ENGINEERING MATERIALS

1. ABRASIVES
Abrasives are the materials characterized by their extreme hardness, high
melting point and chemical inertness and are used to wear off other objects by
cutting, grinding and polishing.
1.1 Moh’s Scale
The hardness of abrasives is measured on Moh's scale or Vicker's scale. The
hardness of talc is 1 and hardness of diamond is 10.

Abrasives Moh’s Abrasives Moh’s

Scale Scale
Talc 1 Feldspar 6

Gypsum or NaCl 2 Quartz 7

Calcite or Copper 3 Topaz or Emery 8

Fluorite 4 Corundum 9

Apatite 5 Diamond 10

1.2 Classification
Abrasives can be classified into
(a) Natural abrasives
(b) Artificial abrasives
1.3 Natural Abrasives
a) Diamond
It is the crystalline form of carbon. It ranks first in hardness (Moh's scale 10). It
is chemically inert and not affected by acids and alkalis.
Faulty off colour diamonds are called borts. Black colour diamond from Brazil
is called carbanado and has no jewellery value. Borts and carbanado are used in drill
points, grinding wheels, rock cutting, saw teeth, etc.
 b) Corundum
It is crystalline aluminium oxide (Al2O3). Its hardness on Moh’s scale is 9. It is
not having any gem quality and is used in grinding glasses, gems, lenses, metals and
metal cutting.
c) Garnet:
Garnets are nesosilicates having the general formula X3Y2(SiO4)3. The X site is
usually occupied by divalent cations (Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn)2+and the Y site by trivalent
cations (Al, Fe, Cr)3+ in an octahedral/tetrahedral framework with [SiO4]4− occupying
the tetrahedral.
Hardness
Because the chemical composition of garnet varies, the atomic bonds in some
species are stronger than in others. As a result, this mineral group shows a range of
hardness on the Mohs scale of about 6.5 to 7.5. The harder species like almandine are
often used for abrasive purposes.
Uses:
 Gemstones
 Garnet sand is a good abrasive, and a common replacement for silica
sand in sand blasting.
 Garnet sand is also used for water filtration media.
d) Emery;
Emery (or corundite) is a dark granular rock used to make abrasive powder. It
largely consists of the mineral corundum (aluminium oxide). Industrial emery may
contain a variety of other minerals and synthetic compounds such
as magnesia, mullite, and silica.

o Hardness on Moh’s scale is 8.

o Emery is used in coated abrasive products.
o It is used as wear-resistant floors and pavements.
o It is used in grinding rice..
e) Quartz:
Quartz is one of the common minerals that could be found everywhere. Its
formula is silicon dioxide or SiO2. Pieces of quartz in nature may have different shape
and color. Usually it is colorless or white but it may have great variety of colors like.
Hardness on Mho’s scale is 7. The cheapest sandpaper is made from sand /quartz
grains/ and it has enough hardness to work on wood. It scratches the surface to make it
smoother or polish it but it can not shape the material. Hardness on Mho’s scale is 7.

1.4 Synthetic Abrasives

a) Silicon carbide (or) Carborundum (SiC)
It is prepared by heating a mixture of silica (sand) and carbon (coal or coke) at
a temperature of 1650°C to 2200°C in an electric furnace.
SiO2 + 3C SiC + 2CO
Little saw dust is added to make the charge porous so as to enable the carbon
monoxide gas to escape. The product is grey to green depending on the purity of the
raw materials.
It is very hard (Moh's scale 9.3). Chemically unreactive and can withstand very
high temperature. It is not tough and brittle.
It is used as abrasive papers and clothes. It is also used for grinding materials of
low tensile-strength like cast iron, brass, bronze, glass, leather, etc.
b) Boron carbide (B4C)/ NORBIDE
It is prepared by heating a mixture of boron oxide (B 2O3) and carbon at a
temperature of 2700°C in an electric furnace.

