Choudhury 1996

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Extrusion Processing of Fish Muscle

a b
Gour S. Choudhury PhD & Binoy K. Gogoi PhD
a
Assistant Professor of Seafood Engineering, Fishery Industrial
Technology Center, School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences,
University of Alaska Fairbanks
b
Post-Doctoral Fellow in Seafood Engineering, Fishery
Industrial Technology Center, School of Fisheries and Ocean
Sciences, University of Alaska Fairbanks
Published online: 11 Oct 2010.
To cite this article: Gour S. Choudhury PhD & Binoy K. Gogoi PhD (1996): Extrusion Processing of
Fish Muscle, Journal of Aquatic Food Product Technology, 4:4, 37-67
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REVIEW
Extrusion Processing of Fish Muscle:

A Review
Gour S. Choudhury
Binoy K. Gogoi
ABSTRACT. Extrusion processing is widely used in the food indus-

try for restructuring starchy and proteinaceous ingredients. A variety
of extruded food products are produced by manipulation of composi-
tion and process variables. In Ihe seafood industy 30-80% of Ihe
fish catch, depending on species, is not utilized for human consump-
tion. Exlrusion technology provides a method to utilize fish muscle
recovered from by-products, by-catch and other underutilized fish.
The application of this technology to process fish muscle has been
demonstrated. However, a systematic study of the physicochemical
changes occurring in food material during extrusion and the inter-
relationship between process variables, reaction kinetics, and rheolo-
gy of fish muscle proteins needs lo be undertaken before the full
potential of the technology can be realized. [Article copies available
/rom The Haworth Docwne~rtDelivey Service: 1-800-342-9678].
Gour S. Choudhury, PhD,is Assistant Professor of Seafood Engineering, and

Binoy K. Gogoi, PN),is a post-doctoral fellow in Seafood Engineering, Fishery
Industrial Technology Center, School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, Universi-
ty of Alaska Fairbanks, 900 Trident Way, Kodiak, AK 99615.
Correspondence should be sent to Dr. Choudhury.
Extrusion research in the Fishery Industrial Technology Center is supported by
grants from Alaska Science and Technology Foundation and Sea Grant.
Journal of Aquatic Food Product Technology, Vol. 4(4) 1995
O 1995 by The Hawonh Press, Inc. All rights reserved. 37
38 JOURNAL OF AQUATIC FOOD PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
The world's fish catch has steadily increased over the last forty years
from 21 million metric tons in 1950 to 97 million metric tons in 1990
(NMFS,1985, 1993). A significant portion of the fishery resource is not
utilized for human consumption due to non-availability of technology to
transform the material into stable and acceptable products. Fish consump-
tion could be more than doubled if unused resources were brought into the
human food chain (Grantham, 1981). Technological developments in the

processing of fish have not seen much growth compared to other sectors of
the food industry. Although the commercial fish catch in the U.S. has
increased to 6 million metric tons, 30-80% of the fish catch, depending
upon species, is discarded as processing by-products. For example, sea-
food processors producing pollock fillets utilize only 30% of the harvest
(Babbitt, 1990). The situation is even worse for companies manufacturing
surimi, where only 18% of the harvest is utilized for human consumption
and the remainder is discarded as processing by-products or waste (Lee,
1986). A billion pounds of protein are thrown into the ocean annually by
Alaska's fishing and processing industries (Goldhor, 1990). The by-prod-
ucts stream from filleting, canning and surimi operations is made up of
trimmings, belly flaps, heads, frames, fins, skin and viscera. A small
fraction of this by-product is converted to fish meal and the remainder is
milled and dumped into nearby marine waters. This pollutes the receiving
waters and is a loss of valuable proteins. In addition to by-products,
by-catch fish and underutilized species, which are either too small or havd
unacceptable textural properties, represent another source of raw material
that is not currently used.
Raw materials in the food industry may account for up to 65-75% of
finished product cost, which makes efficient raw material utilization an
economic necessity. The seafood industry must develop innovative
technologies to enhance raw material utilization. Recovery of minced fish
from fillet by-products containing edible muscle (belly flaps, trimmings,
frame), by-catch and other underutilized fish provide an avenue to aug-
ment utilization of harvested catch. Although minced fish is highly nutri-
tional, it lacks textural attributes and, therefore, has poor marketability.
Development of technology that will use minced fish as a high protein
ingredient provides an efficient tool to maximize utilization of fishery
resources. The challenge is to combine nutrition with desirable sensory
attributes. Foods without acceptable appearance, flavor and texture will
not be successful, regardless of nutritional quality. The ability of food
exlruders to fabricate products with desirable sensory and nutritional at-
tributes can be exploited to utilize fish mince (Choudhury et al., 1994).
Cl~orrdlr~rty
arld Gogoi 39
Our research on fish muscle extrusion has shown that a snack food with
superior expansion (expansion ratio = 16.6) characteristics can be pro-
duced, protease in fish muscle can be completely inhibited, and fibrous
structure can be developed in fish muscle extrudates. Extrusion processing
has found widespread application in the food industry for restructuring or
texturing proteins and has the potential for increasing utilization of un-
tapped fishery resources.
An overview of extrusion processing is presented in the following
section. Due to the lack of literature on the effect of process parameters on
physicochemical changes during extrusion of fish muscle, examples are

