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“Design an intervention that will (hopefully) improve the subjective experience of a group
1
Positive Psychology – Intervention Study
For many years, psychologists have studied the personal attributes and cognitive abilities of
individuals that enable them to thrive in various contexts and to achieve numerous successful life
outcomes in terms of their education, vocation, personal relationships, happiness, physical and
mental health, increased extraversion, agreeableness and emotional stability (Cherniss, Extein,
Goleman & Weissberg, 2006; Schutte, Malouff & Thornsteinsson, 2013; Petrides, 2017; Zeidner
& Matthews, 2017). The researcher will first examine the historical roots of the relatively new
psychological construct and theory: Emotional Intelligence (EI), which emphasises the
functioning and wellbeing throughout life. The researcher will go on to examine the current
research evidence which supports the existence and validity of EI and also discuss criticisms of
EI. Finally, the researcher will discuss the rationale for the proposed EI intervention, and the
final section will outline the intervention’s details and discuss its shortcomings and overall
effectiveness.
Petrides (2017) suggests that even before psychologists began to study intelligence, Darwin had
emphasised the importance of emotions for survival and the adaptive functioning of both humans
and animals (for example, to signal important information to other members of the social group,
and to motivate activity). In the first part of the twentieth century, Thorndike (1920, as cited in
Petrides, 2017) wrote about “social intelligence”, and Weschler (1943, as cited in Petrides, 2017)
wrote that definitions of general intelligence should be expanded to include “affective” and
Positive Psychology – Intervention Study
“conative abilities” because of the role they play in guiding intelligent behaviour (Petrides,
2017). When psychologists first began to measure intelligence, they also recognised that
traditional conceptions of intelligence were too constrained as they were not predictive of many
life outcomes, and that these needed to encompass more than just cognitive abilities.
Psychologists have also identified that certain personal attributes involving perception,
expression and emotion management, such as empathy (to understand another's feelings and take
their perspective), tend to facilitate effectiveness in a variety of different contexts, and identified
that empathy, along with other emotional "competencies" (such as social skills), contributes to
success in life (Petrides, 2017). One of these sets of constructs is EI. Originating from research
by Salovey and Mayer (1990) and garnering widespread appeal as a result of Goleman’s (1995)
book (“Emotional Intelligence: Why it may matter more than IQ”), EI theory emphasises the
roles of intrapersonal and interpersonal skills, and is widely considered to relate “to measurable
Proponents of EI recognise that it has two major components that refer to an individual's
emotional awareness and how effectively they manage their emotions and those of others,
although there are many social and emotional "competencies" that are thought to comprise these
core abilities (Cherniss et al., 2006). Previous research has investigated the link between EI,
personality and IQ, and indicate that EI is a construct that is distinct from both personality traits
and cognitive ability. However, its critics have dismissed the idea of EI, arguing that it involves
many conflicting constructs and that it must, therefore, be invalid (Waterhouse, 2006, as cited in
Cherniss et al., 2006). Although there was greater criticism of the EI construct during the first
Positive Psychology – Intervention Study
decade or so after its inception, and before the multitude of EI studies provided a body of
empirical evidence in support of its validity, in recent years, a few studies have produced
contrary findings with results that suggest there is no significant relationship between EI and
certain positive life outcomes, such as academic achievement (e.g. Kashani, Azimi & Vaziri,
2012). Recent meta-analyses of EI studies by Hodzic et al. (2018) also suggest that there is a
substantial publication bias in favour of the publication of studies which support the validity of
EI construct.
