Soils and Foundations 2016;56(2):205–212

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Soils and Foundations

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Ground granulated blast furnace slag amended fly ash as an expansive

soil stabilizer
Anil Kumar Sharman, P.V. Sivapullaiah1
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India
Received 9 January 2015; received in revised form 17 October 2015; accepted 12 November 2015
Available online 14 March 2016

Abstract

The potential of using a binder for stabilization of expansive soils that consists of a mixture of fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag
(GGBS) is evaluated in this study. The joint use of these two materials to form a binder provides new opportunities to enhance pozzolanic
activities that may reduce the swell potential and increase the unconfined compressive strength of expansive clays. The influence of different
percentages of binder on the Atterberg limits, compaction characteristics and unconfined compressive strength of an artificially-mixed soil were
examined. The addition of binder was shown to bring about a significant improvement in these soil properties. It was found that the liquid limit
and plasticity index of the expansive soil decreased considerably with the addition of binder, while the strength improved. Adding a small amount
of lime (one percent) further improved the soil properties by enhancing the pozzolanic reactivity of the binder. Based on the results of the
unconfined compressive strength tests, the addition of 20% binder is recommended as optimum content. In addition, the mineralogical and
morphological studies of soil specimen stabilized with optimum binder content suggested the formation of hydrated particles and cementitious
compounds as a result of the reaction between the clay and the binder. Test results indicate that the use of GGBS mixed fly ash as binder to
stabilize expansive is well suited for sustainable construction besides economic benefits.
& 2016 The Japanese Geotechnical Society. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Jel classifications: D00; D10

Keywords: Fly ash; GGBS; Stabilizing agent; Index properties; Unconfined compressive strength; XRD; SEM

1. Introduction sufficient stress on a building, sidewalks, driveways, basement

Expansive soils are known worldwide for their volume
change behaviour due to variation in the water content.
Expansive soils contain clayey minerals such as montmorillo-
nite, which increase in volume during wetting and decrease in
volume during drying. This change in volume can exert
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ91 80 2293 2815.
E-mail addresses: sharma.kr.anil@gmail.com (A.K. Sharma),
siva@civil.iisc.ernet.in (P.V. Sivapullaiah).
1
Tel.: þ91 80 2293 2672 (Office); fax: þ 91 80 23600404.
Peer review under responsibility of The Japanese Geotechnical Society.
floors, pipelines and even foundations to cause damage.
Expansive soils are clayey soils with large specific surface
area and high cation exchange capacity (Nalbantoğlu, 2004;
Nalbantoglu and Gucbilmez, 2001). Since expansive soils are
found worldwide, the challenge to civil engineers is one felt
around the globe. If not adequately treated, expansive soils
may act as a natural hazard resulting in severe damage to
structures (Al-Rawas et al., 2002). To date, distress problems
related to this type of soil have resulted in the loss of billions
of dollars in repairs and rehabilitation (Nelson and Miller,
1992). Expansive soils are found worldwide, mainly in the arid
and semi-arid regions (Mishra et al., 2008) such as Australia,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2016.02.004
0038-0806/& 2016 The Japanese Geotechnical Society. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
206 A.K. Sharma, P.V. Sivapullaiah / Soils and Foundations 56 (2016) 205–212
Canada, China, India, South Africa, and the United States. In
India, expansive soils are popularly known as Black cotton
soils, and cover nearly 20% of the total land area (Shelke and
Murty, 2010).
Lime and cement are well known additives for the stabilization
of expansive soils (Al-Mukhtar et al., 2010; Bell, 1996; Prusinski
and Bhattacharja, 1999; Yong and Ouhadi, 2007). These additives
are produced from industrial processes and are associated with the
emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O). Industrial by-product
materials such as fly ash (Cokca, 2001; Ferguson, 1993; Phani
Kumar and Sharma, 2004), blast furnace slag (Cokca et al., 2009;
Higgins, 2005), cement kiln dust (Miller and Azad, 2000; Zaman
et al., 1992), limestone dust (Brooks et al., 2010) as additives are
becoming more popular due to their relatively low cost. Addition-
ally, CO2 emissions can be reduced significantly by the increased
use of such supplementary cementing materials currently wasted in
lagoons and landfill sites. The most important feature in the
stabilization of clayey soils is the ability of stabilizer to provide a
sufficient amount of calcium (Wang, 2002). Industrial waste, such
as fly ash and blast furnace slag can be used as stabilizing agents
because they are siliceous and calcareous materials.
