٠١٢

η η
SO2
H2O

Efficiency Calculations
SO2
η
Prof. M. M. Sorour
H2O
Faculty of Engineering
Alexandria University
CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Efficiency Calculations
SO2
H2O
• The highest temperature is attained when a
η fuel is burned with a stoichiometric supply of
air and when combustion is complete.
• When excess air is supplied it must be
heated thus taking useful energy from the
SO2 process.
η
• On the other hand if insufficient air is
supplied leading to incomplete combustion
the efficiency is even less and pollution may
H2O be caused.
• Therefore in practice excess air is always
CO
supplied.
2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Efficiency Calculations
SO2
H2O
• A general equation for combustion of
η liquid fuel from which it is possible to
calculate the percentage of carbon
dioxide and/or oxygen for a given air-
SO fuel ratio.
2
η
• Instruments are available to measure the
CO2 and O2 in the dry flue gas and hence a
continuous check can be made on whether
HO
2 the air-fuel ratio is being maintained as
designed.
CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Example1
SO2
H2O

SO2 hydrogen balance, d = 0.0235. η

Carbon balance: Ba = 0.785/12 = 0.06542 [ 1]
Sulphur balance: Bc = 0.019 / 32 = 0.00059

H2O

CO2
∴ 0.00728A = Bb + 0.07645 [2]
٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η
SO2
H2O

η ∴ 0.027 39A = B - Bb - 0.066 62[3 ]

From Eqs [2] and [3] by eliminating B we have:

SO2
η
A stoichiometric air fuel ratio As implies that b=0; this can be
found by putting the numerator of Eq. [4] to zero.
i.e. As = 0.07645 / 0.00728 = 10.50
The values of b can then be found from Eq. [4] at excess air
H2O
percentages of 10 %, 20%, 30% etc. by substituting values of
A = 1.1As ,A = 1.2 As, A = 1.3 As. etc.; B can be found from
CO2
either equation [2] or [3]; the fraction of carbon dioxide, a, is
then given by Eq. [ 1 ].
٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η gas fuels the equation is written in terms
For
H O of volumes throughout
SO
2
2

For example, for natural gas we have;

η
(0.926CH4 +0.036C2 H6 + 0.088C3H8 +
0.003C4H10 +0.026N2 + 0.001CO2 ) + A (
SO 2
0.21 O2 + 0.79 N2 ) →B { a CO2+ b O2+( 1 -
a – b ) N2 }+d H2 O η
• A is now the air-fuel ratio by volume
• B is in kmol dry flue gas per kmol fuel.
HO
2
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
CO 2
balances are written as before
٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η percentages of carbon dioxide and
The
HO 2
oxygen for natural gas. SO 2

SO2
η

H2O

CO2

٢٠٠٦
CO2 and O2SOagainst
2 excess air for natural gas H2O
٠١٢
η
The
η percentages of carbon dioxide
and oxygen SO 2
H2O

η • Gas and oil burners should be able to

manually operate at 15 % excess air
with an upper limit of about 20%.
SO 2
• Measurements should be taken to η
adjust the burner if the carbon dioxide
in the flue gases
HO
2
< 9 % for natural gas
CO < 13 % for oil.
2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η
Monitoring for carbon monoxide
SO2
H2O

η • When the burners are first set up it is

important to establish that combustion
is complete by monitoring for carbon
SO monoxide in the flue gas.
2
η
• In the case of oil fuel incomplete
combustion shows itself as smoke
HO
2 and a visual test is available giving a
smoke number.
CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Boiler efficiency
SO2
H2O
• A boiler is essentially a heat exchanger in
η which the thermal energy released by the
combustion process is transferred from the
products of combustion to the coolant fluid
SO2 (water/steam).
η
• The increase in enthalpy of the coolant fluid
represents the useful output.
• An energy balance applied to the system gives
H2O
the following equation

CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Boiler efficiency
SO2
H2O
• The GCV is used which implies that the
η water vapour in the products is condensed
out.
• This is unlikely to happen unless a
SO2 condensing boiler is used and therefore the η
NCV is frequently used. Boiler efficiency can
then be defined as:

H2O

CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Boiler efficiency
SO2
H2O

η
• The first term in the energy balance is the
enthalpy of the fuel and is usually negligible
SO2
compared with the other terms in the
equation. η
• The term, Qc, is the loss from the boiler
casing to the atmosphere, usually referred to
H2O as the casing loss, or radiation loss; heat is
lost from the casing by both convection and
CO
radiation but the latter term is in general use.
2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Boiler efficiency
SO2
H2O • The casing loss is usually less than 1 % for
water tube boilers, but can be as high as 10
η
% if the boiler is not adequately insulated or
if the insulation is allowed to deteriorate.

