CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Food production in Nigeria has not kept pace with its population growth, because the

population is growing at about 3.2% per annum while food production is at about 2.0%

(National Bureau of Statistics, [NBS] 2011). The differences between the rate of food

production and population growth has led to a food demand supply gap thus leading to a

widening gap between domestic food production and total requirement, an increase resort to food

importation and high rate of increase in food prices and as a result, wide spread hunger and

malnutrition are evident in the country (Ojo, 2003). Nigeria’s poultry industry has its root in the

initiative of regional governments from the 1960’s when the Western Regional Government

entered into joint pilot poultry production schemes with some foreign partners, notably the Israeli

government (Adene & Oguntade, 2006). The entry of private investors into poultry production in

the late 1960s to early 1970s marked the onset of indigenous commercial poultry industry. It then

spread from the west to the eastern region and parts of the Northern region. The first decade or

so of this period witnessed a tremendous growth in the industry, especially in the West (Adene &

Oguntade, 2006).

The importance of poultry to national economy cannot be over emphasized as it has

become popular for the small-holders that have contributed to the economy of the country. In

Nigeria, poultry contributes about 15 percent of the total annual protein intake with

approximately 1.3kg of poultry products consumed per head per annum Ologbon & Ambali

(2012). The poultry industry has assumed greater importance in improving employment

opportunities and animal food production in Nigeria. An earlier report by Mbanasor (2002)
showed that about 10 percent of the Nigerian population is engaged in poultry production,

mostly subsistence and small or medium sized farms.

Broiler production is carried out in all parts of the country, with no known religious,

social or cultural inhibitions associated with their consumption. Specifically, investment in

broiler enterprises is attractive because the production cost per unit is low relative to other types

of livestock, poultry meat is very tender and commonly used in ceremonies compared to other

birds and broiler enterprises have short production circle. Owing to these obvious advantages of

broiler enterprises, large number of farmers, men and women go into their production, many of

whom do so for income generation purposes (Nwajiuba and Nwoke, 2000), besides meeting the

protein needs of the household. The evidence of this is the preponderance of producers–hawkers

of broiler products in the urban and rural markets particularly during festive periods, when their

demands are highest and selling prices favorable.

Broiler production like any other economic venture is dependent on resource inputs. As

noted by Etim and Udoh, (2007) maximum poultry production depends partly on the

environment, technical know-how and the quality of resources employed in the production

process. But to optimize production and ensure sustainability, there is need for judicious

management of the resources employed in the broiler enterprise. Inefficiency of resource use and

utilization can seriously jeopardize and hamper food production and availability.

Poultry feeding is a major item of cost in poultry production. In Nigeria, feed cost

accounts for about 70% of the total cost of producing broilers and egg (Adebayo et al., 2002;

Kehinde, 2006). Many Commercial poultry farms had collapse while a good number of them

experienced slow growth as a result of sudden increases in the cost of poultry feeds (Ogundipe,

2002 and Onimisi, 2004). High cost of poultry feed also results in general increase in the cost of
production. Hence, in other to increase profitability in the poultry industry, there is the need to

formulate practical rations that will help in reducing the cost of production and still maintain

high level of performance in the birds. (Adebayo et al 2002).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The gap between protein demand and supply is increasing everyday, especially protein of

animal origin (Njike, 1989). This imbalance in the animal protein intake has a negative effect on

the economy of the country not only in terms of the likely malnutrition but also a decrease in

human productivity as well as high infants’ mortality. Need then arose to look for an animal of

suitable characteristics that can bridge the wide gap between protein demand and supply (Adler

etal., 2012). Broiler production was considered the most suitable alternative. This is because of

high and fast growth potentials. In about 6-8 weeks a broiler reaches table size. The quality is as

well very high.

With the Federal Government policies to attain food security, many people in Nigeria

embarked in poultry production ranging from backyard to commercial production.

As human population increases there is need for increase in broiler industry as well so as to meet

the demand of broiler meat. Broiler meat are known to produce quality meat than the red meat,

The average Nigerian diet is deficient in quantity and quality animal protein to maintain normal

life, however past efforts to solve this problem have not produced desired results. Doma et al.

(2001) and Uchegbu et al. (2007) reported inadequacies in the quality of some commercial feeds

and poor performance by broiler birds that consumed them. This situation has serious

implications on small scale poultry farmers, who have little capacity to produce their own feeds.

It is hypothesized that farmers, who operate at a small- or medium-scale level and do not

produce their own feeds but rely on relatively expensive commercial feeds, may be incurring
higher feed costs than necessary. For this, feeding has become the issue of concern, and hence

the need to investigate broiler performance (growth) when fed commercial feeds and self

formulated feeds at finisher stage, to reduce the cost of feeding broilers and increase profit

margin.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

This study was therefore designed to investigate the analysis of feed palatability and

consumption rate between self formulated and commercial feeds on growth performance of

broilers at finisher phase. And the specific objectives sought to:

1. compare the consumption rate of broilers when fed with self formulated feeds versus

commercial feeds

2. evaluate the growth rate of broilers when fed with self formulated feeds versus commercial

feeds

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions were formulated to guide the study and will be

answered:-

1. What is the consumption rate of broilers fed with self formulated feeds versus commercial

feeds?

2. What is the growth rate of broilers when fed with self formulated feeds versus commercial

feeds?

1.5 Research Hypotheses

1. There will be no significant difference in the consumption rate of broilers fed with self

formulated feeds and commercial feeds on growth at broiler finisher phase

1.6 Significance of the Study

As earlier stated, feeding is the major problem faced by the Nigerian poultry farmer, amounting

to 60-80% of the total cost of producing broilers and layers (FAO, 2002). The study will help in

solving the problem of producing broiler birds at a reduced cost since there is inadequacies in the

quality of some commercial feeds and poor performance by broiler birds that consumed them.

Finally, it will also give room for further studies in the same area.

1.7 Delimitation of the Study

The study was delimited to evaluation of the analysis of feed palatability and

consumption rate between self formulated and commercial feeds on growth performance of

broilers at finisher phase. The study was also delimited to comparison of the consumption rate of

broilers when fed with self formulated feeds versus commercial feeds and evaluation of the

growth rate of broilers when fed with self formulated feeds versus commercial feeds in

agricultural Education department of Kaduna State College of Education, Gidan Waya.