also drawn from other food polymers such as plant proteins. It is presumed
that similar types of protein reactions (denaturation, cross-linking, etc.)
would take place in both cases. The review on fish muscle extrusion is
presented in the subsequent section.
EXTRUSION PROCESSING: AN OVERVIEW

Extrusion processing involves forcing moistened proteinaceous and/or
starchy food materials to flow under a variety of process conditions in a
food extruder and finally through a specially designed die opening at a
predetermined rate (Harper, 1981). A food extruder is basically a screw
pump consisting of flighted screws that rotate in a tightly fitting stationary
barrel and works as a scraped surface heat exchanger. Food extruders are
of two types: those with a single-screw, and twin-screw. In twin screw
extruders the two screws lie side by side and are of equal length. Win-
screw extruders are further classified based on rotation (co- and counter-
rotating) and extent of intermeshing (fully, partially, and non-intermesh-
ing). Single and twin-screw extruders are described in detail by Harper
(1981) and Martelli (1983). The segmented screw design, self-wiping
nature of the screws, and improved mixing, kneading and conveying capa-
bilities of co-rotating twin-screw extruders make them more suitable for
restructuring fish muscle. The application of single screw extruders is
limited to feeds containing fish muscle with low to moderate moisture
content.
While passing through the extruder, feed materials are subjected to a
number of unit operations: mixing, shearing, heating, cooking, texturizing,
shaping and puffing. Cooking is accomplished by the combined effect of
external heat and mechanical energy input to Ule material. Extrusion pro-
cessing is a high-temperature, short-time process, and this capability has
been beneficially used to inactivate enzymes, destroy antinutritional fac-
tors, kill microorganisms and improve digestibility (Mustakas et al., 1964,
1970). The physicochemical changes that occur in food during extrusion

processing are gelatinization of starch, denaturation of proteins, and alter-
ation of food texture. Extrusion processing is widely used in the food
industry for production of a variety of fabricated, cooked and shaped
products of varying texture (Hauck, 1980). The process is energy efficient,
ha$ low production cost, handles a variety of raw ingredients and proces-
sing conditions, offers better ingredient utilization with no or very little
effluent, and is more versatile than other thermal processing methods
(Harper 1990).
Process VariablesDuring Extrusion Processing
Literature on the effects of composition and process variables on char-
acteristics of animal protein extrudate is rather sparse. Much of the extru-
sion research has been carried out on plant proteins to determine the
effects of temperature, pH, feed composition, especially moisture and
~roteincontent. screw meed and extruder lennthldiameter (LID)ratio on
iexture, bulk density, sohbility, water absorption capacity, rehyd;ation and
microstructure of extrudates. Few studies on the effects of composition
and process variables on fish muscle extrudates are available. T'he effects
of feed composition on characteristics of fish muscle extrudates were
studied by Murray and Stanley (1980), Yu et al. (1981), Bhattacharya et al.
(1988,1990), Clayton and Miscourdes (1992), Choudhury and Bhaltachar-
ya (1994), and Choudhury (1994, 1995). In general, product characteris-
tics are affected by moisture and protein content (Kinsella, 1978; Rhee et
al., 1981; Holay and Harper, 1982; Pharn and Del Rosario, 1984; Lawton
et al., 1985; Harper, 1986; Areas, 1992). The influence of moisture con-
centration is largely governed by the temperature and pressure profile,
mixing, shear, residence time distribution, and the demand for moisture by
the reacting species during extrusion. The pH of the proteinmix affects the
dough fluidity in the extruder and influences the product characteristics
such as s h a ~ erehvdration,
, density, and chewiness (Kinsella, 1978).Acid-
ic pH (5-6.j) resuits in dense and ;hewy products that shapeeasily;harden
--
slowlv and show Door rehvdration ~roverties.Products with opposite char-
acterhtics are observed 4 t h alkalihe p~.
Physicochemical and functional changes produced during the extrusion
of proteins have been studied and reviewed by several researchers (Bw-
gess and Stanley, 1976; Jeunink and Cheftel, 1979; Shen and Morr, 1979;
Simonsky and Stanley, 1982; Sheard et al., 1984; Hager, 1984; Aguilera
and Stanley, 1986; Rossi and Peri, 1986; Areas, 1992). During extrusion
both thermal and shear energy along with residence time in the extruder
cause physicochemical changes in the food material (Areas and Lawrie,
Chortdliury otrd Gogoi 41
1984; Bastos and Areas, 1990; Mitchell and Areas, 1991; Guzman et al.,
1991; Choudhury and Bhattacharya, 1993; Bhattacharya and Choudhury,
1994). Therefore, it is important to know what reactions are triggered by
individual effects of thermal and shear energy so as, possibly, to control
the reactions and obtain a product of desired quality. The independent
process variables such as temperature, screw speed and throughput along
with screw configuration and die geometry result in system parameters
such as mechanical and thermal energy input, and residence time (Meuser
et al., 1987). These system parameters, also termed intermediate process