SO2
η

H2O

CO2

٢٠٠٦
Boiler
SO 2
energy analysis H2O
٠١٢
η η Boiler efficiency
SO2
H2O
• Substituting for m(h2 – h1 ) in the expression for
boiler efficiency
η

SO2
η
The enthalpy of the flue gas should be
considered in two parts: the enthalpy of the dry
H2O flue gas, and the enthalpy of the superheated
water vapour.
CO2 The flue gas loss will then reflect the thermal energy
necessary to provide the enthalpy of evaporation for ٢٠٠٦
the
water vapour SO
formed
2
during combustion H2O
٠١٢
η η Boiler efficiency
SO2
H2O
• , i.e. flue gas loss is given by
η

SO2
where d is the number of kmol of water vapour in the η
flue gas per unit mass of fuel and ν is the mass of
water vapour in unit mass of fuel supplied;
hwν is the specific enthalpy of the superheated water
vapour at the partial pressure of the water vapour and
H2O
the flue gas temperature, tG;

CO2
hf. is the specific enthalpy of water at the temperature
of the air- fuel mixture at combustion, tA.
٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Boiler efficiency
SO2
H2O
• Moisture present in the fuel before
η combustion, νmf, is included in the above
since it will appear as an increased
percentage in the flue gas and has been
SO2
introduced to the boiler at the approximate η
temperature, tA.

H2O

CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Boiler efficiency
SO2
H2O
• For a steam boiler it is necessary to eject
η some of the water to remove precipitated
salts .
• This process is known as boiler blow-down.
• It represents a loss of money (a) in the
SO2 reduction in boiler efficiency due to the loss η
of energy of the hot water blown down and
(b) in the fraction of the cost of chemically
treating this water since the feed water is
treated before entering the boiler.
H2O
• Blow down can be as high as 10 % or more
of the steam flow rate which represents a
CO2 loss of about 3 % of the fuel energy input.
٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Boiler efficiency
SO2
H2O
• To include a term for the blow down loss. The useful
η output of the boiler is, m.(h2 – h1 ), and the boiler
efficiency is given by the useful output divided by the
energy from the fuel input, as before

SO2
η

where x is the fraction of the steam flow which is

H2O lost as blow down, and hw is the enthalpy of the
make up water.

CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Boiler efficiency
SO2
H2O

η
• ηB = 1 - FGL- BDL- CL
• where FGL, BDL and CL represent the flue
gas, blow down, and casing losses
divided by the total energy input from the
SO
fuel.
2
η
• It can be seen that the efficiency can be
increased by decreasing the enthalpy and
HO
2
hence the temperature of the flue gases.

CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Boiler efficiency is given by
SO2
H2O

