RC frame under seismic excitation. Acceleration record used in the numerical and
experimentaJ investigation.

reinforcemenr was {1 = 500 i\.fPa. The frame \Vas loaded \Vith masses o( 2.87 and 2_62 tons
at the lo\\•er and upper girders, respec-rively, and subjecred to rhe horizontal morion described
by rhe acceleracion record sho,vn in Figure 7.45. This was one of the loading regin1es adopted
in rhe presenc work. The behaviour of che frame \Vas also in.vescigaced under the action of
rwo equal horizoncal poinc loads exerred ar che !eve.ls of rhe lower (level 1) and upper (level 2)
girders. These loads either i1lC:reased monoconically to failure or \Vere applied in nvo cycles
\\•ith maxin1um values approxin1acely equal to ±40% and ±70% of che 1naximum sustained
load under monoronic loading P•• before increasing monotonically ro failure.

Section A - A 7.6.2 FE modelling

04/130
Section B-B The FE n1odel adopced for the frames is shO\\'n in Figure 7.46, rogerher \Vith the location of
4'0/130 -,hooJ<- rhe additiona l n1asses imposed. Ir should be noted thar in order ro simplify rhe ana lysis and
1208 CJ i'!i;- reduce its cost, the flanges of the girders (see Figure 7.44) \Vere noc included in the FE model

Section.C'I
2QQ/1$9
04/55 + 04/55

Masses

II 1I11!11I IJ. l!S:?ll

Figure 7.44 Two-level RC frame under seismic excitation. Design details. (Adapted from Carydis P..
1997. ECOEST PPREC8. Report 8. 182; Comite Europeen de Normalisation, ENV- 1992- 1,
Eurocode No. 2 (EC'2). 200-4. Design of Concrete Structures.. Part I: General Ruks and Rules of
8UJ1ding. CEN. 8n.1ssels.) Figure 7.46 Two-leveJ RC frame under seismic excitation. FE model.
274 Finite- element modelling of structural concrete Reinforced concrete structural members under earthquake loading 27S

representing rhe frame. Alrhough this sjmplificarion may affect rhe predic-red deformational 20
response of rhe frame, the resulcs of rhe comparative srudy (as \\rill be seen lacer) re1nain
essentially unaffected. 15
The frames were subdivided inco 92 27-node brick elements represencing concrece, 'E 10
whereas rhe 3 -node truss elements representing the steel reinforcemenc bars \Vere placed !
s
along successive series of nodal points in boch venical and horizontal direcrions. Since the ~
spacing of chese cruss elements wa.s predefined by che locacion of the brick elemencs' nodes, "' 0
rheir cross-sectional area \Vas adjusted so rhac the coral amounc of boch longirudinal and ~
rransverse reinforcemenc ro be equal ro che design values. i -S
j
The size of the 27-node Lagrangian brick finite elements (FEs) used is dictated by the ! - 10
philosoph)• upon \Vhich che FE model adopced in the presenr work is based, \Vhich does
noc en1ploy small FEs (Kocsovos and Pavlovic 1995). le is reminded rhar che macerial model - IS
adopred is based on daca obcained from experimencs in which concrete cylinders were sub- - 20
jec-red ro various criaxial loading conditions. Consequenrly, rhese cylinders are considered 9 10 11 12 13 J4 15
co consticure a 'material unic' for \Vhich average nlaterial properries are obtained and hence Ti.me (s)
rhe volun1e of rhese specimens provides a guideline to che order-of-n1agnirude of rhe size of
30
the FE used for the modelling of concrece scrucrures.
- - Experlmen1
20 - - Aiulysls
7. 6.3 Results 'E
.$
The results of the analyses are shown in Figures 7.47 through 7.56 and Tables 7.1 and
..,., 10
:s
7.2. Figures 7.47 rhrough 7.49 provide a comparative study of the dynamic response of ~
frame L30 established experimencally and irs counterpan predicted by means of non-linear ....,, 0

....5
FE analysis for che case of che seismic excication depicred in Figure 7.45. The response is - 10
expressed in the forn1 of curves describing the rime history of the numerically predicred
values of displacen1enr and acceleracion of che masses of levels 1 and 2 and of the base shear.
In Figure 7.50, che behaviour of frame L30 predicted numerically as described in Figures
7.47 through 7.49 is compared wich char predicted for rhe same frame, bur, \Virhour allo\v..
" - 20

ing cracking co occur within its beam- column joint regions. Thereafter, in rhe former case
rhe frame is designaced as 'f-C' and in rhe laner as 'F-E'; suffix 'C' denores 'concrece' and
rhis is intended co indicace chac rhe behaviour of concrece rhroughour the frame, joincs
included, is modelled as desc-ribed in che preceding secrion, whereas suffix 'E' denoces 'elas..
tic' in order co indicace chac nor allowing cracking to occur \\richin the joinc is equivalent
ro adopcing elasric propercies for concrere in this region. (c should also be nored char rhe
leners 'C' and 'E' are also used as subsc-riprs in Figures 7.51, 7.53, 7.54, 7.57 and 7.58 wich
rhe same meaning.
More specifically, Figure 7.50a shows the load- drift curves of frames F·C and f · E under
nlonoronic loading, together \vich the load- drifc curve obtained by assmning rigid joinr
behaviour; in the lacrer case rhe frame is designated as 'F·R' with 'R' denoting 'rigid joint'.
Moreover, Figure 7.50b provides an indicacion of rhe frame crack panerns ac various stages
of rhe monoronically applied load. Figure 7.51 sho\vs the variation with load of rhe differ-
ences in rhe drift values calculaced for rhe firsr and second levels of frames F-C and F-E
under monotonically increasing load; the values are expressed in a normalised form by
dividing chem with cheir councerparrs for frame F~E. The load- drifc curves of frames F-C
and F-E under cyclic loading are shown in Figure 7.52, che normalised differences in rhe
drifc values Vi' ith load being shown in Figures 7.53 and 7.54.
The response of che frames under the base acceleration record shown in Figure 7.45 is
described in Figures 7.55 and 7.56 in che forni of drifc versus rime and base shear vs. cime
diagrams, whereas a comparison of rhe numerically predicred dynamic responses of frames
F-C and F-E are sho\\rn in Figures 7.57 and 7.58. In rhe laner figures, the frame response is
- 30
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Time (s)
Figure 7.47 Two·level RC frame under seismic excitation. Numerical and experimental displacement
response of levels I and 2.
expressed in a normalised form by dividing the differences in response Vi' ith rhe correspond ..
ing maximum values for fran1e F-E.
Finally, Table 7.1 sho\VS the m.aximum values of displacement and acceleration ar levels
J and 2 and che nlaximun1 value of base shear predicted by analysis rogether Vi' ith their
councerparrs established experimencally. The predicced values shown in Table 7.1 are also
included in Table 7.2 cogecher Vi' ith their councerparts predicred for frame f .. E.
7. 6.4 Discussion of t he results
An indication of rhe nlodel's validicy may be obtained by reference co Table 7.1 and Figures
7.47 through 7.49, the larrer describing the response of frame L30 in the form of displace-
n1ent, acceleration and base shear versus rime graphs under che seisn1ic excicarion sho\Vn in
Figure 7.45. From rhe figures, ic appears rhac rhe correlation becween predicced and experi-
n1enral values is significantly closer in the cases of rhe base shear (see Figure 7.49) and rhe
acceleration of che masses ar levels 1 and 2 (see Figure 7.48) than ir is for rhe case of che
276 Finite-elem ent modelling o f structural concr ete Reinforced concrete structural members under earthquake loading 277

4000
- - Expetlme.nt

~ I1, ••II' -- Analysis

,,,,
I
1 2000
I
g
..
c

~ 0
8~
f __,_ -. " ,.,- _,J,; 1'
j
!!
- 2000
I
\ ~

I
,,
-
I
- 4000
9 JO II J2 13 ,. JS
Ti.ml'())

6000 Figure 7.49 Two·level RC frame under seismic excitation. Comparison o( the experniental and numericalty
- - Experlme.nt predicted values of base shear.

.:; 4000 ,,• ~ -- Analysis

1 'l co nearly 50% at peak load level (P_,). Ir is inrerescing co nore in Figure 7.50b char cracking
g 2000 \\rirhin rhe joint regions (indicated by che dashes wichin che joint elemencs) iniciaces a c a va lue
g of rhe applied load of the order of 25 kN, which is less rhan 0.3P•.
.£ 0 The load- drifr curves predic ced for che frames under cyclic loading are shown in Figure
7.52 \\rich che d ifferences in drifr benveen che cwo frames being sho\\rn in Figures 7.53 and
"~ - 2000
1.54 for levels 1 and 2, res-pecti\•e.l y. The larcer figures sho\V char che effect of cracking is

..
f
3
-4000 " .,
more pronounced in che firsc load cycle rather chan che second one. However, during che
chird s-rage of che loading process, when rhe in1posed load increases monoconically co fail·

" -6000
I

,.
9 JO II J2 13
Ttm.(s)
figure 7.48 Two-level RC frame under seismic excitation. Numer ical and experimental acceleration
response of levels I and 2.
drifr values (see Figure 7.47). Moreover, Table 7.1 shO\VS that the maximum values obtained
nun1erically for the drift, acceleracion and base shear d iffer from cheir experimentally esrab·
lished councerparrs by amounts ranging benveen approximately 3% a nd 30%.
Figure 7.50 shows che load- drifr curv« predicted for levels 1 and 2 of frames F-C and
f·E under monotonic loading together wich rheir councerpans for the case of frame f ·R
characrerised by rigid joint behaviour. Fron1 the figure, it can be seen char che curves associ·
ated \Vich elas-ric and rigid ioinc behaviot:ir essencially coincide and chis confirms the vie'v
rhac it is cracking that causes che deviacion of che crue joinc response (response of frante F-C)
from that predicted by ass-un1ing rigid joint behaviour (response of frame f·R). The differ·
ences- in drifr benveen fran1es- F-C a nd F-E are shown in Figu re 7.51 from \Vhich it appears
char cracking of che joints causes rhe drif1 co increase significantly \Virh che applied load up
ure, rhe d iffere nce in drifr increases to a value of over 50% char of frame f· E, for which
cracking " 'as nor allowed co form wichin the joinr region.
le is inreresring ro nore in Figures 1.55 and 7.56 that crack formation \Vithin the joint
IS regions affeccs mainly che amplitude of che drifc and base sh ear oscillacions of fra me F-C
under seismic excitation, as frames F- C and f· E appear ro oscilla ce in phase \Vich essentially
che same period. Moreover, from Figures 7.57 ar:d 7.58, ic can be seen char the d iffere nces
in che values of both drift and base shear benveen rhe fra mes can be larger th.an about 30%
che maximum value of their councerparrs for frar.1e f · E.
As rhe maximum values of drifr a nd base shear predicted by che analysis are imporranc
for design purposes, these are included in Table 7.2. From chis table, ic can be seen th.at
che n1axin1um values of drifc predic red by assun1ing rigid joinc behaviour di ffer fron1 their
councerparcs predicced by analysis when allowing for che effecc of joinr cracking by amouncs
of rhe order of 19% and 13% for rhe firsr a nd second levels, respecrively. From Table 7.2,
it can also be seen th.at the ntaximun1 values of base shear predicred when assuming rigid
joinc behaviour d iffers from its counterpart predicted when allowing for the effect of joint
cracking by a n amounc of che order of 26%. Sioce rhe assmnpcion of rigid joint underlies
pracrical structural analysis, ic appears ch.ac such analyses may underes-cimare the values of
both design loads and displacen1ents. As a result of chis, currenc design practice appears co
be unable co safeguard che margins of safecy and che srruccural perforn1ance requiren1encs
specified by rhe codes.
278 f inite-element mo delling of structural concrete Reinforced concr ete str uctural members under earthquake loading 279

(a) 80 so
+ level I
40 • Level 2

.....
~I 30
•
-3x
~
20 • •

0
50 100 150
- - · F·R
-
--•.c
- F·E
10

0
--· •
0 20 40 60 80
Ut l~ drift (d1) (mm)
Load (kN)
80
Figure 7.51 Two-level RC frame under monotonic: loading. Differ ence in drift between frames F-C and F- E

.. normalised with respect to the drift of frame F- E.

7.6.S Concluding remarks

£ The NLFEA model, already found ro yield dose predicrions of rhe behaviour of a wide range
"- 40 of RC strucrural forms under arbitrary sraric (monotonic and cyclic) loading conditions, is
~ also sho,vn to yield realistic predictions of che behaviour under seismic excitarion of che
nvo-level fran1e invescigated in che presenr \York.
20 Using chis model for investigating the effecc of cracking \Vithin che joint regions forming
- - · F'·R. at the beam-column interseccions on srrucrura l behaviour, the effec-c of such cracking is
- - F·E found to be significanr. As a resuk, praccical suuccural analysis based on the assun1pcion of
0
-- •.c rigid ioinrs yields results char cannor always safeguard che code-specified margins of safecy
0 so 100 150 200 and srruc-cural perforn1ance require.mencs. Ir appears, cherefore, thac there is an urgent need
2nd Lnd drift Cd,) (mm) for improving current design mechods so as to a llow for the inconsiscencies resulting from
(b) che condition for rigid joint behaviour ch ar underlies currenr nlechods for fran1e analysis.

7.7 EFFECT OF THE CON FINEMENT O F REIN FORCEMENT IN

BOUNDARY-COLUMN ELEMENTS ON THE BEHAVIOUR
O F STRUCTURAL-CONCRETE WALLS UNDER SEISMIC
EXCITATION

7. 7. 1 Bac kground
Currem code [American Concrere Insricuce (ACI) 2006, EC8 2004, Eanhquake Planning and
Proreccion Organizarion (EKOS) 2001] provisions for the design of earrhquake-resisranr RC
scrucrural walls (S\V) specify reinforcement arrangemenrs comprising nvo pares: one parr
forming "boundary column (BC)' e.lements (usually exrending benveen rhe ground and first·

6kN ..... ! floor levels of buildings) a long che rwo vertical edges of the \Valls; rhe ocher consisting of a set
of grids of uniformly distributed vercical and horizontal bars, \\rithin che ·wall \Veb, arranged
parallel to che wall side faces. The BC elen1ents are intended to imparc rhe \Valls che code·
Figure 7.50 Two-level RC frame: (a) numerical load- drift curve.s of frame F-C and F- E and (b) typical crack specified ducciliry, whereas che wall web is designed against the occurrence of 'shear· fail-
patterns under monotonic loading. ure, before the wall flexural capacity is exhausted. The specified ductility is considered to
280 Finite-element modelling o( structural concrete Reinforced concrete s-tructural members under earthquake loading 28 1

- - F-C

.
20

10 ..• - I h l Cvdt -
••• I
""":s·~
- 10 -- --
•• =··
~ 2'> f---1---~--1--~l!lt.:---l---l---+---I

••••
·-
- 20

. .... -
~ ~

! 0 - 30 ~ '
_,,, .f----+--l---l--___,f-
§ •
- 50
- - -~
'
-.so -1---+--l---+---.----+---+--..---c
- 50 -40 - 30 - 20 - 10 0 10 20 30
....
- 60 .... _,,, 0 20
Lo.d(l<N)
.. 60
""
20

- - F-C • 2ndC)<k

•••••
~
•
..."'
'. - 20
•
•••••••• •••
•••
.....
•,.
~ •
§
.... ~ ~

• •
-.so -1---1----+--~---+---,.._-~---c
- 80 -<10 - 20 0 20 40
....
-60 .... _,,, 0 20
Lood (kN)
•IO 60 ..
2nd Levf'l dJsp (d1J (mm)
20

~
Tofailuu
Figure 7.52 Two- level RC frame under cyclic loading. Numerically established load-drift ct1rves o( frames 10
F-C and f -E.
• 0 ••
be achie,·ed by confining concrete \vichin the BC e len1ents through che use of a dense scirrup
arrangement, chus increasing boch che screngch and the scrain c.apaciry of the material; on
~
...
'V - 10 -• --
•
•
~

-
che orher hand, shear failure is mainly prevenced b)' providing horizoncal \Veb reinforcemenc :s·~
- 20 I-

_.., •
i.:apabl~ u( suMaiuiug Liu.• portion of Lit<-' :o.h<."ar (on:~ iu ~Xl'.<.":io:o. of th<n whid t 1..'3U l.k' :o.u.staiu~<l
§ •
by concrtce. le is also imporca1u ro add char rhe calculation of che \Vall flexural capacity allo,vs -40 -- -- ·-~
for che concribucion of all vertical reinforcen1ent, 'virhin both che BC elements and che \Veb.
The al:ove design procedure, ho,vever, has a significant drawback: che dense spacing of che - 50
••
scirrups ofren resulcs in reinforcemenc congescion wichin cht BC elen1encs and chis n1ay cause
difficulcies in cone:recing and, possibly, incomplece compaccion of rhe concrete. Although ir
-60
- 60
_,,, 0 20 •IO 60 80
is widely recognised chat chere is a need for confining reinforcen1ent \Vichin che BC elements Lood(kN)
in order co increase che ducciliry of S\V, ic has been argued rhac such reinforcement, but in a
significantly sma ller amounc, is only required for the case of S\V \Vich a shear span·to~depch Figure 7.53 Two-level RC frame under cyclic loading. Normalised differences in drift of the 1st level between
ratio larger than 2.5 (Korsovos and Pavlovic 1999). frames F-C and F-E.
284 Finite- element modelling o f strucwral concrete Reinfor ced con crete strucwral members under earthquake loading 28S

Tobie 7. t Two-level RC frame under seismic excitation 4-0

Ana;s;s (2) 100x[(2) - (IJ}l(I) 30
'· I...
maxo. (mm)
max01 (mm)
maxA 1 (mm/s1)
12
18.4
271)
12.6
21.2
lS40
s
6.)
30.S
20

10
~-'-'-'- ..- - ' ....
0 I- -
-r~-
maxA2 (mm/s') S4SS S660 l .8
maxBS (kN) 28.l 27.4 -l.2 i' - JO
\
-
Exptrirnenttll'f' established lM numerieall'f p~ted m~um (numeric~ values of the dtift (MlX0 1 and
MlXOJ and the aceelen.tlon (m~1 and rntxAJ of the Masses at ~Is I and 2 and base 'lheu (mnBS)
)(
~
- 20
- 30
- 4-0
·,
I
- - 1-

' -
Tobie 7.2 Two·level R.C frame under seismic excitation
9 10 ll 12 13 14
Response µ;(I) F-E (2) 100 x ((1) - (2))1(2)
maxo. (mm) 12.6 IS.6 - 19.2
Figure 7.58 Two·level RC frame under seismic excitation. Time history of normaJi-sed drffer ences in base
max02 (mm) 21.2 2S - 12.9
shear between specimens F-C and f. E.
maxBS (kN) 27.4 )7 26
~erkall'f p~ted MWmum (l'IU'Ylerlal) valut"S ol the dtlft (maxD1 and Max0:) of the Masses at levels I
and 2 and the base sheu (mnBS) of frames F-C and F-E.
7. 7.2 Design d etails
Evidence in supporr of che above argument has recencly been obtained from numerical The design decails of che S\V invesrigaced are sho\\rn in Figure 7.59. The figure indicates rhar
experiments carried out, as for rhe case of the Rat slabs discussed in Secrion 5.5, through rhe walls WI have a Jengch I= 3000 mm (see Figure 7.59a), whereas for walls \Y/2 I= 1500 mm
use of rhe proposed FE model (Cocsovos a nd Korsovos 2007). The work involved a compara- {see Figure 7.59b); che heigh< and widrh are equal co h = 3000 mm and b = 250 nun, respec-
rive srudy of the behaviour of S\V designed by using nvo disrincd)• different approaches: that rively, for all ·walls. The longirudinal reinforcemenr of both rypes of \Vall comprises six
of rhe compressive force parh {CFP) mechod {Korsovos and Pavlovic 1999) and rhac of rhe 20 mm diamerer bars arranged in pairs ac 150 mm cencre-to·cencre spacing within the BC
mer hods adopred by codes {AC! 318 2006, EC2 2004, EC8 2004, EKOS 2001). Two rypes elemenrs, and 12 mm diamecer bars within che \Yeh, also arranged in pairs, 'virh 11 pa irs
of SW \\•ere invescigared under static (borh monotonic and cycl ic) and dynamic (seismic) being placed in walls W I ar 200 mm spacing and three in walls W2 ar 250 mm spacing. In
loading conditions: \Valls W l \virh a heighc-to-leng1h ratio of l and \Valls \V2 \Vith a height- all cases, ic \Vas assumed rhar the sreel bars had a yield stress f1 = 500 MPa and srrengch
co-lengch ratio of 2. A concise desc-riprion of che above numerical-cesc prog.r amme is pre· f,, = 600 M Pa, whereas the concrece (cylinder) compressive srrengch was f,= 30 MPa.
sented in whac follo\VS, wirh full derails being provided elsewhere (Corsovos and Korsovos In conrrasr wich the longirud ina l reinforce1nent, che horizonral reinfo rcement placed in
2007). It should be nored that rhe conclusions dra\vn fron1 the comparative study reported rhe walls depends on che method of design employed. Wichin che BC elemems of che walls,
herein have been subsequencly veri fied \\rich resulrs recendy obrained by experiment and che horizoncal reinforcemenr comprises 8 mm diamerer srirrups a t cenrre -co-cenrre spacing
reporced elsewhere (Kocsovos er al. 20 11, Zygouris er al. 2013). of 62 mm (AC! 3 18), 82 mm (EC2) and 26 mm {EKOS) for walls W I {che CFP mechod does
noc specify any scirrups for chis rype of \Valls), \\rhereas che stirrup spacing for \Valls \V2
was 62 mm (AC! 3 18), 58 mm (EC2), 44 mm {EKOS) and 263 mm {CFP). The horizoncal
60 reinforcemenr of rhe \Veb comprises 8 mm diamerer straighc bars rhac form a grid \Yirh rhe
- - Lewll
longirudinal bars a c each side of the wall. The horizontal ba rs are placed ar a centre-co-
]•
4-0
cenrre d isrance of 160 mm (AC! and EC2) and 250 mm (EKOS and CFP) for walls WI, and
20 160 mm (AC!), 135 mm (EC2), 185 mm (EKOS) and 343 nun (CFP) for walls W2 . (le should
~ 0
be nored rhar no anempc was made ro choose pracrical values for the diamecer and spacing

