CHEMISTRY

FORM 6
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
CHAPTER 1 :
PERIOD 3 , GROUP 2
1.1 Atomic radius
Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Proton number 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Atomic radius (nm) 0.186 0.160 0.143 0.118 0.108 0.106 0.099 0.088

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
1.1 Atomic Radius.

The atomic radius of an atom is the distance between the nucleus
and the outermost electronic shell that is filled with electrons.

On going across a period 3 (from sodium chlorine), the number of
protons and the number on electrons increase by one.Moving
from one element to the next across period 3, electrons are added
to the same outer shell (the third shell) with a simultaneous
increase in the nuclear charge. The higher the nuclear charge,
the stronger is the attraction between the positive nucleus and
the electron. This will lead to a decrease in the atomic radius.

Hence, going across period 3, the nuclear charge increase but the
screening effect remains almost constant.
1.2 Melting point
Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Proton number 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Melting point (oC) 98 650 660 1423 44 120 -101 -189

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
1.2.2 Melting point

Metallic bonding – metallic bond are formed when
electrostatic forces is formed between the delocalised
electrons and the positive ion. When electrons is
delocalised from a metal, it formed an electron sea thus
interacting with the positive ion formed as a result of
donating electrons. Thus, the more the electrons
delocalised by the metal, stronger the electrostatic forces,
stronger the metallic bond. Melting point increase from
sodium, magnesium to aluminium

Gigantic molecular structure – Silicon has 4 electron
valences, which indicates that it can form 4 bonding
surrounding it. Silicon atoms are strongly held with each
other by using strong covalent bond which builds up a
network similar to a pyramid structure. This caused
the energy require to break the bond is very high thus the
melting point is high

Simple molecule – weak Van Der Waals forces is formed
when covalent molecules are interacting with each other.
The forces between the molecules are very weak and only a
little amount of energy is required to break the bond. This
forces increased when the molecular mass increase,
and when the weak Van Der Waals forces increase, more
energy is required to break the forces, thus causing
the melting point to rise from Ar < Cl2 < P4 < S8
1.3 First ionisation energy
Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Proton number 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1st IE (kJ/mol) 494 736 577 786 1060 1000 1260 1520

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
1.2.3 First ionisation energy

The first ionisation energy is the minimum energy required
to remove 1 mole of electron from 1 mole atom at gaseous
state to form a unipositive ion. M (g)  M+(g) + e

Three factors are involved in determining in ionisation
energy of an element :

The distance of valence electrons from the nucleus.

The magnitude of the nuclear charge.

The effectiveness of the shielding among the orbitals.

GENERALLY – The nuclear charge increases from
sodium to chlorine while the atomic size decreases.
Hence, the distance between the valence electrons and the
nucleus is getting shorter. In addition, the shielding or
screening effect remains almost constant across the
period since electrons are filled in the same shell . All these
factors contribute to an increase in ionisation energy across
the period as valence electrons become more difficult to be
removed
 1.4 Electronegativities & Electron Affinity

Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

Electronegativity 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0 -

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
1.4 Electronegativities

Electronegativities is the relative strength of an atom to attract
electrons in a covalent bond which it is bonded.

Going across the third period, the increase in the nuclear
charge results in a greater attraction for the electrons in the
outermost shell. This increase tendency to attract electrons result
in an increase in electronegativity
1.5 Electron affinity

Electron affinity is the amount of energy being liberated when an
atom receive one mole of electron in gaseous state.
F (g) + e-  F- ∆H = - ve kJ/mol

Unlike electronegativity (which has no unit), electron affinity
explained on how ‘easy’ an atom receive the electron and form
anion (mostly applied when forming lattice crystal)

Across period 3, the electron affinity increase, meaning the
tendency of the atom to receive an electron (Chlorine is the
easiest to form chloride ion)
 1.3 Chemical Properties of Period 3

Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

Proton number 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Valance Electron 3s1 3s2 3s23p1 3s23p2 3s23p3 3s23p4 3s23p5 3s23p6

Ionic form Na+ Mg2+ Al3+ -- P3- S2- Cl- --

Giant Mono-
Bonding Metallic Bonding Simple covalent
covalent atomic

Oxidising / Oxidising
Reducing agent
reducing agent agent
1.2.1 Oxidising and reducing ability of Period 3 element.