parameters, induce reactions that affect nutritional value, microbial quali-
ty, flavor, color, and texture of the final product. Food texture is primarily
determined by its microstructure, which is dependent upon the influence
of physical forces on chemical components (Stanley, 1986). The combined
effect of shear, heat, and pressure release during extrusion produces Ule
textural response (Aguilera et al., 1976). Greater structural homogeneity
produces more uniform texture (Frazier and Crawshaw, 1984). The review
by Ayilera and Stanley (1986) provides detailed information on molecu-
lar, subcellular, functional, micro- and macrostructural aspects of protein
extrusion. A general scheme on extrusion of fish muscle illustrating ef-
fects of process variables on product quality is shown in Figure 1.
The influence of process variables on product quality is further realized
during scale-up of food extruders, an important aspect of extrusion proces-
sing (Harper, 1978,1981; Meuser et al., 1991; Levine, 1992; Yaku, 1992).
To obtain the same product attributes from two extruders of different size,
the process c o n d i t i k must trigger the same reactions and physicochemi-
cal changes in the food components as the materials move across the
extruder and the die. The main factors affecting reactions and physi-
cochemical changes are shear and thermal history, flow profile and resi-
dence time. Even in the same extruder, reproducibility is sometimes a
problem if the same start up procedures are not followed. During scale-up,
the operating parameters need adjustments even though the extruders have
geometric similarities. The flexibility in mixing, energy inputs to the rnate-
rials, positive pumping ability, adjustment of flow rate, and screw configu-
ration make the control of material transformation and flow characteristics
in twin-screw extruders easier compared to its single screw counterpart.
Therefore, scale-up of twin-screw extrusion processes are more practically
achievable. Extrusion process scale-up is common in the food industry
although it is often difficult to scale-up a laboratory ex,mder to produce
identical products:
4
lu FIGURE 1. A schematic on fish muscle extrusion illustrating effects of process variables on product attributes.
( Screw speed 1
I Feed composition1
Residence Time Mechanical Energy
I Thermal Energy
1 EXTRUSION PROCESSING
OF FISH MUSCLE b
Protein Denaturation Protein-proteininteraction
Fragmentation -PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHANGES- Omer interactions:
Microbial Destruction Lipid-protein.
Enzyme Inactivation Carbohydrate-protein
Nutri~jonalValue Texture Flavor Color Microbial Quality

Choudhury and Gogoi
Mechanical and Thermul Energy During Extrusion

Mechanical energy input to the material is provided by an electric
motor. Part of this mechanical energy provides shear activation energy to
transform the raw material to the product, and the remainder is used to
overcome frictional resistance of the gear assembly and bearings in the
extruder. The specific mechanical energy (SME) can be calculated using
the equation:
(Net torque of motor) . N

SME = (1)
m
where m is the throughput or mass flow rate, and N is the screw speed
(rpm). The net torque is the measured value less the torque needed to
overcome the frictional resistance due to bearings, gear drive and pulley
assembly. This equation assumes that torque does not vary with screw
speed and throughput. However, if the torque varies considerably with
screw speed or throughput, computation of SME will be more complex. In
general, an increase in throughput decreases SME (Antila et al., 1983;
Meuser and Weidmann, 1989) while an increase in screw speed increases
SME (Fletcher et al., 1985a; Ollett et al., 1989; Chang, 1990).
Screw configuration controls the SME input and influences product
properties. An increase in temperature decreases mechanical energy into
the mass (Antila et al., 1983; Meuser and Weidmann, 1989; Chang, 1990;
Meuser et al., 1991), presumably due to a decrease in viscosity of the
material in the extruder. Theoretical computations of SME for both single
screw extruders (Bruin et al., 1978; Levine, 1982) and twin-screw extrud-
ers (Yaku,1985; Kulshreshtha et al., 1991) are available.
Thermal enerm inuut to the material in a food extruder is urovided by
application of heat dhectly by steam injection, or indirectly iyelectrical
resistance heating, flow of hot fluid or steam in jackets around the barrel,
and by viscous dissipation of mechanical energy. At low temperatures,
thermal effects are low as indicated by the Arrhenius rate equation:
where k~ is the thermally induced rate constant. T is the absolute temvera-