The purpose of this study is to investigate the joint activation of
fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) in the
stabilization of expansive soils. In India, the two types of industrial
waste produced in the greatest volumes are fly ash and granulated
blast furnace slag, with an annual production of 170 and 15 million
tonnes, respectively (Chatterjee, 2011; Singh et al., 2008). The
majority of fly ash is utilized in the cement industry, for
construction of roads and embankments, and for manufacturing
of bricks, while GGBS is mainly used as partial replacement of
cement in concrete. These industrial by-products have also great
potential to be used as stabilizing agents. However, the utilization
rate is as low as 58% for fly ash and 55% for blast furnace slag
(CEA, 2014; Singh et al., 2008). The main reason for their
underutilization is the lack of pozzolanic reactivity. Indian fly ash,
which is obtained by burning bituminous coal has a low lime
content of less than 10% (Sunku, 2006). Hence, a chemical
activator such as lime or cement is added to improve its pozzolanic
reactivity. On the other hand, GGBS (obtained after granulated slag
is ground into fine powder) is a latent hydraulic cement (rich in
lime content) which only needs to be activated (Bijen, 1996).
There is a wide variation in the chemical properties of fly
ash and GGBS. Fly ash is low in calcium oxide content but
rich in silica and alumina while GGBS is relatively high in
calcium oxide. The combination of these two materials can be
more beneficial when used as a stabilizing agent than using
them individually. Each can provide sufficient lime or silica to
support pozzolanic reaction, thereby requiring lower amounts
of chemical activators. Studies relating to the alkali activation
of slag/fly ash mixtures in blended cements and concretes have
been carried out by few researchers (Bijen and Waltje, 1989;
Puertas et al., 2000; Shi and Day, 1999). However, no studies
on the joint activation of fly ash and GGBS as stabilizing
agents for expansive soils have been published to date.
In recent years, a number of stabilizers from various
industries have been developed for the purpose of soil
stabilization. Stabilizers can be amended with activators like
lime or cement to enhance their cementitious and pozzolanic
properties. Wild et al. (1998) improved the unconfined
compressive strength of sulphate containing soils by stabilizing
them with lime and GGBS. A study by Kolias et al. (2005)
showed the technical benefits of using a combination of fly ash
and cement as stabilizing agents. An experimental study
carried out by Degirmenci et al. (2007) demonstrated the
possibility of using a mix of phosphogypsum, cement and fly
ash for soil stabilization. Lin et al. (2007) used different
percentages of sludge ash and hydrated lime mixtures to
stabilize soft soils. The laboratory test results indicated that
strength of the soils with additives increased significantly,
while the swelling behaviour reduced considerably. In a study
on granular soils, freezing–thawing durability of the samples
was found to improve when stabilized with mixtures of silica
fume-lime and fly ash-lime (Yarbaşı et al., 2007). Samaras
et al. (2008) performed experiments to show how fly ash and
lime could be used as a stabilizing agent for sewage sludge.
Chen and Lin (2009) improved the basic properties of a
subgrade soil by using a mix of cement and incinerated sewage
sludge. In a study on stabilization of expansive soil, Al-Rawas
(2002) showed that additives such as copper slag containing
higher amounts of Na þ but lower amount of Ca2 þ and CaO
were less effective than GBFS, which had low amounts of
Na þ but relatively higher amount of CaO. Calcium ions help
in reducing the intensity of swell potential of the soil contain-
ing smectite and illite clay minerals by forming aggregations of
different sizes. He concluded that the chemical composition of
stabilizing agents provides a good indication about their
effectiveness in soil stabilization and should essentially be
determined.