Since the ionisation of sodium, magnesium and aluminium are
relatively low, they tend to release electron. In the other word,
they tend to be oxidised.

By the angle of standard reduction potential, Eored, sodium has
the highest tendency to be oxidise as the Eo value is the most
negative. Thus metal are strong reducing agent

Na+ (aq) + e- ↔ Na (s) Eo = - 2.87 V

Mg2+ (aq) + 2 e- ↔ Mg (s) Eo = - 2.38 V

Al3+ (aq) + 3 e- ↔ Al (s) Eo = - 1.67 V

It is because of the high oxidising ability, it is used in the
extraction for some metal. Example

Extracting titanium metal : TiCl4 + 2 Mg  2 MgCl2 + Ti

Extracting chromium metal : Cr2O3 + 2 Al  Al2O3 + 2 Cr

As for chlorine, since it has a high electron affinity, it has a
tendency to receive an electron. Thus, chlorine is preferably to be
reduced.
Cl2 (g) + 2e- ↔ 2 Cl- (aq) Eo = + 1.36 V
1.3.1 Trend of oxide of Period 3

Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl

Oxide of element Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O10 SO3 Cl2O7

Giant
Bonding Ionic Simple covalent
Covalent

Ampho-
Acid-Base Basic Oxide Acidic Oxide
teric
1. In the laboratory, sodium and potassium are normally kept under
paraffin oil to avoid contact with air. This is because alkali metals are
extremely reactive. Sodium burns brilliantly in air (limited supply of
oxygen) to form sodium oxide, a white powder.
Reaction of sodium with oxygen : 4 Na (s) + O2 (g)  2 Na2O (s)
(a) When sodium oxide dissolves in water, a strong alkali, sodium
hydroxide is formed. Na2O (s) + H2O (l)  2 NaOH (aq)

Sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide have similar properties.
They are both prepared industrially through the electrolysis of sodium
chloride and potassium chloride solutions.

Sodium hydroxide is used in the manufacture of soap and many organic
and inorganic compounds whereas potassium hydroxide is used as an
electrolyte in some storage batteries
2. Even though magnesium is not as reactive as sodium, it still burns
brilliantly in air with a bright light to from magnesium oxide (white
powder).
Reaction of magnesium with oxygen : 2 Mg (s) + O2 (g)  2 MgO (s)
(a) Magnesium oxide is a strong base and will dissolve slowly in water
to form magnesium hydroxide, a white solid suspension used to treat
acid indigestion MgO (s) + H2O (l)  Mg(OH)2 (aq)
3. Aluminium is another reactive metal that, when exposed to air,
will react easily with oxygen to form a white oxide coating.
4 Al (s) + 3 O2 (g)  2 Al2O3 (s)