ture, ET;S the thermal a h a t i o n energy, R is the gas constant, and kT,O
is
the pre-exponential constant. For example, physicochemical changes due
to thermal effects are negligible for corn starch at barrel temperatures

below 80°C (Wang et al., 1991).
Material temperature indicates the amount of thermal energy received
by a food material in different sections of the barrel. The effect of tempera-
ture on extrudate texture, product expansion, and development of fibrous
structure during fish muscle extrusion was studied by a number of re-
searchers (Murray and Stanley, 1980; Yu et al., 1981; Bhattacharya et al.,
1988, 1990; Quaglia et al., 1989; Aoki et al., 1989; Kitagawa and Nishi,
1989; Isobe et al., 1990; Clayton and Miscourdes, 1992; Choudhury and
Bhattacharya, 1994; Choudhury and Gogoi, 1994). Several studies on the

effect of temperature on texture, rehydration characteristics and water
absorption capacity during single screw extrusion of plant proteins are
also available (Curnrning et al., 1972; Maurice et al., 1976; Aguilera and
Kosikowski, 1976; Maurice and Stanley, 1978; Aguilera et al., 1980;
Pham and Del Rosario, 1984; Lawton et al., 1985).
At low extrusion temperatures and low moisture environment, shear
effects dominate. Under such conditions, shear energy can mechanically
break down molecules and possibly induce denaturation reactions. Many
studies examining concepts governing reactions due to shear energy have
been published for polymeric materials (.Tobolsky and Eyring, 1943;
Goodman and Bestul, 1955; Boldyrev and Avvakumov, 1971; Butyagin,
1971; Basedow et al., 1979; Czichos, 1981; Heinicke, 1984). Chemical
changes were associated with either elastic deformation of electron shells
of the reacting species, or with generation of vibrationally excited states.
Shear induced reactions due to free radicals were also discussed. These
studies can provide clues on the role of shear energy to induce reactions
during extrusion processing of fish muscle.
A recent approach towards understanding the effects of thermal and
shear energy is application of kinetic theory to the food extrusion process.
For example, thekinetics of starch gelatinization in a single screw extrud-
er has been modeled by considering effects of shear stress alone (Davidson
et al., 1984) and by combining shear and thermal effects (Diosady et al.,
1985). Cai and Diosady (1993) used both shear and thermal effects to
model kinetics of starch gelatinization in a twin-screw extruder. Qu (1992)
used process kinetic equations and rheological relations for corn starch in
a onedimensional CSTR-in-series model system to calculate temperature,
pressure, shear stress, and degree of starch conversion along the down
channel direction of a Brabender single screw extruder. The predictions
correlated fairly well with experimental results. This is one of the few
studies which shows the importance of modeling the powdery transition
zone, where substantial conversion takes place. Zheng (1992) studied the
Choudhury and Gogoi 45
kinetics of physicochemical changes in waxy corn starch using a Brabend-

er single screw extruder and developed kinetic equations under extrusion
conditions based on basic laws of chemical kinetics and thermodynamics.
The reaction rate constant due to shear energy was found to be at least ten
times higher than that due to thermal energy. The activation energy due to
shear was two to three orders of magnitude smaller than that by thermal
effects. Thus, shear energy was shown to be extremely efficient, making
extrusion processing unique among various food processes.
Wang et al. (1991) used the energy equivalent concept to show that both
shear and thermal energy are important during extrusion processing. The
conceot was based on the first law of thermodvnamics that different forms
of energy are additive. Since the energies areslso interactive, the authors
suggested that the overall rate constant (k) can be decoupled as follows:
where k~ and k, are thermally and shear induced rate constants respective-
ly. An Arrhenius type of equation was used to relate the shear induced rate
constant (h)to the shear energy (rv) input as follows:
where E, is the shear activation energy, r is shear stress on the material, v is

molar volume, and k,, is the pre-exponential coefficient.
When either k~ or k, is small, equation (3) reduces to:
Assuming zero order kinetics, conversion (C) of starch was expressed as:
where t is reaction time.