.
<>
:
'
:s.• - 20
of the cransverse reinforcement, as rhe choice of parricular values does affect che analysis
resulrs; moreover, the calculared values sho\\r very clearly the differences resulring from rhe
applicacion of the d ifferent codes.) As for che case of vertical reinforcement, rhe values of
-4-0 yield srress and strengch of che cransverse reinforcemenr \Vere assumed ro be equal co 500
and 600 MPa, respectively. Depending on rhe merhod employed co design rhe rransverse
-60
9 10 ll 12 13 14 reinforcemenr che walls are classified as Wl- ACI, Wl - CFP, WI- EC, W l - EKOS, W2- ACI,
Tlme(s) W2- CFP, W2- EC and W2- EKOS .
le is interescing co no te in Figure 7.59 chat for \Valls \VI rhe C FP mechod does not spec·
Figure 7.57 Two- level RC frame under seismic. excitation. Time history of the normalised differences in drift ify any srirrups, \Vhile the number of horizonral scraighr bars is equal ro chat specified by
between specimen s F-C and F-E. EKOS. On rhe ocher hand, for che walls W2, rhe CFP mechod specifies nearly five rimes
286 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Reinforced concrete structural members under earthquake loading 287

(a) 100 - (b)

100 -
p
p
ACI :ind EC2.:D81J60
I I
ACI, 2<(010/250)

~
EC2, 2"(08/135)
2"(3012/250) EKOS, (2"08/185)

2x(llDl2/200)
\~T'"'
2x(3D20/I~
~I'-.. ~
3000

2x(3020/150)

0
3000

) ~
_. ~ ~
~-.
,_ --
1~ -
I
~

ACl:DS/62
(")CFPCc
stlmi.ps - f--
- ,_

- --
extending
[Q,08/82 ro 12500n
-
-
- --------------- -
300 200 10 )( 200 = 2000 200 300
AO:DS/62
EQDS/58

3000 300 200 500 200 300

IW m l1
Oim£"ns:lons In. miUlmetre
250
Figure 7.59 RC walls under seismic excitation. Design details: (a) walls WI; (b) walls W2.
1500

fewer srirrups and approximarely half che number of horizontal srraight bars specified by Dimen..slons ln mUUmeue
rhe codes.
Figure 7.59 tContinued) RC walls under seismic excitation. Design details: (a) walls WI: (b) walls W2.

c. Seis1nic excitacion as indicated in Figure 7.61 assuming a 'weighcless' mass of 100

7. 7.3 Loading regimes
The \\ra Jls \Vere subjected to three rypes of horizoncal loading applied along rhe horizoncal
axis of symmetry of a rigid prismatic elemenc monolirhically connected co rhe \Valls ar their
cop face (see Figure 7.59):
a. Stacie load monoconically increasing co failure
b. Stacie cyclic load also increasing co failure fron1 a value of approximately 50% of rhe
\\rail load-carrying capacity, in incremencs of 10% 'vi ch each load reversal, as indicated
in Figure 7.60
ronnes concencrated ac the geomecric cencre of che prismatic ele1nenr.
7. 7.4 Mesh discretisation adopted
The walls were subdivided inm 6 x 1 x 6 = 36 (walls Wl) and 4 X 1 x6 = 24 (walls W2)
brick e lemenrs as sho\vn in Figure 7.62. As discussed in Sec-rion 7.7.3, the load \\fas applied
through a prism.aric member n1011olithically connected co rhe \Valls ar the upper face; chis
n1ember was subdivided inro 6 x t x 1 = 6 brick e lemencs, as also indicaced in Figure 7.62.
The line elements representing che sceel reinforcement \Vere placed along successive series of
288 finite -element modelling of structural concr ete Reinforced concrete structural members under earthquake loading 289

(>) (b)
200
'' ' ' ' '
1.0
"-
0.1

0.5
6 x 500 : 3000 1--+--+---+---+---l--l 6 )( 500 : 3000
'
'
'
--0.6
'
--0.8

250
'
'
250'-~--------
4x375 : 1SOO

Figu~ 7.60 RC walls. loading history adopted for the eye.lie tests.
Figure 7.62 RC walls under seismic excitation. FE mesh: (a) walls WI; (b) waits W2.

7. 7.6 Discussion of results

2 7.7.6./ Walls WI

..
31
c

~ 0
From Figure 7.59a, it can be seen rhac, of che v.raJls \VJ, those designed in accordance y,rich
(a) EKOS (Wl- EKOS) and (b) che CFP merhod (Wl- CFP) differ in char rhe reinforcemenc
of \Vl- EKOS includes a dense srirrup arrangemenc wirhin its BC elemencs, whereas rhe
] - I reinforcement of \V1-CFP does nor. And yec, as indicared in Figures 7.63 through 7.65,
rhese nvo \Valls exhibired small differences in behaviour under rhe loading regimes invesci·
-2 gaced. Under sraric loading (boch monoronic and cyclic) wall Wl- EKOS yielded ar a slighrly
h igher load, whereas wall W l-CFP exhibiced a slighrly higher load-carrying capacicy and
10 15 20
larger maximum horizoncal displacemenrs. Under dynamic loading simularing seismic
Time (s)

1400
F'igu~ 7.61 RC walls under seismic excitation. Acceleration record.
1200

1000
nodal poinrs in boch verrical and horizonral directions. Since rhe spacing of chese line ele·
n1ents was predefined by the location of the brick elemenc nodes, rheir cross·sectional area
was adjusted so rhac rhe rota! amount of reinforcemenc within boch rhe BC elements and rhe ~ 800

v.rall web \Vas equal co rhe design values shown in Figure 7.59. "'~ 600
- - CFP
400
7. 7.5 Results - - ACI
- - EC2/8
200
The main resulcs of rhe work are gi••en in Figures 7.63 through 7.68. Figures 7.63 and ---· EKOS
7.66 show rhe load- deflec-cion curves obtained under scarically applied monoconic load· 0
ing, \Yhereas che load-deflection curves obcained under srarically applied cyclic loading are 0 5 10 15 20
shown in Figures 7.64 and 7.67. Finally, Figures 7.65 and 7.68 show rhe response of rhe walls De6tttlon (mm)
ro seisn1ic excirarion, che \Vall response being expressed in the form of variacions of displace·
menr, yeJociry, accelerarion and base shear wich time. Figure 7.63 RC walls under monotonic loading. l oad-<lefleccion curves for walls WI.
290 Finite -element modelling of structural concrete Reinfor ced concrete structural members under earthquake loading 291

(•)
'E IS
.$ 10
s
~~ 0
-5

0
t - 10
- IS
- 20

- - AU
)
• n me(s)
6 10

- - CFP
(bl 400
- - EC2/8
300
---· EKOS
"'.$e 200
100
0 10 20
DelJectlon (mm)
30 40
,,. 0
i - 100

figure 7.64 RC walls under cyclic loading. Load-deflection curves for walls WI. ~ - 200

excirarion boch walls exhibired similar behaviour. Such behaviour clearly dtmonsrraces • s 6 7
chac, for chese cypes of,vall, che presence of scirrups \Vichin the BC elemencs does noc affecc
che scrucrural behaviQ!Jr.
A comparison of rhe response of walls Wl - ACI, W I-EC a nd W l - EKOS - rhac is, rhe
(<)
lS.000 __..,
·walls designed in acro:d ance \Vith current codes - indicates t har all \¥alls exhibiced similar ~ 10.000 - - cfp

1---+~-~
- - tt2/8
behaviour. All rhese walls have sin1ilar rein(orcemenc arrangements c haraccecised by che { 500)
presence of scirrups within rheir BC elentents, \Vich che spacing of rhe stirrups depending on
-~ o l-.Ail!\.111..111111111.<llUUl,ll
checode adopced for rheir design. le is incerescing ro noce that EKOS specifies spacing of only -"
26 mm, as compared \fich rhe 62 m m spacing specified by AC! 318 and rhe 82 mm specified 8 -5000
~ - 10.000 .,__ _.,__ _..,_ __.,_ __._ _ _. __ _.,__ _. j
by EC2. Moreover, AC! 318 a nd EC2 specify web horizonca l reinforcemem wnh 160 m m
spacing, as compared wirh che 250 mm spacing specified by EKOS.
le is nored char for a ll cypes of SW the codes considered specify (a) stirrups in order ro pro-
)
n me(s)
• s 6 7

vide confinemenc ro concrer·e within che BC elemencs and (h) horizontal reinforce1nent thar
would increase the \Vall shear capaciry beyond che value of t he shear force corresponding co (d) 2.000.000
1.soo.000
flexura l capacity. On t he o cher hand , for RC structural nlcmbcrs with a shear span- to-dcpch
~
1.000.000
ratio ben veen 1 and 2 .5 (\vich 'deprh' being rhe disrance front rhe exrren1e compressive fibre
of che resulcanc of rh e f1>rces susca ined by che flexural reinforcemenc in tension when flexura l
capaciry is anained), such as \Valls W l , che CFP mechod specifies only ho rizoncal reinforce~
•
~
500,000
0
- 500,000
~
n1enr, uniformly discributed a long the wall heighr, in an a mount sufficienc co enhance rhe ,! - 1.000.000
bending moment corresponding co a non· flexural mode of fa ilure ro che value of flexura l - 1.soo.000
capaciry (Korsovos 2014). Ir appears from Figures 7.63 through 7.65 thar rhe CFP merhod - 2.000.000
satisfies che code requirements for loadacarrying capacicy and ducciliry in a more efficient ~ 2 3
n me(s)
• s 6
n1anner chan che merhods incorporared in rhe rodes (see Figure 7.59a).
le may a lso be interesring co note in Figures 7.63 chrough 7.65 char rhe values or n1aximum figure 7.65 RC walls under seismic excitation. Variation with time of (a) d isplacement., (b) VEiocity, (c) accel-
load a nd horizonta l displacement exhibiced by all walls under bo th cyclic and dynamic load· eration and (d) base shear for walls W I.
ing were s in1ilar co th ose an a ined under monoconic loading.
specifies such reinforcemenc in order to susta in rensile stresses developing \Virhin che com·
pressive zone a c right angles co che verrical d ireccion as a result of che loss of bond ber·ween
7.7.6. 2 Wa lls W2
concrece a nd rhe flexural rein forcement in regions, such as ch e base of the ·walls, under che
In contrasc \Virh walls W l , a ll mechods of design invescigated specify stirrups \Vich in che BC accion of a large bending n1oment combined 'vich a large shear force (Korsovos 2014).
elemenrs of " rails W2. However, unlike che code merhods \Vhich, as discussed in che preced· Figures 7.66 through 7.68 show th ac variations of che order of 40% in eirher che s cir~
ing seccion, specify sriirups for confining concrere \¥irhin che BC elemenrs, the CFP mechod rups of che BC elem~nts or the horizonca l bars of th e \Veb have no apparent effecr on che
292 f inite-element modelling of structural conc.rete Reinforced concr ete structural m em bers under earthquake loading 293

600
(•) 25 ~----~----~-------..-<

.
20
500
I !~
~
400

: ; ])0

~
200
A- !
c..
6
~
-5
- 10
- 15
- 20

H-f-
- EC2/8 - 25 + - - - 1 - - - - - - - - - i - -...---1--~--l----l----l
- CFP 0 2 • 5 6 9
100 - · ACI n me (s)
---· EKOS
0 (b) 250 -------~-----------<
0 10 15 20 25 200 +---l---<--
DeRectlon (mm) 150

Figure 7.66 RC walls under monotonic loading. load-deflection curves for walls W2. I ':~ 0
·g - 50
behaviour of che \Valls designed in compliance wich che code specifications for che loading ~ -100
regimes considered. More imporcandy, rhe wall behaviour appears to be unaffecced by rhe - 150
large reductions of che order of 80% for rhe stirrups and 60% for rhe horizontal bars resuh- - 200 · ---l---<--
ing from the application of che CFP method for che design of the walls. In fact, t he reduc-
2 4 6 1 9
t ion in srirrups is e\'en larger \Vhen considering char such reinforcement is placed OYer rhe
Tlme(s)
lower portion of che BC elements extending ro approximatdy one-rhird of rhe wall height,
(<) <-000 ..---..~-..-~..---..~-..-~..---..-r=-:::-;1~
as opposed co t he tocal wall height specified by the codes (see Figure 7.59b).
le appears from rhe above, rherefore, rhac, as for the case of 'valls \X'l, walls \V2 exhibic 3000
similar behaviour under che loading regimes invescigared . Such sjn1ilarity in behaviour indi-
cares rhac designing the walls in accordance \Vith che CFP merhod yields nlcre efficienc
g
·~ - lOOO
600 - - 2000
500
l<
-4000
400 - 5000 +---;.--+---<--..;--.....,;.----+---;----+---<
300
0 •Time (s) 6 1 9

~
200
(d) 600.000 -----~----~--------< - __- ad
cfp
...~
100
400.000 - - tcl18
0
~
- 100
- 200
- - EC2/8
- 300 - - CFP
-400.000
- 400 - - ACI -600.000 ..,__ _ _.....,,__ _ _...,._ _ _ __.._ _ _ _...__ _,
---· EKOS
- 500 0 2 4 6
- 20 - 10 0 10 20 30 4-0 Tl.,. (s)
De.Ottdoo. (mm)
Figure 7.68 RC waJls under seismic excitation. Variation with time of (a) d isplacement. (b) velocity. (c) accel-
F'igure 7.67 RC walls undercydK loadjng. load-deflection curves for walls W2. eration and (d) base shear for walls WI.
29"4 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete
design solutions (see Figure 7.59b) without compromising the code performance require-
menrs for mengrh and ducciliry (see Figures 7.66 through 7.681.
7.7.7 Conclusions
\Vithi1\ the scope of this study, designing in accordance 'vich the CFP mechod leads to sig·
nificant savings in horizontal reinforcement for both types of SW investigated, \Vithout com·
promising rhe code pe,r formance requiremencs.
Mott specifically, in concrast with the mechods incorporated in codes, che CFP mechod
does noc specify any stirrups \\rithin rhe boundary-column elemenrs of walls \Vich shear
span-co -deprh ratios bet\veen 1 and 2.S, \Vhereas the an1ounr of horizoncal web reinforce·
n1enr is similar co thar specified by che codes.
On rhe other hand, for walls with a shear span·to--depch rauio larger chan 2.5, rhe amounc
of scirrup reinforcemenc specified by che CFP mechod is significandy lo\ver rhan chat speci·
tied b)'" current codes. Moreover, such reinforcement is placed wichin a portion of rhe
boundary-column elen1enrs exrending to jusc over one-chird of rhe \\rail heighc, as compared
with the full element height recommended by rhe codes. As for the case of rhe scirrups, rhe
amounc of horizonral web reinforcemenr specified by rhe CFP merhod is also significantly
smaller (nearly half) chan thac specified by the codes.
7.8 CONCLUDING REMARKS
From d1e c-ase scudies presented in the present chapter, it can be concluded rhat che proposed
non-linear FE solution procedure is numerically stable and capable of nor only producing
realistic predictions of srrucrural behaviour under seismic ex.cication, bur, also, idencifying
rhe causes and mechanisnis of failure. Moreover, the close correlation bec\veen predicred and
experin1enral resulcs indicaces char the effecc of damping is effeccively accounted for by the
adopted constitutive nlOdels of co1x-rere and steel and rhe nun1erical descripcion of che crack·
ing processes.
le is .imporranc co note, however, char the predicced loss of load-carrying capacicy occurs
earlier than \Vhar the experimenta l resulcs indicare. This difforence in behaviour is consid·
ered to reflecr indefinable effeccs, stemming from rhe inreracrion between specimen and rest·
ing sec-up. Such effects become dominant \Vhen disruprion becomes excessive and enable the
specin1en to resorc to alrernarive, unstable in nacure, mechanisms of load rransfer. It is con·
sidered, rherefore, that, during the last stage of rhe resting procedure, che resu ks obcained
describe rhe posr-ultimare inceraction between the specimen and che resting set·up and,
hence, are of no practical significance.
ln a ll but one of the case studies presenred in the present chapter, the interaction becween
rhe specimen and the tesring sec·up \Vas ignored, since ics effect on che struccural behav-
iour became pronounced afcer che occurrence of considerabfe disrupcion of rhe specimen.
Ho,vever, for the case of rhe three-level wall discussed in Seccion 7.5, che inceraction becween
specin1en and cesting set-up affected scructural behaviour rhroughouc che rest duracion,
since the masses interaccing with the wall \Vere supported by an auxiliary frame structure.
In rhis case, the energy dissipated during rhe seisn1ic excitacion could nor be entirely aurib·
uted to the damage reflected in che non-linear scructural response; a pare of it, cherefore,
was allowed for rhrough che use of a dumping matrix expressing the inceraccion becween rhe
specin1en and the experimencal set-up.
Reinforced concrete structural members under earthquake loading 295
REFERENCES
American Concrete Institute (AO), 2006, Buildi11g Code Requireme11ts for Reinforced Concrete (ACI
JISR-06) and Commentary. AO, Detroit.
C:uydis P., 1997, Shaking table tests o( R.C. frames, ECOEST PP RECS, Report 8, 182.
Comite Europttn de Normalisation, ENV- 1992- 1, Eurocodr No. 2 (EC2), 2004, Design of Concrete
Structures. Part I: General Rules and Rules of Building. CEN, Brussds.
Comite Europttn de Nomulisatlon, ENV- 1998- 1, Eurocode No. 8 (ECS), 2004, Design of Stntdures
for Earthquake Resistance. Part 1: General Rules, Seis111ic Actions and Rules for Buildings, CEN,
Brussels.
Cotsovos D. ~t.. 2004, Numerical investig•ition of structural .concrete under dynamic (earthquake and
impact) loading. PhD thesis~ Unjversity of London, UK
Cotsovos D. !vt., 2013, Cr:.tcking of RC beam/column joints: Jmplicuions for the :malysis of frame-type
structures, Engineering Structures, 52, 131- 139.
Cotsovos D. ~t. and Kotsovos M. 0., 2007, Seismic design of structur:il concrete walls: An attempt to
reduce reinforce.mcnt congestion, Maga~ine of Concreu:, 59, 9, 627-637.
Cotsovos D. l\ 1. and Kotsovos M. D., 2008, Cr:.tcking of RC h<'amlcolumn joints: lmpJications for prac-
1
tical structural analysis and design, The Stntctural Engineer, 86(12), 33- 39.
Earthquake Plan ning and Protection Organization (EKOS), 2001, Creek Code for Reinforced Co11crete,
Ministry of Environment, Plan ning and Public \Vorks, Athens, Greece, April 2001 (in Greek).
Kotsovos M. D., 2014, Compressiw Forc.e-Path Metl1od: Unified Ultimate LUnit-State Desig11 of
Concrete Structures, Engineering Materi:tls Series, Springer. London, 221 pp.
Kotso\'os G. f\4., Cotsovos D. !vt., Kotsovos M. D. and Kounadis A. N., 2011, Seismic behaviour of RC
walls: An attempt to reduce reinforcement congestion~ A1aga.zine of Co11c.rete Research, 63(4),
2.lS- 246.
Kotsovos, .M. D. and Pavlov-ic. M. N . ~ 1995, StrucJural Concrete: Finite-EJement Analysis a11d Design,
London, Thomas Telford, 550pp.
Kotsovos ~·1. D. and Pavlovic M. N., 1999. Ultimate Li111it-State Desig11 of Concrete Structures: A New
Approach, Thomas Telford (London), 164pp.
Lcstuzzi P., Wenk T. and Bachmann Ii., 1999, Dynamic tests o( RC strucrur:.tl walls o n the Elli earth-
q uake simulator, /BK Report No. 240, lnstitiit fi1r &ustttik und Konstruktion, ETII, Zurich.
~·linow:i C., ~wa N., Hayashida T., Kogoma I. and Okada T., 1995, Dynamic and static collapse
tests of reinforce-concrete columns, Nuclear Engineeri1rg and Design, 156, 269- 276.
Takeda T., Sozen ~t. A. and Nielsen N . N., 1970, Reinforced concrete response to simulated earth-
quakes,Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 96, 2557- 2573.
Zygouris N. St., Kotsovos G. ~1 . and Kotsovos ~1. D., 2013, E.ffcct of tr:.tnsversc reinforcement on shon
structural wall bduvior, i\1aga_zine of Co11cre/e Research, 67(17), 10.l4--1043.
Chap ter 8

Structural concrete under

impact loading

8. 1 INTRODUCTION

The work presented in rhis chapcer is intended co demonsrrare rhac the use of che FE model
presented in Chapter 4, as complemenced in Chapcer 6 so as co carer for dynamic problems,
is also capable, through the use of rhe conscicucive model presented in Chapter 3, of predicc~
ing che behaviour of scrucrural concrece under h igh loading races. As che use of chis model
implies rhac the mechanical properties of concrece are independenc of rhe rare of loading,
che numerical invesrigarion presented is also aimed ar investigating the effecrs of che rate
of loading on scrucrura l behaviour and, in doing so, co explain the causes of these effec-rs.