 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES

2.1 Conceptual Framework

2.1.1The Concept of Poultry Production

The concept of poultry production and input as well as output was address in this

research work. This may give the reader a clue to have a clear understand on the topic under

discussion. Adekanbi, (2000) defines the term “poultry” as a bird that are raised domestically by

human being for the purposes of getting food and other reasons produced freely under his

management. Those birds include chicks, turkey, duck, guinea fowl, pigeon, ostrich, geese, and

other ones. Which are principle raised for eggs production and meat?

Adoan, (1997) stated that, poultry is a range of domesticated birds, such as chickens, ducks,

turkeys, guinea fowl, pigeon and geese. While Akinsoye, (1976) said poultry is the management

of domestic birds raised for food and other economic purposes. Agriculture today in Nigeria is

the famous business of the people. In famous agriculture business magazine (1993) examined

poultry as the raising of chicken either broilers (for meat production) or a layers (for eggs

production). Oluyemi, eta al (1979) said, a poultry production refers to poultry farming as any

birds reared or hunted for a useful purpose, the number of the birds group collectively is known

as poultry.

Youdewen, (1986) analyze poultry as a general term for birds of several species such as

Chickens, Fowls, Turkeys, Ducks, Geese, Guinea fowl, Pea fowl, Pigeons, Partridges, Ostriches,

and other homes birds. Poultry production have Extensive Economic Importance and has ever

been dear to peoples from time immemorial, hence they kept poultry of different sizes and meet
the stated contribution to man. Poultry production can be regarded as sources of food to man,

because it produces eggs and meats that we recognized as the most balance diet, vitamins and

nutritious that peoples need or wants. Most of the producing eggs are used in soap industries, and

bakeries industries for producing bread for human consumptions, and some are used for vaccines

drugs. Similarly, eggs can be used as poultry production output as a resources as well as its’

provides meats which is acceptable all over the world as a food for human consumption and

economic growth.

Poultry are chickens, ducks, geese, guinea fowls, turkeys and other related birds kept for

meat and egg. In Nigeria, the poultry population is estimated to be 140 million (Ocholi et al.,

2006). They are the most commonly kept livestock and over 70% of those keeping livestock are

reported to keep chickens (Amar-Klemesu and Maxwell, 2000). Chickens have its scientific

name to be Gallus domestics and it is one type of poultry. It belongs to the family phasiendae

and it is estimated to be about 69% of the total number of birds kept in Nigeria (Sonaiya, 1990).

Commercial poultry systems are industrialized and, therefore, based on large, dense, uniform

stocks of modern poultry hybrids. However, most of the poultry is still kept in rural production

systems, which are characterized by insufficient hygiene management. Even though many

farmers would like to stock hybrids, which gain weight more quickly and are more disease

resistant, their high mortality rates make hybrid production less profitable (Esiobu et al., 2014).

Additionally, farm and flock size correlates significantly to the output of poultry farms. Large

farm size increases productivity as well as technical, allocative, and resource use efficiency

(Esiobu et al., 2014). Many poultry farmers still work at a subsistence, small, or medium-sized

level mainly due to limited financial resources (Aboki etal., 2013).

2.1.2 Broiler Production

The world broiler industry has been a very dynamic industry because of the nature of

broiler birds. Van der Sluis, (2004) stated that broiler birds has been typified with unprecedented

growth, in his research he further explained the trends of growth in broiler production in the

world. He depict that world produced 6.5 billion in 1961,in 1990 over 27 billion,35.3 billion in

1999 while over 60 billion in 2012.FAO, (2010) reported that broiler production in the world has

been growing faster than any other meat production in the world, especially in the developed

countries that are active player in broiler production. Since the 1960s, the global production of

broiler meat has been on increase. This growth pattern can be expected to continue because of

the inherent efficiency in feed conversion and the lower production costs associated with

intensive poultry production. Such production efficiency is particularly beneficial to developing

countries, which tend to have limited agricultural resources but burgeoning, and often poor,

populations. Declining poultry prices and increasing incomes have been attributed to increases in

per capita poultry consumption, which is sensitive to both price and income changes (Taha

2003). The significant growth in poultry (especially broiler chicken) production and consumption

in the developing countries has important implications for the global trading of all meat products,

as well as feeds and related inputs (Landes et al. 2004 Taha 2003).

2.2 Constraints of Broiler Production

2.2.1 Climatic Constraint

Fatokun,(1996) reported that one of the factors that inhibit broiler production

development in Nigeria is the climate. Some of the broiler breeds are imported into the country

from temperate region, most of these birds performed below optimal level due to differences in
climatic conditions. Climate exerts constraining influences on livestock production through its

associative effects of humidity, temperature, precipitation and air movement, and its indirect

influences Although, all livestock are subject to environmental stress in the tropics, poultry

appear to be less susceptible than mammals. Previous comparative records between the

temperate and tropical environments indicated that poultry show the most comparative

performance between the two environments than any other class of livestock, yet their

performance not up to standard as a result of climatic influence,(FAO,2012).

2.2.2 Economic Constraint

According to Adeniyi,( 2000) the most important socio-economic constraints affecting

broiler production in Nigeria include inadequate of capital, illiteracy and lack of technical

experience. The amount of capital in broiler production is to some extent, a major determinant of

the size of the operating units because broiler farmers with enough working capital are usually

better in employing other factors of production, hence enlarging their holding than relatively

poor farmers. However, most broiler farmers in Nigeria do not have adequate capital to invest in

large scale production (Essang, 1996).The scarcity of farm credit has been blamed in part for the

low agricultural production in the country. Even with the establishment of more agricultural and

commercial banks in the country, most of the broiler farmers are still handicapped in obtaining

adequate credits not only from lack of acceptable collateral and the general uncertainty and

heavy risks associated with broiler production.

2.2.3 Technical Constraint

According to Olayemi, (2005), the capacity to developed technical technology consistent

with environmental and economic conditions, is the single most important which explained the

growth of broiler production in Nigeria. He stressed further that a continuous stream of new
technical knowledge and a flow of inputs in which the new knowledge is embodied represents a

necessary condition for modern broiler production .A further breakdown in his study identified

other constraints that affect broiler production, these include inadequate of capital, poor

management, inadequate of technical knowhow and poor diseases control

The continual challenges to the broiler breeder producer are provision of highest quality products

for sale at a price competitive with other food sources. Over the past two decades the industry

has become very successful by incorporating technical advances in genetic selection, nutrition

and diseases control into their management scheme. Another critical factors for efficient

management of reproduction of broiler birds has not been changed since the inception of the

industry, recent advances in artificial insemination technique now provide alternative methods

for use within the primary breeder segment of the industry.