This layer of aluminium oxide coating causing the metal to be
insoluble in water. Due to its amphoteric porperties, it can
react with both acids and alkalis.
(a) With acids, it behaves as a base to produce salt and water only.
Al2O3 (s) + 6 HCl (aq)  2 AlCl3 (aq) + 3H2O (l)
(b) With alkalis, it behaves as an acid and a complexs salt is
produced.
Al2O3 (s) + 2 NaOH (aq) + 3 H2O (1)  2 NaAl(OH)4 (aq)
4. Silicon, a metalloid, only reacts with oxygen slowly at very high
temperature. Silicon dioxide is formed in the reaction.
Si (s) + O2 (g)  SiO2 (s)
(a)Due to its gigantic molecular structure, silicon dioxide does not
react with water, but still, it reacted with concentrated alkalis to
form silicate ion.
SiO2 (s) + 2OH- (aq)  SiO32- (aq) + H2O (l)
5.Phosphorus burns readily in air (oxygen) to form acidic
oxides. White phosphorus is a highly toxic substance and
will burst into flames spontaneously when exposed to
oxygen to form phosphorus pentoxide, P4O10. If a
limited supply of oxygen is used during burning, a lower
form of oxide, phosphorus trioxide, P4O6, is produced.
Phosphorous burned with excess oxygen :
P4 (s) + 5 O2 (g)  P4O10 (s)
Phosphorous burned with limited oxygen :
P4 (s) + 3 O2 (g)  P4O6 (s)
(a) Both oxides are acidic and will dissolve in water to form
the corresponding acids.
Phosphorous pentoxide :
P4O10 (s) + 6 H2O (l)  4 H3PO4 (aq) [Phosphoric acid]
Phosphorous trioxide :
P4O6 (s) + 6 H2O (l)  4 H3PO3 (aq) [Phosphorous acid]
6. Sulphur can from two important oxides, sulphur dioxide, SO2,
and sulphur trioxide, SO3. Sulphur burns in air to form sulphur
dioxide.
When sulphur burn in air : S (s) + O2 (g)  SO2 (g)
(a) Sulphur dioxide is a pungent, colourless and toxic gas. Being a
non-metallic gas, sulphur dioxide dissolves in water to form
sulphurous acid.When sulphur dioxide dissolve in water :
SO2 (g) + H2O (l)  H2SO3 (aq)
(b) In excess oxygen, sulphur dioxide will slowly be oxidised to
sulphur trioxide. The reaction can be enhanced with the presence
of a catalyst like platinum or vanadium (V) oxide. When sulphur
burn in excess air : 2 SO2 (g) + O2 (g)  2 SO3 (g)

This process in important in Contact Process in industries as
sulphuric acid is made in such way. When sulphur trioxide
dissolves in water to form sulphuric acid.

When sulphur trioxide dissolve in water :

SO3 (g) + H2O (l)  H2SO4 (aq)

7. Chlorine does not react with oxygen gas under any condition.
(a) The oxide of chlorine, Cl2O, is a yellow gas made up by passing
dry chlorine gas over fresh precipitated mercury (II) oxide at
400oC.
Equation : 2 HgO (s) + 2 Cl2 (g)  HgO • HgCl2 (s) + Cl2O (g)
(b) another oxide of chlorine, Cl2O7, is prepared by adding chloric
(VII) acid to phosphorous (V) oxide (act as dehydrating agent)
cooled in ice salt. The chlorine (VII) oxide can be distilled off
from the mixture
Equation : 2 HClO4 (aq)  Cl2O7 (l) + H2O (l)
 Melting Oxida Ionic/
Oxide Acidic /
Element Reaction equation with oxygen point -tion covalent
formula o basic oxide
( C) state bond

Na Na2O 4 Na + O2  2 Na2O 1275 +1 ionic basic

Mg MgO 2 Mg + O2  2 MgO 2852 +2 ionic basic

ampho
Al Al2O3 4 Al + 3 O2  2 Al2O3 2072 +3 ionic
teric
Si SiO2 Si + O2  SiO2 1610 +4 covalent acidic