8.2 STRUCTURAL CONCRETE UNDER COMPRESSIVE

IMPACT LOADING

8 .2.1 Background
Over che past century, a large number of experiments ha\'e been carried our on the behav..
iour of prisn1atic or cylindrical concrete specin1ens under high rates of uniaxia l compressive
loading (for a thorough bibliography of the copious laboratory data encompassing hundreds
of tescs see e.g., Bischoff and Perr)' 1991, 1995, Ross et a l. 1995, 1996, Gary and Bailly
1998, Groce ec al. 2001). The primary objecci\•e of such experimenrs is ro investigace rhe
behaviour of concrece under such ex·creme loading conditions ar a n1acerial level, since rhe
response exhibited by chese specimens during dynamic rests has been sho,vn ro differ from
thac of cheir counterparcs tested under sracic conditions. This difference primarily takes rhe
form of an increase in the specimens• load..carrying capacity and n1aximum sustained axial
srrain, a d ifferen.c e \Vhich becomes more apparenc as rhe loading rare increases.
The experimental daca obtained from rhese tests are usually processed in order co derive
la\vs which are incorporated into already existing material models aiming to enhance chem
by making rhem sensitive ro che rate of loading ro enable rhem co describe rhe behaviour of
concrece under h.igh loading rares. The n1ajoriry of these models are rhen incorporated into
various fini te-element (FE) packages (e.g., LS-DYNA, ABAQUS, ADINA, etc.) aiming at
predic-ring accurately che behaviour of RC scrucrures under exrreme loading conditions such
as chose encountered in impacr and explosion situations.
The formulacions of such material models have been based on a variecy of t heories,
including plasticity (Malvar et al. 1997, Thabet and Haldane 2001), viscoplasticiry (Cela
1998, Winnicki et a l. 2001, Gomes and Awruch 2001, Georgin and Reynouard 2003, Barpi
2004), conrinuurn dam.age n1echanics {Cervera et al. 1996, Hacz.igeorgiou er al. 200 1, Koh
et al. 2001, Lu and Xu 2004) or a combination of these theories (Dube er al. 1996, Faria

297
298 f inite·- element modelling of structural concrete Structural conc.rete under impact loading 299

er al. 1998). Models such as rhese are referred ro as phenomenologica l since chey are based
on theories capable of providing a close fir ro experin1enral in(orm.ation \Vichouc raking into
consideration the causes of the observed material behaviour. Regardless of rhe theory upon
4
.. c> Evan.s-1942
• Watsteh,· 1953
& Tell:ada-1959
which cheir formulation is based, chese models share a number of fundan1encal assumpcions, 3.5
• Lundeen-1963
rhe valid1ry of \Vhich is inherently quesrioned herein: srrain sofcening, srress.. path depen· • Horlbe and Kobiyash.i-l965
dency and loading·rare sensirivicy are the mosr con1mon among such assumpcions. 3 • Cowel-1966
In order for such n1acerial models co be used in problerns involving rhe invescigation of
srruccural concrere u nder scaric or dynamic loading, one must initially calibrace rhen1 care..
... .. Atchley add Futt- 1967
x HJorth-1977
~
I
2.5
fully (based on rhe ava ilable experimenta l daca) by assigning certain values co a number of + Mahln and Bertero- l972
paramerers which are essential co fully define the macerial ftlodel. However, che use of such ;;_-.
+ Pop-191?
2
paran1erers usually makes che FE packages \Vhich incorpor.ue them case· sensici,·e O\Ving ro
rhe face that their abilicy ro produce accurate predictions is lin1ired only ro cenain problem
i - Hughes and Watson- 1918
• Dilger et al-1984
types. Applying rhen1 ro different problem rypes often means that rhey have ro be recali· 1.5 c> Mal\'ernetal-1985
braced. Therefore, it is nor surprising rhac chese exiscing FE models for scrucrural concrete 6 Su3.!'IS and Shah-1985
cannot provide a phenomenological explanation for the behaviour of concrece (ac a macerial
leve.1) unCer high rares of impact: instead, when faced with chis cype of problem, all rhe exist·
I
-e-~-1T o Ross et al - 1989
o Ross et al-199S
ing FE packages for structural concrete n1erely adapr rheir material properties on the basis • 8.ischoffa.nd Petry· J99S
0.5
of the experin1enral high·rare loading data n1entioned above. l.E-08 LE-06 l.E-04 LE-02 LE-tOO l.£+02 J.£+04 Cl Gary and Baily -1998
The \Vork presented herein, excracred from Cocsovos and Pavlovic (2008a), follo"rs rhe Strill'l rate ( l/s) • Gtote et al.-2001
opposite approach: ic employs the proposed FE model co reproduce the experimental data
and, in so doing, also aims to provide a fundamental explanation for the sudden increase in Figure 8.1 Conc.rete in uniaxial compression. Var iation of load-c.arrying capacity with strain rate
concrete urength :lnd the over2ll ch2nge in che r.pecimen heh:.:i.viour ::u; :l cerc::i.in v2lue of the (max Pd• load-carrying capacity. max i>,• load-carrying capacity under static loading). (Data
from Cot.sovos D. M. and Pavtoric M. "-·· 2008a. Computers and Structures. 86 (1- 2). 14S-1 6l.)
loading me is exceeded. As already shown in Chaprers 5 and 7, che FE model is capable of
yielding realistic predictions of the response of a wide range of RC srrucrures under static
(monoronic and cyclic) and dynamic (earrhquake) loading, respecrively. le should also be ch.aracreriscics under high·race loading dif:er significandy from chose under sraric loading,
reminded that the macerial model presently adopted for describing rhe behaviour of concrere wh.ar che experin1enral data cannot providt are che reasons for these differences.
is fully defined only by one parameter: rhe uniaxial compressive strength fr, moreover, in By inspecring che experimental data ic is clear char chey are characcerised by considerable
complia1X'e with the experimental information presented in C hapcers 2 and 3, it does nor sc-aner and, cherefore, it is exrremely difficuk to derive a law able to describe realiscically
account for strain softening a nd srress..path dependency, but places special en1phasis on the change in che specimen strength and i1s O\'erall behaviour under high rares of loading.
rhe response of concrere co mulciaxial (i.e., criaxial) stress conditions ignoring loading-rare Furtherinore, che exiscence of a nun1ber of parame1ers (such as the experimental technique
sensitivirv. adopted (or rhe tescs, rhe shape, size and moisrure content of the specimens and che d ifferent
The ai~l of rhe numerical investigation is to demonstrate 1he reliabiliry of the proposed FE
n1odel in realistically prediccing rhe behaviour of srrucrural concrete under exrreme load· 1.8
ing conditions, such as t hose encountered during impact and explosion situations, despite ' '
irs reliance on purely static material propenies. This is achieved by comparing the resulcs 1.6 + +
•
obtained from rhe numerical investigation 'vich availa ble experin1enral data. Such a com·
paracive study aJlo,vs for the va lidacion of rhe assumpcions, based upon che FE n1odel's
formulation, and provides a simple explanation as ro the causes of loading-race effeccs in
.,,. 1.4 +- t
• +J ·-
J.•= 1.2

---· ....
impacr siruations.

8 .2.2 Experimental information

2 • ·~ • ••• i•\i+
The resu!rs obtained from experimenrs investigating the behaviour of prismatic and cylin·
drical concrete specimens under high races of uniaxial compressive loading presenred graph·
0.8 • • • • •••
t
•
•
ically in Figure 8.1 dearly indicated that rhe increase of the loading rare beyond cercain
0.6
levels leads to a substantial increase in the specimen srrengrh. Furrhermore, the majoricy of 1.£-()6 l . E~ t.E-02 t.E.,-00 LE+02
experimemal dara depicred in Figures 8.2 and 8 .3 (based on rhe daca presenced by Bischoff St.ta.In ta.te (lls)
and Perrr 1995) suggest ch.at the maximum axial scra in exhibited prior ro failure and the
axial stiffness of che specimen are also characcerised by a ;ignificanr increase " rich respect Figure 8.2 Concrete in uniaxial compr ession. V<.riation of maximum exhibited strain with strain rate
to their counterparrs under static loading. Ho,ve,•er, while it is evident rhac che concrete (max £,,• maximum strain. max t.• maximum strain under static loading).
300 Finite-element modelling of stn.icturaJ concrete Structural concrete under impact loading 30 I

2.2

2
•
J.8
• Concrete ptls:m
J.6
.;-
~
•I •• • •• • ••
253
1.4

J.2
• i1t;!···-...
• ' ' -- 1 - - - - l
Figure 8.4 Concrete in uniaxiaJ compression. Details of specimens (dimensions in millimetre).
0.8.__ _,..__ _~--~~·--....--~
l.£-o6 l.E-<>4 LE--02 t.E+OO LE+02 l.E+O..
Strain rate (1/s)
n1oves from rop co bonon1 and vice versa. The velociry of che stress wave is given by equation
ii. - JGiP (Hinron and Owen 1980) where G = £/(2 + 2v) is rhe shear modulus of concrere,
Figure 8.3 Concret:e C'I uniaxial compression. Variation of specimen axial stiffness with straC'I rate (Ed• spec- and pis che densicy of the concrece specin1en. By assuming thar rhe Poisson ratio v, the shear
imen axial stiffness. £.• specimen a.xfal stiffness under static loading). modulus G and rhe densiry p of concme used are 0.2, 13.3 GPa and 2,400 kglm', respec·
rively (which are che average values for concrete \Vich an ft of 30 MPa), che velocity of rhe
srress wave is found co be it.,, - 2354 m/s. Based on the fact thar rhe height of che concrete
rypes of concrece used), \Vhich vary from expetimenr to experiment, and che absence of la\VS specimen used in che present numerical investigacion is 253 mm, the rime needed for rhe
able ro quancify accuracely rheir individual effect on rhe specin1en behaviour add ro rhe stress \Vave co move from cop to bonom is approximately 0.0001 s.
uncercainry and difficulry in incerprering che experimenral dara. Additionally, rhe difficulry
inherenc in dynamic tests (in rhe sense of being able co obcain accurare and meaningful mea-
surements) due ro rheir exrremel)' shorr duration, combined \Vith che facr rhac n1any of these 8 .2.4 Numerical modelling of the dynamic problem
resrs ·were performed before rhe 1980s \Vhen the equipn1enc used was noc as advanced as ic Borh the concrete prisnt and rhe rigid elen1ent (Figure 8.5) are n1odelled by using rhe
is coday, are also significanc facrors \Vhich undermine the validicy of rhe data obtained front 27enode Lagrangian brick elemenc. Meshes consiscing of 3 x 1 x 1 and 1 x 1 x 1 elemencs
rhese cescs. Therefore, it is dear thar rhe experimenral daca can only qualiracively describe are adopre<l in order ro model rhe concrere prism and rhe rigid elen1enr, respecrively (see
rhe effecr of the loading rare on the specimens' behaviour. Figure 8.5a and b depicring possible models described below). The use of a sparse FE mesh
concrasts with whar other invesrigacors have used previously. Usually, a dense FE mesh
8 .2.3 Structural form invest igated is preferred in order co model the concrere specimen v.rirh several invescigations adopting
FEs as small as 2- 3 mm (Tedesco er al. 1989, 1991 , 1997, Thaber and Haldane 2001,
The scrucrural form which provides rhe basis of chis invescigarion is a concrece pris1n, simi- Koh er al. 2001, Li and Meng 2003). Howe\'er, the philosophy upon which rhe FE model
lar ro the concrere specin1ens used in various experimencal investigacions carried our ro dare
on chis subjecr (e.g., Bischoff and Perry 1995). The prism is assumed ro be fixed ac irs bonont
face, and co be subjec-ced co an axial load applied at irs upper face chrough a rigid element (•) Longitud.irul :l.Xls: of (b)
with che same cross section (see Figure 8.4) in order for che external load to be discributed symmetry
uniformly on the upper face of che concrete prisn1. le is assumed char concrere and the rigid
element on che top are fully bonded ar cheir interface. The prisnt height is 253 n1nt and ics
cross seccion fornlS a square \Vich a side of 100 mm, whereas che rigid elemenc has a height
of 200 n1m. The uniaxial compressive strengch of concrece l is assumed ro be 30 MPa, a
fairly rypical value in praccice.
In order ro ex!Plain the behaviour exhibiced by che concrece specimen, the dynan1ic prob..
len1 n1ust be vie'\ved as a \Va\•e.. propagacion problem. By applying che excernal load on an
upper area of the specin1en, che stress ·wave creaced is cransferred inicially front rhe area
where the exrernal load is in1posed rowards the )o,ver pan of rhe specimen. Because che
laner is fixed ac the bocrom, che stress wave bounces off its bonom surface and mo,•es back concentl'3ted masses :ltt
0
up\vards. Once che scress 'vave reaches the top of rhe specimen, it bounces back down again.
The \Vave is, cherefore, trapped by che boundary conditions imposed on the specimen and Figure 8.5 Concrete in unia.xial compression. FE models: (a) model A:. (b) model 8.
302 Finite -element modelling of structural concrete Structural concrete under impact loading 303

adopred in rhe presenr \York is based is differenr and does not employ s1nall FEs (Korsovos
•
and Pavlovic 1995). This is because, as discussed in Section 4.4.2, rhe marerial model
now adopred is based on data obrained fro.n1 experimenrs in \Vhich cylindrical concrere
35• -
I I
specimens (subjecred to various triaxial loading conditions) consrinued a •n1acerial unit' - -Case study l
for which average material properries ·w ere obrained: chus, che volume of these specimens - - - • Case study 2 i
I
3 I
provides a guideline to the order-of-magnicu de of che size of the FE which should be used
for the modelling of the concrete structures (in che present instance the structure is a prism ...
; 25
_,_
I
I

specimen). Furthermore, each Gauss point " 'ithin an FE should correspond to a volume I
E
having a size which must be ac leasr three times che size of che largest aggregate used in the I
~ I
concrete n1ix in order co provide a realistic represenrarion of concrete rather than a descrip·
tion of its constiruenr materials. i
2·
I
,· --
I
The mass of rhe specimen is modelled as concenrrared n1asses e-irher located on rhe FE 15
I
I
nodes siruaced a long the longitudina l axis of symn1etry of che specimen (model A) or dis· I
I
tribuced co all FE nodes (model 8). In che case of n1odel A, only n1ass displacen1ent in rhe
direction of the applied load (i.e., along the axis of symn1ecry) is allo,ved and hence ic is suf·
ficienc ro analyse only one quarrer of the specimen (see Figure 8 .5a). ln the case of model B,
I•

the mass is allowed to have a ll the three degrees of freedom of che nodes and hence, in order
co avoid \Vave deflecrion problems on che boundaries of che prism, the whole srructure is
analysed (see Figure 8.5b). On the other hand, rhe exrernal load is imposed as a force incre·
n1entally ar the beginning of each cime step. In order to vary the rare of loading, the load
increments are kept consranc and the time step is var1ed. For rhe case of model A, because of
the fourfold symmetry, only one quarter of che specimen is modelled and a load inc-remenr
equal co 0.4 kN is used for each time step. f<>r che case of model B, however, the fourfold
symmetry does nor hold as che masses have three degrees of freedom, and hence the \Vhole
specin1en must be modelled, thus making it necessary co impose four cimes the load used
in the previous case (i .e., 1.6 kN). The numerical in,·estigation consists of nvo case srudies.
Case scudy l adopcs model A whereas case srudy 2 relies on model B.
Ac chis point, it is in1porranr ro stress chat there is a considerable confusion in the lirera·
ture regarding che ·way the loading is applied and described, and also ho\\r it is measured.
For this reason, several possibiliries are investigated. To ren1ove an)' uncerrainry, their defi ..
nicions are as follows:
05
--
t.E+03 LE+04 t.E+OS l.E+06 l.E+07
Stress r3te (M.P:l/s}
Figu~ 8.6 Concrete in uniaxial compression. Variation of load-carrying capacity (max P4, normalised with
respect to its value under static loading (max PJ. with applied stress rate for case studies I and 2 .
the applied stress rare. Figure 8.7 depicts che nlaximum strain max e.,, (normalised \Virh
respect co irs values under static loading max E,c) a c the maxin1um sustained load (which,
in these case studies, also implies maximum strain) \Vich che applied stress rare. Such grad·
ual changes in the specimen's behaviour \\rich the rare of loading can also be observed by
inspecting the in1posed scress-displacemenr curves presenred in Figure 8.9a- f obtained fron1
case srudies 1 and 2 for various rares of loading: it can be seen that, for lo\\' rares of load·
ing (lower than 100,000 MPa/s), the behaviour predicted by che two case srudies is sinti·
lar, but, as che applied loading race increases above a value of about 100,000 MPa/s, rhe

1. Average strain rate: calculated as the average rare of displacemenc exhibited by the · ~~-~
l ~~I~~~~
:~
very cop of the specimen divided by the lengrh of che \\rhole specimen.
2. Maxin111n1 value of average strain rate: calculated by dividing the specimen into zones
by using the nodes a long the axis of symmerry and by evaluating which one of these 3 - - - - - -Case study 1
!
--1---,•--1
zones exhibirs the largest average strain race. I
- - - ·Case study2 I
3. J\fid-heig'1t strai11 rate: evaluared at che n1id· heighc region of che specimen. I
4. Applied stress rate: defined as rhe load incremenc applied in each rime step divided by I I

rhe cross-sectional area of the specimen. and the lengrh of the rime step used. ,;
I