2.3 Broiler Breeder Managements

The aim of management is to provide the conditions that ensure optimum performance of

the birds(Bell and Weaver, 2001).Given reasonable conditions, broody hens are very successful

at hatching their chicks, but good hatching using artificial incubation(both large and small )relies

on good management with respect to temperature, humidity, ventilation, feeding and vaccination.

It is necessary to ensure that appropriate brooding, growing and laying conditions are given. It is

also important to ensure that recommended vaccinations are given and appropriate feeding

programme are used. In developing countries like Nigeria it is often difficult to achieve optimum

performance from birds owing to less than optimal housing conditions and lack of quality feed,

vaccines and trained staff(Weaver, 2001).High genetic hybrid are often used in the developing

countries, but are not well suited to tropical environments. Diseases transmission in poultry birds

could either be horizontally from sick bird to healthy one or vertically by passing the causative
pathogen from the hen to the chicks through the eggs. Horizontal spread may be by contact

between birds , air, contaminated litter, feed or water in contact with sick birds(Atteh,

2004).Most of the important poultry diseases include Coccidiosis, Fowl Pox, Newcastle

Diseases, Infectious Bronchitis, Infection Bursa Diseases, Fowl pox, Salmonella Infections and

Marek's Diseases etc. To avoid diseases outbreak in broiler production proper management,

sanitation as well as essential vaccination schedule should be complied with (Hogue and Morris,

2006).

2.3.1 Temperature Management

Farmers need to compensate for undesirable climatic condition by manipulating control

systems or modifying the house to ensure that the welfare and environmental needs of the birds

are satisfied. Environmental extremes (heat and cold stress, excessive or inadequate ventilation,

poor air quality) can be managed if the design of the poultry house is appropriate for conditions.

Broiler birds require adequate space, sufficient feed to meet their nutritional requirements. The

heat requirements of broilers change with age, and recommended ambient

temperatures may be lower than birds would prefer early in life when stocking densities are low.

The risk of cold stress is low once the thermoregulatory ability is fully developed in birds. The

risk of heat stress increases with age and with stocking density as heat production increases and

as space between birds (and hence their ability to lose heat) decreases, (Reiter and Bessie,2000).

2.3.2 Ventilation Management

All broiler houses need some form of ventilation to ensure an adequate supply of oxygen,

removing carbon dioxide, other waste gases and dust.In commercial operations, minimum

ventilation is often practised in colder climates, but not generally in tropical ones(Glats, 2004).In

large scale automated operations, correct air distribution can be achieved using a negative
pressure ventilation system. Due to the nature of broiler birds adequate ventilation is very crucial

to them, when chicks are very young or in cooler climate the air from the inlets should be

directed towards the roof to mixed with the warm air there and circulate throughout the shed.

With older birds and in warmer temperatures, the incoming air are directed towards the birds and

helps to keep them cool (Glats, 2004).Tunnel ventilation is the most effective ventilation for

large houses in hot weather, this system is popular in hot climates, exshaust fans are placed at

one end of the or the middle of the shed and air is drawn through the length of the house

removing heat moisture and dust.

2.3.3 Feeding Management

Wasper,(2009)emphasized on the importance of nutrients in feed given to broiler birds,

he further explained in his research that due to the nature of broiler birds, the protein and energy

contents should be correlated with their various life stages which include chick, grower and

breeder stage. The protein level in feed is very important as this can affect the body weight and

overall performance of broiler birds also the level of protein in feed should be vary according

with season (Hapoa, 2003). Hapoa (2003) further depicted that protein and energy level in broiler

feed should be well defined, he cited example that broiler feed with energy 2750Kcal/Kg should

have protein content up to 15percents(15%).Many researchers agreed with him, it was also

established that excess protein in feed can be harmful to birds as this can reduced fertility and

hatchability, he also clarify that the same thing can be felt when protein level is deficient in the

feed, but he concluded that there is need for balance between the two continuum. Many

researchers have talked about the optimum energy that broiler chicks required, they include

(Hapao,2003), (Wasper, 2009) and (Simon,2002).Many researchers agreed that the optimum
energy appropriate for broiler chicks for proper growth is between 440-480kcal/bird/day, this is

equivalent to 160-175g/bird/day at 2750Kcal/kg feed. Simon,(2002)Explain that necessary

attention must be given to the composition of fat especially the unsaturated fatty acid, he stated

that essential fatty acid are necessary for the development of embrayo, immune system thereby

affecting chicks quality .Simon,(2002) also reported that there are some macro elements which

include calcium, phosphorous and sodium, these macro nutrients are very important in the

formation of shell, bone there by leading to chick quality.

2.3.3.1 The Influence of Feed Allocation on Chick Quality

Bekan, (2007) reported that Underfeeding of broiler chicks can have great effects on the

chicks quality especially at the early stage of their life .the hen can have an impact on chick

exotic hybrid parent flocks commence production at a faster rate than in the past and

consequently egg output increases over a short period of time during the early laying period. In

his work he further explained that feed allocations during this period have not necessarily

increased in line with this egg production trend. It was stated from the avagen guide that low

feed allocation intake by young commercial breeder flocks have been shown to compromise

nutrient transfer to the egg, that can result into increased in late embryonic death, poorer chick

viability and uniformity (Aviagen Ltd 2002). In a study by Leeson (2004) broiler breeders were

fed different levels of feed through peak production varying from 140 to 175 gms. Several

researches have shown that nutrients components of the feed supply to the broiler breeder are a

major determinant of chick quality and production performance when management routines are

strictly followed. This places greater emphasis on the nutritionist providing the correct nutrient

density diet and the flock manager to provide appropriate feed intake to the bird coming into lay

and through the production period.

 The most important aspects of broiler production are the management and feeding of the

breeder flock as these can have a major impact on the reproductive performance, including the

number of eggs produced, rate of fertility as well as the percentage hatchability (Adeolu,2000).