Models of EI
There are several major models of EI, among which there is considerable overlap owing to their
similarities; however, all of the models agree that EI has two main components involving
emotion management and awareness (Cherniss et al., 2006). The most common theoretical
approaches are the ability model and the trait model of EI. Ability EI is typically assessed using
performance criteria involving the identification of different emotional expressions, whereas trait
observer to state what he or she usually does and how he or she manages his or her emotions in
everyday life. Salovey & Mayer’s (1990) ability model is composed of specific emotional
abilities that are related in a hierarchical way and distinguish between (a) accurate perception of
emotions, (b) awareness of emotions and the capacity to induce emotions to facilitate thinking,
(c) understanding one's own emotions and those of others, and (d) emotional management and
regulation (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Ability EI refers to an individual's emotional capabilities;
however, whether he or she behaves in emotionally adaptive ways depends upon his or her
motivation and the demands of individual situations (Schutte et al. 2013). Trait (or "emotional
competencies in his or her everyday life (Schutte et al. 2013), as well as various personal
dispositions such as impulsivity and empathy (Petrides, Frederickson & Furnham, 2004).
Some researchers view ability and trait EI as different constructs, and studies have found that the
relationship between the two is only moderate (Petrides, 2017). Zeidner and Matthews (2017)
suggest that different conceptualisations of EI dictate the competencies targeted and would lead
intervention based on the ability model of EI might attempt to enhance emotional awareness,
differentiation and monitoring, emotional expression and utilisation, and emotional regulation.
On the other hand, if the trait model of EI is used, the intervention might "focus on broad traits
perception, emotion expression, trait empathy, relationship) and sociability (social awareness,
emotion management, assertiveness)” (Zeidner & Matthews, 2017, p.172). As research indicates
that higher EI is associated with adaptive emotional functioning and a variety of positive life
outcomes, researchers and practitioners in many different fields (such as mental health,
programmes and interventions over the last twenty years that aim to increase EI. The findings of
recent meta-analyses provide evidence of the effectiveness of such interventions, and also
increase confidence in the validity of EI (Schutte et al., 2013; Hodzic et al., 2018).
Castillo et al. (2013) conducted an EI (social, emotional learning (SEL)) intervention (based on
the ability model of EI) over a two-year period with 590 Spanish adolescents aged 11 to 17. The
intervention was comprised of twenty-four, hour-long sessions, which required the adolescents to
engage in emotion-focused and reflective activities such as games, role-playing, art and film
Positive Psychology – Intervention Study
discussion groups. After the intervention, they found that aggression had significantly reduced,
and the researchers reasoned that by encouraging alternative strategies to manage the thoughts
and physical sensations that accompany aggressive behaviour, the intervention had moderated
many of the adolescents’ aggressive tendencies, and also provided skills to help them resolve
difficult situations more peacefully and effectively. Castillo et al. also found that empathic
abilities had also significantly increased, especially amongst males, whose fantasy scores
(associated with social dysfunction) had decreased, as had their personal distress (negatively
associated with pro-social behaviour) scores, whereas empathic concern had increased. As there
have been many studies of the effectiveness of EI interventions, the proposed intervention will
also focus on fostering EI in adolescents, as this has the potential to produce positive life
outcomes for individuals from an early age and is likely to have long-term, positive implications
We have adapted the proposed intervention from two such programmes by Castillo et al. (2013)
and Gilar-Corbi, Pozo-Rico, Sanchez & Castejon (2018), and also use the “Intrapersonal
Emotion Regulation Questionnaire” (IERQ) developed by Hofman, Carpenter & Curtiss (2016),
for one of its activities. As previously described, Castillo et al. conducted an intervention using
both ability and trait models of EI. However, Zeidner and Matthews (2017) propose that EI
interventions should be based on a well-defined model and theory of EI, and, therefore, based on
the effectiveness of previous interventions such as Castillo et al.'s, and because interventions
Positive Psychology – Intervention Study
using ability models have had significantly better outcomes than trait or mixed models (Hodzic
et al., 2018), the proposed intervention will be based on the ability model of EI.
Participants
Unlike Castillo et al.'s intervention (whose participants were aged between 11 and 17), the
measure of the effects of EI, which will be taken one year after the final session has been
completed in order to ensure that the oldest participants would still be in high school. There will
be 24, one-hour sessions over the course of two years, during school hours.