P4O6 P4 + 3 O2  P4O6 24 +3 covalent acidic

P
P4O10 P4 + 5 O2  P4O10 580 +5 covalent acidic

SO2 S + O2  SO2 -73 +4 covalent acidic

S
SO3 2 SO2 + O2  2 SO3 17 +6 covalent acidic
2 HgO (s) + 2 Cl2 (g) 
Cl2O -20 +1 covalent acidic
HgO • HgCl2 (s) + Cl2O (g)
Cl
2 HClO4 (aq) 
Cl2O7 45 +7 covalent acidic
Cl2O7 (l) + H2O (l)
1.3.1 The melting point trend of Period 3 oxides.
1. Sodium oxide, magnesium oxide and aluminium oxide are ionic
oxide. So, when it is concerning ionic substance, the strength of
ionic bonding is measured by lattice energy.
2. Lattice energy is the energy liberated when gaseous cation is
reacting with a gaseous anion to form one mole of crystalline
salt. A+ (g) + B- (g)  AB (s)
3. In lattice energy, the strength is measured by the following
relationship, where
Q+. Q−
Lattice energy α +
r + r−
4. So, higher the lattice energy, the more stable the ionic compound
formed, the more the energy required to break the strong
electrostatic forces between the 2 opposite charged ion.
5. Since sodium oxide is expected to have lower lattice energy
compare to magnesium oxide, so it is natural that the melting
point of sodium oxide is lower than magnesium oxide.
4. When it comes to aluminium oxide and magnesium oxide,
supposedly aluminium oxide’s lattice energy is higher than
magnesium oxide (since aluminium has a smaller radius and
higher charge compare to magnesium) but magnesium oxide has
a much higher melting point compare to aluminium oxide. This is
due to the charge density of aluminium is so high that it has a
high covalency properties which greatly reduce the ionic strength
of the aluminium oxide. The oxide ion is highly polarised by
aluminium and retarding the electrostatic forces between the 2
ions.
5. For silicon oxide, SiO2, it has a gigantic molecular structure. The
covalent bond between silicon and oxygen are strong thus
requiring a high energy to break the strong covalent bond. That’s
why the melting point of silicon oxide is high.
6. As for phosphorous oxide, sulphur oxide, chlorine oxide, they are
held by weak Van Der Waal forces. The weak Van Der Waals
forces increased as the molecular mass increase, so the trend of
the non-metal oxide is as follow
SO2 < Cl2O < SO3 < P4O6 < Cl2O7 < P4O10
MELTING POINT against Period 3 oxide
MgO
Al2O3

SiO2
Na2O

P4O10

Cl2O7

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl

SO3
1.3.0 Reaction of Period 3 element with water

Acidic / basic
Element Equation of reaction with water
properties of solution

Na 2 Na + 2 H2O  2 NaOH + H2 basic

Mg Mg + 2 H2O  Mg(OH)2 + H2 basic

Al

Si
Does not react with water --
P

Cl Cl2 + H2O  HClO + HCl acidic

1. Alkali metal such as sodium and potassium are very
electropositive metal. It reacts vigorously with water to form
basic hydroxide solution and releases hydrogen gas. The
reactivity increases when goes down to Group 1.
Reaction of sodium with water :
2 Na (s) + 2 H2O (l)  2 NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
2. Since Group 2 metal (earth alkali metal) is less reactive than
alkali metal (Group 1), so a certain condition must be obeyed in
order for Group 2 to react. For magnesium, it reacted slowly
with steam to form magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas
Reaction of magnesium with steam :
Mg (s) + 2 H2O (g)  Mg(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
3 Aluminium is a Group 13 element. In nature, its principal ore is
bauxite, Al2O3.2H2O. As we move across the Periodic Table from
left to right in a given period, there is a gradual decrease in
metallic properties. So, although aluminium is regarded as
reactive metal, it is not as reactive as sodium or
magnesium. It does not react with water because it has a
protective layer (oxide) on its surface
4. Silicon, phosphorous and sulphur does not react with water
under any condition. So nothing will be produced.
5. Chlorine, a halogen, is a reactive non-metal. The
magnitudes of reactivity and toxicity decrease down the
group from fluorine to iodine. Halogen dissolves partially in
water to form acids. Chlorine is used to purify water
and disinfect swimming pools. When chlorine dissolves
in water,it disproportionate to form hydrochloric acid,
HCl, and hypochlorous acid, HC1O, are formed. It is the
ClO- ions that kill the bacteria in the water.
Reaction of chlorine in water :
Cl (g) + H2O (1)  HCl (aq) + HOCl (aq)
2.1 Physical properties of Group 2