Experience has taught us that the more closely we meet the actual nutrient requirements of the

birds, the more they grow and the more efficiently they will utilise their feed. Thus, the saving

using a three or four phase feeding system would be augmented by an improvement in

efficiency. Food restriction is used routinely in the rearing of broiler breeder stock to limit body

weight gain and optimise reproductive performance. Slowing early growth can improve leg bone

quality during the important first 3 weeks when bones appear to be most susceptible to the initial

development of lesions (Lilburn et al., 1989). This slowing of growth can be achieved by feeding

starter diets of lower nutrient density (e.g. 11.5 MJ ME, 190 g CP/kg). Feeding diets of higher

nutrient density during the later period of growth will allow birds to catch up lost body weight,

though complete compensation is more easily achieved in birds grown to older ages. However,

birds grown in this way usually show lower incidences of leg abnormality. Thus food restriction

programmes allowing more growth during the restriction period (up to 75% of ad libitum

growth) are less (Su et al., 1999) stated that good nutrition is important for rearing healthy

broilers, decreasing the early growth of broilers by qualitative or quantitative food restriction or

by providing feeding meals rather than ad libitum can lower the incidences of leg or

cardiopulmonary disorders. The use of vitamin D metabolites as dietary additives may have a

role in promoting better leg health. Broiler nutrition is more critical than that of other livestock

species for many reasons:

a. The digestive process is rapid, consume feed is voided within 2 to 3 hours.

b. Respiration and circulation is faster.

c. Body temperature is 8-10F higher than most other livestock species

d. They grow at a more rapid rate and mature at an earlier age than other species

e. Ability to utilize roughage is minimal

The major objective of broiler feeding is to convert low quality feedstuffs into high quality

animal protein for human consumption .In this respect broiler out-performs all other livestock

species with current efficiency at close to 2:1 (Atteh, 2004). The economic importance of broiler

feeding becomes apparent when it is realised that 55 and 75% of the cost of production of egg

and broiler meat respectively is associated with the cost of feed. Broiler are normally fed a starter

diet(0-4 weeks) and finisher diet from 5-8 weeks of age. It is recommended that broiler starter be

in form of mash or crumbles. The finisher diet should be fed in pellets form, research has shown

that birds fed on pelleted diet are more efficient than those on a mash type diets. There is a

general agreement that as the energy content of the broiler diet increases less feed is required to

reach market weight, and feed conversion is improved, there is however a need to weigh the

increase in cost of such feed against the increase in growth and feed conversion to make sure it is

profitable. Using calorie, protein ratio is helpful in arriving at realistic nutrients intake. For

broiler starters a calorie, protein ratio of 136-141 is recommended, while for broiler growers and

finishers, the ratios are 154-158 and 167 -176 respectively.

2.3.3.2 Feeding program for meat chickens

NAS, (1999) gives an estimate of peak rates of feed consumption and weight gain in broiler

birds. In their report they look at the correlation between feed consumption and weight gain, the

table below shows the correlation between feed consumption and weight gain in broiler birds.

Table3. Feeding programme and Weight Gain In Broiler Birds

Age(weeks) Type of feed Feed consumption (weekly per bird) Live body weight

kg lb. Kg lb.

1 Chicken starter 0.13 0.29 0.15 0.33

2 Chicken starter 0.28 0.62 0.36 0.79

3 Chicken starter 0.47 1.02 0.65 1.43

4 Chicken grower 0.67 1.48 1.03 2.26

5 Chicken grower 0.85 1.87 1.46 3.21

6 Chicken grower 1.07 2.36 1.91 4.21

7 Chicken finisher 1.18 2.60 2.36 5.20

8 Chicken finisher 1.30 2.86 2.79 6.14

9 Chicken finisher 1.41 3.11 3.20 7.03

Total 7.36 16.20

Source: NAS, 1994(National Academic of Science, USA)

2.4 Litter Management

(Bell and Weaver, 2001) defined litter as materials used as bedding in poultry houses to

floor of the house absorbed faecal waste from birds and to make the floor of the house easy to

manage. Litter management is very paramount in poultry production, most of the natural mating
systems usually takes place under deep litter system, therefore knowledge about the management

of litter is very important. An important feature of this system is the presence of litter on the

floor, a good litter material should be water absorbent provided good insulation against heat

stress, light in weight, dry rapidly absorbs minimum of atmospheric water and be inexpensive. In

Nigeria, litter materials with some or all of the above qualities include wood shaving, maize

cobs, chopped straws and groundnut hulls, litter is initially 5-7cm thick for chicks and 10-15cm

thick for adult birds is designed to prevent accumulation of pathogens in the by mixing with the

droppings, to perform this function well the litter should be turned regularly to mix with the

droppings. The presence of the droppings in the litter provides a suitable medium for the growth

of microbes, which produce the so called animal protein factor (APF) that includes vitamin B12.

A well managed litter has a crumbly consistency , a low concentration of pathogenic organisms

and relatively free of ammonia(Atteh, 2004).Well managed deep litter kept in dry condition with

no wet sports around water has a sterilizing effect, the level of coccidiosis and worm infestation

is much lower watered kept on good deep litter than with birds(or chickens) in bare yards and

bare floor shed particularly where water spillage is allowed (Daghir, 2000).The consequences of

poor litter management were further discussed by (Atteh, 2004) a poorly managed litter is either

too dusty or too wet, forming a ball when compressed in the palm, ammonia concentration will

also be high thereby leading to tracheitis which pre 'disposes the birds to other respiratory

diseases, it has also been established that when ammonia concentration is too high this can lead

to delay in sexual maturity. Wet litter favours the growth of aspergillus, coccidian and worms,

while old litter can also constitute a medium for the transmission of diseases like pullorum,

infectious bronchitis and Newcastle diseases. For well managed litter house, it is necessary to

start with enough quantities of litter and it's also recommended that litter be turned with a rake at
least three times in a week, to prevent boredom which may lead to vice habits, some little feed

can be sprinkled on the litter to encourage the birds to scratch for it and inadvently helped to mix

the litter.