:_-_1_1_
___, ---1
8.2.S N u m erica l predictions
The results o btained from case studies 1 and 2 show that the behaviour of che concrete
specimen under high rares of uniaxial compressive loading differs considerably compared ro
that exhibired under sratic loading. This change in che specimen behaviour rakes che form l.E+-03 l.E.+-04 l .E+-05 l.E+-06 t.E+O?
of an increase in load-catrying capacicy and suscained maximun1 axial srrain exhibited Stress t3te (M.P3Js)
by the specimen as the rate of loading becon1es higher. This can be seen by observing rhe
numerical results of Figures 8.6 and 8 .7. Figure 8.6 sho\VS the variation of the load-carrying Figu~ 8.7 Concrete in unia.xiaJ compression. Variation of maximum axial strain (max r.J. normalised with
capacity max P4 (normalised \Vich res-peer to irs value under static loading max P,) 'virh respect to its value under static loading (max£.). with applied stress rate for case studies I and 2 .
304 Finite-element mo delling of structural concrete Structural concrete under impact loading 30S

srress- displacentent curves obcained from case srudies 1 and 2 begin ro differ from their
s-ratic counrerparrs, as evidenced by an increase in axial sriffness and loadacarrying capaciry
- - Cuc- study l
of rhe specimen and a decrease in ics axia 1deformation. - -Use .swdy2
A comparison of rhe numerical results of case srudies 1 and 2 reveals significanr differ- 'l 20 - - - -Stuic
ences ber·ween dhe l\VO FE models for che concrere prism. The resulrs in Figure 8.6 sho\v
6
rhac, for stress rares up co about 100,000 MPa/s, the predicrions obcained front rhe nvo
case scudies are similar; ho\vever, rhe differences in rhese predictions begin to occur for
srress rares over around 200,000 MPa/s. In parricular, the resuks obtained front case srudy
2, 'vhich adopcs model B for che n1odelling of rhe specimen, predicc a higher increase in rhe St""'5 r.ue l 0.000 MPa/-"
specimens' loadacarrying capacity compared co char predicred by case scudy l (which adopcs
model A). Moreover, che daca in Figure 8.7 reveal rhac case study 2 predicrs an increase of -0.1 -0.2 -0.l
Axial displ.xnnenc (mm)
..... -0.5

rhe maximum value of axial scrain (max e 4) in che specimen: prior ro failure for srress rares
above approximare1y 200,000 MPa/s, \Vhereas case scudy 1 predicts char chis value remains
conscanr, being practically unaffected by rhe rare of loading. Such differences in rhe predica
rions of case scudies 1 and 2 increase as che rate of loading becomes higher. A furcher coma
parison of the predicred behaviours obtained from case srudies 1 and 2 is available in rhe
plors of Figure 8.8. Up co abouc 100,000 MPa/s, both models seem co predicc approximacely
rhe same behaviour. However, as rhe applied stress rate increases above 200,000 MPa/s, rhe
response predicted by the nvo case studies begins ro differ, \\rith the specimen in case study
2 exhibiting larger loadacarrying capacities and larger axial deform.ations prior ro failure Stn"$S r.1te 100.000 MP~/s
rhan ics counterparc in case study 1 for rhe same rate of loading.
.~---~--~---~---~---~
0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.l -0.5
Based on rhe predictions obtained from rhe nun1erical in\'estigarion, ir can be concluded chat
Axial displ.xnnenc (mm)
inerria has a significant effect on che specimen behaviour under high rares of loading. However,
ir is interesring co nore rhe very considerable effect of the modelling of the specimen's mass, (<) 40~------------------~
as evidenced by the different resules stentming front che nvo case studies (1 and 2). Ir \Viii be
recalled rhac, in case stud)• 1, rhe speci1nen n1ass was lumped at rhe mesh nodes situated on the 30
Cuc-study I
- - UM" .swdy2
- - -- St.tic l
longirudinal axis of symmetry and \Vas alJowed ro ha\'e only one degree of freedom in chis Iona
~
.......... ------------
--.-
girudinal direcri<>n (model A). On the other hand, in case srudy 2, rhe mass \Vas equally distrlba ~
ured ar all the mesh nodes and was allowed co have three degrees of freedom (model B), Clearly,
rhe effect of inercia in the la ceral direction has a significant effect on che predicted behaviour
of the prisms, especially during che final scages of rhe loading procedure (i.e., prior ro failure).
Evidencly, case srudy 2 allows for a ntore precise n1odelling of che proble1n since ic is able ro
account for che effecr of inerrja in boch axial and lateral directions, as \Vell as providing a more
. ___ ___.___.,...___
10

0
.....',,,'
...,.
,..

-0.1
~
--+----+---~-~

-0.2
Stn'n nte: 200,000 MP;\/s

-0.l
~---~

-0.5

refined discrerised version of the actual (i.e., continuously discribured) mass of che specimen.
so

..
(dJ
An inceresring observacion emerges from che numerical results by reference ro the values

~I
- - Cax study I
of the reactions ac rhe borrom of rhe prism. Thus, for high races of loading, where che duraa ../" - - C;uestudy2
-~
rion of rhe loading procedure is less rhan 0.0001 s (which corresponds approximately co rhe ---· Sta-tic:
earlier esrimace for the rime needed for the stress wa\'e co travel from rhe cop ro che bonont
of the specimen)~ the numerical results obcained from case study 2 (presented in Figure 8.9) !• 30
/"
reveal chat the failure of che concrece prisn1 precedes che de\'elopn1ent of substantial reaca .• --------------
I ---- ...........--
20
rions since the scress wave is unable to reach the boctom of che specimen \Virhin the cime _,,,.,
over \Vhich che loading procedure lasrs. Therefore, it is realistic to assume rhac, in such 10 Sttes.s; r.ue: 400.000 MP.a/s
cases, the external load does nor affect the whole specimen bur only a pan of it extending
ro a )e,•el which the srress \\rave is able ro reach in che rime that che loading procedure lases.
Based on this, it is possible co conclude that higher concentration of srresses (and strains)
0
0
--- -0.1 -0.2 -0.l -0.5

develop in che upper pare of the specimen whereas, in che boctom pare, chese concentrations
figur~ 8.8
of srresses and scrains are much lower. On the other hand, for lo\\r races of loading, \Vhere
rhe duration of r!he loading procedure exceeds 0.0001 s, rhe srress \Vave reaches che bonom
of rhe specin1en, bounces off ir and scares to crave! back\\rards and fonvards a long rhe lengrh
of the specimen, rrapped by rhe in1posed boundary conditions. Because of chis, che stress
Concrete in uniaxiaJ compression. Comparison of applie d stress-axial displacement curves for
case studies I and 2 under different stress rates with their static oounterparts. Values of stress rate
(MPa/s) equal to: (a) 10.000: (b) 100.000: (c) 200.000: (d) 400.000: (e) 2.000.000 and (I) 4.000.000.
(Continued)
306 Finite-eleme nt modelling of structura l c o ncrete Structural concrete under impact loading 307

(•) 10

so _,,.,_~~~-i-~ -- C:asesrudyl
25
- -Case srudy 2
;o
---·Static
i ..
IO
.... 20
i
·~
.,,E 15

10
10
..
~
~ 10

5
0
0 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 - 0.5 0
Axbl dlsp~mel'lt (mm)

-s +-~~~~~~~~~~~~~-<
(I) l'.lO
0 0.001 0.002 0.003
- - Case study l 1im~ (s)
!()
- -ca.sestudy 2
---·Static
! ;o

.,,E IO

10

0
0
----------- ----·--
-0.1 -0.2
- r- f
-0.3
Stres.i n te: 4.000.000 MPa/s

Axial dlspbctment (mm)

-0.4 - 0.5
l
6
..•!
.."'
<
20

IS

10

figtn 8.8 (Comiooed) Concrete in ooiaxial compression. Co"¥'arison of applied stress-axial displacement ct1rves -5
for case sn.dies I and 2 ooder different stress rates with their static counterparts. Values of stress 0.0005 0.001 0.00l5
rate (MP:a/s) equal to: (a) 10,000: (b) 100.000: (c) 200.000: (d) 400.000:(e) 2.000.000 and (~ 4.000.00). 'Tim~(s)

(c) 25
·wave affects che whole of che concrece specimen, adding co che complexiry o ( che srress fiel:i
which develops \Vich in ir (excepc, of course, for scaric or quasi-sracic loadings). In such cases,
iris difficulc co predicc where rh e h ig hest concencrarions o( srresses (and srrains) will develop "'
hf. r~ n CP of rh P ro nrl n11n11(; rr-:.vPll i ne of thP (;r rp<;_(; w~vP w h irh r::ln(;P'> rh P inrPtn~ I (;rrp>(;.(; fipl:i
~rirh inche concrece prism co consca ncly change. "'i t5
By furcher a nalysing che numetical dara o btained fron1 case srudy 2 and by examining <
·! 10
che displacen1encs exhibiced by che specim.en during che duracion o( che loading procedure a
certain nodes (shO\vn in Figure 8. 10) ic is possible co make an assessmenr of che parr of cbe
specimen affecred by che exrernal loading. The ensuing numerical resulrs presenred in Figure
..
~
~

8. 11 show rhe axial displacen1enrs exhibited by chose nodes locared on the longicudinal axis
of symmecry of rhe specimen (nodes 30- 35) and rhe lareral displacemencs exhibired by rhe 0
nodes siruared at che middle of one o( rhe (our side faces o( rhe specimen (nodes 9- 14) \Vich
respecc co the level of scress applied on the upper face of rhe concrere prism (or d ifferent ra res
of loading. T hese figures indicate chat, as rhe race of loading increases (over the value of
200,000 MPa/s), the d isplacemems (both axial a nd lateral) of the nodes close to rhe bo riom
-· 0 0.0002
""""''
Tunt Cs)
0.0006 0.0008

of che specimen gradually decrease. In rhe case o( very high rares o( loading, chese displace-
figure 8.9 Conc rete in uniaxial compression. Variation of the axial reaction with time for various stress
n1encs become very small (even negligible) compared 'virh the displacemencs exhibiced \Vithin rates. Values of stress me (MP:a/s) equal co: (a) 10.000: (b) 20.000: (c) 40.000: (d) 100.000: (e)
t he upper part of the specimen. le a ppears, rherefore, char che nun1erica l resulrs presenred in 200.000: (f) 400.000 and (g) 1.000.000. (Cononued)
Figure 8.11 indicate tha c rhe upper pan of che specimen defonns fa r more rhan ics )o\ver pan
when subjecced co high rares of compressi,•e loading, as sho\Vn qualicatively in Figure 8.1 2.
308 Finite-element modelling of strucwraJ concr ete Str uctural concrete under impact loading 309

(d) 30 ~--------~----~

25

=Ff=-
- 1.000..000MP~s

--

-5
0 0.00003 0.0006 0.00009 0.00012
-5 0-1---------~----~
0.0001 0Jl002 0.0008 Thne(.s)
lune(s)

(•) 30 ~------~----.---, figure 8.9 (Continued) Concrete in uniaxiaf compression. Variation of dle axial r eaction with time for

'ft': -~JlOOMPJi, 1 various stress rates. Values of stress rate (MPa/s) equaJ to: (a) 10.000: (b) 20.000: (c) "40.000:
(d) 100.000: (e) 200.000: (f) 400.000 and (g) 1.000.000.

++
Finally, Figure 8.13 shows rhe cracking pauerns (or the above specimen prior ro (aiJure (or
ia lS different rares of loading. During rhe fina l srages of che loading procedure and at high rares of
loading, cracking occurred \Virhin rhe upper parr o( che specimen. This agrees " 'ith previous

~lO
co1lClusions since ir implies rhe developmenc of high concencracions of srresses (and, cherefore,
.,. srrains) in chis upper region of che specimen. However, in the cas.e o( low loading rares, crack~
ing may fonu in any area of rhespecin1en owing ro che facc char che srress \Vave crapped \\richin

~ ot------- che specimen causes continuous changes in che incernal srress field \Vichin rhe prisn1, so char
high concenuarions of scress leading to macro-cracking may fonn in any area o( che specin1en.
-5 4---~---._ __..,.___ ~

0 0.00005 0.0001 0.00015 0.0002 8 .2.6 Validat.ion of numerical predictions

Time(•)
In order ro escablish che validiry and accuracy o( rhe predicrions obtained from the pro·
(I) 30 . - - - - - . - - - - - . - - - . - - - - - , posed FE model, the resulcs from case studies l and 2 are no'v compared wirh published
25

£' 20
- 400.000 MPa/.s
~

+t
a lS
i lO Node35

~ Node 34 --+;::,.:--t--irl Node 14

Node33 Node 13
0 1--------'--~~
Node 32 --.+;.::+-+--r 1 Node 12
-5 4---~---~--~---~
0 0.00003 0.0006 0.00009 0.00012 Node31 Node II
Time(<)
Node30 --~~-t--JVI Node 10
F'igure 8.9 (Continued) Concrete in uniaxial compression. Variation of the axial reaction with time for vari- Node9
o us stress rates. Values of stress rate (MPa/s) equal to: (a) 10.000: (b) 20.000: (c) "40.000: (d) ......l ---
100.000: (e) 200,000: (f) 400,000 and (g) 1,000.000. (Continued)

figure 8.10 Concrete in uniaxial compression. Nodes for wh.ich the values of axial and lateral displacements
are calculated.
310 f inite·element modelling of structural concrete Structural concrete under impact loading 31 1

2S
."
30
20
2S
IS 20
IS
10
10

~·
1---~---~---~--~---~0
-0.3 -Q.2 -0.J 0 0.1 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1
0

Axial dif:pla~ment (mm)

~-----------------~ 30

2S
Axbl displacement (mm)

..
lS
30
20
2S
IS 20
- - • Node 12 --+----+-~-.. 10 IS
- • Node 13 - - + - - - - + - - -., 10
- - Nodel4 s
0
-om -0.015 -0.0 I -0.005 0 MOS -0.025 ~15 -0.01 -0.005 o.oos
J.atenl di:iplaament (mm) Utenl di5pl~ment (mm)

..."
(b) 100.000 MPah (d) 400.000 MPi./s
30 ~---~-~~-~---~-~ 50

2S

20
30
IS 25
20
10
IS
10

0 0
~2 ~JS o.os
Axial di$pla~ment (mm) '" -o.3 -0.25 -0.1 -0.05
Axbl dU.pl:i«"ment (mm)

...
-=J$
30

- i -. . , -----.. . . .
50
T~~ 2S

- --
- - Nod<9
NocklO ~
20

IS
"
30
2S
• •··• Nod< II ~ 20
- - · Nod<l2
- - Nock13
1• 10
- - Nock 13
IS
10
- - Nod< 14 - - Nod< 14 -+---J.---1--
0 0
-0.025 ~ -0.0IS -0.01 -0.005 0 0.005 -0.03 -0.025 -0.02 ~015 ~I -0.005 0.005
J.atcnl di:iplattment (mm) Lateral dispbcement (mm)

Figure 8.11 Concrete in uniaxiaJ compression. Variation o( axial (top) and lateral (bottom) displacements Figure 8.11 (Continued) Concrete in uniaxial compression. Variation of axial (top) and lateral (bottom)
with applied stress at various distances from the top face o( the specimen. Vatues of stress rate displacements with applied stress at various di.stances from the top face of the specimen. VaJue.s
(MPa/s) equal to: (a) 10.000: (b) 100.000: (c) 200.000: (d) 40(),000: (e) 1.000.000: (I) 2.000.000 ol mess rate (MPa/s) equal to: (a) 10.000: (b) 100.000: (c) 200.000: (d) 400.000: (e) 1.000.000:
and (g) 4.000.000. (Continued) (I) 2.000.000 and (J) 4,000.000. (Continued)
312 Finite-elemen t mo delling of structural concrete Structural concrete under impact loading 313

«) 1.000.000 MPa/s
70
.... 60

50

"~ - - Nod<31
'°
~
••••• Nock32 30

-
- - · Nock33
- Nock 3'\
- - No<klS
20
10

-<>25 -0.2 -<>IS ...,, --0.05 0 0.05

0

Axi.:al displacement (mm)

Axbl dispfa.cement (mm)

---.,,,. .............. 60 ~------~--~------~ •so

160
---Nock9
- - Nod<IO
..... Nock II
- - · Nock 12
- - i- ...
.... ...' '
''
'
50

'°
30 - - Node tO
14-0
120
100

- - Nock 13

--
20
10
•• • • • Node 11
- - · Node t2 ' 80
60

__..,..___.___
- - No<kl4
- - Node 13 . J - - - - l - - - 4-0
0
-0.025 -0.02 -0.015 -0.0I -0.005 0 0.005 - - Node l4 20
U lrnl displ~mrnt (mm)
~--~---.._ ~ .

-0.04 - 0.03 -O.Q2 - 0.01 0 0.01

2,000,000 MP'.a/s lateral displacement (mm)
180
160
Figu~ 8.11 (Continued') Concrete in uniaxiaJ compression. Variation of axial (top) and later al (bottom)
140
120
displacements with applied stress at various distances from the top face of the specimen. Values
- - NC"Joek31 100
ol stress rate (MPa/s) equal to: (a) 10.000: (b) 100.000: (c) 201).000: (d) 400.000: (e) 1.000.000:
••
000
NCJoek32 80 en 2.000.000 and (g) 4.000.000.
- - · N'odrll 60
- - NCJoek34 •IO
- - NCJoek35 20
0
- 0.4 -0.3 -Q.2 -0.1 0 0.1
Axial dbp~mm.t (mm)

180
1- -"""l ... 160

- - Node 9
- - NodelO
± ---.; -... ~
''°
120
100
ooooo NodelJ
- - · Node12 ' 80

- • Nodtl3 ...
60

- - Node 14 - - 20
0 Static tests Dynamic rests Oyn;amk iests
-0.ot -0.03 ~ -0.01 0.01
la~r:i.l dis;placemenl (mm)
(hJgh ttt es of loadlng)
(•) (b) (<)
Figu~ 8.11 (Continued) Concrete in uniaxial compression. Variation o( axial (top) and lateral (bottom)
displacements with applied stress at various distances from the top face of the specimen. Values Figur~ 8.12 Concrete in uniaxial compression. Qualitative distribution of axial displacement (A) and
ol stress rate (MPa/s) equal to: (a) 10.000: (b) 100.000: (c) 200.000: (d) 400.000: (e) 1.000.000: lateral displacement (L) exhibited prior to failure along the longitudinal axis for (a) static
(Q 2.000.000 and (g) 4 .000.000. (Continued) tests. (b) dynamic tests and (c) dynamic tests with high rates of loading.
314 fin ite-element modelling of structural concrete Structural concrete under impact loading 31S

3 .
• &pertmental data Ii I
- - Case study l
:.'

. .--r~· i~l'j·r
- - - - Case study 2
. -
I • • ... :ti
J0..000 MP3/s 20,000 MPa/s 40,000 MPa/s 100.000 MPa/s .

0
LE-04 l.E~2 LE+OO 1.E-t-02 LE+04 l.E+06 l.E+08
Streg nite (MPa/s)

Figu~ 8.15 Concrete in uniaxial compression. Comparison of numerical and experimental resulu describ-
ing the variation of ktad-carrying capacity with the applied stress rate.
200,000 MP3.ls 400.000 MP3.ls l.000.000 MPals

Figu~ 8.13 Concrete in uniaxial compression. Predicted crack patter ns prior to faikJre for different rates
of loading.

experimental darn. Such a comparison reveals good agreemenc benveen the rwo (see Figures
8.14 through 8.17). However, the scaner rhac characterises rhe experimental data does nor
allo\Y rhe immediate idenrification of 'vhich of rhe t\\ro case scudies provides rhe closer fit
ro the experimenra l dara. Both case scudies yield results well \Yichin the scarcer. However,
if one acceprs char, at high loading rates, the apparenr screngrh of the specimen increases
sharply, then it is quite evident from Figures 8.16 and 8.17 char case srudy 1 )'ields a poorer
n1odel (as expected) since ic does nor n1imic rhe sharp scrain increase of n1osr experimencs
(while agreeing with son1e of che dara, likely co be less accurate), which records either no
strain increase or even a scrain decrease in chis range). o'""---~----~----~-----1
LE- 05 l.E-03 l . E~l l.E-t-01 l .E-t-03
Strain rate (l/s)

• &pe-rlnu~nuJ data '

- - Ca.sesrudyl :' figu~ 8.16 Concrete in miaxial COO'\'ression. COO'tpatison of numerical (assuming average strain rate) and
experWnental results describing the variation of maximum exhibited strain with applied strain rate.
---· Ca.sesrudy2
'•
For extremely high rates of loading, rhere appears to be some divergence benveen numerical
and experimental darn. This divergence n1ay be pardy due co the fact thac che numerical inves·
rigacion is carried our by using a specimen ·with specific dimensjons, ft, and method of loading
characrerisrics which vary in different experimenral in\·escigacions. However~ this deviacion
is only clearly observed in Figure 8.14 which shows the variacion of n1ax P/max P$ with the
applied scrain race, whereas in Figures 8.15 through 8.17 this deviation is nor apparenr.
\Vhen comparing numerical and experimental resulcs iris imponanc co keep in mind rhac
o._---~----~----~-----1 a high-race loading test has an exrremely shorr duracion, so rhat it is difficuk co obcain accu·
LE- 0? LE-04 l .E~l LE+02 l.E+OS
Applied stn.ln rate (lls) rate n1easuremenrs. This is particularly relevanc for rhe case of rhe impact loading rescs rhac
\Vere carried out from rhe early 1940s ro the 1980s, which n1ay not have been as accurate as
Figure 8.14 Concrete in uniaxial compression. Comparison of numerical (assuming average strain rate) n1ore recent ones beneficing from modern equipmenc. Furchermore, measuring srrains in rhe
and experimental resuks describing the variation of load-carrying capacity with the applied mid-heighc region of che specimen is based on the assumption chat rhe specimen behaves as
strain rate. in the case of static loading. This may explain why many experimenta l invescigarions carried
316 f inite- element mo delling of str uctural concrete Structural concr ete u nder impact loading 317

in Figure 8.18, it is obvious 1ha1 the relarionship between rhe max Pjmax P, and the maxi-
•
I I
Experimental ebb ' •. mum value of average srrain rare is the rela cionship which is closest ro rhe experimencal data.
•
••
- - Case study l