SO2
η

H2O

CO2

٢٠٠٦
Energy analysis
SO including economizer and air pre-heater H2O
2
٠١٢
η η Boiler efficiency
• When the flue gas temperature is reduced SO2
H2O
below the dew point of the flue gas then
η condensation of the water vapour takes place.
• For a fuel containing Sulphur the sulphur
dioxide in the flue gas may be oxidized further
to Sulphur trioxide which then forms Sulphuric
SO2 Acid when combined with water vapour in the
reaction
η
SO3+H2O=H2SO4
• The acid dew point occurs at a higher
H2O temperature than the water vapour dew point
and since Sulphuric acid is highly corrosive it
CO2
is important not to cool the metal heat
exchange surfaces below the acid dew point
٢٠٠٦
temperature.SO HO
2 2
٠١٢
η η Example
H2O
• An oil-fired boiler burning a medium fuel oil
SO2
generates steam. The blow down water is
η flashed into a vessel and the flash steam
thus formed is recovered into the feed water
with the remaining blow down water passing
to waste. Using the data below calculate:
SO2 (i) the percentage flue gas loss;
(ii ) the percentage loss due to heat loss from the
η
casing;
(iii) the percentage blow down loss;
(iv) the boiler efficiency;
H2O
(v) the total annual cost of blow down:
(vi) the reduction in fuel consumption and hence
CO2 annual fuel cost if the boiler is redesigned for a
flue gas temperature of 177°°C, with all the other ٢٠٠٦
data unchanged.
SO HO
2 2
٠١٢
η η Data
SO2
H2O
• Fuel: medium fuel oil of composition by mass, 83.4
η % C, 11.7 % H, 4.0 % S, 0.9% incombustibles; GCV,
42.9 MJ; kg; mass flow rate of fuel supplied, 175 kg/
h, fuel cost, 0.25 p/MJ. Steam produced, 2250 kg/h,
dry saturated at 8 bar; temperature of feed water
entering boiler, 30 º C; blow down, 10% of steam
SO2
mass flow rate; blow down flash vessel at 1.1 bar; η
temperature of make- up water for blow down, 15°°C;
cost of chemical treatment of water, 0.02 p/kg.
Excess air, 20 % air temperature at entry, 25°°C. Flue
gas temperature at boiler exit, 227 °C; flue gas
H2O pressure at boiler exit, 1.027 bar. Heat loss from
casing, 80 kW.
CO • The boiler is in use at full load for 6000 h/ annum.
2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η
Specific
η heats at constant pressure, cp, are
as given below. SO 2
H2O
cp at 500 K cp at 450 K cp at 298 K
η Gas
(kJ/kg K} (kJ/kg K} (kJ/kg K)
Air 1.0048
SO2 Carbon
1.014 0.978 η
dioxide
Oxygen 0.972 0.956
H2OSulphur
0.812 0.800
dioxide
CO2
Nitrogen 1.056 1.049
٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η
SO2
H2O
 
  
η

Relative Atomic
Mass
SO2
16 O  η
14 N 


H2O
1 H 
 
12 C

CO2
32 S 
٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η
! 
  SO
2
H2O

Relative Molecular
η Mass
32 O2 
SO2
28 N2 

2 H2 
  η
18 H2O  / 
H2O
44 CO2  


CO2 28 CO
  

64 SO2   
٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Solution
SO2
H2O
• (i) To find the flue gas loss it is
η necessary to calculate the air-fuel ratio,
A, and the composition of the flue gas
in order to calculate the enthalpy.
SO
• The combustion equations for the three η
2

constituents are:
• C+O→CO2
H O • H +½O → H O
2
2 2 2
• S+O2 → SO2
CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Solution
SO2
H2O
• Hence the oxygen required for complete combustion is
η

=3.2 kg/kg fuel

SO2
i.e. the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio is given by , η
As = 3.2/0.233 = 13.734
Therefore the actual air- fuel ratio is given by
H2O A = 13.734 x 1.2
= 16.481
CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
 Flue gas loss
Hydrogen balance: d = 0.117/ 2 = 0.0585
Carbon balance: 0.834/12 = Ba ∴Ba = 0.0695
Sulphur balance: 0.04/ 32 = Bc ∴Bc = 0.00125
Oxygen balance: 16.481 x 0.233/32 = Ba + Bb + Be
+0.0585/2

.'. Bb= 0.12-0.0695-0.00125-0.02925 = 0.02

Nitrogen balance: 16.481 x 0.767/28 = B - Ba - Bb - Bc
.'. B = 0.45146 + 0.0695 + 0.02 + 0.00125 = 0.542
Then a = 0.1282, b = 0.0369, c = 0.0023,
1 - a - b - c = 0.8326
٠١٢
η η Flue gas loss
SO2
H2O
Since the analysis by volume of the dry flue gas is
Known rather than the analysis by mass, it is
η convenient to find the enthalpy by using molar
specific heats
i.e. CP for CO2 = 1.014 x 44 = 44.616 kJ/kmol K
SO2 CP for O2 = 0.972 x 32 = 31.104 kJ/kmol K
CP for SO2 = 0.812 x 64 = 51.968 kJ/kmol K η
CP for N2 = 1.056 x 28 = 29.568 kJ/kmol K
Then for the dry flue gas
Cp=(a x cp for co2 +b x cp for o2+ + + etc
H2O
CP= (0.1282 x 44.616)+(0.0369 x 31.104)+(0.0023 x
51.968) + (0.8326 x 29.568) = 31.605 kJ/kmol K
CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Flue gas loss
SO2
H2O
The molar mass of the dry flue gas is given by:
η
M = (0.1282 x 44) + (0.0369 x 32) + (0.0023 x 64)
+ (0.8236 x 28) = 30.282 kg/kmol
SO2
Hence, for the dry flue gas: η
CP = 31.605/30.282 = 1.044 kJ/kg K