Group 2 are also known as alkali earth metal. The
elements of Group 2 and some basic physical properties are
described as below
Proton Atomic Melting 1st ionisation
Name , symbol
number radius/ nm point (oC) energy (kJ/mol)
Beryllium, Be 4 0.110 1287 900

Magnesium, Mg 12 0.160 650 738

Calcium, Ca 20 0.197 842 590

Strontium, Sr 38 0.215 777 550

Barium, Ba 56 0.218 727 503

2.Atomic radius

Atomic radius depend on 2 factors

– Nuclear charge – Screening effect

When going down to Group 2, both screening
effect and nuclear charge increase. However, the
increase in screening effect is greater as more
shell is used to filling in the electrons. This will
cause the effective nuclear charge to decrease
causing the outermost electron to be further
away from the nucleus. Hence atomic radius
increase.
3.Melting point

The melting point of the Group 2 generally
decrease when goes down to group.

As goes down to Group 2 the metallic bonding
become weaker as the delocalised electrons
became further than nucleus. The only thing is
that, magnesium, which had a melting point
lower than expected. This is one of the anomaly
of Group 2 as magnesium has a diagonal
relationship with lithium. So the metallic
behavior of magnesium will be more or less
similar to that of lithium.
4.Ionisation Energy.
decrease when goes down to

The 1st ionisation energy .................
Group 2.

Atomic size when goes down to Group 2 which contribute
the decrease in ionisation energy. Furthermore, with the
increase in atomic size, the number of shell also increase
thus causing the screening effect to increasae. This may
decrease the effective nuclear charge as the distance
between the electron and the nucleus is getting further.

The third ionisation energy of Group 2 elements are
extremely high, which suggested that the 3rd electron the
withdrawn from an inner shell. Thus Group 2 elements
only goes through 2nd ionisation energy and form a stable
M2+.

First Ionisation energy : M (g)  M+ (g) + e-

Second Ionisation energy : M+ (g)  M2+ (g) + e-
 Element Be Mg Ca Sr Ba

1st ionisation energy

900 740 590 550 500
(kJ/mol)

2nd ionisation energy

2700 2190 1740 1610 1470
(kJ/mol)
2.2 Chemical Properties of Group 2 elements.
1.When goes down to Group 2, the ionisation energy
decrease. Meaning that, it is easier to remove 2 electrons.
In the angle of electrochemistry, when goes don to Group 2,
the reducing ability increased, meaning when goes down to
Group 2, it increase as a reducing agent

Element Be Mg Ca Sr Ba

Eo / V - 1.85 -2.37 -2.87 -2.89 - 2.90

2.Reaction of Group 2 elements in water.

All Group 2 react with water to from a basic hydroxide
solution with hydrogen gas liberated
Condition of Rate of
Element Reaction equation Ksp (mol3 dm-9) Solubility
water reaction

Be Hot steam Be + 2 H2O  Be(OH)2 + H2 6.92 x 10-22

I I
Mg Hot steam Mg + 2 H2O  Mg(OH)2 + H2 N 5.61 x 10-12 N
C C
Water at room
R R
Ca Ca + 2 H2O  Ca(OH)2 + H2 E 5.50 x 10-6 E
temperature
A A
S S
Sr Cold water Sr + 2 H2O  Sr(OH)2 + H2 7.24 x 10-6
E E

Ba Cold water Ba + 2 H2O  Ba(OH)2 + H2 2.54 x 10-4


As the ionisation energy decrease when goes down to
group, it indicates the 2 electrons of Group 2 elements are
easier to release, thus more reactive
Reaction of metal oxide
Element Reaction with oxygen Reactivity Reactivity
with water