2B2O3 + 7C B4C +6CO

Boron carbide is known as a robust material having high hardness, high cross section
for absorption of neutrons (i.e. good shielding properties against neutrons), stability
to ionizing radiation and most chemicals. boron carbide is the third hardest substance known,
after diamond and cubic boron nitride, earning it the nickname "black diamond"
USES:

 Scratch and wear resistant coatings.

 Cutting tools and dies.

 Abrasives.

 Neutron absorber in nuclear reactors.

 Metal matrix composites.

 High energy fuel for solid fuel Ramjets.

 In brake linings of vehicles

2. REFRACTORIES
Refractories are materials which can withstand very high temperatures,
without softening or deformation in shape. These materials are hard and
chemically stable.
Example: Alumina, Silica, Magnesite, Dolomite, Graphite

2.1 Characteristics of Refractories

A good refractory should possesses the following characteristics
1. It should be infusible at the temperature to which it is exposed.
2. It should not crack at the operating temperature.
3. It should be able to withstand the overlaying load of structure at the operating
temperature.
4. It should be chemically inert towards the corrosive action of gases like CO, CO 2,
SO2, Cl2, NH3, etc.
5. It should be chemically inert towards the corrosive action of metallic liquids and
slags.
6. It should resist the corrosive action of flue gases, flames etc.
7. It should expand and contract uniformly with temperature rise and fall
respectively.
2.2 Classification of Refractories
On the basis of refractoriness the classification is
Ordinary Refractories : Temperature range 1580-1780°C
High Refractories : Temperature range 1780-2000°C
Super Refractories : Temperature above 2000°C
On the basis of chemical composition the classification is as follows:
Acid Refractories : Alumina bricks, silica bricks

Basic Refractories : Magnesite bricks, dolamite bricks

Neutral Refractories : Chromite, zirconia

1. Acid Refractories
Acid refractories are materials consist of acidic oxides like alumina (Al2O3)
and silica (SiO2). They are not attacked by acidic materials, but easily attacked by
basic materials.
Example: Alumina bricks, silica bricks and fire clay refractory bricks (containing 30
to 40% of Al2O3).
2. Basic Refractories
These refractories consist of basic oxides like lime (CaO), magnesia (MgO),
etc. They are not attacked by basic materials, but easily attacked by acidic materials.
Example: Magnesite bricks and dolamite bricks.
3. Neutral Refractories
These are refractories made from weakly acidic or basic materials like graphite
(C), chromite (FeO.CrO2), zirconia (ZrO2), etc.
Example: Graphite, chromite, zirconia and carborundum.
2.3 Properties of Refractories
2.3.1 Refractoriness: It is the ability of a material to withstand its own weight
without undergoing appreciable deformation and softening under particular service
conditions.
Refractoriness is generally measured by the softening or melting temperature of
the refractory material.
Measurement of Refractoriness
Refractoriness of the refractory material is measured in Pyrometric Cone
Equivalents (PCE) (Seger Cones). The refractory material under test is made into a
standard cone (pyramid shaped, 38 mm height and has a triangular base, with 19 mm
long sides). This cone is called as seger cone.
 37 36 35