H2O

CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Flue gas loss
SO2
H2O The partial pressure of the water vapour

Ps=P(ns/n),
η P is the total pressure
ns =number of moles of steam
n= total number of moles
i.e. the fraction of water vapour by volume in flue gas is
SO2
0.0585/(0.542 21 + 0.0585) = 0.0974 η
Therefore, partial pressure = 0.0974 x 1.027
= 0.1 bar
i.e. enthalpy of superheated steam
H2O ( 0.1 bar &227 °C = 2932.4 kJ/kg).
Enthalpy of water vapor at combustion is
hf at 25 °C = 104.8 kJ /kg.
CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Flue gas loss
SO2
H2O

SO2
η

d is the number of kmole of water vapor in the

H2O flue gas per unit mass of fuel

= 0.0811 + 0.0694 = 0.1505 or 15.05 %

CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Casing loss
SO2
H2O

SO2
η

H2O

CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η The blow down loss:
SO2
H2O
• Where the enthalpy of the blow down water is
η the saturated value at the steam pressure of 8
bar, and the water entering the boiler is at 30º
C.
SO2
η

H2O

CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Boiler efficiency
SO2
H2O

Boiler efficiency = 1 - 0.1505 - 0.0178 - 0.0384

η
= 0.793 or 79.3 %
(Note that the boiler efficiency can also be
SO obtained in this example from : energy output
2
η
of the steam produced divided by the fuel
energy input.
H O i.e. η= 2250 x (2769 - 125.7)/( 175 x 42 900)
2

= 0.792
CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Boiler efficiency
SO2
H2O
• To find the total cost of the blow down it is
η necessary to calculate w : actual mass flow rate of
water which goes to waste so that the cost of
chemical treatment can be included.
• The hot saturated water at 8 bar is flashed into a
SO2 vessel at 1.1 bar, therefore
721 = 429 + x 2251
η
• where x is the proportion of dry saturated steam in
the total.
H2O
• i.e. x = 0.1297, 1 - x = 0.87
• mass flow rate of water wasted is
CO
0.87 x 0.1 x 2250 = 195.8 kg/h.
2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Boiler efficiency
SO2
H2O
Since the make-up water must be treated then
η the cost of treatment in one year is
195.8 x 6000 x 0.02/100 = £234.9.
The feed water is introduced to the boiler at 30° C
SO2 and therefore the energy cost can be calculated
as η

H2O

total annual cost of blow down = £234.9 +

CO2 £2532.6 = £2767.5
٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Boiler efficiency
SO2
H2O
The flue gas temperature is now 177°° C and hence the
η specific heat of the dry flue gas must be
recalculated; the analysis by volume is unchanged.
i.e. CP = (0.1282 x 44 x 0.978) + (0.0369 x 32 x 0.956)
+(0.0023 x 64 x 0.8)+(0.8326 x 28 x 1.049)
SO2 = 31.218 kJ /kmol K
Therefore for the dry flue gas η
Cp = 31.218/ 30.282 = 1.031 kJ/ kg K
(This compares with the values of 1.044 kJ/kg K at a
flue gas temperature of 227 º C.)
H2O

CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Boiler efficiency
SO2
H2O

SO2
η

H2O

CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Boiler efficiency
SO2
H2O
The blow down and casing losses are independent of the mass
η flow rate of fuel. The casing loss is given as 80 kW, and the blow
down loss from above is 0.1 x 2250 x (721 - 125.7) 3600=37.06 kW.
The initial boiler output was 0.793 x 175 x 42900, 3600= 1653.7 kW,
and this is unchanged.
Let the new mass flow rate of fuel be mF, then
SO2
mF x 42 900 = 1653.7 + 80 + 37.06 + (0.1272 x m.F x 42900) η
i.e. mF = 1770.8% (0.8728 x 42 900)
= 0.0473 kg/ s = 170.26 kg /h
Therefore