Be 2 Be + O2  2 BeO BeO + H2O  Be(OH)2

I I
Mg 2 Mg + O2  2 MgO N MgO + H2O  Mg(OH)2 N
C C
R R
Ca 2 Ca + O2  2 CaO E CaO + H2O  Ca(OH)2 E
A A
Sr 2 Sr + O2  2 SrO S SrO + H2O  Sr(OH)2 S
E E

Ba 2 Ba + O2  2 BaO BaO + H2O  Ba(OH)2

2.3 Thermal Decomposition of Nitrates and Carbonates

Group 2 carbonate Group 2 Nitrate

Element
Decomposition
Formula Stability Formula Stability
temperature

Be BeCO3 1590C Be(NO3)2

I I
N N
Mg MgCO3 3500C Mg(NO3)2
C C
R R
Ca CaCO3 8320C E Ca(NO3)2 E
A A
Sr SrCO3 13400C S Sr(NO3)2 S
E E

Ba BaCO3 14500C Ba(NO3)2

1. All nitrates of the Group 2 elements are decomposed by
heat to form metal oxides, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen
gases.
2 M(NO3)2 (s)  2 MO (s) + 4 NO2 (g) + O2 (g)
2. All carbonates of the alkaline-earth metals also
decompose on heating, producing metal oxides and
releasing carbon dioxide gas.
MCO3 (s)  MO (s) + CO2 (g)
3. The thermal stabilities of Group 2 nitrates and
carbonates increase down the group from beryllium to
barium. This means that the temperature needed to
decompose the nitrates and carbonates increases down the
group.
4. (a) Magnesium nitrate and magnesium carbonate decompose
easily at low temperatures.
(b) This shows that the metal oxide is more stable than the
nitrate and carbonate. This can be explained by the fact that the
size of the oxide ion, O2-, is smaller than that of the nitrate, NO3-
, and carbonate, CO32- ions. As such, the oxide ion can approach
closer to the Mg2+ cation forming a shorter and stronger bond.
– 2–
2+ O 2+ O
Mg Mg
N C
O O O O
2

Besides, magnesium ion has a high charge density ratio
giving the ion a high polarisation power To polarise the
electron clouds of the nitrate and carbonate ions. The
electron clouds of the NO3- ion and CO32- ion are easily
distorted, rendering the nitrogen-oxygen bonds in the NO3-
ions and the carbon-oxygen bonds in the CO32- ions are
weak and easily broken. The smaller O2- ions are left
attached to the magnesium ions.
Dissociation of magnesium nitrate :
2 Mg(NO3)2 (s)  2 MgO (s) + 4 NO2 (g) + O2 (g)
Dissociation of magnesium carbonate
MgCO3 (s)  MgO (s) + CO2 (g)
5.Barium nitrate and barium carbonate appear to be more
stable than that of it's counterparts of the magnesium. A
higher temperature is needed to decompose the salts. This
is because the large size of the barium ion lowers the
charge density ratio of the ion. The polarity of the ion
depends directly on this ratio. A lower charge density ratio
means the cation is less polarising. When barium ion
approaches radius anion like NO3- ion and CO32- ion, the
electron clouds of the anions will not be as distorted as
when bonded with the magnesium ion. The bonds between
Ba-NO3 and Ba-CO3 are more ionic and are much stronger
than that of Ba-O.
1.8 Solubility of the Group 2 Sulphate
1. The solubility solubility of an ionic compound depends mainly on two
factors:
a. lattice energy b. hydration energy
2. Heat of hydration is defined as the energy released when one
mole of gaseous ions is hydrated by water molecules to form
an infinite dilute solution under standard condition.
For cation : M+ (g) + water  M+ (aq) ∆Hhyd = – ve kJ/mol
For anion : X- (g) + water  X- (aq) ∆Hhyd = – ve kJ/mol