An attempt has been made in this study is to utilize mixture of
fly ash and GGBS as binder to stabilize expansive soil. Since both
the materials require alkali activation, addition of small amount of
lime in the binder is also considered. The influence of the binder on
Atterberg limits, compaction characteristics and unconfined com-
pressive strength of the expansive soil have been taken into
account for evaluating performance.
2. Materials and methodology
2.1. Materials
This investigation was carried out on an artificially-mixed soil
containing 80% Black Cotton (BC) soil and 20% commercial
sodium bentonite (by dry weight).The mixed soil was selected to
represent high swelling soil since bentonite clay is widely known
for its high swelling characteristics. This was done to observe the
effectiveness of the binder on the properties of a relatively higher
swelling soil. The BC soil used in this study was procured from the
Belgaum district of Karnataka state, India. The commercial sodium
bentonite used in this study was obtained from the Kolar district of
Karnataka state, India. Both the BC soil and commercial sodium
bentonite were air-dried and pulverized to pass an IS (Indian
Standards) 425 μm sieve prior to use. The artificially-mixed soil
was prepared by mixing oven dried BC soil and bentonite with the
 A.K. Sharma, P.V. Sivapullaiah / Soils and Foundations 56 (2016) 205–212 207

help of spatula and thereafter by hand. Mixing was continued until Table 2
a uniform mixture was obtained. Chemical composition of fly ash and GGBS.
Binder was developed by mixing fly ash and GGBS. Fly ash Oxide Fly ash GGBS
was obtained from Raichur thermal power plant situated in the city
of Raichur, Karnataka, India. GGBS was obtained from Larsen and SiO2 (%) 54.4 29.2
Toubro (L&T) ready mix concrete plant, Bangalore, India. Al2O3 (%) 28.6 13.8
CaO (%) 1.6 44.9
From the initial strength test on different proportions of fly ash
MgO (%) 1.4 6.2
and GGBS mixtures, it was found that 70:30 mix of fly ash: Fe2O3 (%) 3.2 5.5
GGBS showed higher strength than individual fly ash or GGBS, Na2O (%) 0.3 0.3
even in the absence of any chemical activators. Hence, with the K2O (%) 1.7 1
huge production of fly ash compared to blast furnace slag in mind, TiO2 (%) 1.8 2.1
LOI 5 –
a 70:30 mix of fly ash: GGBS was proposed in the present study. CaO/SiO2 0.03 1.54
The index and physical properties of the materials used in
this study are summarized in Table 1.The expansive soil is
classified as CH in accordance with the USCS classification
system. The swelling potential of the soil based on modified focuses on evaluating the physical properties, compaction char-
free swell index (MFSI) is found to be moderate in accordance acteristics and strength behaviour. Experimental investigations have
with Sivapullaiah et al. (1987). The chemical composition of been carried out on expansive soil with the addition of varying
fly ash and GGBS is given in Table 2. The main constituents percentages of binder (10–40%). Since industrial waste materials
are silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3). Based on the chemical require initial chemical activation, the addition of small amount of
composition of fly ash, it can be classified as class-F according lime (i.e. one percent) is also considered in order to increase the pH
to ASTM (2004a: C618). The CaO/SiO2 content of fly ash is of the system.