.,·- ....:·.--;-- .[._.. . ··~,," I

1.S ---- Casestudy2 --1---l--~f--- •
8.2. 7 Causes of the loading-rate effect on the behaviour
• •• of the specimen
~,

~. ~:-·- ·r ~--.-'---~
o.s
o~-~----~-~----~-~---'
t.E--01 1.£+00 t.E+Ol 1.£+02 t.E.,.03 l..E+04 l.E+OS l..E+<l6 t.E+O?
Sttt'SS" tate (MPa/s)
Figure 8.17 Concrete in uniaxial compression. Comparison of numer icaJ and experimental results describ-
ing the variation of maximum exhibited strain with applied nress rate.
ouc before che 1980s reporc a significant increase in their specimen screngrh ar low scrain
rares. Whereas in scaric tests the specimen has a n1ore uniform discribution of stra in along irs
height, for the case of high loading race che lower pan of the specimen defonns significantly
less rhan rhe upper pan. Therefore, che scrain n1easured in rhe mid-height region of rhe
specin1en n1ay be considerably less rhan that \Vhich is acrually exhibited in rhe upper pan.
In Fi.gure 8.18 a relacionship is presented benveen max P/max P, and strain rares evaluated
by using d ifferen t methods or, rarher, crireria as defined at the end of Secrion 8.2.4 (namely
average srrain rare, maximum value of average strain rate and mid-height srrain race). By com.-
paring rhe rhree resuking relationships (Figure 8.18) it is obvtous chat they are significantly
different. The use of mid-heighc srrain rare calculaced in the mid-height region of the specimen
n1ay lead co misleading conclusions due co the facr thar, for high rares of loading, only the
upper parr o( che pris m is affec-red and, rherefore, rhe mid-height region exhibirs less de(orn1a-
rion, so char the strain rare calculated in this region is much less chan the srrain race exhibited
in rhe upper area of che specin1en. Comparing rhese relationships \Vith rhe experi1nenral data
The numerical invesrigation carried our proves that the change in che behaviour of concrete
prismatic elemenrs \Vhen subjecred ro high rates of compressive loading can be anributed
pri1narily co the effecr of inerria. Furrhermore, ir has been proved rhar the inertia effecr
in both axial and lateral direcrions is significanr for an accurate description of specin1en
response. Ho,vever, in order to undersrand n1ore co1nprehensively ho\V inerria affects rhe
behaviour of concrete under high rates of loading, its behaviour must be invesrigared at a
mare rial level so as to fully comprehend the cracking procedure rhac concrere undergoes and
ho\v this is affecred by che loading rare.
In a sratic rest, the applicacion of a uniaxial con1pressive load on.to a concrere cubical or
cylindrical specin1en results in rhe development of an incernal complex stress field. As dis-
cussed in Section 2.3, rhe complexicy of rhe stress field is due to rhe non-homogeneous nacure
o( che macerial, characterised by rhe exisrence of mic.re>-cracks (Korsovos 1979, Korsovos
and Newman 1981). Ar rhe tips of the micro-cracks1 high concencrations of tensile stresses
form and, once the rensile u lcin1ace srrengrh of concrere is overcome, rhe cracks extend in
rhe direction of the maximum principal compressive stress (Griffith 1921 , Kocsovos 1979,
Kocsovos and Ne\vman 1981). This exrension offers relief ro concrete, as ic is (ollo\ved by
a decrease of rhe value of the rensile stresses acring at che crack rips (see Figure 8. 19). The
exrension o( rhe cracks continues as rhe applied load increases until, ac some srage, che edges
o( the micro-cracks meet and larger cracks (macro-cracks) begin ro form. Under a high
rare of loading rhe procedure becomes even more complicaced since .the effecr of rhe inenia
forces musr be also ca ken into consideration. The effecr of rhese forces is dual since, on rhe
one hand, they affecr the overall response of che concrete specin1en and, on the ocher hand,
rhey have a local effecr on rhe area of che concrere specimen where cracks forin.
Existing al.Ck

+ Experlmenl3.I data

I
3.5 - - AppUed wain tat.e
- --· Max value of average strain rate •
.i- 3
_ _ A~rage strain rate at the

~~·...
2.5
;;:. 2
~

'--'
1.5

~·· }• ,~·~·,
0.54----~--~---~---~-----<
LE- 06 l.E-«M t.E-02 LE+OO 1.£+02 LE+O..
Strain t3te (Jls)

Figure 8.18 Concrete in uniaxial compr ession. R.elationsh.ip between max PJmax P. and differendy evalu-
ated strain rates and their comparison with experimentaJ data. Figure 8.19 Micro-cracking sequence.
318 Finite·element modtll1n1 of structur'al concrete StructuraJ concrete under impact loadin& )19

25

l ~
2
' - - 26MPa
I l..S , ' , - - - 52MPa
i '
,, ...........
~
~_
.... __
J•
,~---~

o.s

0
0 15 2 25

At tbt final stages of mxro-crxking 1ht spccimtn exhib«s an increase in lateral strain. lo
rhe scatic tests this lareral deform31ion is txhibired in the rr.id·heighr region of the specimen
(Stt Figtrt 8.20); however, as :ollrcady discussed, rhis is nor the c~ in the dynamic rests,
especiallr when high r:a.tts o( loading are in\'olvtd. Because of the high rare of compressive
loading imposed on the specimen, the lateral '01r:.tin rare is aJso high. In case s tudy 2, because
the in.ass is distributed throughout the FE me'Oh and is acthe in a ll three directions, it reacts
to the la1cra.l deformntion trying to reHrier if. H ence, the reac-rion of the mass slows down
the cracking process at these final sragti; and, in doing so, a llows the specin1en to increase
its strength. In case s1udy t, on rhe other h:ind, rhe mass is nor distributed throughout rhe
FE mes h and it is active only in che dirccrio1\ of rhe external load. Because of this, rhe mass
is unable ro respond to the laccrnl deform:.uion of the specimen and, therefore, fai lure occurs
earlier, the defor1nation being sn1nller rhnn rh:H exhibited in case scudy 2.
As the rate of applied loading bccomefi higher and rhe duration of rhe loading proce-
dure becomes less thnn 0.00 1 s, the heig hr of rhe specimen affected (effeccive heighr h,ff)
decreases. This decrease of the effective heighr coincides with che increase of the specimen
strengrh. Here, it is interesting 10 nore rh:u. from experimental investlgarions of the behav-
iour of cylindrk3 1concrete specimens under unbxial·rompres...fiive loading, iris kno\\'O thac
rhe maximum sustained lood depend< on rhe heighr-ro-diameter (hid) rario of che specimen.
In fact, it has bttn found th~r the specimens :ire ch:ir:icrerised by a substancial increase in
strength when the hid rario decreaS<!< below 1.0 (see Figure 8.21) (Neville 1973). The cause
of this increase is the 1nterac1ion which occurs :.\t the incerface berween rhe specimen and the
steel plat•ns (Kotsovos 1983, Von Mier 1984, Van Mier ec d . 1997, Zissopoulos ec al. 2000)
which an usually emplO)~d ro opply rhe load. This incerncrion is due ro che differem material
prope.rttfs of concrete and sceel, and is C3Utitd by rhe development of frictional forces.
The abm·e stiluc prob&em 1s now al5o in\"'tSCig;.ued numtrically. Concme prisms, with a
square cross sccuon of 100 x 100 mm. :art subfitcced ro uni-axial compressive loading. The FE
modelhn~ of the specun<n as the same as thar u«<I in case srudy I (since, under static condi·
tioos, tht rnults of c•se studies I and 2 coincide). The canpressi,·e load is applied mono-
ronically through a rigid steel pbrtn s11u3'ed on rhe rop of the concrete specimen (a similar
confinen:mt IS pronded al !he OOrtom, fixed oo). The numerical results obtained are ptt-
seiued m Figure 8.22 in rhe form of a relaoon<hip herween sr,....gth and hid ratio. The increase
in strength is found to become wbsunrul once hid becoones less than I. This increase is
cau«<I b~ the mtcracuon berween rhe ng1d-sreel pbrens (or similar boundary conditions) used
co apply the vct..,.nal load and the concrete speci""'°, which results in the dt'\-elopmem of a
triaxial mn1pressn-e state of stress whach le3ds ro 30 increas~ in concrete strength.
"'"-
fCu~ a.2 Concrete ,. uniaxiaJ compression. Experimenul relationship between the stren(th WKnue and
the hid ndo (nott: rebtiw stttn¢' •ac:wa.I ~enp of "looe' specimens).
A s1nl11:.lr pheno1nenon occurs when subjecting concrete pri.sm specimens co uniaxial com·
pression :u h1gh·loading ro:ues. The analyiis of the numerie:al predictions revealed that.., at
high ratts of loading, only 1he upper porcion of the specimen is affected by che external load,
whereas the rc~r of 1he $pecimen remains practlcaJly unaffected. Based on the numerical
predicuon~, che detorin:.\rion exhtblfed by me upper parr of the specimen (where the external
loading i< impos.!d), under high loading races, is significantly grearer than that exhibited by
the lower p3rl. Afi rhe r::ire of loading increases, the height of the portion of the specin1en
(effective heighr) h 41 nffected by the external load decreases. However, when con1paring the
relationship berween 1he incre:lse of s rrength \Vich the hid ratio for the s tatic load ing case
(Figures 8.21 :'Ind 8.22) \Vith the relarior.sh ip berween che increase in srrengrh obcained
fro1n case srudy 2 (Figure 8.23), iris obvious thar the increase in s trengch under dynamic
loading is much larger. The height h,n is assumed co be the distance that the stress wave
travels intiide 1he specimen during the loading procedure and is calculated by multiplying
the length of time rhar rhe loading procedure las ts wich the velocity o( che stress wave. Based
on rhcse resulrs. ir can be concluded char 1he inertia of mass (both axial and lateral) under
dyn:unic lo:.lding hafi ::\ domin:lnt effecr on che specimen screngch.
...
l.3
..- l.2
i
~ I.I
i
0.9
o.a
0 o.s LS 2 25 3
•w.
Fcure &.22 Concrete in ......_ld:al compression. R.ebriomhip between the static SUVlJth increue M1d the hid
ratio obained from the MA"nerical imestiption.
320 Fi nite·element modelling of structural conc.rete
6.8
S.8 , paramecers, the effect of which has not been quantified so far. The success of che scudy
~.. 4.8
~
~ 3.8
~ 2.8
1.8
0.8 +-----..--------------
0.3 0.5 0.9 I.I
Figure 8.13 Concrete in uniaxial compression. Relationship between the strength increase and the h.fld
ratio obtained from case study 2.
8 .1.8 Conclusions
The c<>nsticurive model used by the FE progran1 in chis scudy to describe the behaviour of
concrece is based on rhe scatic propenies of rhe material, 'vhich remain conscant and inde·
pendent of rhe scrain rare. The comparacive scudy berween numerical and experimencal
dara revealed rhac rhe sraric brinle material model used is capable of providing realiscic
prediccions of che behaviour of concrere at high rates of loading. In view of ch is, it can be
concluded chat rhe effecr of loading rare on che specimen's behaviour refleccs che effect of rhe
inertia loads rhac reduce borh che race of cracking of che specimen and its effecrive height,
facrors which, in curn, lead roan increase in ics load·carrying capacicy.
At high rares of loading the nun1erical results reveal chat only the upper region of the con·
crere specimen defornlS whereas che resr remains practically u11affecced by rhe application of
the external load. This region is sfruated under rhe rigid elen1enc used ro apply rhe external
load and irs height becomes smaller as che rare of loading increases. As a result, ics behaviour
is also affecred by rhe inceracrion between the rigid elemenr and the specimen \Vhich leads
ro the .conclusion rhac the experimental and numerical daca describe specimen (structural)
response, racher rhan concrece (n1arerial) behaviour. On che orher hand, for lo\V loading races,
the deOeccion of rhe srress waves on che boundar)• surfaces of the specimen causes a differ·
ent typ.e of inter.taion between IMdi11g m&hanism and con~re·te sp&imen. The fa~t that the
stress ,.vaves, \vhich arise fron1 the continuous applicarion of the external load during the
loading procedure, are crapped by che boundary conditions in1posed on che specimen, leads
to a nC>n·homogeneous disrribucion of scress inside the specin1e:n in \Yhich ic is exrremely dif·
ficult (if not impossible) co predicr where high concencrarions of scress and srrain \Viii develop.
It can, therefore, be concluded chat the specimen behaviour can nor be considered to represenc
rhe behaviour of concrete as a marerial bur represents its respo.nse as a structure.
To rhis end, concrere specimens under dynamic loading cannot be used ro describe con·
crece behaviour (as usually assumed) since, in conrrasr wirh static loading, chey do nor consri·
rure a macerial unit from \Yhich average n1acerial propercies nlay be obtained. Under dynamic
tesrs, c<>ncrere specimens muse be viewed as scrucrures since their response is directly linked
to rhe inerria effecc of chelr mass (and, of course, boundary conditions). Therefore, che use
of experimental daca from dynamic tesrs in order to develop consriturive mode.ls of concrete
behaviour under dynamic loading is questionable. Moreover, the experimencal daca suggesc
Structural concrete under impact loading 321
ilhat the behaviour of a concrete S)l"cimen under impact loading depends on a number of
ttporred so far suggescs chat rhe model used can serve as a reliable basis for elucidaring the
e·ffect of rhese various paramecers, and chis forms rhe basiis of ongoing research work, the firsr
ttsulcs of \Yhich have already been reporced (Corsovos and Pavlovic 2008b). An indicacion
C>f the effecr of rhese paran1erers on specimen behaviour is provided in rhe follo\\•ing seccion
concerned \Yirh rhe behaviour of scructural concrere under censile impacc loading.
8.3 STRUCTURAL CONCRETE UNDER TENSILE IMPACT LOADING
8 .3.1 Background
T he \\rork discussed in \Vhat follo\\rs has been exrracced from Cocsovos and Pavlovic (2008c);
it is concerned \Vich che numerical invescigation of the .effecr of the rare of loading on rhe
behaviour of concrece specimens subjected to uniaxial tension, complementing che \vork
d escribed in rhe preceding seer.ion. le is primarily incended co escablish whether the pro·
posed FE package is a ble to realiscically model the material behaviour of concrece and rhe
scrucrural response of prismatic elemems under high rares of uniaxial tension. The presem
in vesrigacion provides addicional evidence of che genuality of the proposed FE model in
r.ealistically predicring rhe behaviour of scrucrura l co111crere under such exrren1e loading
condirions (i.e., encounrered during in1pacr and explosion siruations) despite its reliance
C>n purely sracic material properries. This is achieved through a comparaci\•e scudy between
d1e numerical prediccions and available experimental da1a. Finally, the effect of various
paramerers on the structural response of che concrete p.risn1s under high· rare uniaxial c·e n·
site loading has also been investigaced in order co explain the causes of che observed sc-.aner
d1ac characrerises rhe available experimencal data and ro also show t hat experimenca l and
numerical data describe srrucrural, rarher rhan material., behaviour.
8 .3.2 Review of experimental data
Over rhe past fe\\r decades, a large number of experi1nenrs ha\'e been carried out on the
behaviour of concrece (prismatic or cylindrical) spec-in1ens, nor only under high races of
uniaxial compressive loading (see Secrion 8.2.2), but also under tensile loading (Malvar
and Crawford 1998, ACI Comminee 446 (AC! 446.4R-04) 2004, Corsovos 2004, Wu
e·r al. 2005, Brara and Klepaczko 2006, Schuler er al. 2006). A summary of rhe available
~x))eriniental data for the ~ase of tensile loading is ))resented in gra))hi~al forni in Figure
8 .24 expressing the relacionship benveen rhe load·carrying capacicies of che specin1en (\vich
r·especr to its councerparr under Stacie loading) and the exhibiced axial strain rare. The pri·
mary objecrive of such experimencs is to investigace che behaviour of concrere ar a macerial
level under high·rate loading, since, as already pointed out in Secrion 8.2 .2, che response
exhibired by rhese specin1ens during che dynamic cescs has been shown to differ consider·
ably from that of their counrerparrs rested under static conditions. This difference primarily
takes rhe form of an increase in rhe specimens· load·carrying capacity in boch con1pression
and tension, a difference which becon1es more apparenr as rhe ra1e of loading increases.
A lchough all rhe experin1ental investigacions arrive at cite conclusion that chere is a definite
link benveen che loading rate and the exhibited response of che specimens, che considerable
s.caner that characterises rhe experimencal data - which is evident fronl the daca depicted in
Figure 8.24 - makes ic exrremely d ifficult co derive a la'"' that is able to accurately quantify
rB1is change of behaviour.
322 f inite·element m odelling of structural concrete Structural concrete under impact loading 323

cra\•el along che specimen. For each scress race different values (or che rime step were cried tin
14
• McVir· t986 order co ensure char prediccions obtained were re.liable.
• Birtimer And Lind~l9?1 The FE model of the concrete prism is that described in Section 8.2.4 (Figure 8.5), \Vich
12 £ Rcmct.U..199S
che mass of rhe specimen being n1odeHed as concentrated masses either locaced on rhe FE
x Zitlit114:i d .U..1981
p
nodes siruaced a long the longirudin.a l axis of symn1erry of che specimen (model A) or dis·
• T.iU<b And TxhihW'1•l97J
10 rribured m all FE nodes (model B). As discussed in Secrion 8.2.4, in rhe case of model A,
• HAUno u ltj)Ort«I in J(,.·iribdtt• 1977
only mass displacen1enr in che direction of che applied load (i.e., along che axis of sy1nmecry)
.... .,. Komfo5..1969
JC Kviribdxt•lm is a llowed and hence ir is sufficient co analyse only one quarrer of rhe specin1en (see Figu.re
8 I .~ '
i o Sncikin (RC'SUlU obtai:ne!d from J(w iribdtt 1977)
•,.a;
f--- 8.5a). In rbe case of model B, rhe mass is allowed m have all rbe rhree degr""s of freedom
~ • C-0· 1966 • of rhe nodes and, hence~ in order co avoid lateral ·wave defleccion problen\s on che cencral
6
~"
D C:adoni <'l .ll.•2001 planes of symn1etry imposed in model A, the whole scructure is analysed (see Figure 8.5b).
6 C:adoni n Al.•2000
The ex·cernal load is imposed as a force incrementally ar rhe beginning of each time step. In
• Wu.etal.•2006
• -- o Br.an ;and lde~2006-'lto'd
.. Bran ;and lde~2006odty
order ro vary the rare of loading, the load incremencs are kept conscanc and che rime seep
is varied. For the case of model A, because of che fourfold symn1ecr}t, only one quarter of
2 A--- - - + I. I I • che specimen is modelled and a load incren1ent equal to 50 N is used for each rime srep.
• x
• •oJ. ' 1•4' ·~ 1 For the case of model B, ho·wever, che fourfold symmecry does noc hold as the masses ha ..•e
chree degrees of freedom, and hence the whole specin1en must be modelled, chus making it
0 necessary to impose four times che load used in che previous case (i.e., che load increment
l.E~S l.E-o6 LE- 0.. LE-02 l.E+OO t.E+02 l.E+04 now becomes 200 N). The numerical invescigacion consisrs of cwo case studies. Case stud y
Strait\ tate (lls) 1 adopts model A \Vhereas case scudy 2 relies on n1odel B.
In order ro remove any uncercainry regarding the terms 'average scrain rare', 'maximu.n\
figute 8.24 Concrete in uni axial tension. Variation of load-carrying capacity with strari r ate (max P4 • &oad· value of average strain rare', 'n1id·heighc strain race' and 'applied srress rare' the definitions
carrying capacity. max P, • load·carrying capacity under static loading). (Data from CotSO¥os 0. M.
and Pav1ov;c M. N. 2008c. lnU!rnotiMaljoumol ofImpact Engineering. J 5(5). J 19- )J5.)
provided in Seccion 8.2.4 have been adopced.