Hydration energy is always exothermic since it involves the
attraction of ions in the solute for water molecules. Similar to
lattice energy, its magnitude depends on :

Charge of the ion – higher the charge, the greater the heat of
hydration. This is due to more heat energy is released as stronger
bond are formed between the ion and molecules

Size of the ion – the smaller the ion, the greater the heat of
hydration ; the more heat released
 Ion Be2+ Mg2+ Ca2+ Sr2+ Ba2+

Charge density 64.5 30.8 20.2 17.7 14.8

∆Hhyd (kJ / mol) –2486 –1925 –1577 –1446 –1308

3 The lattice energy of a crystalline substance refers to the amount of

energy released when one mole of the ionic substance is produced
from its ions in the gaseous state.
M+ (g) + X- (g)  MX (s) ∆H = Lattice energy = – ve kJ/mol

In a lattice that consists of cations and anions with charges Z+ and Z–
between ionic distance (r+ + r–), the lattice energy can be expressed
using the relation below. + −
Q .Q
Lattice energy α
r+ + r−

So, higher the lattice energy (more negative or more exothermic), the
more stable the ionic compound formed, the more the energy required
to break the strong electrostatic forces between the 2 opposite charged
ions.
4. All sulphates of Group 2 elements are white crystalline
and non-deliquescent solids. The solubility of these sulphates
decrease down the group. Magnesium sulphate is soluble in
water, calcium sulphate is slightly soluble and barium
sulphate is insoluble.
5. This can be explained using the standard enthalpy of
solution, ∆Hsoln, where it is defined as the heat absorbed or
released when one mole of crystal lattice is dissolved
in water to form ionic aqueous solution under
standard condition.
MX (s)  M+ (aq) + X- (aq) ∆Hsoln = + / – kJ / mol

If the ∆Hsoln, is positive, the salt will be insoluble in water &
if ∆Hsoln, is negative, it is soluble in water
6. Using Hess Law, the relationship between ∆Hsoln, ∆Hhyd, and
LE can be explained using the chart below

M X (s) ∆  
H solution
→ M+ (aq) + X- (aq)

negative
∆  →
H Lattice energy M+ (g) + X- (g) ∆ →
Hhydration

7. A salt is soluble in water if its ∆Hsolution is negative or

exothermic. This happens when the salt has a high hydration
energy and a low lattice energy. The more negative the enthalpy
of solution, the more soluble will be the salt.
8. (a) The solubility of the sulphates decreases down Group 2 because the
hydration energies of the ions decrease more rapidly than the lattice
energies with increasing ionic size in the order Mg2+<Ca2+< Sr2+< Ba2+
(b) The lattice energies of the Group 2 sulphates decrease relatively
slower because the magnitude depends on (r+ + r –). The anion radius (r–)
for sulphate ion, SO42–, is too big compare to the cation radius (r+).
(c) As a results, the overall (r+ + r –). does not show any signifcant
increase down the group. The lattice energy does not decrease very much
from magnesium sulphate to barium sulphate.
9. On the other hand, the small size of the magnesium ion plus its
high charge result in a lot of heat being released as hydration energy.
This hydration energy decreases rapidly down the group from
magnesium ion to barium ion because there is a significant increase in
the size of the cations down the group. The resulting enthalpy of solution
for barium sulphate becomes less negative compared to that of
magnesium sulphate. Consequently, the solubility decreases down the
group in the order:
BeSO4 > MgSO4 > CaSO4 > SrSO4 > BaSO4
 Group 2 sulphate Be SO4 Mg SO4 Ca SO4 Sr SO4 Ba SO4

∆Hsolution (kJ / mol) -95.3 -91.2 + 17.8 + 18.70 +19.4

Solubility
41.0 36.4 0.21 0.010 0.00025
(g / 100mL)

∆Hhydration

∆Hlattice energy

BeSO4 Mg SO4 CaSO4 Sr SO4 BaSO4