2.5 Lighting Management

Lighting programmes for broilers vary widely from company to company, and also

depends on the strain of bird used, the housing type (naturally ventilated versus controlled

environment), the geographical location and season. where light can be excluded from sheds,

birds are typically reared under low intensity(5 to 10 lux)lighting, to keep them calm and to

prevent feather pecking during early brooding, 25 lux is used to stimulate feeding(Lewis and

Moris,2006). Although it is important to know the intensity of light that falls on each bird, it is

the length of time of exposure to light per day that alters the age of the bird at the time the first

egg is laid. At day lengths less than 11 hours, egg production cannot be initiated .So during

rearing, where possible, maintain day lengths of about 8 hours. The minimum light intensity that

is needed for egg production is 0.1-0.2 foot candle(1-2lux) and must be available for at least 12

hours of each day(Atteh, 2004).

Nicaise,(2002)emphasized on the importance of light intensity during broiler breeders

life, he explain that light intensity have important role in development of the reproductive system

in broiler birds .The difference in day lengths and light intensities between the rearing and the

laying phases is the principle factor responsible for controlling and stimulating ovarian and

testicular development(Lewis and Morris, 2006).The response to increase in day length and

lighting intensity depends on the body weight profile during rearing, which in turn depend on

nutritional regim.The effects of light are predominantly on the rate of sexual maturation and egg

production. Except during the first days, problems may arise if broilers receive less than 2 h of
darkness per day. "Modified lighting programmes" that provide shorter (12-16 hrs)photoperiods

between about 4 and 14 days of age would appear to confer benefits for broiler welfare without

necessarily compromising performance. Brighter lightin (e.g more than 100 lux) is important to

stimulate activity and is essential for survival in the first week of life. There are various welfare

problems at light intensities below 20 lux. Equivalent light intensities in lux units are 25% lower

with fluorescent than with incandescent lighting (Prayito et al, 1997).

2.6 Stocking Density

Reiter and Besssei (2003) stated that there is a clear tendency for reduced growth rate at

high stocking densities in broilers. (Blokhuis Vander Haar,2009) also stated the effects of

stocking density on growth rate. He emphasized on the needs of adequate ventilation for the

birds, as this can cause heat dissipation which is one of the main causes of poor growth when

broiler birds are highly stocked. The effect of stocking density on feed conversion and mortality

is not consistent among the experimental reports. It seems that poor feed conversion and high

mortality occur only concurrently with other stressors such as heat stress. Pathologies (breast

blisters, chronic dermatitis and leg disorders) are as a result of high stocking and the presence of

infectious agents and hock born has been shown to be worse at 30-40 kg/m2 than at 24

kg/m2(Gordon,2000). Studies have shown that walking ability is severely affected at 45 kg/m2

and is worse at 32 kg/m2 than at 25 kg/m2. Increasing stocking density has been found to reduce

behavioural activities in broilers. Studies have Shown that locomotor behaviour, preening and

general activity are reduced and disturbance of resting is increased at a higher stocking density in

comparisons between 25 and 30, 24 and 32, 28 and 33 and 30 and 36 kg/m2. These findings are

all Indicator of poorer welfare at the higher stocking density(Bolten&Thompson,2003).

2.7 Housing Management

Housing in modern poultry is an important input accounting for a major component of the

initial capital investment, in modern poultry enterprise the structure are constructed and designed

in consideration of bird welfare and efficiency of production (Weaver and Bhagwat, 1996).

Broiler housing in rural areas is at a rudimentary stage and field surveys have shown cases where

no housing or shelter is provided (Huchzermeyer, 1990), (Atunbi and Sonaiya, 2006).Researches

on the economic efficiency of housing of broiler birds in rural areas in Africa are few however, it

was reported that where housing is provided to village broiler chickens the houses are made with

locally available material such as wood, mud bricks, sugarcane stems, bamboo and cereals

stovers (Atunbi and Sonaiya, 2006).

Tauson,(2005)listed four systems of housing generally found to follow among the broiler

keepers. The type of housing adapted depends to a large extend on the amount of ground and the

capital available:

A. Free Range or Extensive System

B. Intensive System

C. Semi-Intensive System

2.7.1 Free Range System or Extensive System

This method is the oldest of all and has been used for centuries by general farmers where

there is no shortage of land. This system allows adequate space for the birds on land where they

can find an appreciable amount of food in the form of herbage, seeds and insect provided they

are protected from predatory animals and infectious diseases including parasitic infestation.

Atteh, (2004) explains this housing system as a complete freedom of movement and exposure of
the birds to sunshine and pasture while shelters are provided for sleeping at night. In this system

birds are given a few grains in the morning and they are allowed to scavenge for supplement

freely. When provided shelters are made from various materials from local trees or shrubs, birds

in the household flock are typically housed over night in the shelter and are let out in the

morning to forage during the day (happars et al, 2009).

2.7.2 Intensive System

In this system the birds are confined to the house entirely with no access to outside the

confinement and it is usually adopted where land is limited and expensive. This has only been

made possible by admitting the direct rays of the sun on the floor of the house so that par to the

windows are removable, or either fold or slide down like window of railways train to permit the

birds to have access to ultraviolet rays. Under the intensive system Battery cage and Deep Litter

methods are most common.

2.7.2.1 Battery Cages System

This is the most intensive system of poultry production and is useful to those with only

small quantity of floor space at their disposal .Nowadays in large cities hardly a poultry lover can

spare open lands for rearing birds, for all such people this system allow farmers to keep birds

where land is scarced. Battery cages is the most popular housing system for laying hens used in

North America, the cage is made up of small wire unit with access to feeder and water .In this

system litter drops through the onto belt or into a pit for disposal ,this system also provided a

numbers of advantages for birds which include proper hygiene, less exposure to disease and

parasites because of the removal of feces, good air quality and presence of clean eggs(Appleby

1998, Ducan 2000).There are disadvantages as well in this system, space is very limited in
battery cages and birds do not have the space to perform important behaviour like nesting, poor

bone strength due to cage fatigue is also one of the demerit of cage system(Baxter, 1994).