H2O

CO2
= £3050
(boiler efficiency from 79.3 % to 79.3 x 175/170.26 = 81.5 %.) ٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Boiler efficiency
SO2
H2O
• The savings due to this redesign
η represent (175 - 170.26)/175 = 2.7 % of
the fuel cost.
SO2
• The reduction in flue gas temperature. η
as in the above example, may be
achieved by adding or modifying baffles
HO
within the flue passes thus improving
2
the heat transfer.
CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Boiler efficiency
SO2
H2O
• In the above example for the flue gas
η temperature of 227° C an increase in
excess air from 20% to 30 % would
increase the dry flue gas loss from 8.11 %
SO2
to (8.11 x 1.3 1.2 ) = 8.79 %.
• Since the loss due to the water vapour is η
approximately unchanged then the
increase in the flue gas loss is from 15.05
% to 15.73%.
H2O

CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Approximate formulae
SO2
H2O
• For speed of calculation it is found
η convenient to use approximations for the dry
flue gas loss and the flue gas water vapour
loss. A formula for dry flue gas loss due to
SO2 Siegert is as follows:
η

H2O

CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η
SO2
H2O
Values of C can be assumed based on
η either the GCV or the NCV;
C for NCV
Fuel C For GCV basis
basis
SO2
Fuel oil 0.53 0.56 η
Natural gas 0.35 0.38
Bituminous coal 0.61 0.63
H2O

CO2 Values of constant C

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Boiler efficiency
SO2
H2O
A formula for the water vapour loss is given
η as follows:

SO2 Some values of C' are given in Table

η
Fuel C'
Fuel oil 0.0051
H2O
Natural gas 0.0083
CO2
Coal 0.0041
٢٠٠٦
Values
SO2
of constant C' H2O
٠١٢
η η Boiler efficiency
SO2
H2O
The flue gas loss is normally between 15 and 25 %.
η
Applying to the data of Example 1 we have:
• Dry flue gas loss = 0.53(227 - 25)/11.82 = 8.35 %
• Water vapor loss = 0.0051 { 1121 + (227 - 25) } =
SO2
6.75 % η
• These figures compare with the original answers of
8.11 % and 6.94 %; the total flue gas loss of 15.10
HO
% compares with the original answer of 15.05 %.
2

CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Basic Method of Boiler Testing
SO2
H2O

The direct method The indirect method,

SO2
η

H2O

CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Basic Method of Boiler Testing
SO2
H2O

The direct method,

η
• The heat input to the boiler is calculated
from the measured weight of fuel fired and
SO 2
its calorific value, and the heat output from
the measured steam and/or feedwater flow η
and the associated pressures and
temperatures.
H2O

CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Basic Method of Boiler Testing
SO2
H2O

• As many of the individual heat losses as

η
possible are measured with accuracy.
• By subtracting the sum of the efficiency
SO and all the measured losses from 100% a
2

figure remains which is the loss due to η

“radiation and unaccounted losses’.
Note that in this context “radiation” is taken
HO
2
to include conduction and convection
losses.
CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Basic Method of Boiler Testing
SO2
H2O

η The indirect method,

• Only the individual heat losses are
measured.
SO 2
• These losses are expressed as η
percentages of heat input to the boiler.

H2O

CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Basic Method of Boiler Testing
SO2
H2O

• Before the tests take place a figure is

η
agreed by all the parties to represent the
loss due to radiation, conduction and
convection, together with all the
SO 2
unmeasured losses. η
• A figure for boiler efficiency can then be
determined by subtracting from 100% the
HO
2 sum of all the measured losses and the
agreed “radiation and unaccounted” loss.
CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η advantages of the indirect method are:
The
SO2
H2O
1- That it avoids the necessity for
η measuring accurately the water flow to
the boiler, which, in the case of the large
modem units, involves measurements in
SO 2 a considerable number of ancillary
η
circuits.

H2O

CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η advantages of the indirect method are:
The
SO2
H2O

2. That it results in a more accurate figure

η
for the boiler efficiency.
The sampling and determination of the
SO 2
calorific value of the fuel burnt may give
rise to the greatest error occurring on a η
boiler test.