considerably lower than that of GGBS: that is, fly ash has very The specific gravity of the soil sample was determined
low lime content but is rich in silica, whereas the opposite is according to the Indian Standards, IS:2720(Part-3) (1980)
true in the case of GGBS. (ASTM, 2014: D854). The grain size analysis of the soil
Generally, pozzolanic reactions are quicker if more calcium was determined in accordance with IS:2720(Part-4) (1985)
is present in the oxides of the stabilizing material (Lin et al., (ASTM, 2007: D422-63). For the determination of Atterberg
2007). By mixing these materials, a sufficient amount of lime limits, oven dried artificial expansive soil was mixed with a
and silica can be made available for the pozzolanic reactions to predetermined amount of binder in a dry state with the help of
proceed, producing cementitious compounds such as calcium spatula and hand. Thereafter, water was added and the mixture
silicate hydrate or calcium aluminium hydrate. was again thoroughly mixed to get paste like consistency. The
soil paste was then put inside the plastic bags and kept in a
desiccator for 20–24 h for moisture equilibrium. Atterberg
2.2. Testing methodology limits were then determined according to Indian standard
methods. The liquid limit of the soil was determined by the
A variety of tests can be used to characterize the engineering cone penetration method and the plastic limit by the conven-
properties of stabilized soils. Some of the basic and important tional procedure described in IS:2720(Part-5) (1985) (ASTM,
properties include soil classification, compaction and compressive 2010: D4318-10e1). The shrinkage limit of the soils was
strength. These properties lead to a routine laboratory soil testing determined according to IS:2720(Part-6) (1972) (ASTM,
procedure for stabilized soils and are related to other engineering 2004b: D427-04). To determine the compaction characteristics
properties including stiffness and durability. The present study of the soil–binders mixtures, a mini compaction test developed
by Sridharan and Sivapullaiah (2005) (ASTM, 2012: D698-
Table 1 12e1) was carried out. Before conducting the mini-compaction
Index and physical properties of the materials used. test, soil–binder mixtures were prepared by mixing varying
Property Artificially-mixed soil Fly ash GGBS percentages of binder by mass of dry soil. The mixtures were
again thoroughly mixed after adding certain amount of water
Specific gravity 2.66 2.15 2.84 and were then kept in plastic bags for moisture equilibrium for
Liquid limit (%) 78 32 40
20–24 h in desiccators. Compaction tests were then conducted
Plastic limit (%) 45 NP NP
Plasticity index 33 NP NP to determine the optimum moisture content (OMC) and
Shrinkage limit (%) 16 – – maximum dry density (MDD).
Sand (%) (4.75–0.075 mm) 1 27 1 Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) testing has been
Silt (%) (0.075–0.002 mm) 29 71 99 carried out on the soil–binder mixtures in accordance with
Clay (%) (o 0.002 mm) 70 2 0
IS:4332(Part-5) (1970) (ASTM, 2013: D2166/D2166M-13).
Modified free swell index (MFSI) 7.25 – –
Swelling potentiala Moderate – – The specimen dimensions for UCS testing were 38 mm in
USCS classification CH – – diameter and 76 mm in length. The specimen was prepared by
statically moulding the soil–binder mixtures to their respective
a
Based on modified free swell index; NP ¼non-plastic. optimum conditions. At first, an oven dried soil sample was
208 A.K. Sharma, P.V. Sivapullaiah / Soils and Foundations 56 (2016) 205–212

thoroughly mixed with different percentages of binder and clayey soils produces cation exchange reaction (substitution of
lime in the dry state, and then the required amount of water the monovalent ions like Na þ by the Ca2 þ ions), resulting in
was added. A wet mix sample was then fed into a cylindrical the depression of the double layer (Lambe and Whitman,
mould and statically compacted from both ends. After extrud- 2008). Consequently, a decrease in the thickness of the double
ing the sample, it was wrapped in plastic covers and kept in layer reduces the repulsive forces between the clay particles.
desiccators for curing. The UCS test was conducted at different The clay particles then move towards each and other and get
curing periods of 7, 14 and 28 days. After the UCS test, attached to promote flocculation and particle aggregation. The
microstructural developments were identified using a FEI- subsequent decrease in the water affinity and the surface area
ESEM Quanta 200 scanning electron microscopy. Broken of the clay particles take place results in a decrease in the
pieces of the specimens were collected and oven dried for liquid limit and plasticity index.