In the battery system each hen is confined to a cage just large enough to permit very

limited movement and allow her to stand to stand and sit comfortably, the usual floor space is

14x16inches and the height is usually 17inches, the floor is of standard strong galvanized wire

set at a slope from back to the front, so that the eggs can roll out easily, underneath is a tray for

dropping. Both food and water receptacle are positioned outside the cage, many small cages can

be joined together if necessary it may be multistoried , the whole structure should be of metal so

that no parasites will be harboured and through disinfection can be carried out as often as

required . Provided the batteries of cages are set up in the place which is well ventilated and

lighted, not to hot and that the food provided for the birds meets all nutritional needs, this system

has proved to be highly successful in the tropical countries. The feeding of birds in cages has to

be carefully considered as the birds are entirely dependents on the mash for maintenance and

production .To supply vitamins A and D , cod liver oil, yeast, dried milk powder are useful / and

fish or other animal protein , and balanced minerals and some form of grit must be made

available

2.7.2.2 Deep Litter System

According to Atteh, (2004) deep litter system consists of a fixed house usually

windowless in the temperate regions and open sided in the tropical areas. An important feature of

this system is the presence of litter on the floor, a good litter material should be water absorbent,

provided good insulation against heat stress must also be light in weight, dry rapidly absorbs

minimum of atmospheric water and be inexpensive. In Nigeria, litter materials with some or all

of the above qualities include wood shaving, maize cobs, chopped straws and groundnut hulls.
Litter must be initially 5-7cm thick for chicks and 10-15cm thick for adult birds, this is necessary

because it prevent accumulation of pathogens when mixed with the droppings, to perform this

function well the litter should be turned regularly to mix with the droppings. The presence of the

droppings in the litter provides a suitable medium for the growth of microbes, which produce the

so called animal protein factor (APF) that includes vitamin B12.

A well managed litter has a crumbly consistency, a low concentration of pathogenic

organisms and relatively free of ammonia (Atteh, 2004).Well managed deep litter kept in dry

condition prevent infections from coccidiosis and warm infestation. The consequences of poor

litter management were further discussed by (Atteh, 2004), a poorly managed litter is either too

dusty or too wet, forming a ball when compressed in the palm, ammonia concentration will also

be high thereby leading to tracheitis which pre 'disposes the birds to other respiratory diseases, it

has also been established that when ammonia concentration is too high this can lead to delay in

sexual maturity. Wet litter favours the growth of aspergillus, coccidian and worms, while old

litter can also constitute a medium for the transmission of diseases like pullorum, infectious

bronchitis and Newcastle diseases. For well managed litter house, it is necessary to start with

enough quantities of litter and it's also recommended that litter be turned with a rake at least

three times in a week. To prevent boredom which may lead to vice habits, some little feed can be

sprinkled on the litter to encourage the birds to scratch for it and inadvently helped to mix the

litter.

2.8 Semi-Intensive System

Birds reared under this system of production have limited freedom, the system is

characterized by the presence of fixed unit which acts as shelter, and a number of fenced runs

attached to the fixed unit, the fixed unit could be a real poultry house. Birds stay in the house and
have freedom of moving into the runs to scavenge for insect and pasture during the day and

move back to the fixed unit during inclement weather and for roosting in the evening, the birds

could be given reduced quantity of feed and allowed to augment this with insects and pasture

(Atteh, 2004).Petitte, (1990) explains semi-intensive system, as the system that combines the

advantages and disadvantages of both the intensive and extensive system of management. For

commercial broiler production, the system is obsolete because the stocking density depends on

the quality of pasture available in the runs. Semi-Intensive system, a space of 20-30 square yards

is to be allowed per each bird of outside run

2.9. Empirical Literature

Hamid et al. (2017) examined the performance of the poultry industry in Bangladesh

focusing on the contribution of private sector for the development and marketing of poultry

products. The study also investigated the problems and constraints of poultry industry and the

scope and opportunity cost of poultry industry. This investigation is mirrored through various

programs designed and implemented by private enterprises in the poultry industry. The method

of analysis dwelled on descriptive statistics with a focus on frequency distribution and simple

percentage. The result shows that the availability of meat and egg is much lower than the

demand, thus a creating a condition of deficit in the market system. Specifically, the study

revealed that the contribution of poultry meat to the total meat products is about 35.2 percent

whereas egg production is 63.65 percent of the total domestic demand. In comparative terms, the

study showed that the per capita poultry meat consumption is much lower compare to other

Asian countries as it averaged 1.9 kilogram. Based on the findings, the study recommended for

synergy between private sector and the government as well as foreign investment in order to

boost production in the livestock industry.

 Bamiro (2008) analyzed the economic importance of poultry production in some sampled

local government areas in Oyo state, Nigeria. The sampling technique employed by the study in

selecting the study area and 71 respondents is purposive in nature. The method of analysis

involved combinations of descriptive statistics and multiple regressions. It was uncovered from

the result that the profitability of poultry farmers depends largely on enterprise combinations and

extent of production. It was evident from the budgetary analysis that enterprises that operate in a

large scale have highest turnover compared to those that operate relatively on low scale. The

descriptive analysis also show that poultry farmers engaged in eggs production have highest

gross margin compared to those engaged in broiler production. Thus, egg production contributes

more to agricultural GDP. The result of regression analysis revealed that poultry birds, feed and

labour size are key drivers of productivity in the poultry sub-sector and by extension the overall

agricultural sector. Owing to the findings, the study recommends that poultry farmers should

focus more on egg production in order to boost the contribution of the poultry industry to

agricultural GDP.

Yusuf et al. (2016) used primary data collected through the instrumentality of

questionnaire in exploring the economics of poultry production in Kwara State, Nigeria. They

made use of the budgetary and profit index analysis. A structured questionnaire was administered

to 80 registered poultry farmers selected using the systematic random sampling technique.

Obtained data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, benefit cost ratio, ordinary least squares

regression and the budgetary analysis. Empirical findings of the study disclosed that, commercial

poultry farmers in Kwara State are well educated, highly experienced and young with a keen

interest in the business of poultry farming. Upon analyzing the costs and returns, the findings
showed that poultry farming is profitable in the study area as the gross income and net income

for egg production were computed.

 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Research Design and Location of the Experimental Site

The research design adopted was true experimental design. Experimental birds were fed

with self formulated and commercial feeds. Measurements were taken. The experiments were

conducted in Gidan Waya at the Poultry unit of Agricultural Education Department, Kaduna

State College of Education, Gidan Waya. Gidan Waya is within the Northern Guinea Savannah

zone of Nigeria, Latitude 11o 12’N and Longitude 7o 33’E, at an altitude of 610m above sea

level. (Akpa et al 2002).