H2O

CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η advantages of the indirect method are:
The
SO2
H2O

η
With a boiler efficiency of 88% an error
of 1 % in the calorific value will result in
SO2
an error of 0.88% in the boiler efficiency
when testing by the direct method. η
With the indirect method the same error
of 1% would result in an error of only
H2O
0.12% in the losses and hence in the
boiler efficiency calculation.
CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η The indirect method
SO2
H2O
• When testing by the indirect, or losses,
η method it is necessary to take extreme
care in assessing each of the individual
losses.
SO • It is also essential that the figure to be
2
taken for radiation, conduction, convection η
and all unmeasured small losses should
be agreed by all concerned prior to the
test.
HO
2
• Before a test, the boiler must be operated
under steady conditions at the test load
CO and burning the test fuel for several hours.
2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η the indirect method
SO2
H2O
• Acceptance tests are usually of 4 or 6
η hours duration with a control period of 1 h
at the beginning and end to ensure that
conditions are steady.
SO • Acceptance tests are normally carried out
2
at loads called for by the specification, η
generally 100% CMR and 80% CMR.
• An additional test, for information, may
HO
take place at a lower load, often 70%
2
CMR, to demonstrate the satisfactory
operation of the automatic control
CO equipment, especially that for control of
2

steam temperature. ٢٠٠٦

SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Measurements
SO2
H2O

The measurements taken for the

η
determination of the efficiency by the direct
method are:
SO2 1. Flow of feedwater and quantity of steam
passing through reheater.
η
2. Pressure and temperature of feedwater, main
and reheat steam.
H2O
3. Quantity of fuel burnt.
4. Calorific value of the fuel.
CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Measurements
SO2
H2O
• For the determination of the individual losses it
η is necessary to measure:
1. The temperature and analysis of the flue gas
leaving the air heater.
2. The temperature of the air entering the f.d. fans
SO2
3. The quantity and combustible content of all the flue η
gases.
4. Calorific value and ultimate analysis of the fuel.
5. It is also desirable to take readings of panel
H2O
instruments, plant conditions and the temperatures
of water, steam and gas in the various sections of
the boiler so that a complete analysis can be made
CO2 of the performance of each section of the plant.
٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Accuracy of Test Results
SO2
H2O
• (a) DIRECT METHOD:
η • Measurement of steam flow +0.3%
Heat content of steam and feed +0.2%
Measurement of fuel weight +0.4%
SO2
Determination of c.v. of fuel +1.0%
General observation +0.2% η
Limit of error +2.1%
The calorific value of fuel is inclusive of any
errors in sampling. The apparent overall error is
H2O 2.1%, but statistically approximately ±1.2%,
since it is unlikely that all errors would be in the
CO2 same direction
٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Accuracy of Test Results
SO2
H2O
(b) INDIRECT METHOD
η (i) Dry flue gas loss.
The likely errors of individual measurements are:
Carbon dioxide +0.8% of CO2
Carbon in fuel ±0.6%, of C
SO2
Sulphur in fuel +0.2% of S η
Gas temperature +100F
Air temperature +30F
Calorific value +106 Btu/lb(246.5KJ/Kg)
H2O This gives an overall error of approximately ±10% of the

actual dry flue gas loss.

CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Accuracy of Test Results
SO2
H2O
(ii) Using the same tolerances as in (i) for fuel
η analysis and final flue conditions, and in addition
the following errors for moisture and hydrogen:
Moisture +0.5% of moisture in fuel
SO2 Hydrogen +0.25% of hydrogen in fuel η
The resultant errors would be approximately:
Loss due to moisture in fuel +7% of actual loss
HO
Loss due to hydrogen in fuel +10% of actual loss
2

CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Accuracy of Test Results
SO2
H2O

(iii) Other losses.

η
The accuracy of any combustible gas
losses would be variable depending upon
SO2 the method of testing or the individual
circumstances. η
Tolerances of + 50% might be necessary,
but as these losses are either small or
H2O
non-existent it does not result in serious
error in the overall efficiency.
CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Accuracy of Test Results
SO2
H2O

• (iv) Radiation and unaccounted losses. As

η
the other small losses such as radiation
and sensible heat in fuel are agreed, no
tolerance is required.
SO 2

• Statistical analysis 0.69% of the boiler η

losses.
• shows that the overall error would be
HO
2
approximately
CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O
٠١٢
η η Accuracy of Test Results
SO2
H2O

• Therefore the efficiency of the boiler would

η
be (100 - 11.83) ± 0-69,
which is a figure between 87.48 and
SO 2
88.86%.
η
• It will be remembered that the error with
the direct method was about +1.2%.
H2O

CO2

٢٠٠٦
SO2 H2O