Softened and deformed apex

just touching the base

Fig. 1.1 Measurement of refractoriness

Segar cone is then heated under standard conditions (10° C per minute) and its
softening or fusion temperature is noted. This is then compared with other standard
cones whose softening points and chemical compositions are known. PCE of
refractories varies from 19 to 42.
Silica bricks have a lower PCE (34) than magnesite bricks (38)
A good refractory should have high refractoriness
2.3.2 Strength or Refractoriness Under Load (RUL)
Refractories used in metallurgical operations and industries have to withstand
varying of loads. The load bearing capacity of a refractory can be measured in
RUL test (Refractoriness Under Load).
In RUL test a constant load (1.75 kg/cm2 or 3.5 kg/cm2) is applied to the
sample refractory specimen of rectangular shape (of size 5cm 2 and 75 cm height) and
heated at a standard rate of 10° C per minute. The temperature at which 10 % of the
specimen started to get destroyed or deformed is taken.
A good refractory should have high RUL value.
2.3.3 Dimensional Stability
It is the resistance of refractory material to any volume changes, which may
occur on its exposure to high temperature over a prolonged time. These dimensional
changes may be permanent (irreversible) or reversible.
The permanent dimensional changes may occur,
i) due to the fusion of low melting constituents of the brick and filling up the
pores of it. This results in shrinkage. Example: fire-clay bricks
(ij) due to the transformation of one form of material into another more dense
form.
 Example: shrinkage in magnesite bricks
amorphous periclase-crystalline
(Sp.gr 3.05) (Sp.gr 3.54)
Expansion in silica bricks
Quartzite Tridymite Cristobolite
(Sp.gr 2.65) (Sp.gr 2.26) (Sp.gr 2.32)
2.3.4. Thermal Spalling (Spalling Resistance)
Thermal spalling is the ability of the material to retain the original form
without cracking, slitting, peeling or flaking when subjected to high temperatures,
sudden temperature fluctuations or uneven comprehensive stress.
Thermal spalling is caused by uneven heating or cooling. Mechanical spalling
is caused by penetration of molten slag into the pores of refractory linings.
Spalling is minimized by
i. Employing bricks with high porosity, good thermal conductivity and low
coefficient of expansion
ii. Avoiding sudden temperature fluctuations
iii. By over firing the refractories during the manufacture at high temperature
iv. Designing the furnace with low stress and strains.
Carborundum and fire clay bricks have high spalling resistance.

2.3.5. Porosity (P)

All refractories contain pores either due to manufacturing methods or
deliberately.
Porosity is the ratio of volume of pores to the bulk volume.
W D
P x100
WA

W = Weight of saturated specimen

D = Weight of dry specimen; A = Weight of saturated specimen submerged in
water
i) High porosity reduces strength and density and it increases the insulating
property.
 ii) Low porosity increases thermal conductivity and increases resistance to
thermal to falling.
A good refractory should have low porosity.
3. LUBRICANTS
In all types of machines, the surfaces of moving or sliding or rolling parts rub
against each other. Due to this a resistance is developed and is known as friction.
Any substance introduced between two moving or sliding surface to reduce
the frictional resistance between them is known as lubricant.
The process of reducing frictional resistance between two moving or sliding
surfaces by the introduction of lubricants is known as lubrication.
3.1 Functions of a Lubricant
1. It prevents direct contact between the surfaces and reduces wear and tear. It
reduces wastage of energy.
2. It reduces expansion of metal by reducing frictional heat.
3. It saves maintenance and running cost of machine. It provides smooth, uniform
motion.
4. It avoids seizure of moving surfaces It acts as a seal in preventing the
deposition of dust.
3.2 Classification
On the basis of physical state, lubricants are classified as follows.
Lubricants

Solid Semi Solid Liquid

(greases) (lubricating oils)
1. Graphite 1. Calcium based 1. Animal and vegetable
2. MoS2 2. Soda based 2. Mineral or Petroleum
3. Lithium based 3. Blended
4. Axle greases

3.3 Requirements of a solid lubricant

The solid lubricants should be,
i. Very strong adhesion power to the applied surfaces.
ii. Chemically inert
iii. Good thermal conductivity
 iv. Good stability at operating temperature
v. Low shear strength.
vi. High boiling point and low vapour pressure
vii. High fire and flash point and low cloud and pour point
3.4 Solid Lubricants
Solid lubricants are used, where
i. Operating conditions are such that a lubricating film cannot be obtained by the
use of lubricating oils or greases.
ii. Operating temperature or the load is too high
iii. Combustible lubricants are not suitable.
The two common solid lubricants used are graphite and molybdenum
disulphide
3.3.1 Graphite
Graphite is the most widely used of all solid lubricants. In graphite, each
carbon atom is attached to three other carbon atoms by strong covalent bonds to form
hexagonal rings. Graphite contains layers of these hexagonal rings. The bonding
between atoms within a layer is strong. The bonding between adjacent layers is by
weak Vander Waals force of attraction.