Thus the extent of conversion or change in an attribute can be calcu-
lated using equation (6) when the rate constant and the time factor in-
volved are known. Equation (5) has been shown to be applicable to a
single screw extruder as well as a capillary rheometer (Zheng, 1992).
Recently, using a co-rotating twin-screw extruder (Werner & Pfleiderer

ZSK-30), Yam et al. (1994) showed that at low temperatures, shear energy
alone can cause conversion of starch. Subsequently, Gogoi et al. (1995)
showed that the shear induced rate constant shown in equation (4) is
applicable to the twin-screw extrudcr at low extrusion temperature. When
process conditions such as screw speed, moisture content and temperature
were kept constant during twin-screw extrusion of corn meal, manipula-
tion of throughput (mass flow rate) caused a five fold increase in the shear
induced rate constant over a single reverse screw element. A similar in-
crease in the rate constant was also observed by Wu (1994) at the die end
during twin-screw extrusion. In both instances transformation of the mate-
rial took place in less than a 10 cm long zone, which was about 10% of
total screw length of the extruder. These studies clearly indicated that the
reaction rate is not constant throughout the length of the extruder and, by
proper manipulation of process variables such as screw configuration and
die design, it is possible to create a reaction zone at a desired location. An
extremely long barrel may not be a requirement to cause product trans-
formation.
The physicochemical changes occurring during extrusion of a feed mix
containing fish muscle (Figure 1) and the effects of system variables such
as shear stress, viscosity, temperature, and moisture content on kinetics of
these changes should be addressed in future studies. This will help develop
equations that can be used as predictive tools under different process
conditions.
Residence Time in a Food Extruder
In an extruder, residence time is the time spent by food materials from
inlet to exit. Throughput, screw speed, and screw configuration are the
main factors which affect residence time of a feed material during food
extrusion (van Zuilichem et al., 1973; Olkku et al., 1980; Mosso et al.,
1982; Colonna et al., 1983; Lim et al., 1985; Altomare and Ghossi, 1986;
Bounie and Cheftal, 1986; Jager et al., 1989; Kirby et al.. 1988; Altomare
and Anelich, 1988; Lin and Afrnstrong, 1988; Vergnes et al., 1992; Yeh et
al., 1992; Della Valle et al., 1993; Gogoi, 1994; Gogoi and Yam, 1994;
Gogoi et al., 1994; Yam et al., 1994). Temperature and moisture content, in
general, has little effect on residence time (Mosso et al., 1982; Altomare
and Ghossi, 1986; Gogoi and Yam, 1994). The residence time distribution
(RTD), an indicator of the extent of heat and shear experienced by the
material, influences product properties. The spread of RTD is not affected
by screw speed, while an increase in throughput decreases the spread.
Gogoi and Yam (1994) have shown that residence time of a food mate-
rial in a co-rotating twin-screw extruder (Werner & Pfleiderer ZSK-30)

can be related to screw speed and throughput by an equation of the form:
whek i is mean residence time, N and m are screw speed (rpm) and through-
put (mass flow rate) respectively, and a, band c are constants.
This equation indicates that an increase in both screw speed and
throughput decreases mean residence time. Similar observations were re-

ported during twin-screw extrusion in a Creusot Loire BC-45 (Mosso et
al., 1982) and in a Werner & Pfleiderer ZSK-30 (Kao and Allison, 1984).
On the contrary, Tayeb et al. (1991) found that the predicted mean resi-
dence time for maize starch did not change significantly when throughput
was increased from 500 to 917 g/min. Their explanation was based on the
approximate proportionality of residence time to VIQ,where V is filled
volume and Q is volumetric flow rate. Prediction of residence time dis-
tribution has been attempted by Tayeb et al. (1988), Jager et al. (1991), and
Vergnes et al. (1992).
Reactions are facilitated in the filled section, a very short length of an
extruder (Olkku et al., 1980; Colonna et al., 1983; Fletcher el al.. 1985a:
Senouci and Smith, 1986; Kirby et al., 1988) where the reaction rate
constant is high. The effective residence time, defined as the lime spent by
the food materials in the reaction zone(s), is the period during which
significant physicochemical changes take place resulting in material trans-
formation. The effective residence time has been found to be 315 the
average residence time for a Brabender single-screw extruder (Zheng,
1992) and half the average residence time for a twin-screw extruder
(Werner & Pfleiderer ZSK-30) with no mixing elements (Gogoi, 1994).
When several mixing elements were incorporated towards the die end, the
effective residence time was about two thirds of the total residence time.
Changes in the food material can continue beyond the die, specifically
when product temperature at the die is high. Die geometry along with
screw configuration affect the residence time and reactions in a food
material during extrusion. The importance of die geometry and its effect
on reactions further upstream was also illustrated by Gogoi (1994), who
showed that decreasing die hole size increases starch conversion and puff
ratio. Noguchi (1989) observed fewer structural multilayers at the center-
line of the molded products when die slit width was decreased.
Rheology During Food Extrusion
An important component of predictive models is the rheological behav-