8.3.4 P resentation and d iscussion of the numerical predictions

\Vhen caking a closer look ac che experimencal invescigations carried ouc over che years,
many paran1ecers (such as che experimencal te<:-hniques used for che cescs, the shape, size and The results obcained fron\ case studies 1 and 2 show that in che case of the compressive loading
n1oiscure content of che specimens, che diffett1u rypes of concrece used) vary from experi· (see Section 8.2.5), the behaviour of che concrece struccural forms presencly invescigaced under
n1ent co experin1enc. This variety of paramecers concributes co che scarcer \Vhich character- high races of uni.axial tensile loading differs considerably from chat exhibited under scacic
ises che experin1encal dara, and adds ro the d~fficulry in incerprecing the laner in a manner loading. This change in rhe specimen's behaviour can be observed by inspecting che resulcs
chac leads co a clear understanding of the behaviour of concrete ac high rates of loading. presented in Figure 8.25 in the form of imposed srress- displacen1enr curves, each one of which
le appears from the above, cherefore, chac, although che experin1enral dar.a are able co corresponds co differenc loading rares. By investigating rhe dar.a presented in Figure 8.25 ic
qualitatively describe che effec-c chat the rare of the applied loading has on rhe prism behav-
iour/response, chey are unable ro identify che causes of che gradual change exhibited in its
structural response as described abo\'e. For chis reason, FE analysis has been resorced to
in order co investigace in more derail the response of concrece under high rares of uni.axial
- • SOOOMP3/s I
censile loading. r - • - t 2.500 .~.1Pals I
- - 25,500 MPals
8 .3.3 Structural form invest.igated and FE modelling - - - • 50,000 MPals
The concre1e prisn1 sho\Vll in Figure 8.4 has also been used (or investigacing rhe effecc of • ••••• • 125,000 MPals
che loading race of uniaxia l tension on structural concrete behaviour. As for the case of che - - 2SO.OOOMP3.ls
compressive load, che uniaxial compressive screngch of concrece f, is assumed to be 30 MPa.
Through the reasoning follo,ved in Section 8.2.3, che cin1e needed for the stress wave, cre- - - 500.000MP>/s
ated \Vhen che ex·cern.al load on che upper area of the specimen, ro move from cop co bonom
is approximacely 0.0001 s. This value of 0.0001 s was used as reference in decermining 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020
I
. - · Sta.tic

small cime seeps in rhe non-linear incren1encal analysis described in Ch.apcer 6, so as to Axla..I dl.sp~~nt (mm)
ensure sufficient accuracy for che numerical results. The cime srep adopted for chese resulcs
varied berween 0 .000016 and 0 .00000004 s depending on rhe mess rare under invesriga· figure 8.25 Concrete in uniaxial tension. ApplM?d stress-axial displacement curves for case studies I and 2;
rion and, ir was clearly a lwa)'S a very small fraction of the rime needed for the stress \Vave to the duration of each loading is also indicated (Of' each of the curves.
324 Finite-element modelling of structural concr ete Structural concrete under impact loading 325

becomes clear that the change in che specimen behaviour is gradual and primarily cakes the
form of an increase in load·carrying cap.acicy exhibited by the specimen as the applied loading
race becomes higher, as \Vas observed in che case of uni.axial ron1pressive loading (see Seccion
8 .2.5). The same conclusion can also be drawn from the inspection of the numerical results of
Figure 8.26 which shows the variation of che load-carrying capacity n1ax P4 (nonnalised \Vich
respect co ics value under scacic loading n1ax P,) \vich the applied stress race which is similar to
that predicted for the case of con1pressive loading sho\vn in Figure 8.6. Ho\\rever, in concrasr
·with cbe case of compressive loading (see Secrion 8.2.5), where an increase in the axial maxi·
n1um s train (max E4) exhibiced by the specimen under high-rare loading was predicced \Vhen
employing the more realistic model B (see Figure 8.7), in rhe presenc case of rensile loading the
numerical resulrs predict thac che value of max e4 \Vich che applied scress rate slighcly decreases
(see Figure 8.27), a lthough the trend is slight and hence inconclusive (in rhe sense that one
could s..ay that che value max Ejmax e.1 is insensitive to the race of loading).
The n1ain reason for this difference is the fact thac concrete has a small tensile strength ({,),
compared ro ics compressive screngch (l) - i.e ., f, = O. ll - and bricrle failure occurs prior ro
the specimen exhibiting pracrically any laceral deformation in che form of necking - as is the
case for other more duccile maceria ls s-uch as steel - in .concrasr \Vith che case of compressi,·e
loading \Vhere lateral deforn1acion is exhibited by rhe concrere prisms in che form of bulking.
Unlike the case of compressive loading for 'vhich rhe effect of inerria in the la ceral direc·
rion has a significant effecr on rhe predicred behaviour of rhe prisms, especially during
rhe fina l stages of che loading procedure (i.e., prior co fa ilure) since ir \\ras found ro have a
confining effecc on rhe specimen, chus slowing down Lhe cracking procedure, in the case of
tensile loading, case scudies 1 and 2 yield approxin1ace ly che san1e resulrs (see Figures 8 .26
and 8.27). This leads co che conclusion that, in direcr tension cests, the different distribution
of che mass used in models A and B does nor have a significanc effecr on rhe numerical pre·
diccions o btained for che specimen's behaviour. Therefore, an important observacion, based
on che present numerical in\•esrigation, is chat in rension, unlike compression, che concrete
specinten does not exhibic significant lateral deforn1acio11 in rhe final srages of the cest. This
is prevented by the brinle nature of concrere and, also, by the fact that rhe rens-ile strengch of
concrece is only a sn1all fraction of its uniaxial compressive strengch (approximately 10%).
Fa ilure, therefore, occurs before any significant lateral deformation can be exhibited: rhus,
rhe effecr of che inertia of rhe mass in this (la ceral) dir~ cion is insignificant. It can therefore
be concluded rhac only the inertia effec-r along che heighc of the specimen affeccs its behav·
iour under high rates of tensile loading.
Another imeresting observation emerges from the numerical resu lts by reference w
rhe values of the reactions ar rhe bonom of the prism. The resoles in Figure 8.28, pre·
senred in rhe forn1 of curves describi ng rhe variacion of the values of the applied stress
and che axia l reacrion a c che bonom of che specimen w irh time, sho,\r thac for h igh races

(a) 2 ~-----------~ (b)

- - Axial reaction (MPa)

,/
1.5 - - Applied sttess (MPa.)
i
00----------+--------.. . .
l.OE~ t.OE+OS
Applied suess ta.te (MPa.Js)
l.OE+06
;:;
i )
•
.;;
0.5

Figure 8.26 Concrete in uniaxial tension. Variation of max PJma.x P, with the applied stress rate.
I.OE~ 2.0E--04 3.0E--04 5.0E-05 J.OE-61 t.SE-04
Time(s) Tirne(s)

21-
12 ~---------~---------~
2

----- -, -· j::
(<) - - Axl•l ,..cdoo (MPo)

.r o~.1-------~'~,~-~-==-=-~-~~""'""'""~=-='==:.._-~ - - Applled suess

;
~ 0~+-----------1------------1
"
~ 0.4 . _ - -Case study t ---i-----------1
- - - ·Ca..sestudy2 0

02+----------1---------~
-0.5 ....---~--------!

---------+----------l
0 ....
1.E+04 t.E<tOS
Applied suess !'ate (MPa/s)
LE-t06
O.OE+OO 3.0E-05 6.0E- 05
Time (s)
9.0E-05

Figure 8.28 Concrete in uniaxial tension. Variation of the values of the applied stress and the axial reac-
tion exhibited at the bottom o ( the concrete prism with time values of the applied loading rate
Figure 8.27 Concrete in uniaxial tens.ion. Variation of the max t.Jmax £,with the applied stress r ate. (MPa/s) equal to: (a) 5000: (b) 12.500 and (c) 25.000.
326 Finite-element modelling of str uctural concrete Structural concrete under impact loading 327

of load ing (i.e., for values over 12,500 MPa/s) t he reaction which develops prior to che 3.5
failure of the specimen (or che e nd of che load ing procedure) is sma ll compared co che - - Applied strain rate

,,
stress applied on. the cop of che prisn1. In parricular, the results sho\v t hac, for hig h races 3 - - - - Max value or 11\'e.rag:e strain rate
of loading (for values over 12,500 MPa/s), ~·here che duration. of th e load ing procedure - .. Average strain rate at the mid-height ttg_Son
is less than. 0.000 1 s (which corresponds approximately co the earlier estimate for che
t ime needed for the stress \Vave to crave) fronl t he top co the boctom of the specimen), che .- 2.5