1.42 A
Adjacent regular Carbon atom Each carbon atom
hexagonal paraller in a network of boned by only
layers can slide hexagons three convalent

9.40 A

3.4 A

Weak van der waals

forces of attraction

Fig. 1.3 Layered structures of graphite

Graphite is soapy in touch, non inflammable and is not oxidised in air below
375°C. In the absence of air, it can be used even at high temperatures.
Graphite is used either in powered form or as suspension of graphite in oil or in
water. Suspension of graphite in oil (oildag) or in water (aquadag) is brought about
with the help of an emulsifying agent, like tannin. Oil dag is used in internal
combustion engines and aquadag is used in food industry where a lubricant free
from oil is needed.
Uses: i) In air compressors,
ii) Lathes
iii) General machine – shop works
iv) Foodstuffs industry, Railway track – joints
v) Internal combustion engines
Limitations: Graphite is ineffective in vacuum conditions and above 370oC.
3.3.2 Molybdenum Sulphide (MoS2)
Molybdenum disulphide possesses similar properties that of graphite. It has a
sandwich like structure in which manganese atom of one layer lies between sulphur
atoms of two adjacent layers. The atoms in the layer are held by strong covalent bond
and the adjacent layers are held by weak vander Waals force of attraction.

MO
Atom Layer

3.13 A

S Atom Layer

3.13 A

MO
Atom Layer

Fig. 1.4 Sandwich structure of MoS2

It posses very low co-efficient of friction and with stand in air up to 400° C. Its
fine powder may be sprinkled on surface sliding at high velocities. MoS 2 can be used
in powder form or as dispersions in petroleum oils, water and synthetic oils.
It can be effective upto 800o C. It is largely used in airframe lubrication and
wire – drawing dyes.
3.5 Properties of Lubricants
3.5.1 Viscosity and viscosity index
Viscosity of oil is the internal resistance of a fluid during flow.
The unit of viscosity is poise or Newton/sec/m 2. Viscosity is the important
property of lubricating oil because it determines the operating characteristics of
lubricant.
Viscosity of liquids decreases with increases of temperature. This makes the
lubricating oil thinner and is unsuitable. Hence a good lubricant should have a
minimum change in viscosity with viscosity with rise of temperature.
The rate at which the viscosity of oil changes with temperature is measured
by viscosity index scale. The variation of viscosity with temperature (39o to 99o C) is
indicated by viscosity temperature curves (Fig.1.5). The viscosity index (V.I) of the
lubricating oil is given by the formula
L U
V .I  x100
LH

Where L is the viscosity of low viscosity index oil at 38o C. H is the viscosity
of the high viscosity index oil at 38o C and U is the viscosity of the test oil at 38o C.