24 h. A number of tiny representative pieces were mounted on The test results obtained in this study are similar to the
the stubs for SEM analysis. The samples were gold coated by a findings of Nalbantoğlu (2004) and Zha et al. (2008). They
sputtering technique to provide a conductive surface. X-ray found that fly ash content is directly associated with the
Diffraction (XRD) measurements were carried out to observe decrease in the liquid limit and plasticity index. Mitchell
the formation of cementitious compounds such as C–S–H (1993) suggested that plasticity is a good indicator of swell
using a Bruker D8 Advance diffractometer. potential; that is, that a lower plasticity index reflects a lower
swell potential. While the shrinkage limit of soil–binder
mixtures showed marginal increase with binder content, the
3. Results and discussions
addition of one percent of lime resulted in a significant
3.1. Effect of binder on Atterberg limits increase in the shrinkage limit. This increase in the shrinkage
limit with binder content is an indication of resistance to
volume change due to the cementation of the clay particles.
The effects of binder addition on the liquid limit, plastic
limit, plasticity index and shrinkage limit of the expansive soil
3.2. Effect of binder on compaction characteristics
are shown in Table 3. The addition of binder without lime
resulted in a decrease in both the liquid limit and plasticity
The effect of the binder on the optimum water content
index. The addition of 1% lime resulted in a notable decrease
(OMC) and the maximum dry density (MDD) of the soil are
in the plasticity index of the soil. It is known that considerable
changes in the index properties of soil takes place with the shown in Figs. 1 and 2 respectively. With increasing binder
content, OMC decreased while MDD increased. Similar
addition of pozzolanic materials like fly ash, which reduce the
behaviour in OMC and MDD was observed when fly ash or
diffuse double layer thickness and cause flocculation of the
similar industrial wastes were used as stabilizing agents
clay particles (Sivapullaiah et al., 1996). Cation exchange and
(Baghdadi, 1990; Phani Kumar and Sharma, 2004). Increase
flocculation are the initial reactions that take place immediately
in dry density for a given compaction effort is desirable for use
when soil is mixed with pozzolanic material and cause
as construction material as it indicates soil improvement
improvement of soil plasticity (Locat et al., 1990). The
(Basha et al., 2005). However, some researchers have noted
negatively charged clay particles are balanced by the cations
present in the double layer. Repulsive forces act on the different trends in the OMC and MDD for fly ash and other
types of ash, like particles like rice husk ash. Prabakar et al.
particles when they come into contact with each other and
(2004) observed a decrease in the MDD and an increase in the
depend on the size of the double layer.
OMC for some typical soils stabilized with fly ash. Basha et al.
Any reduction in thickness of the double layer will reduce
(2005) found that both cement and rice husk ash resulted in a
these repulsive forces. The addition of additives/stabilizers to
reduced MDD and increased OMC. Kolias et al. (2005) also
Table 3 reported a decrease in the MDD and an increase in the OMC
Effect of binder on Atterberg limits of expansive soil. with increasing fly ash content. However, in a similar study,
Zha et al. (2008) found that both the OMC and MDD
Content (%) Atterberg limits decreased with increasing fly ash content. The decrease in
Lime Binder Liquid limit Plastic limit Shrinkage limit Plasticity MDD may be attributed to the difference in the specific
(%) (%) (%) index gravities of soil and the stabilizing agent (Rahman, 1987).
Soil containing a higher percentage of clay exhibits lower
0 0 78 45 16 33
resistance to compactive effort (Phanikumar and Sharma, 2007).
0 10 72 40 16 32
0 20 65 38 20 27 The binder consists of a mixture of fly ash and GGBS, with more
0 30 60 34 18 26 than 50% silt-size particles. When non-plastic silt sized particles are
0 40 54 32 19 22 added, resistance is reduced for the same compactive effort. The
1 0 78 49 17 29 flocculation of the soil particles indicates that the binder–soil
1 10 75 48 28 27
mixtures can be compacted at lower water contents, resulting in a
1 20 68 44 36 24
1 30 64 43 38 21 reduction in the optimum water content. At the same time, the
1 40 56 41 36 15 particles come closer due to the decrease in repulsion between the
clay particles, resulting in higher density even at lower water
 A.K. Sharma, P.V. Sivapullaiah / Soils and Foundations 56 (2016) 205–212
Fig. 1. Variation of OMC with binder content.
Fig. 2. Variation of MDD with binder content.
content. Moreover, the addition of percentages of binder content by
volume to the soil makes the mixture well graded, resulting in an
increase in the maximum dry density.