ior of the food material as it is transported from inlet to exit. The rheology
of foods, in terms of flow and deformation behavior, is intricately linked to
composition and process variables during extrusion processing. The first
measurement of viscosity of food doughs was by Harper et al. (1971). The
authors developed an empirical viscosity equation for cereal dough with
the assumption that the apparent viscosity (t]) has a power law dependency
with shear rate (y), an Arrhenius dependency with temperature (T), and an
exponential dependency with moisture content (M). The equation is:
where, n is the power law index, A& is the activation energy, m and K,
are constants.
Similar rheological models have been developed for starchy and protein-
aceous food materials during single-screw extrusion (Cervone and Harper,
1978; Jao et al., 1978; Bruin et al., 1978; Fletcher et al., 1985b; Bhatta-
charya and Hanna, 1986; Lai and Kokini, 1990) and twin-screw extrusion
(McMaster et al., 1987; Senouci and Smith, 1988; Altomare et al., 1991).
Such models apply to filled sections of an extruder where materials are
nprmally in a continuous state. A food material exhibits non-Newtonian
flow and many fine suspensions and pastes have been shown to follow the
Bingham model (Bird et al., 1960):
where r is the shear stress,po is the plastic viscosity and j is the shear rate.
This equation indicates that a yield stress (ro) is required before deforma-
tion of the material can occur. Nicklason and Pigott (1989) showed that
imitation seafood such as unheated surimi-based products exhibit Bing-
ham-plastic-like behavior. Protein molecules undergo various denatur-
ation reactions, entanglements, disentanglements and fragmentation dw-
ing extrusion processing. These physical and chemical changes affect
viscosity of a feed material and therefore the flow behavior in the extruder.
Morgan et al. (1989) presented a theoretical model to predict apparent
viscosity of protein doughs during thermal processing involving h e a t h -
duced denaturation. Their model incorporated the effects of shear rate,
temperature, moisture content, he-temperature and strain history of the
Choedl~rtrya11d Gogoi 49
protein dough. Such models need to be further developed and adapted to

fish protein dough for use in quality control and scale-up.
During low moisture extrusion, it is necessary to understand the rheo-
logical properties of the 'melt zone' as well as of the semi-powdery zone
prior to the melt zone, where substantial reaction can occur in both single
screw extruders (Zheng, 1992) and the twin-screw extruders (Gogoi,
1994). Predictive equations for rheological behavior of powdery material
need to be develooed.
The preceding'overview of extrusion processing illustrates the impor-
tance of process variables, kinetics and rhcology and suggests that there is
, ample opportunity to apply this technology for fish muscle processing.
However. Ihe physicochemical changes occurring.at the molecular level
that influence the functional, micro- and macrostructural attributes of the
exuudates need to be understood before the full potential of the technolo-
gy can be realized. The review on fish muscle extrusion in the following
section describes the present state of knowledge.
FISH MUSCLE EXTRUSION

Major research in protein foods has been to find new sources to feed the
world's growing population. Converting protein into foods that will be
readily accepted has become important only in reccnt years. Considerable
effort has been made to fabricate textured vegetable proteins using food
extruders. Research on exuusion processing of fish muscle started in the
1980s with a desire to utilize mechanically deboned minced fish, which
has high nutritional value, but is devoid of any structure and, therefore,
lacks textural attributes. Most extrusion studies on fish muscle have fo-
cussed on product types rather than understanding the physicochemical
changes that take place during extrusion. Little, if any, systematic research
has been done to obtain basic information relating process variables to
physicochemical changes that affect product quality. Laboratory studies
on extrusion of fish muscle have covered low (below 35%), intermediate
(35-50%) and high moisture (above 50%) ranges to produce a variety of
food products.
Single-Screw Extrusion of Fish Muscle

Most single-screw extrusion studies on fish muscle have been limited to
mixes of fish mince and starchv and/or oroteinaceous ingredients with low
to moderate moisture contents: Some df these investiga'iions were explor-
atory in nature to find if extrusion technology can be used to process fish
muscle. The studies on single-screw extrusion of fish muscle are summa-

rized in Table 1.
Generally, single-screw extrusion studies have focussed on production
of dry snack food products. Yu et al. (1981) studied production of fish
crackers from a mixture of minced fish (Chiracentr~sesculenrm) and
ground tapioca flow in a single-screw extruder and compared the product
with those prepared by traditional methods. The effects of temperature and
fish to flour ratio were investigated. Screw speed and die temperature were
maintained at 120 rpm and 100°C. respectively. The temperature of the