H
Viscosity

38oC 90oC
Temperature

Fig.1.5 Viscosity Index

Naphthenic base Gulf oils, the viscosity index is assigned as zero (high
viscosity index oil, H) and for paraffinic base Pennsylvanian oils, the viscosity index
is 100 (low viscosity index oil, L).
The viscosity of oil can be measured using Redwood or Saybolt viscometer.
3.5.2 Flash and Fire Points
Flash point is the lowest temperature at which the lubricating oil gives off
enough vapours that ignite for a moment when a small flame is brought near it.
Fire point is the lowest temperature at which the vapours of the oil burn
continuously for at least 5 seconds when a small flame is brought near to it.
 Good lubricating oil should have flash and fire points well above the operating
temperature. Generally the fire point is 5 to 40o C higher than the flash point.
Flash and fire points can be determined by Pensky Martens apparatus.
3.5.3. Cloud and Pour Point
Cloud point is the temperature at which slowly cooled lubricating oil becomes
cloudy or hazy in appearance.
The temperature at which slowly cooled lubricating oil ceases to flow or pour
is called pour point.
Normally the pour point is lower than the cloud point. Lubricants used in
machine working at low temperature should possess low pour point; otherwise
solidification of lubricant will cause jamming of the machine.
3.5.4. Oiliness
Oiliness is the capacity of a lubricant to stick either physically or chemically
or both on to the surface of the machines under conditions of heavy pressure or load.
A good lubricant should have high oiliness. Mineral oils have poor oiliness.
Vegetable and animal oils have high oiliness. Small amount of vegetable or animal
oils is added to increase the oiliness of mineral oils.
3.5.5. Aniline Point
Aniline point of oil is the temperature at which equal volumes of oil and aniline
are just miscible.
Aniline point gives an indication of the possible deterioration of oil in contact
with rubber bearings, packing, etc.
A higher aniline point means lower percentage of aromatic hydrocarbons and
less solvent effect on rubber sealing, packing, etc. Good lubricating oil possesses
higher aniline point.
Mechanism of Lubrication:
The phenomenon of lubrication can be explained with the help of the following
mechanism; (a) Thick-Film lubrication (Fluid-Film or hydrodynamic lubrication)
(b) Thin Film lubrication (Boundary lubrication) and (c) Extreme Pressure
lubrication
(a) Thick-Film lubrication/ Fluid Film Lubrication:
In this, moving/sliding surfaces are separated from each other by a thick film of
fluid (at least 1000 A° thick), so that direct surface to surface contact and welding of
welding of junctions rarely occurs. The lubricant film covers/fills the irregularities of
moving/sliding surfaces and forms a thick layer between them, so that there is no
direct contact between the material surfaces. This consequently reduces friction.

The lubricant chosen should have the minimum viscosity (to reduce the internal
resistance between the particles of the lubricant) under working conditions and at the
same time, it should remain in place and separate the surfaces.
Hydrocarbon oils (mineral oils which are lower molecular weight
hydrocarbons with
about 12 to 50 carbon atoms) are considered to be satisfactory lubricants for thick-film
lubrication. In order to maintain the viscosity of the oil in all seasons of year, ordinary
hydrocarbon lubricants are blended with selected long chain polymers.
(b) Thin Film lubrication/ Boundary Lubrication:
This type of lubrication is preferred where a continuous film of lubricant
cannot persist. In such cases, the clearance space between the moving/sliding surfaces
is lubricated by such a material which can get adsorbed on both the metallic surfaces
by either physical or chemical forces. This adsorbed film helps to keep the metal
surfaces away from each other at least up to the height of the peaks present on the
surface.
 Vegetable and animal oils and their soaps can be used in this type of lubrication
because they can get either physically adsorbed or chemically react in to the metal
surface to form a thin film of metallic soap which can act as lubricant. Although these
oils have good oiliness, they suffer from the disadvantage that they will break down at
high temperatures.
On the other hand, mineral oils are thermally stable and the addition of
vegetable/animal oils to mineral oils, their oiliness can also be brought up. Graphite
and molybdenum disulphide are also suitable for thinfilm lubrication.
(c) Extreme Pressure lubrication/ High Pressure Lubrication:
When the moving/sliding surfaces are under very high pressure and speed, a
high local temperature is attained under such conditions, liquid lubricants fail to stick
and may decompose and even vaporize. To meet these extreme pressure conditions,
special additives are added to minerals oils. These are called extreme pressure
additives. These additives form more durable films (capable of withstanding very high
loads and high temperatures) on metal surfaces.
Important additives are organic compounds having active radicals or groups such as
chlorine (as in chlorinated esters), sulphur (as in sulphurized oils) or phosphorus (as in
tricresyl phosphate). These compounds react with metallic surfaces, at existing high
temperatures, to form metallic chlorides, sulphides or phosphides.