3.2 Experimental Birds

In the first experiment 110 birds were used at the starter phase and 102 birds at the

finisher phase, there were two treatments and each replicated three times with eighteen birds per

replicate at the starter phase and seventeen birds per replicate at the finisher phase. The starter

phase lasted from 0-4 weeks while the finisher phase was from 5-8 weeks. Between 4 and 5

weeks the birds were pooled and fed a common ration before they were randomly allocated to

the two treatments of the finisher phase. In both cases there were two treatments and each

replicated thrice, the starter phase was from 2-5 weeks while the finisher was from 6-8 weeks.

The birds were housed in a deep litter pens in a completely randomized design.

3.3 Experimental Feeds

There were two experimental diets used for the study. One of the diets were compounded

as self formulated composition containing 23% crude protein during the starter phase (T1 and
T2). Similarly, Commercial feeds were used T3 and T4 for starters and for finishers. Two of the

commercial feeds are widely used in many part of Nigeria and are reputed to be of standard

quality while the third is from a feed Miller in Jos. For each of these, the broiler starter

formulations were used during the starter phase while the finisher formulations were used for the

finisher phase. One of the standard commercial feeds is in pelleted form. Samples of all feeds

were analyzed for proximate chemical composition. The compositions of the feeds are shown on

Table 2.

3.4 Procedure for Data Collection

The Birds were weighed at the beginning of each experiment to determine their average

initial weights before they were then weighed weekly as well as the quantity of feed left over.

The weekly feed intake and weight gains were used to compute the feed conversion efficiency,

while the feed cost/kg (N) and feed/gain ratio were used to compute the feed cost /kg gain (N).

Samples of the feeds used during the study were subjected to proximate analysis (AOAC, 1990).

3.5 Procedure for Data Analysis

At the end of each phase, the cumulative weight gain, feed intake, feed cost/kg gain,

mortality and water intake/bird were computed and subjected to Analysis of Variance

(ANOVA). Significant levels of differences among means were also determined using Duncan

Multiple Range Test (DMRT).The SAS computer software package (1999) was also used for

statistical analysis.
 CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

4.1 Analysis of Composition of Broiler Finisher diet used for the self formulated feed and
Performance of broilers fed self formulated versus commercial feeds during the
experiments at Finisher Phase
 Table 1. Composition of Broiler Finisher diet used for the self formulated feed

Ingredient Feed 1 *Feed 2 (commercial)

Maize (grains) 54.46

FFSB 36.54

Rice offal (Fibre) 5.00

Bone meal 3.00

Methionine 0.25

Lysine 0.25

Nacl 0.25

Premix 0.25

Total quantity 100

* In addition to the self formulation, a 25kg bag of broiler finisher (vital) feed was purchased for

those in Treatment two (T2) serving as the commercial feed.

Table 2. Consumption Rate and Growth Performance of broilers fed self formulated versus
commercial feeds during the Experiments at Finisher Phase

Parameters T1 T2 T3 T4 Diff

Initial weight (g) 987 988 986 987

Final weight (g) 1982 1984 1953 1955 *

Weight gained(g) 995 996 967 968 *
Feed Intake (g) 3932 3933 4298 4057 *
Feed/Gain 3.20 3.19 3.65 2.88 *
Water Intake (ml) 7.98 8.55 8.81 9.67 *
Water/Feed 3.60 3.57 3.45 4.06 *
Feed Cost/kg (N) 122 123 156 157 *
Mortality 0 0 0 0 *

T1 –T2 are self formulated feeds. T3 –T4 are Commercial Feeds

Consumption Rate and Growth performance of Broiler when fed Self formulated versus

commercial feeds Finisher phase

The consumption rate and growth performance of broiler finisher fed self formulated versus

commercial feed during the experiment. There was no significant difference (P>0.05) in the body

weight, weight gain, and water/feed ratio in the birds fed on T1, T2, T3 and T4. There was slight

difference on consumption rate of feed intake between self formulated feed and the commercial

feeds for all the treatments (3932, 3933, 4298 and 4057. The broilers feed more on commercial

feeds than the commercial feeds. Water/feed ratio was similar for the birds fed self formulated

feeds (3.6 for T1, 3.57 for T2 , 3.45 for T3). The birds on T4 had higher water/feed ratio of 4.06.

There was significant difference (P<0.05) in the feed cost /kg in all the four treatments during the

two experiments, the self formulated feeds had the lower cost of N122/kg for T1 and N123/kg

for T2, N156/kg for T3 and N157/kg for T4. No mortality was recorded during the experiments.

4.2 Discussion

Growth performance of broilers is measured in body weight and weight gain. The

similarity of performance in body weight, weight gain and water/ feed ratio observed in the self
formulated feeds T1, T2 and the commercial feeds T3 and T4 during the finishing phase is a

reflection of the fact that older birds tend to perform well on feeds that do not have very wide

variation in nutrient content or energy levels. This agrees with Steve (2000), who observed that a

range of energy levels can be used for broilers without affecting growth rate. In other word

broiler finisher can perform well on different diets. Also, the birds on commercial feed T4 (

Pelletized) consumed more water this is similar to the observation made during the starter phase

of the study, this may be the reason for the watery stool excreted by these birds this observation

is in agreement with the report of David (1996) who observed that birds on pelleted feed void

moisture-laden faeces. There was a significant (P< 0.05) difference between the self formulated

and the commercial feeds, the self formulated feeds are cheaper in term of feed cost / kg and feed

cost/ kg gain compared to the commercial feeds. This is of great advantage because feed cost /kg

gain is the determinant of how much profit accrues the farmer after harvest and sales.

Also, the growth performance of the birds fed on the self formulated feed was

comparable to those fed on commercial diets as shown on table 2.The reason could be that the

self formulated feed is more fresh than the commercial diets. It is expected therefore to have

unaltered nutrients particularly vitamins and amino- acids as against commercial feeds whose

nutrients (vitamins and amino- acids) must have diminished or altered through oxidation/

reduction reactions because of long period of storage before reaching the end users i.e. the

poultry farmers.
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 SUMMARY

The study was conducted to analyze feed palatability and consumption rate between self

formulated and commercial feeds on growth performance of broilers at finisher phase. The
research design adopted was true experimental design. Experimental birds were fed with self

formulated and commercial feeds. Measurements were taken. The experiments were conducted

in Gidan Waya at the Poultry unit of Agricultural Education Department, Kaduna State College

of Education, Gidan Waya. Gidan Waya is within the Northern Guinea Savannah zone of

Nigeria..