second barrel section close to the die was varied from 60 to 140°C. Linear
expansion of the extrudate on frying was found to increase with tempera-
ture up to 100°C. Further increase in temperature slightly reduced expan-
sion. Increasing fish content had the opposite effect on extrudate expan-
sion. The extruded product was organoleptically acceptable and similar to
those prepared by traditional methods. Kristensen et al. (1984) attempted
to produce snack food and noodles using cod mince and other ingredients
such as potato starch, potato flour, crosshonded waxy maize starch, wheat
flour, salt, calcium stearoyl-Zlactylate and dodecyl gallate. The screw
speed and throughput were varied from 40-75 rpm and 28-45 glmin,
respectively. The temperature of the first two zones and h e head were
maintained at 70°C, 120°C and 94"C, respectively. The screw compres-
sion ratio was 1:2 and the die opening was 0.7 mm high and 20 mm wide.
It was possible to use up to 50% low fat fish without any objectionable
flavor development, but the fish taste intcnsified during storage. Addition
of crossbonded waxy maize starch stabilized the flavor of expanded prod-
ucts. Use of sardine mince for production of pasta snacks was studied by
Quaglia el al. (1989). Mixtures of sardine mince and cereal flour were
extruded at,a screw speed and UD ratio of 57 rpm and 16.7, respectively.
Barrcl temperature during extrusion was in h e range of 80-130°C and
feed flow rate varied from 17.5-19 kgh.The exmdates were dried at
60°C for 15 hours. The use of sardine mince to produce pasta and snacks
is dependant upon conditions during storage of raw fish. Good quality
products can be obtained from skinless sardine fillets stored below
- 18°C to minimize fat oxidation.
Shelf-life studies have demonstrated that extrudates produced from
blends of fish muscle and starchy ingredients can be stored from six
months to one year without development of off-flavor. Extrusion of blends
of rice flour and carp mince (0-35%) in a Brabender Plasticorder equipped
with a 311 screw and a 0.5 cm die was investigated by Maga and Reddy
(1985). Raw mince was used for 0-20% blends and cooked mince for
25-35% blends. Cooked mince was produced by baking at 120°C for 40
Choudh~rrya d Gogoi 51
minutes, which was necessary to reduce the mince moisture to 50%. Rice
flour, fish and water were mixed to adjust the blend moisture to 25% and
extruded at a barrel temperature and screw speed of 150°C and 150 rpm,
respectively. The extrudate could be stored for six months at room temper-
ature without development of off-odor. A snack food prepared from the
extrudate containing up to 35% carp was found acceptable by a sensory
panel. Venugopal (1987) examined extrusion of partially deodorized fish
croaker meat:The product could be stored for two years without develop-
ment of significant fish odor. Deodorization was achieved by boiling the
flesh in 0.3% orthophosphoric acid followed by pressing in a screw press.

The pressed cake was mixed with wheat flour, salt, refined oil and water.
The mixture was extruded in a laboratory extrusion cooker at a barrel
temperature of 150aC. The extrudate was air dried at 60°C to obtain a
crisp, light colored product having negligible fish odor and good rehydra-
lion properties.
Some attempts have been made to combine intermediate moisture
technology wilh extrusion to produce shelf-stable products. Hilmarsdottir
and Karmas (1984) used cooked red hake mince, fermented wilh different
levels of glucose and Lnctobncilllts planranrrn culture, to produce a shelf-
stable intermediate moisture fish product. The fermented mince (pH
4.4-4.9) was mixed with corn starch, sugar, salt, soy protein concentrate,
and xanthan gum in a Hobart mixer (Model A-200) and extruded at a
screw speed of 45 rpm. The temperature in zones I, 2 and 3 of lhe extruder
was maintained at 100°C. 120°C, and 130°C. respectively. The extrudates
were dried at 93°C for 10 min in an air oven. Extrusion lowered the
average moisture content of the feed mix from 48.2% to 33.5% in the
extrudate. The initial water activity of 0.97 in the feed mix was reduced to
0.90 in the exbudate and the extrudate pH varied from 4.7 to 5.3, depend-
ing on the level of lactic culture used during fermentation. A combination
of extrudate pH and water activity was responsible for the shelf stability of
the intermediate moisture fish products. In another study, whiting mince
and surimi were fermented with Pediococcus cerevisiae at 37OC for 12
hours, mixed with wheat flour, corn starch and water and extruded in a
Brabender laboratory extruder (Model 2001) at a screw speed of 200 rpm.
The temperatures in zones 1, 2 and 3 of the extruder were maintained at
80°C, 18O0C,and 200°C, respectively. The extrudates were dried at 93°C
for 0-30 minutes. The shelf-stable products had a chewy texture and could
be flavored to form high-protein snack food (Karmas and Lauber, 1987).
Few systematic studies on the effect of process variables on extrudate
characteristics have been reported. Murray and Stanley (1980) investi-
gated the effects of temperature, screw speed, protein to water ratio, and
TABLE 1. Studies on single-screw extrusion of fish muscle.
EXTRUDER MODEL INGREDIENTS USED RESULTS REFERENCE
Brabender laboratory Freezedried cod and Addition of fish improved Murray and Stanley,
extruder. defatted soybean meal. ternre, reduced the 1980.
temperature required for
optimal t e x h r d i o n and
raised the level of essential
amino acids in the soy
emdate.
Brabender, Model 20DN. Fish (Chirocenbusdorab) Successful production of Yu, Mitchell, and
mince and tapioca flour. Malaysian snack food Abdullah, 1981.
('KempoK). Pmduct
expansion upon hying
depended on fish mntent
Brabender, Model 2001. Fermented red hake, corn Shelf-stableintermediate Hilmarsdottirand