As in Gilar-Corbi et al.'s (2013) intervention, participants’ EI levels will be measured one week
before the first training session and one week after the intervention, and then again a year later to
measure the extent to which participants' EI capacities have endured over time. The instruments
the researcher will use to measure EI are the “Situational Test of Emotional Understanding”
(STEU), and the “Situational Test of Emotion Management” (STEM), both designed by
MacGann & Roberts (2008). While these questionnaires are intended for adults, they could
arguably also be used for younger adolescents, although several of the situations will be adapted
to make them more comparable to the everyday experiences of adolescents. The items in both
questionnaires describe everyday situations and ask respondents to choose from four responses,
one of which represents the ideal response. As in Gilar-Corbi et al.'s intervention, we will reduce
the number of questions we ask (25 STEU items and 20 STEM items) in order to minimise
The following is a STEM item that we have adapted for our adolescent participants (the ideal
answer is in brackets):
“Andrew tries to help Tracey (a classmate he doesn’t know that well) with a math’s problem. Tracey says
that his answers are not very good and are probably wrong. Andrew tells Tracey that she should be
grateful he is trying to help her. They have an argument. What would be the best thing that Andrew could
do in this situation?
(a) Say sorry to Tracey, (b) Don’t help Tracey again, (c) Try harder to help Tracey, [(d) Ask for
“There is great weather on the day Jill is going on an outdoor picnic. Jill is most likely to feel...?
(a) pride, [(b) joy], (c) relief (d) guilt (e) hope” (Macgann & Roberts, 2008).
Examples of EI activities
The proposed intervention's classroom EI activities are loosely based on those used in Castillo et
al.'s (2013) intervention, and each type of activity is intended to enhance one of the four types of
emotional abilities specified by Salovey and Mayer (1990). Below are some examples of
Students will be played short (silent) clips of actors expressing different emotions in imaginary
scenarios and must then write down their thoughts. The students then work in small groups to
Positive Psychology – Intervention Study
identify the emotions portrayed. Once the researcher has revealed what the real emotions and
scenarios portrayed in the clips were, participants are asked to discuss how appropriate the
actors’ responses were for the scenarios, and whether they could think of better ways in which to
respond.
(b) Learning about the function of emotions and how to use them effectively.
Working in small groups, students examine works of abstract art. They are asked to discuss the
specific emotions induced within themselves by the art, and how and why emotions can be
useful. Next, the students are shown video clips of people in different professions (e.g. the
Police) effectively resolving conflicts, then they engage in role-plays with similar hypothetical
scenarios and discuss why particular emotions are more useful for resolving conflict than others.
Students are asked to write a short story or play based on a particular emotion, creating a back
story that explains why their characters feel particular emotions and behave the way they do.
Students are then asked to evaluate how the characters’ emotions affected the outcomes of their
stories. In small groups, students are then invited to discuss any similar emotional experiences
they may have had and the consequences of their responses, and if or how they might respond
To make participants aware of their emotional regulation (ER) strategies, they will be asked to
complete the IERQ (which contains 20 items). Respondents are asked to give ratings between 1
and 5, to indicate how typical it is of them to use a particular strategy (5 indicating the most
typical). Afterwards, they will grade and analyse their answers in groups, and discuss the
importance of such strategies, before engaging in role-plays which focus on how to use ideal ER
The intervention’s effectiveness will be measured by the differences between students’ pre and
post-intervention scores, and the differences between post-intervention scores and students’
scores a year later will be the gauge of how well the effects of the EI intervention have endured
over time. In order to address any potential shortcomings, session content and activities will be
pitched to students' age levels, and both a teacher and a researcher will be present during sessions
so that more personal attention and time can be given to individual participants. Both teacher and
researcher will ensure that participants fully understand all of the activities and that they engage
in them appropriately, and will encourage a supportive classroom atmosphere. If the proposed
intervention were to be effective, previous studies have shown that it would improve emotional,
adaptive functioning in adolescents, and improve outcomes in an array of areas in their lives (e.g.
academic, personal relationships, physical and mental health). The intervention has the potential
to encourage their optimal emotional functioning across their lifespans, and it could be applied in
a range of settings (such as clinical and occupational) to a range of age groups in the future.
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Positive Psychology – Intervention Study
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