In the first experiment 110 birds were used at the starter phase and 102 birds at the

finisher phase, there were two treatments and each replicated three times with eighteen birds per

replicate at the starter phase and seventeen birds per replicate at the finisher phase. The starter

phase lasted from 0-4 weeks while the finisher phase was from 5-8 weeks. Between 4 and 5

weeks the birds were pooled and fed a common ration before they were randomly allocated to

the two treatments of the finisher phase. In both cases there were two treatments and each

replicated thrice, the starter phase was from 2-5 weeks while the finisher was from 6-8 weeks.

The birds were housed in a deep litter pens in a completely randomized design.

There were two experimental diets used for the study. One of the diets were compounded

as self formulated composition containing 23% crude protein during the starter phase (T1 and

T2). Similarly, Commercial feeds were used T3 and T4 for starters and for finishers. Two of the

commercial feeds are widely used in many part of Nigeria and are reputed to be of standard

quality while the third is from a feed Miller in Jos. For each of these, the broiler starter

formulations were used during the starter phase while the finisher formulations were used for the

finisher phase. One of the standard commercial feeds is in pelleted form. Samples of all feeds

were analyzed for proximate chemical composition. The compositions of the feeds are shown on

Table 2 for finishers.

 The Birds were weighed at the beginning of each experiment to determine their average

initial weights before they were then weighed weekly as well as the quantity of feed left over.

The weekly feed intake and weight gains were used to compute the feed conversion efficiency,

while the feed cost/kg (N) and feed/gain ratio were used to compute the feed cost /kg gain (N).

Samples of the feeds used during the study were subjected to proximate analysis (AOAC, 1990).

At the end of each phase, the cumulative weight gain, feed intake, feed cost/kg gain,

mortality and water intake/bird were computed and subjected to Analysis of Variance

(ANOVA). Significant levels of differences among means were also determined using Duncan

Multiple Range Test (DMRT).The SAS computer software package (1999) was also used for

statistical analysis.

5.2 CONCLUSION

There was a significant difference (P< 0.05) between on- farm and commercial feeds in term of

cost effectiveness. The self formulated feed was cheaper when compared with the commercial

feeds and the birds fed self formulated feeds had better feed cost/ kg gain.

5.3 RECOMMENDATION

Farmers are therefore advised to consult expertise in feed formulation so as to benefit from these

advantages owing to the fact that the total cost of production and the final returns after sales are

the two major concerns of poultry farmers.

REFERENCES

Adebayo A.A, Salami S.B, and Oloyinde L. (2002) The influence of selected socio-economic
variables on poultry farmers choice of commercial and self – compounded feeds in
Lagos area of Nigeria .In Nigeria Journal of Animal production 2002, 29 (2);226-233

Adesehinwa, A.O.K, E.I Ikani & Dafwang I.I (1996). Feed production for small scale livestock
farmers in NAERLS Extension Bulletin.

Akpa, G.N, Asiribo, E.O., Oni, O.O., Alawa, J.P. Dim, N.I., Oshinowo, O.A., and Abubakar,
B.Y.(2002):Milk production by Agrospostoral Red Sokoto Goats in Nigeria. Tropical
Animal Health and Production, 34960 525-533.

AOAC. (Association of Official Analytical Chemists). (1990), Official Methods of Analysis .(15th
edition). Washington, D.C.
Atteh, J.O (2003). Romancing the chicken 68th Inaugural lecture, University of Ilorin. Published
by Unilorin Press

David Bland (1996). Practical Poultry Keeping. The Crowood Press Ltd.
http://www.users.zetnet.co.uk/. available online.
FAO (2002). Small-Scale Poultry Production. FAO Corporate Document Repository, 2002. FAO
Animal Production and Health Paper, No. 35, Rome.
Kehinde, A.S Babatunde,T.O.;Ayoola,O.A.and Temowo,O.O(2006).Effect of different levels of
protein on the growth performance characteristics of broiler chicks. Proc. 31st ann.
Conf.Nig.Soc.for Anim.prod. (NSAP),
March 12th-15th Bayero University, Kano: 235-237

Leland Mckinney and Robert Teeter (2002). Caloric value of Pelleting. Technical Cobb focus, a
Publication of Cobb – Vantress. Inc. http://www.cobb-vantress.com

Ogundipe, S.O, Aduku, A.O & Gwankat, J.K.T.(1986) Proximate & Biological evaluation of
four commercial layer diets in Kaduna State. In: Animal Production in Nigeria:
Proceedings of the 11th Annual Conference of Nigeria Society for Animal Production.
A.B.U. Zaria. 23-27March 1986.

Ogundipe, S.O,(2002). Techniques of Ration Formulation for Poultry in: Poultry Production in
Nigeria. A Training Manual On National Training Workshop on Poultry Production in
Nigeria held 1-6 September 2002, Shika, Nigeria. Published by the National Animal
Production Research Institute, Ahmadu Bello University, Shika-Zaria, Nigeria. Pg. 115-
127.

Onimisi, A.P. (2004) Evaluation of Ginger Waste Meal as energy source in the diet of broiler
chicken. Msc Thesis Submitted to The Animal Science Department, Ahmadu Bello
University, Zaria.
SAS Institute Inc. (1999): SAS/STAT. User’s guide versions 8 for windows SAS Institute Inc.
SAS campus drive carry. North Carolina, U.S.A.

Steve Leeson (2000). Is Feed Efficiency Still a useful Measure of Broiler performance? Ministry
of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, Canada. http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/.

Summers John. (2000). Energy in Poultry Diets. Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs,
Canada. http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/.

Teguia A. and Beynen A.C.(2004) .Nutritional aspects of broiler production in small scale holder
farms in Cameroon. A Bulletin of Livestock Research for Rural Development. pg.16 (1)
2004.

Umeh, G. N. and Odo B.I. (2002). Profitability of poultry production among School Leavers in
Anambra Local Government Area (LGA) of Anambra State, Nigeria. Nig. J. Anim.
Prod. 29:76 - 80