3.3. Effect of binder on strength characteristics
This experiment involved the analysis of the performance of
various combinations of expansive soil–binder mixtures by means
of their unconfined compressive strength. The maximum dry den-
sity and optimum moisture content obtained by mini compaction
test were taken as a reference for the preparation of the each
combination of samples.
In order to assess the strength development of the each
combination of soil–binder samples over time, the tests were
carried out for different curing periods, i.e. 7, 14 and 28 days.
Fig. 3 shows the variation of the unconfined compressive strength
(UCS) of treated expansive soil (without lime) for different curing
periods in relation to the percentage of the binder. It can be seen
that strength increases up to 20% of the binder content and then
decreases thereafter. This trend is similar for all the curing periods.
209
Fig. 3. Variation of UCS with binder content (no lime).
For the same percentage of binder, the strength of the samples was
found to be directly proportional to the curing period.
The pozzolanic reaction is a time dependent process which
occurs between calcium and silica, and results in the formation
of cementitious compounds such as calcium–silicate–hydrates
(C–S–H), calcium–aluminate–hydrates (C–A–H), and calcium
aluminium–silicate–hydrates (C–A–S–H).
The reaction may be written as
CaðOHÞ2 ðionization of limeÞ-Ca2 þ þ þ 2ðOHÞ ð1Þ
Ca2 þ þ OH þ SiO2 ðsoluble clay silicaÞ - calcium
 silicate  hydrate ð2Þ
Ca2 þ þ OH þ Al2 O3 ðsoluble clay aluminaÞ - calcium
 aluminate  hydrate ð3Þ
The formation of these cementitious compounds in the soil–
binder matrix is responsible for the increase in the unconfined
compressive strength of the stabilized soil.
However, the addition of binder beyond 20% gave a reduction
in strength. The reduction in the compressive strength of soil once
the stabilizer/binder content has exceeded a certain level has been
reported by various researchers (Basha et al., 2005; Sridharan et al.,
1997; Sujatha et al., 2015; Zha et al., 2008). For stabilized soils
with binder contents up to 20%, pozzolanic reactions are induced
and cementation of the particles occurs. However, for stabilized
soils with greater binder contents, the pozzolanic reaction does not
occur and the added binder particles act as unbonded particles that
reduce the overall strength of the material (Bell, 1996; Kate, 2005).
However, the strength of the stabilized soil with high binder
contents is still greater than that of untreated soil.
Fly ash and GGBS (constituents of the binder) have very little
self-hardening properties in the absence of any chemical activators
such as lime or cement (Kaniraj and Havanagi, 1999). This is best
illustrated in Fig. 4 where 1% lime is added along with the binder.
The samples attain significant strength and the gain depends on the
amount of the binder and curing period (Fig. 4). The addition of
lime enhances the pozzolanic reaction that provides extra strength to
the soil–binder mixture due to the formation of a cemented matrix.
210 A.K. Sharma, P.V. Sivapullaiah / Soils and Foundations 56 (2016) 205–212
Fig. 4. Variation of UCS with binder content (1% lime).
The strength of the samples is again found to decrease
slightly beyond 20% of binder content. However, unlike in the
earlier case where the strength continuously decreases, the
sample regains strength after the addition of 30% of binder.
This implies that the addition of lime helps in binding the
unbonded silt particles that were responsible for strength
reduction. Therefore, based on the unconfined compressive
strength behaviour with and without lime, the addition of 20%
binder is recommended as an optimum content to effectively
stabilize this expansive soil.
3.4. XRD and SEM studies
SEM and XRD studies were also carried out in order to
observe the changes in the soil after a 28 day curing period.
The tests were performed for the identification of the various
cementitious compounds on the soil specimens stabilized with
20% binder; that is, for samples which showed maximum
strength. Fig. 5 displays the XRD patterns of reaction products
of soils stabilized with 20% binder after 28 day curing period.
The sharp peaks in the XRD analysis indicate the presence of
quartz, which is crystalline in structure.