2
,''
,,
~
numerical resu lcs reveal cha r th e failure of t he concrete prisni precedes t he developn1enc of
substancial reactions (see Figure 8.28, and also Figure 8 .29 \vhich summarises t he resoles
of Figure 8.28 t hrough a maximum axial reaction versus applied scress race ploc). This is
due co che fact char che stress \Vave - which is gen.eraced on the cop of che concrece prisni
~
~
J.5
---- - --
~~~~ ... '~-!---
~;,;:::::;,~~~-------' ,
_,,-'

by che applied load - is u nable to reach t he bottom of the concrete prism w ichin che rime 0.5
over \Vhich the loading procedure lasts. Therefore, it is realiscic to assume that, in such
cases, the externa l load does n.oc affect the \Yhole specin1en buc only a pare of it extend ..
ing co a level \Vhich the stress wave is able to reach in t he cime t hat the loading procedure
Str3..in rate (Ifs)
lases. Based on chis, it is possible to conclude that, beyond a threshold value of applied
loading rate, higher concencracions of scresses (and strains) develo p in che upper part of
figure 8.30 Concrete in uniaxial tension. Variation o ( max P) max P, with the applied strain rate (variousty
t he specimen \vhereas, in che bottom part, rhe values of stresses and strains are much
defined).
lower, and ofcen negligible.
For lo"' rates of loading, where the duration of the loading procedure exceeds 0.000 1 s,
rhe stress \Vave reaches the boctom of che speci_men, bounces off ic a nd scans co travel back.. of the a\•erage scrain race ac the mid.. heighr region leads ro unrealisric resulrs; hence che la n er
wards and forwards along its height, trapped by the imposed bound ary conditions. Because definition of strain race \\rill no longer be considered. When the cwo remaining curves are com ..
of t his, the stress \Vave affects rhe \Vhole of t he concrer·e specin1en, adding to che complexiry pared \Vith che availableexperimencal daca (see Figure 8.3 1 \Vhich refer toexperin1encal daca),
of che stress field which develops \Vich in ir (excepr, of course, for sracic or quasi ..scacic load .. the one that describes the variacion of max PJmax P$ \\rirh the maximum value of average
ings). In such cases, ir is di(ficulc ro predicr \Vhere the highesr concentrations of stresses (and strain race exhibited by the specimen appears co provide a closer fie co che experimencal dara.
strains) will develop because of the continuolls rravelling of the stress \Vave which causes The use of the average srrain race and che mid ..height strain rare calcula ted in the mid..heighr
rhe internal stress field within the concrete pris:n1 co conscanrly change. h is- important ro region of the specin1en seems co lead co misleading conclusions due to the face that, for high
noce t hac for such cases t he concrete prisms ex:hibic load ..carrying capacities and maxin1un1 races of loading, only the upper pare of t he prism is affecred and, therefore, the mid..heighr
values of strain close ro their councerparcs o btained for the case of sracic loading (see Figures region exhibirs less deformation and strain, so that che scrain race calculated in chis region
8.26 and 8.27). These values begin robe affecred by rhe applied mess rare as rhe durarion of is n1uch less than t he srrain race exhibired in the upper area of che speciJnen. Based on rhese
the loading procedure becomes less than 0.0001 s, resulting in che scress wave being unable
ro reach the bon om of che concrete pris1n.
In Figure 8.30 a relacionship is presenred benveen. max P/max P, and strain rares evaluated
by using different methods for cakularing the exhibiced strain rare (namely average strain race,
maximum value of average strain rare, a nd mid ..height strain race). By comparing che chree
4.5

•
• Eicperlmeotal data
AppUed wain rate ...
•
~-i
resulting relation.ships, ic becomt"S clear that they are significanrly different a nd chac the use
3.5
•

•
l.5 •

l.OE+OS 1.0E+06 t.E--01 t.E+OO LE+Ol l..E-t-02

Applied suess l'tte (MPa/s) Sttaln rate (Jls)

figure 8.29 Concrete in uniaxial tension. Variation of llhe maxWnum axial r eaction exhibited at the bottom figure 8.31 Concrete in uniaxial ten sion. Comparison of numerical and exper imentaJ data between max P~
of the concrete prism with the applied k>ading r-ate. max P, and differently evaluated strain rates.
328 f inite·element mo delling of structural concrete Structural concrete under impact loading 329

(•) .
3.5 -
...--------~--~---~
- - TC"mion
- - - · Compre:uion -!-----+--
/~ -
are conrained in Figure 8.24). The experimencal dara are obtained fron1 a number of direc-r
rensile and splining tests. Such experin1ental data reveal thar, (or scrain rares up to 0 .1-1 s- 1,
che specimen load-carrying capacity is sin1ilar co its counterpart obrained under scacic load·
... 3 <----~----1---/
-.--1--,,- ing. Ho,vever, \Vhen strain rates becon1e larger th.an approximately 1 s-l, a sudden increase
in che specimen screngch occurs. This observation ag·rees \Vith che numerical predictions
~ 2.5 - -- ~ / -
obcained from the numerical invescigation presently reporced.
~ 2 /
~-~ 1.5 - ----- -.....'~
I ,'
As for che case of compressive loading, che experimencal data presenced in Figure 8.31 are
characterised by considerable scarcer. This scaner does not allow for very accurate predic·
'.___rf-----
-- --i-
-T'' - t ions of che behaviour of concrete under high rates of tensile loading. As already mentioned,
0.5 - che large number of faccors vary from experiment co experimenc such as, for example, che
0 +-_ _ _.,__ _ _ 1------<~----<
size and shape of che specimens tested, che loading techniques used, the moisrure content
LE-t-03 LE+Gt LE.OS l.E+06 LE+O? of che specimens, the different mixes of concrete used, the different types of experimencs
AppUed wess rate (MP3.ls) carried our for investigating che behaviour of concrete in tension (direct rension rescs, split·
(b)
• - - Tm.Jion
ring tests, ecc.). Neverche.less, based on che comparison of the prediccions obtained from
rhe nunwrical invesrigarion with che relevant experimenta l data, presented in Figure 8.31,
3.5
one can conclude chat, as in rhe case of con1pressive loading (see Section 8.2.5), che FE
..-
x
3
2.5
n1odel's prediccions are reason.able and provide a realiscic phenon1enological description of
che behaviour of concrece in r·ension.
~
;;_.. 2
; LS 8 .3.6 Parametric investigation
E
l The available cest data do noc allo\v accurate conclusions to be dra,vn regarding che indi·
0.5 vidual effect char che variacion of each of the paramecers referred to in che precedingsec-cion
has on che specimen response. As for che case of compressive loading, chis is due co boch
0
LE- OJ LE+-00 J..E-t-01 LE+02
che lack of experin1ental data investigating che individual effecc of each para merer and co
M:ax: average value ofstrata rate (l/s) che scaner chat characterises all existing daca often resulcing in conAiccing conclusions
from invesrigacion ro investigation. Clearly, however, the variacion of chese parameters
Figure 8.32 Comparison of numerical and experimental resuh:s established from tensile and compressive muse have an effect on specimen behaviour. The majority of chese parameters are linked
tens with the (a) applied stress rate and (b) maximum average value of strain rate. co che dynamic (struccural) characreristics of che specimen scrucrure, such as che sci ffness,
che mass and the boundary conditions. Keeping in mind that the structural forms (i.e.,
concrete cylinders or pris1ns) used in rests muse be viewed as scruccures, changes - even
results, it becomes apparent that, in order ro calculace che maximuni values of scrain exhibited small ones - in the va lues of these various ch.aracreriscics n1ay (pocencially) result in sig·
by che concrece pris1n, one has co identify \Vith accuracy che exacr locarion where such strains nificanr changes in che specimen's response under dynamic loading. Such changes clearly
and cheir corresponding stresses will occur. This rask is difficult co carry out in an experimen· sho\\r char che daca obcained from such experiments describes srruccural response rarher
cal investigarion, from which only esrimace values of data can be hoped for. ch.an n1acerial behaviour.
Figure 8.32a and b sho\V the curves obtained from the numerical investigation which The paramerric study presenced in whar follo\VS focuses on an invesrigation, rhrough
describe che variarion of the load-carrying capacity n1ax P4 (normalised wich respect to ics nun1erical analysis (adopting che n1ore formal and accurate \Vhole·spec-imen mode1ling \Vich
value under Stacie loading max P,) with (i) the applied stress race (see Figure 8.32a) and (ii) rhree degrees of freedom for che mass ac each node), of the effects rhar che variarion of some
che maximum value of average scrain rare (see Figure 8 .32b). By comparing borh che cases of of chese parameters have on specimen response and rhefr conrriburions co che scaner in che
censile and compressive loading it becomes apparent th.ac rhe change in the specimen behav· experimenral data. Ac chis poinc, it is imporcanr co n1enrion char one of rhe paran1et'ers thac
iour under tensile loading - which is primarily expressed by an increase in its load-carrying has been sho\\rn to affect che behaviour of concrete under high loading rares is che moisrure
capacity - begins co occur at loading races much lo·wer than in the case of compression. The contenr of concre1e. However, iris impossible to include chis parameter in che present inves·
same conclusion is a lso dra,vn from che analysis of che available experimental d.aca (Bischoff cigation as the marerial model adopred for concrete is limiced co che cype of concre1e used
and Perry 1991, AC! 446 2004). in RC scrucrures, being usually air cured and, cherefore, possessing lo\V moisrure contenL
The parameters char are presently investigated are che uniaxial compressive strengch and
density of che concrece used as well che heigh1 and cross·secrional area of che specin1en (che
8 .3.5 Validation of the numerical predictions
effecc of che measuring technique has already been considered - see e.g., Figure 8 .30). In
In Figure 8.31, the results obtained from che numerical in\'estigacion are compared \Vich each of these cases only one of che paran1eters of che concrete prism invescigaced initially
available exper1mental daca which describe the increase of the specimen load-carrying is changed ac a cin1e in order ro invescigate its individual effecc. The results obrained are
capacity \\'ith increasing rates of tensile loading (more comprehensive experimencal dara summarised in Figure 8.33a and b \Vhich sho\V the variacion of the load-carrying capacir)'
330 f inite-element modelling of n ructural concrete Structural concrete under impact loading 33 1

50 mm (instead of 100 mm) (50 x 50 x 253) in order to reduce the cross-sectional area to a
(a) 6 ------------~
quarcer of thac used originally. ln t he second case, rhe lengch of the specimen is half char of
the original (126 mm instead of 253 mm) (100 x 100 x 126). Finally, in rhe third case, both
s +-- - - + - - - - - + - - - - < ! - - IOOx IOOxlSlk • (i()M.h

(}..w
. l __;_, ,'
-
, .. 2400kglm1
• - IOOx 100x2S3~ · 30M.h
, • l400kglm'
the side of che cross section and the length of che specimen are half of rhose in che orig inal
specimen (50 x 50 x 126). By exan1ining che resulcs in Figure 8.33a a nd b, it is apparent that
the variarion in cross-sectional area and heigh: has some effect on specimen response \Vich
increasing s tress rnte. In pntticulnr, it seems thnc, che smnlle-r che cross-sectionnl nren nnd
~ I
- - 100 x lOO x l lllih • JOMf'il

~3 '1'1-I , .. 2400kglm1 the longer che specimen, the larger the increase in scrength.
I /,
- - - · !iO x 50 x 253~ · 30MPi Finally, the use of different mixes as well as the use of different cypes of con1ponencs
~
2
I / I,,''.
/ 7 --;. ·-,:- I -
, • l400kglm1 (aggregate, cement paste, etc.) may resulc in a variation of the density of che concrece speci·

l ~I
... !i0 x 50 x 126k · 30MPi men. Though these differences are expecced to be rather small, the application of high rates
, • l400kglm1
of uniaxial loading onto a concrete specimen becomes a d ynamic problem and, cherefore,
- - · 100xlOOxlS3~ · 30M.h the inercia of its mass plays a significant role in its response under such loading condi·
, • 1880 kglnti
t ions. In order co in vestigace che effect of the variation of density, the density of concrete (p)
0 +----.---.. .
t.E..00 l.E-t-04
i----....j
l.E+-05 LE~
was increased by 20% of char originally used (2400 kg/ml). T he numerical data obrained
revealed thar an increase of che density resulcecl in the specimen exhibiting a higher increase
Applied Sltt'U tale (MPals) of load-carrying capacicy under tensile loading with increasing loading rares. This can be
(b) 6 ----~--~-~-~
explained by the fact t hat an increase in densiry results in an increase of the inertia forces
thac develop during the application of the excernal load, chus resulting in a furcher increase
---
.
.- -- 100x100x25.1/t•(i()M.Pa
of the load-carrying capaciry of rhe concrete prisms.

....i ---1----1---::-1----
i
'
I

I
-

-
p. 2400 tgfm'
• - 100x100x25.1f t•30M.Pa
p. 2..00 tgf~
- 100x100xll6/ t .. 30Mh
8 .3.7 Conclusions
The con1parari,•e study benveen numerical and experimental data revealed char che brittle
p .1..00 tgfm'
;;:. 3 macerial model used and non-linear FE strategy adopced are capable of providing realistic
; /i I - - - · 50x50x253/. •30MPa
p. 2400 • .,;;i predictions of che behaviour of concrete ac high rares of uniaxial censile loading. ln view of
E 2 --1--f-~~
· +l- - 1

·r2
- - 50x50x ll64 •30M.Pa
this (sratic) macerial model's ability to describe the behaviour at high rares of loading, it can
p. 2..00 tgf~ be concluded chat che effect of the race of loa:ling on rhe specimen behaviour reAecrs rhe
1
1
0 ....._....,,___...,._ _ _1 _ _..,.
.
- - · 100x100x25.1/t .. 30MP<t
p • 2880tgfm'
effect of che inertia loads thac reduce the rare of cracking of the specimen, a fact which, in
turn, leads to an increase of irs load-carrying capacicy. Furthermore, che numerical resulcs
obcained reveal that che scaner caused by varying individual paramecers (such as the land
0.01 0.1 10 JOO density of the concrete, the cross·secrional area and lengrh of rhe specimen, and even the
Mu a~rage ' 'lllue of strain rate (lls) resting/measuring technique adopted) can acrounr for the magnicude of the scacter thac
characterises rhe available experimenta l daca. This conclusion becomes more apparenc when
F'JfUTe 8.33 Concrete in uniaxial tens.ion. Numerical predictions obtained from the parametric investigation considering che fact that che combined effect of a number of such parameters is certain to
describing the variation o ( max PJmax. P. with (a) the applied stress rate and (b) the maxW'num have an even n1ore substa ncial effecc on che overall prism response.
value o ( exhibited average strain r ate.
As for the case of compressive loading, at high rates of censile loading che numerical
results reveal char only che upper region of rhe concrete specimen defornlS whereas che rest
max P, (norn1alised \Vich respect co its value under static loading max P,) with the applied remains practically unaffected by che applicacion of the external load . For the case of low
stress rate as \Yell ~s che n1axin1um average va lue of strain race. rates of loading rhe deAection of the stress \Va\'e:S on che boundary surfaces of che specimen
lnicially, che value of the uniaxial compressive strength of concrece ·was increased from caused front. the continuous applicacion of the exrernal load is rrapped by the boundary
30 through 60 MPa. The predictions o btained are consiscem with the CEB (1988) recom· cond it ions leading to a nonahomogeneous disiribution of the scress rhroughouc che speci·
mendations \Vhich suggest that the increase in u lcimare strength of concrete specimens \Vith men. In neirher of the above cases, the specimen behaviour can be considered ro represent
loading rare depends on the value of l of the concrete used; in parcicular, the higher t he the behaviour of concrete as a material. This is further supported by results obcained from
value of ft, che lo,ver che increase of rhe specin1en's strength \Vhen subjected co high rares of the paramecric investigacion which clearly suggests char t he behaviour of rheconcrere prisms
tensile loading. under high rares of uniaxial t ensile loading are affected by a number paran1eters related to
In order to investigace numerically che effect of specimen cross-sectional area and lengch rhe structural characteristics of the prisms (i.e., mass, strength, stiffness).
on specimen behaviour under high rates of tensile loading, three addicional case studies are Therefore, ic is confirmed thac a concrete specimen under dynamic loading cannot be
carried our. The specimens are similar to thar sho\vn in Figure 8.4 excepc for the changes used co describe conc-reteamarerial behaviour since, in contrast with sracic loading, it cannot
described belo\v. In rhe first case, the side of che cross secrion of the specimen is sec to constiruce a material unit front. which average material properries may be obtained. Under
332 Finite-element modelling of str uctural concr ete Structural concr ete under impact loading 333

dynamic tesrs the concrete specimen must be vie\ved as a strucrure sjnce its behaviour is
directly linked ro che inerria effect of its n1ass and the boundary condirions. Therefore, rhe
use of experimencal dara from dynamic resrs in order co develop constiruci\'e n1odels for
concrece behaviour under dynan1ic loading is quesrio11able.
Moreover, rhe experimenral daca suggesc rhac che behaviour of a concrete specimen under
impacr loading depends on a number of paran1eters, the effects of \Vhich cannoc be quanri·
tied due ro the significanr scaner rhac characterises rhe experiment.a l data.
Finally, rhere are differences in che responses exhibited by che specimen under rensile and
compressive impact. Firsr, tensile specimens show race sensiriviry ac lower applied stress
rares. Secondly, rensile specimens appear ro exhibic linle, if any, changes in rhe maximun1
srrain (compared '"'ith irs sracic councerpan), \Vhich concrasrs wirh the findings for con1pres·
sive impacc where a significanr increase in maximum strain is recorded beyond a certain
loading rare. Thirdly, there is a negligible confinemenc in the direcrion perpendicular co rhe
loading (again, in contrasc to compressive cests).
0 : Meai,s:. polnt of :w:eletatlon
X : Means:. polnt of steel untn
ISi :Meai,s:. polnt of delJe.ction
8.4 RC BEAMS UNDER IMPACT LOADING (unit:nm)

8 .4.1 Background Figure 8.34 RC beams in impact. (Simplified representatio n of experimental set-up used by Miyamoto
A .. King M. W. and Fuji M.. 1989. 8u1Jetin of~ New Zealand Notional Society for Earthquake
In what follows, iris sho,vn rhac chat rhe proposed FE model is also capable of providing a Enginee6ng. 22. 98-111.)
realistic descripcion of che behaviour of RC bea1ns subjecred ro concenrrated load at mid·
span applied ac high rares. The results obtained have been extracted from Corsovos and
Pavlovic (2012) where full derails of rhe work can be found.
From Figures 8.35 and 8.36, the loading rare appears ro affecr borh rhe load-carrying
capacity and che deflected shape of rhe bean\S cesced: Load-carrying capacity increases 'vich
8 .4.2 Review of experimental data rhe loading rate (see Figure 8.35), the laner also causing che fonnation of a 'discontinuiry'
A significanr number of experimenrs have been carried ouc ro date in order co investigate rhe poinc which marks che Starr of an abrupr increase of rhe slope of rhe deflecred shape (see
behaviour of RC beams under high rares of concemrared loading (Hughes and Spiers 1982, Figure 8.36). The formation of ch is 'discontinuiry' point is compatible \Vith che formation of
Miyamoro er al. 1989, Kishi er al. 2001, 2002, 2006, May er al. 2006). In the majority of near-verrical cracking which, as indicared ar the borron1 phorograph of Figure 8.37, initiates
rhese cases, the lo.ad was applied by means of a sceel mass (impacror) thar \Vas allowed ro
fall onto che specimens· mid-span from a cerrain heighr depending on che desired race of
loading. A simplified versjon of rhe experimental ser-up used is presenred in Figure 8.34.
Special provisions \Vere usually raken in order to avoid uplifr at che supports and to mod·
60
erare damage in che area of concacr berween che steel in1pactor and the concrete medium ......! .-
(usu.ally in che form of pads made from various n1acerials such as steel, ply and rubber) - see
also Figure 8.34. The duracion of loading in these tesrs was exrreme1y shore (of the order of
some milliseconds [ms]) and che intensiry of che applied load increased rapidly from zero ro a
so - /
)?
/

I
+
maximum value. RC beams similar to chose reseed under high rates of loading were usually
JV
also tested under static loading, for purposes of comparison.
I
Typical resulcs obrained from rhe tesrs are presented in Figures 8.35 chrough 8.39. Load- k:::: _ --
deflection curves describing the response of RC beams rested by Miyamoto ec al. (1989)
under static and impacr loading ar mid-span are sho,vn in Figure 8 .35, \Virh the corre..
sponding deAecred sh.apes ac rhe ultim.are limir scace of the beams being depicred in figure 10
'7 Impact Jo.adltlS • -
t"Xperlment
~ -- Stalk loadJllS • -
8.36 . Typical crack parrerns at rhe failure of RC beams tested by Hughes and Spiers (1982) I t"Xperlmecnt
0
are presented in Figure 8.37, \Vhereas Figure 8.38 shows the measured values of the bean1 0 4 s 6
load-carrying capacicy for various rates of loading and velocities of the stee.1 impacror ac rhe Dispfacetnent (min)
moment of impacr. Finally, rhe measured values of rhe mid-span deflection ac che failure of
RC beams resred by Hughes and Spiers (1982) under various rates of loading are sho,vn in figure 8.35 RC beams in impact. Typical ct1rves expressing the relationship between applied load and
Figure 8.39. deflection under static and impact loading.
334 f inite-element modelling of str uctural concrete Structural concrete under impact loading 335

(>) Distance from support-span rauo

0 0.1 0.2 Q.3 0.4 o.s
0

-0.5
-------- ... __ _
!.
- I

- 1.5
----- Static lo::iding

! ... ...
.;
"
~
-2

- 2.5
- - - l.o~ = 2l.07kN
- - Load = 29.2 kN
----
~
0 -- ~ = 33. 12kN
-3

- 3.5

(b) Distance from support-spa1' rolio

0 O.l 0.2 0.3 0.4 O.S
0 36kN/m$

--- - -
-0.5 figure 8.37 RC beams in impact. Typical crack patterns at failure for-varioos rates of loading. (From Hughes
G. and Spiers D. M_ 1982. An i~stigation on the beam impact ptobkm. Cement and Concrete
'E - I Assoc.iation. Technical Report S.'46.)
.s
.•,.
"8
- 1.5

-2 - - Lo::id = 44.00 kN
"
.!!
~ - 2.5
- - Lood = 49.56 kN
-3
figure 8.36 RC beams in impact. Typical deflected shapes under increasing load of beams tested by
Miyamoto et aJ. (1989) under (a) static loading and (b) impact loading.
in che upper face of rhe bean\ and moves down·wards indicating che development or neg_arive
bending moments under impact loading. Such cracking is preceded by the development of
flexural cracking initiating at the bon·on1 face of che beam and cluscering within che mida
span region ra1her than spreading throughouc the beam span as in the case of sracic loading
indicared a t rbe cop pbocograpb of Figure 8 .37.
An in1ponanr fearure of che experimenral resuhs obtained from cesring RC beams
under load exerr·e d at a high race is rhe large scaner exhibiced by the measured values
of bo ch loadacarrying capacicy and corresponding midaspan detleccion sho,yn in Figures
8 .38 and 8.39, respeccively. Alrhough this may be pa rtly due co che wide range of paran1-
ecers linked \Vilb the experimenral set-up adopced for cesting (i.e.> size and mass of che
srriker in relation co che beam length, che cype of pad used, che boundary condicions, che
bean1 dimensions, ch e grade o( concrete, che amount, che spacing and srrengrh propenies
of the longicudinal and rransverse reinforcement}, ir is considered char ch e scarcer pre-
do 1ninandy reflecrs che difficulty of rhe experimenc:ll techniques adopred co accuracely
correlate che measured value of loadacarrying capacit)' co che p hysical sca1e of che speci-
mens (Figure 8.40).
Loss of loadacarrying capacity of an RC beam under scacic loading occurs when che com·
pressive zone suffers longicudinal cracking close co the excren1e compressive fibre after che
occurrence or flexural or inclined cracking; rhis is consiscenr \Vi ch boch analytical and exper-
imencal findings \Vhich sho\V char the occurrence of such cracking marks rhe scare of che loss
of load-carrying capacicy eicher in flexure or shear (Kots.ovos and Pavlovic 1995). ln face,
Figure 8.40 shows char horizontal splicting of the compressive zone combined wirh flexural
aJ1d inclined cracking is one of crack pan erns characcerising the stare of an RC beam under
impacc ar various rin1e inscances afcer conrac-c "'ith che in1pacror. Fron\ che figure ir can be
seen thac che crack panern of che beam 12 nlS after cooracc \\tith che impaccor, aparc from
che spalling of che concrere cover, is characcerised b)' flexural and inclined crack ing char pen..
ecrares deeply inco the compressive zone, \Vich che laner suffering horizoncal spliccing. This
is che cypical crack pan ern corresponding to a loss of load·carrying capacity which appears
to occur \Ylchin a cime less chan half che tesc duracion (che larrer being 1nore chan 28 ms);
beyond chis tin1e or 12 ms, che experimenca lly escablished beha\•iour describes pose-failure
phenomena of licde, if any, praccical significance.
In che proposed FE package, loss of load-carrying capaciry occurs \Vhen che sriffness
n1acrix becomes non-positive definice (chis essencially occurring \Vhen concrere disintegrates).
For a stacically dererminace strucrure, che load srep preceding che loss of load-carrying capac-
iry is essentially chat ac which che load-carrying capadcy is auained. In \Yhat follows, it is
sho\Yn chat rhe proposed FE model is capable of prediccing trends of behaviour similar co