The hydration products as a result of pozzolanic reaction
primarily consist of C–S–H gel and calcium hydroxide (CH)
(Diamond, 2004). As marked in the figure, diffraction peaks of C–
S–H gel and CH was found to vary noticeably. With the increase
in curing period, calcium hydroxide could react with the silica and
alumina present in the soil to produce cementitious products.
The diffraction peak for calcium silica hydrates is observed
at diffraction angles, 2θ, equalling to 201, 351, and 501. The
XRD analyses also show the additional peaks of calcite
(CaCO3), formed due to cementitious reactions (Solanki and
Zaman, 2012). Fig. 6 shows the SEM micrographs of
expansive soil stabilized with 20% binder and cured for 28
days with and without lime. The microstructure observed in
the stabilized samples by SEM can be classified as compact,
which represents a uniform matrix. The micrograph treated
only with the binder represents a dense fabric with small
Fig. 5. X-ray diffraction patterns of the soil stabilized with 20% binder cured
for 28 days (a) no lime (b) 1% lime.
aggregations or flocs. In the presence of lime, the sample
reveals clearly visible large aggregations (Fig. 6(b)). The
formation of aggregations or flocs is mainly responsible for
the reduction of swell in expansive soils (Al-Rawas, 2002).
Cement hydration products such as C-S-H gel mixed with
calcium hydroxide (portlandite) can be observed in the
micrograph. The hydration products are usually intermixed
with pore spaces that are not actually empty but occupied by
hardened epoxy resin (Diamond, 2004). The SEM images
reveal a better interface condition; however, there was no
evidence of pore formation, indicating a suitable contact
between the soil particles and the cementitious matrix. The
formation of hydrated grains is more evident in the soil–binder
mixtures in the presence of lime.
4. Conclusions
In this study, an artificially-mixed expansive soil was
stabilized with different amounts of binder, primarily consist-
ing of fly ash and GGBS at a mixing ratio of 7:3. The objective
of this research was to assess the effect of fly ash-GGBS based
binder on the physical properties and unconfined compressive
strength of the soil. Based on the results presented in this
paper, the following conclusions are made:
(1) The addition of binder or lime–binder to the soil decreased
liquid limit and plasticity index while increasing the shrinkage
limit. It is found that the addition of binder causes flocculation
of clay particles and increases the number of coarser particles
which help in reducing the Atterberg limits.
(2) The optimum moisture content (OMC) was found to
decrease while the maximum dry density (MDD) increased
with increasing binder content.
 A.K. Sharma, P.V. Sivapullaiah / Soils and Foundations 56 (2016) 205–212
Fig. 6. Results of SEM analysis for soil stabilized with 20% binder cured for 28 days. (a) No lime. (b) 1% lime.
(3) The unconfined compressive strength of soil was found to
increase with increasing binder content as well as a longer
curing period. The addition of a small quantity of lime (1%)
increased the strength significantly. The optimum content of
the binder for the effective stabilization of the artificially-
mixed expansive soil was found to be 20%.
(4) SEM and XRD studies confirm the formation of reaction
products such as C–S–H and calcium hydroxide, which
contributed to strength development in the stabilized soil.
(5) This study has shown that fly ash mixed with GGBS has the
potential to improve the properties of expansive soil with a
minimum requirement of chemical additives such as lime.
Considering the high cost of lime and cement, the use of fly
ash/GGBS mixtures can represent a significant saving in the
construction costs as well as reduce the environmental
pollution problem.
This study presents a framework for the evaluation of soil
additives/binders. The results showed that the type and amount
of additives play a major role in the stabilization process. In
the present world, where a variety of industrial by-products are
available in abundant quantities, it is very important to select
the additives based on different properties, and the chemical
composition is the most important among these properties.
Various industrial by-products can be amended together based
on their chemical compositions. This will help geotechnical
engineers to fully exploit industrial by-product materials with
minimum requirement of chemical activators such as lime or
cement.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Advanced Facility for Micro-
scopy and Microanalysis (AFMM) Department of the Indian
Institute of Science, Bangalore for carrying out SEM studies.
211
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