those experimentally escablished, as well as providing a lower..bound fir co cesr suengch data.
8 .4.l Structural form investigated
Fron\ che tesc daca on beams under i1npacc loading available in rhe licerarure, anencion \Vas
focused on cbe bebaviour of simply supporred RC beams (bea ms C2) reseed by Hugbes and
336 Finite-element modelling of structural concr ete Structural concr ete under impact loading 337

40 ~-------~--~~--~
35

... 30
• Hughesand
1=
.. ·7..
_ Sp_.,_,.
-l·-1-98_2_ __,__
· _
~ 25

•.~-··
~ 20
i •
-~- ·~~:;~.,______
15
t : 0tl'I$ 1= 12ms
JO

o +----;..o•~'-~
10
~~-
100
-~-•--;-----1 JOOO J0.000
Lo:id nre (kN/.s)

l =4 ms At the end of im~ct

JO
Figu~ 8.40 RC beams in impact. C rack patterns characterising the r esponse of an RC beam's under impact
loading at various time instances after contact with the impactor. (From May I. M. et al.. 2006.
Figu~ 8.38 RC beams in impact. Measured values of load-carrying capacity obtain ed experimentally for Computers ond Concrete 3 (2/l), 79-90.)
var ioos rates of loadWlg and velocities oi the impactor at the moment of impact (max P, e toad-
car rying capacity under dynamic loading. max P, s toad-car rying capacity under static loading).
Spiers (1982). The beams had a reccangular c ross sec-rion wich a heighr of 200 mm, a \Yidch
of 100 n1m a nd a dear span equal co 2,700 mnl. The longirudina l reinforcen1ent consisced

- -•
2.5 . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - . . , - - - - - .
of four bars: ry,ro 12 mm diamecer ba rs placed ac the rwo bonom corners of che beams cross
seccion and rwo 6 m m d iamerer bars placed at the n vo cop corners (see Figure 8.41). T he
ltansverse reinfo rcemenc con1prised 6 mm d iamecer stirrups wirh an approxima rely 180 mm
• ••
..... .
.,- centre-co-cencre spacing. The modulus of elasticity (Es.). the yield stress({) a nd che ultiniace

• .-.c•·
•••· .
~ J.5 Slteng rh ({.)of boch the long:icudinal a nd uansverse rein (orcenlenr bat s used \Vere equal co

~
,,__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 3000 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.,,
=
E
\ ·~:.19.

"" ...
·'•o~•-1
0.5 11 11
•
, , _ - - - - - - - - - - 2700 ~---------__,, •
o•
J ----,r
o-=-~-100,._ ___Jooo
-r----J-1
~000 1500

l..o:ld rate (kN/s)

I f 111 1111 1111 111111
156.3 -r---;'
Figure 8.39 RC beams in impact. Measured values o( the maximum deflection for various rates of load-
ing (max 64 • maximum deflection under dynamic loading. max 5, •ma.xi mum de flection
under static loading). Figu~ 8.4 I Seams in impact. Design details and FE model adopted for the anatysis (dimensions in millimetre ).
338 f inite-element modelling of str uctural concrete Structural concr ete under impact loading 339

approximately 200 GPa, 460 and 560 MPa, respec-rivel)'- The uniaxial cylinder compressi,•e
scrength of the concrete used was f, = 45 ~1Pa. The RC bea1ns \Vere subjected co poinc load at
mid-span by means of a sceel mass allowed co fall onco t he specimen from a cercain height,
depending on the desired race of load in~ several loading rates were considered in the rest,
(b) I I I I I ·::::.
.. ...I I : :::::~
I I ::11
25" of load-otryl.ng ca padty
as \Veil as a quasi-static load application. Mild steel, rubber or ply pads are placed on the (a) 35 ~----~--~-----
top face of the specimen in order co prevenc or moderate local damage by the impact of the
falling mass. 30
/• - -
8.4.4 FE modelli ng of the problem
Concrece is n1odelled by using 27-node brick Lagrangian elements, whereas chree-node
isoparamecric truss elemencs are used to model che steel reinforce1nenc. As for all struc·
rural fonns discussed herein, che size of the 27-node Lagrangian brick FEs used is dictated
]: I,,
~ 2s i---~·7--+--+---.._-~
]

l 10

5
1/

- - Ex:petlmt'nt
- - Nun'W!rlclll prediction
--+---<--
~ ofloo.d-atrylng capacity

7S" ofloo.d-arryi.ng ca padty

a:ff±d ;.( ::t Ffi

by rhe philosophy upon which rhe FE package adopted in rhe present work is based. Ir is

IO_D!_s_pl2+.~-.me-.......~-,m-)_"°_ _....50
reminded t hat the macerial model implemented in the package is based on daca obcained
from experiments on cylindrical specin:ens under criaxial loading conditions, and chus 00
,._ _
these cylinders may be assun1ed ro constirutc a 'n.larcrial unir' (or which average material
properties are o btained and hence che volume of these specimens provides a guideline to the
order-of-1nagnicude of th e size of the FE rhac should be used for the modelling of concrete
structures. Making use of the double symmecry that characterises che problem considered
it is sufficient to model only a quarter of che RC beam sho,vn in Figure 8.41. The truss Figure 8.42 RC beam under static loading: (a) Compa.ri$On o( load-deflection curves established by experi-
elements represenring che sceel reinforcement \Vere placed along successive series of nodal ment and predicted by analysis: (b) defor med shape and era.ck patter ns predicted by a..naJysis for
var ious stages of the applied load.
poincs in both vercical and horizontal dfreccions. Since the spacing of chese truss elemencs
is predefined by the location o( che brick elements' nodes, cheir cross·secrional area \Vas
adjusted so that the coral amount of borh longitudinal and cransverse reinforcement is 8.4.6. I Predicted beha•lour
equa l to t he design values.
The beam mass was assun1ed co be lurnped at che nodes along the longitudinal axes of The effect of the loading rate on che load~carrying capacity, max PJ, nonnalised with respect
symmetry o( the two rows of brick elements comprising che bean1 FE mesh, each n\ass being co itscouncerparcunder static loading, max Pn is described in Figure 8.43 \Vhich sho\vs a close
allo\ved co move horizontally and vertically. The applied load increased linearly to failure at correlation benveen the numer1cally predicted values and their experimentally established
a constant race which \Vas varied between l Ql and 10' kN/s. counrerpans. From che figure, it can also be seen chac, afrer a small gradual increase, the load·
carrying capacity increases sharply once a certain threshold of the loading rare is surpassed.
8.4.5 Static loading
The main results obtained from the anal)'sis of che beam under Stacie loading are presented 12
•
~··••
in Figure 8-42 in the fornl of a load- defleccion curve and crack patterns at various load lev·
• Hughes and Spiers •
els. The load-deAection curve o btained experimentally is also included in the figure which 1982 Spednlen C2
shows a close correlation between predicted and experimencally established behaviour. The
beam exhibited ductile behaviour due to yielding of the longitud inal tension bars in rhe mid·
... 8 • Anlllysls •• ••
span region which suffered ex·censive cracking eventually leading co loss of load-carrying .E=

• •·1· •
capacity due co horizoncal splitting of the compressive zone. Flexural cracks first appeared c..'
in the mid-span region and, with increasing load, gradually spread cowards rhe supports. i • -
The predicted crack panern jusc before failure is found to correlare closely with ics experi·
mental counterpart in Figure 8.42 .
••
1. ••
0
I
• 10 100 1000
8.4.6 Impact load ing
Load t11te (kN/ms)
In \Vhac follows, anencion is focused, on the one hand, on the effect of the loading rate on
beam behaviour and, in panicular, on load-carrying capac-iry, load- defleccion curves, defor· Figure 8.43 RC beams in impact. Experimental and numerical results expressing the variation of the load-
macion profile and cracking process, and. on the ocher hand, on the causes of che predicted carrying capacity with the loading rate (ma.lC 1'4 • load-ca.rrying capacity under dynamic loading:
behaviour. max P. a load-carrying capacity under Sta.tic loading).
3'40 Finite- element modelling of structural concrete Structural concr ete under impact loading 341

2
•
T

- - 2.4kN'nu • Hughes and

•
~ 200 l-- -,'--1----+-- - - 24 kNJms

..=- 1.5
~i..r<t- 1~?

• Analys.1s - ~ ..
~····
;;' lSO ,/ - - - - - 240kl'/ms
2

! ·~--- r --- -
1

o b;;:~~======::=:=:=:_j
I E
:Jo
=
E
I

0.5
. .'. ..•
• •
.• - ..-:.r. . .:••.
·~·
. ~
0 3 •
Olspbcement (mm)
0
I
• 10
•.t • ,_ - - -
100 - 1000
figure 8.44 RC beams Wl impact. Predicted load- deflection ctJrves for various rates of loading. Lo::1.d rate (kN/s)

.
0.5
~Hughes and
- <><> <>
Figure3.44 shows rhe numerically predicred load-mid-span deflecrion curves of rhe beam.s
Spiers-1982 . <>
~ <> <> -<
..i-
0.4
00 <><>
under load applied ar various rares. From rhe figure, ir can be seen rhac, under dynamic load-
<>
ing, there is a significant change in rhe RC beam's response when compared to ics counter-
0.3
• Analysis
_ _ <> <>~ -
parc under scatic loading: as che rare of loading increases che beam response is characrerised <>
by a considerable increase in sciffness and load-carrying capacicy and, ar the same cin1e, a :Jo <> -
decrease of che deAection ac mid-span. =
E
0.2
<> <> <>
The numerically predicted ttnd experimentally established vttlues of the n1aximum mid-
span detl~crion, max o,,
normalised \Vith respecc to its counterparc under static loading,
n1ax 0,, (or various races of loading are sho\l\rn in Figure 8.45. The figure shows rhat, unlike
0.1
• <>-
• .. ...... - -
rhe numerical values which sho\V char rhe mid-span deAeccion decreases \Vith increasing 0
I 10 100 1000
loading rate, che large scaner of che experimencal values does not a llow any conclusion Load rate (kN/s)
ro be drawn regarding rhe effecc of che loading race on deileccion. The main cause o( rhe
scaner characrerising the cesc values has a lready been discussed in Secrion 8.4.2: it reAeccs figure 8.45 RC beams in impact. Variation of the rumerical and experimental values of the maximum mid·
rhe inabilicy of the measuring techniques to correlate \Vith adequate accuracy the recorded span deflection with the loading rate (max S., • maxWnum deflection under dynamic loadW'lg.
values of defleccion \Vith rhe crack panern corresponding co the loss of load·carrying max S., • maximum deflection under static loading).
capacicy.
The nun1erically predicred deformed shapes of the RC beam analysed, sho\Vll in Figure
8.4.6.2 Causes of beam behaviour
8.46, suggest char, for low races of loading, che RC beam deforms in a manner similar ro
thac of rhe Stacie case (see Figure 8.42). More specificall}; for races of loading less rhan Figure 8.47 shows rhe variacion \Vith rime of rhe numerically predicted values of the axial strain
24 kN/ms, che deflecred shape of che beam has a near-parabolic form. For rares of loading race in rhe region of the compressive zone where rhe load is applied ac a rare of 200 kN/ms.
beyond rhe above threshold, che numerical predictions indicate that the deflecred shape Fron1 che figure, it is seen chac rhese values are in the range of ±1 S""-, for \Vhich rhe variation of
progressively anains an inverted bell·like form \vhich becomes more pronounced as ics concrece strengch \Vith scrain rate presented in Figure 8.48 sho\vs char the increase in concrete
concave mid-span porcion decreases in lengrh \Vich rhe loading rare increasing beyond rhe scrength is insignificant. Therefore, rhe increase in the bea1n's loadacarrying capacity under
value of 120 kN/ms. impacr loading (see Figure 8.43) cannot be atcributed co an increase of the strengrh of concrere.
The numerically predicced crack (ormarion and extension are a lso presented in Figure Figure 8.49 presents che rime histories of (a) rhe applied load and (b) rhe corresponding
8.46. Tht' ligun- shows that, (or loa<liug r.tu.•s lt'~i. thau 24 kNlins, the.- c.:ra<..:k panent i~ simi· i.uppon n-ac.:tious pr~<lic.:tt'<l by aualysii.. fruut tht' figurt', il c.:au bt' s~t'u thaLCur r.uc.-s o( loa<l·
Jar co thac occurring under scaric loading and gradually sp1eads chroughout che beam. span ing over 24 kN/n1s, che supporc reacrion is considerably less chan che applied load; in facr,
as the load increases. For higher rates of loading, cracking also forms in rhe upper parr of rhe higher rhe loading rare rhe larger the difference benveen che nvo values. Such behaviour
the specimen, gradually extending downwards and this is indicati\'e of che de\'elopn1ent of indicates chat rhe srress \Vaves generated bf rhe applied load (ac the mid·span cross seccion)
negative momencs. The region of the deepesr do·wnward excending crack n1arks che cransi· are praccically unable to reach the supporr~ either due ro rhe shore duration of che loading
rion (refe~red to as 'discontinuity' point in Figure 8 .36) berween the 'concave· and 'convex' procedure, \Vhen this is smaller rhan the rime required for the scress wave co crave) from the
portions of che inverced bell-like deflected shape of the beam. For loading races higher than mid-span to che bean1 ends, or due to rhe \'?ttica l cracking \Vhich initiates ac the upper face
120 kN/ms, rhe crack panerns exhibited by rhe bean1 indicue that che portion of rhe beam of che beam due ro che bell-shaped deOecrion of rhe beam indicaced in Figure 8.46. Such
benveen 1he deepesc downward extending crack and the mid·span may be viewed to beha\•e behaviour indicares rhac, as rhe loading rare exceeds a certain threshold, the end portions
as a fixed-end beam. of che beam, that is, the porrions extending fron1 che supporr ro che location of the deepesc
3'42 f inite-e lement m odelling of s-cructural conc.rete Structural c o ncrete under impact loading 343

- --
33% UL (fltu Cl'Xklf"S at ndd span)

51% UL (crackiog at dtseondnulty point)

-
I 11111111 : 1l:PtfHB
I 11111
UL(&ilure)

L~dlna t3te of120 kN/n's

i I 1111111 lffi l~ UL (fltst cr::1.ddng at mid s~n)

-- -- ----
o t--..;;;;::~-------t-'-
~-

~
--=--1-
_~---1-

-
._ --~

-1,.,,--

-
-
...

I I I I I t-. ~ l I I I ( I I
I I 1-1·J I I I l•I I
66" UL (craddng at dlscontlou.ity point)

- 15+-~~-+~~~--~~...-~~~~~~+-~~-1

I !lllllillH±RB±1 UL (failu.re)

l.Mdlnu l'W' of240 kN/ms

0 01l001 0.0002 00003
Tune (s)
0.000. 0.0005 O.ooo6

I 11111111111111 ffi3
36" UL (fltst cracldog at mid s~n) figure 8.-47 RC beams in impact. Variation with time of the numericalty predicted values of the axial strain rates
deve&oping in the region of the compressive zone where the load is applied at a rate of 200 kN/ms.
II I I l~·l:~·I JI I 1 l/t~.I
I I I I l~-l;f I I I 11,~-~-~~j 1°" UL (Cri(klng at discontlnu:ity poliu) of che beams considered, che compa racive srudy benveen numerical prediccions and experi·
mentally obcained daca re\'ealed tha.r chrocgh rhe use of chese constitucive models, the pro·
posed FE package is capable of providing realistic predicrions of scrucrural behaviour under
FH IlITFR 11,1 11 IIBB UL(fa.llute) increasing rares of loading. Such predictions encon1pass nor only rhe bea 1ns' load-carrying
capac-iry, bur also rhe deforn1ed shape and crack panerns a c failure under impacr. le \Vas, in
load.Ina rate of 120 kN/ms
fact, found rhac che load-carrying capacicy of rhe beam depends on che porcion of ics span
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 49S of UL (first cracldng at mid spart)
I I I I I I If I I I I I I I I J•I

f I! 11 !al! Il HH:d:l at UL (faUwl)

+ Fan~rbrtdaadLamin-1979
lo:Ml•ng r..te of24 kN/ms 4 - Malvern. et al. -1985
<> Jawtdetal.- 1987 •
49SofUL (first cracldng ::1.t mid spa.rt) 35 0 Granetal-1989
e Rog et 3.1.-1989
3 + T t>desco et al. -1993
._. X Tt>descoetal.-1995
A GatyandBaUl)•- 1998
Lo::1.dl.ng 1'3.te of24 kNJm..s
• Groteetal-2001

Figure 8.46 RC beams in impact. Numerically predicted deformation profiles and crack patterns under dif-
ferent rates of loading.
15

crack ini1iacing ar che upper face of rhe bea m, remain essencially inert under impacr load·
iug. Iu t:t.iutra~t widl th~ ~u<l port ion~, th~ mi<lc.11~ portion..,( th~ ~am whic.:h, a~ Ui~t:uss~<l
x- + .. .. ..
earlier, may be vie,ved as a 'fixed-end beam', is rhe portion responding co chis accion. Ir 05 0 - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - + - - - - I
appears, rherefore, char che increase of che load-carrying capaciry of rhe beam under impacc
loading reAeccs rhe increase of the load-carrying capaciry of rhe •fixed-end beani·, as ic o+-~~-+-~~ ....~~-+~~.....~~~P-~~
IE-08 0.000001 0.0001 0.01 100 10.000
reduces with increasing loading race.
Strain rate (1/s)

8 .4.7 Concl usions Figure 8.48 RC beams in impact. Variation of the load-carrying capacity of concrete specimens in compres-
sion with strain rate obtained from SHP8 tests (max P, •load-carrying capacity under dynamic
The cons1icutive models (for both sceel and concrere) used (or rhe numerical invescigation of loading; max P. •load-carrying capacity under static loading). (Data from Cotsovos D. M. and
rhe behaviour of RC beams under impact loading are strain-rare independenc. For che case Pavlovic M. N .• 2008b. Computon & Svuctum. 86 (1- 2). IM-180.)
344 Finite-element modelling of structural concrete Structural concrete under impact loadin& 345

excending on either side of the load point at a distance equal to that cra\'elled by the stress
(a!
- - Applied )oad \\raves during impact: che smaller this porcion che larger che beam load-carrying capacicy.
20 - - Rib«.ion Moreover, che rate of the scrain developing within che compressive zone was found co be
insufficient co cause an. increase in the scrength of concrete.
~ 10

J 0
8.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
-10
As for che case of scrucrural behaviour under seismic excication, the proposed FE model is
0 10 IS found co produce, not only realiscic prediccions of scruccural behaviour under impact load-
Time (s) ing, buc, also, an insight inco the causes underlying such behaviour.
The close correlation berween predicred and measured scrucrural response shows rhar,
in concrast \Vith currenr code ceners, concrete behaviour is independent of strain rare

11 I • ~I •
effeccs and, chus, the increase in concrece screngch with increasing loading rare refleccs
inenia effecrs. Moreover, as for che case of che Rar slabs and scructural walls discussed in
! ' t--1-~~,-,,1;i-1rn-11Tli ~
0
Chapters 5 and 7, respectively, the FE program \Vas found capable of idenrifying che causes

'ti"'~ 11-Y-\
of rhe observed RC beam behaviour, chus proving to be a va luable research cool.

l _,:
-20+---+---+--__,,.__ __,__..,.__-I REFERENCES
0 lO 12
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Research, 30, 153- 159. unir vecror along t) g iven by <J3i-' (I , I, I), the ocrahedral mess is obrained rhrough rhe
following producr:

o, 0
o~ -
[
~ o, (A.4)
0

This oc-cahedral srress is defined fully by, and is usually more conveniendy expressed in
rerms of, ics direcc and shear componenrs, 0 0 and '£0 , as well as the angle, 0, rhar rhe shear
occahedral srress vecror forms \Vith rhe projeccion of any given principal d irecrion on che

349
350 Appendix A Appendix A 3S I

A .3 INVARIANTS OF THE STRESS TENSOR AN D THEIR RELATION

(•) (b)
TO THE OCTAHEDRAL PARAMETERS

p
As is well known, che search for principal scresses (a,, a,, u,) - and associaced principal
a, directions - corresponding co an arbicrary s cress Stace (cr., a 1 , crP t:.-1, t u, 'tyi.) leads co an
...... ....... raxls eigenvalue formulacion chat resulcs in the sening of che decern1inanc of che macrices of coef~
(a 1 = a 1 = a:J ficiencs of che chree homogeneous equacions co zero. The resulcing cubic equation Olay be
wrinen as

a' - / 10 1 + / 1o - /3 - 0 (A.8)

where all rhree roots (cr 1, cr1, cr1 ) are a l\\rays real. Since chese principal stresses are unique
physical quantities, chey cannot depend on che (arbicrary) system of axes chosen originally
Figu~ A.I Stress space: (a) Cartesian (G1, a 1• oJ and cylindrical (z. r, 9') coordinates; (b) view from the (x, y, t): thus ic follo\vs rhac che coefficients 111 11 and13 in E.quacion A.8 must be che san1e
deviatoric plane. in all coordinate systen1s, and this is why they are known, respectively, as the first, second
and third invariants o( che srress censor. The two instances: of parcicular interesc are che
arbitrary coordinates (x, y, t) and the coordinace sysrem defined by che principal direc-cions;
for these cases, the expressions for che chree invariants becoo1e
(b)

(A.9)

(A.10)

(A.11)

Of inceresc here are che relations bec\veen octahedral quancities (cr0 , 'to, 0) and the srress
invariants, so thac che fonner may be computed direcrly from che given scress scace cr,1 in
arbitrary Carcesian coordinates x, 'vichout che necessity to calculace che principal stresses as
an intern1ediate seep. Ir is easily verified cha c the relevanc expressions are

a. - (1/3)/1 (A. 12)

Figu~ A.2 Octahedral stress: (a) a ..,• 0 0 + 10 : (b) view ak>ng 0 0 of 10 and 0.
, ' (1111
' • - (2o; - (2/3)/1 J (A.13)
deviacoric plane (e.g ., o;' in Figure A.2b). The magnitudes of these paramecers are denoted
by 0 0 , t 0 , 0 and are known as che hydrostatic stress, the deviatoric scress and che rocational
angle, respecti,•ely. Simple veccorial operations lead to che following expressions which sho'v (A.14)
how these octahedral quantities are related co che principal stresses and rhe octahedral
coordinates: where ] 3 is che chi rd invarianc of che deviatoric stress censor s,, = cri; - 0 0 011 (and che use \Va.s
made of the crigonomerric re,lation cos 30 = 4 cosl 0 - 3 cos 0).
a. - (J/3)(o 1 + o 2 + o 1 ) - (1 / fJ)Z (A.5)

A .4 OCTAHEDRAL STRAINS
1
' • - (1/3)[(o 1 - o 2 ) + (o1 -
1
o 1 ) + (o1 - o 1) f
1 1111
- (llfJ)r (A.6)
All che preceding definitions rel.aced ro the occahedral scress and its component quanticies
(cr0, -r0, 0) apply equally to their srrain counterparcs, as \vould be expecred on account of
(A.7)
che essentially idencical mathematical narure of scresses and srra ins. Therefore, denocing
352 Appendix A

the rhree principal strains by (e,, e,, fi), the following definitions for rbe hydrostatic and Appendix B: Coordinate transformations
deviaco.ric strains {E0 and y0 , respective.ly), as \Veil as che angle berween the vector y0 and che
projecrion of rhe •,axis (o), hold

e0 - (1/3)(• 1 + • 2 + e,) (A.15)

2
Yo • (1/3)[(t, - •2) + (•2 - t,)' + (t, - t,)'f"11 (A.16)

cosb - (lfJ2y 0 )(t 0 - e,) (A.17)

Transformacion of stresses and strains from one coordinate system to anocher is a recurrent
A .5 ELASTIC CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS IN TERMS
operation in assessing che critical stress/scrain scare in a scruccure, one o( irs fan1iliar forms
OF OCTAHEDRAL STRESSES AND STRAINS
being che well-kno,vn Mohr's circle consrruccion. In finice element analysis, transforn1a·
rions of conscicurive ([DJ) and/or sciffness ([k]) macrice:s occur repeacedly as, for example, in
Since all the oc-cahedral paramece.rs may be expressed in te.rnls of principal scresses/srrains,
expressing stiffness propercies from local to global coordinates, or the imposition of con·
only ch.ree of che six consciruci,•e relations linking scrains and stresses need to be invoked,
srrainrs \Vhich do noc coincide \Vich global axes. As indicaced in Seccion 4.1.3, coordinate
namely chose dealing \Vich nonnal or direcc quancities. These are
iransformarion is implicit in the isoparametric formulation of stiffness matrices; howe1·er,
an explicit cransforn1acion is required for purposes of expressing cracked D matrices - sec up
e1 - (l/E)[o 1 - v(o, + o,)j (A.18) initially in remporary local axes chat follo\V che direccion of cracking - in (overall) srruccure
coordi naees.
e2 - (11E)[o2 - v(o, + o 1) ] (A.19)

B.I STRAIN TRANSFORMATIONS

e, - (1/E)[o, - v(o, + o 2 )] (A.20)
Consider C\VO secs of Canesian axes (x, y, z s x,) and (x', y', t' =- x/) skecched in Figure B.1
Combining the above gives \Vith che direccion cosines char define cheir relach•e orienracions given by (/1, m 11 n 1) (for x'
relarive to x, y, z, respecrively), (/,, m 2 , n 2 ) (for y') and(/,, m,, n,) (fort'). Through rhe use
e0 - [(1 - 2v)/E]o0 - 0 0 /(3K) (A.21) of these direction cosines, che relations linking displacements in che nvo coordinace syscems
can readily be formula red, and chen, in combination \Vith che chain rule of differentiation
Yo • [(1 + v)/£]<0 • ~0 /(2G) and che scrain- displacemenc expressions of chree-dimensional elascicicy (with the engineer·
(A.22)
ing definicion of shear scrains applicable), che cransfor1nation of scrains E (in che x, systenl)
into strains e' (in che x/ system) follo\vs

.,....
where Kand Gare che bulk and shear moduli, respectively, defined in che usual 'vay

K - E/[3(1 - 2v)] (A.23) .....' n

Ji
ntf

n11'
nf
ni
/ 11n 1

l11n1
m1111

1n1111
n ,/,
n1l2

G - E/(2(1 + v)] (A.24) •'' If

'"'' ni J,,n, n'1''l n,J,
y~,. 21,1, 2 1n 11n1 2'11n1 / 1n11 + l2n11 111 1111 + 1n1111 111/2 + n1l1 y.,.
r:.. 21,J, 2n1)1111 2n1n 1 /lfl'• + / 1n1l n1)11 1 + 1n 1nl nJ1 + n 111 Yu
Y1t 21,1, 21111ml 2112n3 l11n1 + l}ln1 n11n1 + m;;111 111/l + 11:J3 y"
(B.t)

chac is,

•' - (T,]e (B.2)

353
3S.'4 Appendix 8 Appendix 8 3SS

so that

o - [T.r'lD')['T,)<

--------f 1 On account of Equation 8.5,

a _ [r.no·J[r.J•
an.d hence firmly

[DJ - [T,]'[D'][7;] (8.7)

figure 8. I Two sets of Cartesian coordinate systems arbitrar ily oriented with respect to each other.

B.2 STRESS TRANSFORMATIONS

The relacions governing che rrans(ormacions of stresses cr (system. x;) into srresses a' (syscem
x/) are derived by scraighr:fonvard equilibriun1 considerations, and may be wricten as

o' - [T.]o (8.3)

where the ordering of rhe elements of the stress veccors is compacible wirh char of their scrain
councerparrs as listed in Equacion B.l. Ir is inrerescing that [T0 J may be obtained from (T,J
by simply moving rhe factors 2 symmetrically with respect ro the d iagonal. Ir may also be
shown thac

rr.r' - (T.]' (8.4)

rr.1-• - 1r,f (8.5)

B.3 TRANSFORMATIONS OF MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Consider che consticurive marrices (DJ and (D'] in the cwo coordinate sysce1ns x, and :c,'
respeccively. Their relarionship can be established by invoking che in.variance of che scrai~
energy stored (as a result of strains caused by che applicacion of vircual displacen1ents) in
either syscem of axes. Here, however, a more direct derivacion. may be achieved through
expressions such as Equations 8.4 a nd 8.5. Thus, in the systen1 x/

o' - [D]e' (8.6)

which, upon use of Equarions 8.2 and 8.3, n1ay be \Vrinen as

[T0 ]0 - (D'][7;]e