starch, corn syrup solids. moisture product by a Karmas, 1984.
sugar, salt, soy protein combination of lowered
concentrate, xanthan gum. water activity and pH.
Brabender Plasticorder, Carp mince and rim Precooked blend with no Maga and Reddy, 1985.
Model PL-VSOO. flour. detectable off-flavor
at mom temperature for
up to 6 months.
Brabender Model 2001 Fermented fish mince or Fermentationand Karmas and Lauber,
surimi, wheat flour. com intermediate moisture food 1987.
starch. processing combined with
extrusion to obtain a chewy
texture.
bboratocy modal extrusion Daoderized croaker mince. Cripsy, light-coloredproduct Venugopal. 1987.
cooker. wheat flour, refined oil. with negligible fish odor.
and salt
Mapimpianti, Model F20 Sardine mince and c a r d Use of sardine in pasta and Quaglia. Paoletli. Gmfalo.
and GF20. flour (rice, wheat, com snacks is strictly related Menesatli, Cappelloni. Maurizi.
and tapioca). to storage conditions. and latini. 1989.
Variable length laboratory Bombay duck mince and Organized fiber structure Bhattacharya. Das.
extruder. wheat flour. with higher L/D ratio and and Bose. 1990.
higher amount of fish.
Haake Rheodrive. Model Cod mince and rice Process conditions for Clayton and
3000. MixerEmder. flour. puffed rice snack and Misuwrides. 1992.
meat extender.
vegetable to fish protein ratio on functional and nutritional qualities of the

extrudate. The intent was to use extrusion to impart texture to mechanical-
ly deboned minced fish. Dried cod mince, prepared by salting, centrifuga-
tion of brine, desalting with water, decantation and freeze drying, was used
in this study. The dried mince was mixed with appropriate amounts of soy
protein and the mixture was extruded. Textural attributes of the extrudate
depended strongly on the ratios of protein to water, and vegetable to fish
protein. Addition of fish improved texture, reduced the temperature re-
quired for optimal texturization, and raised the level of essential amino
acids. It was concluded that extrudates with specific textural and nutrition-
al characteristics can be prepared by controlling composition and process
variables. Bhattacharya et al. (1988, 1990) investigated exliusion of par-
tially dried minced Bombay Duck (Harpodon nehereus) blended with
wheat flour in a variable length extruder-cooker. The effect of process
variables such as L/Dratio (8-16), screw speed (30-90 rpm), temperature
(10-140°C). and feed ratio of fish to wheat flour (1:l-3:l) on nutritional
quality and microstructure of the extrudate was evaluated. Fiber formation
was enhanced by an increase in temperature. Higher IengtWdiameter)&I(
ratios and increase in fish content of the blend also resulted in the forma-
tion of organized fibrous microstructure. The study of Clayton and Mis-
courides (1992) examined extrusion of underutilized fish tissue for pro-
duction of protein enriched expanded products, meat substitutes or
extenders, and/or fish fillet analogues with a protein content of 50-90%
(dry basis). The effects of feed composition and operating variables such
as moisture content (25-65%, dry basis), protein content (10-90%), screw
speed (40-120 rpm), and temperature (120-180°C) were evaluated. They
concluded that shelf-stable,texturized food products with a range of rheo-
logical and nutritional properties can be prepared.
Twirl-Screw Extrusion of Fish Muscle
Win-screw extrusion studies on fish muscle are summarized in Table 2.
The majority of these studies are in the area of high moisture extrusion
(feed moisture content more than SO%, wet basis), which is gaining mo-
mentum in recent years. The stimulus for this interest has come from the
expanded operating flexibility of twin-screw extruders. The enhanced
mixing, kneading, and conveying capabilities of twin-screw extruders en-
able better heat transfer and handling of feeds with high moisture content
(Rockey, 1988; Noguchi, 1989; Harper, 1990; Blenford, 1991).
The high-moisture extrusion studies on fish muscle have focused on
developing a fibrous structure in the extrudate. Kitagawa and Nishi (1987)
produced a multilayered extrudate from a mixture of washed, defatted
Cl~orrdhuryorld Gogoi SS
sardine mince (70%) and defatled soy flour (30%). The study was carried
out in a 50 nun diameter twin-screw extruder with a L/D ratio of 24. A
cooling die (300 mm long, 35 mm wide and 5 nun high) was attached to
the extruder. The screw speed, maximum barrel temperature and moisture
content of the mix were maintained at 50 rprn, 164°C and 50%, respec-
tively. A texture similar to red meat was obtained (Noguchi, 1989). Textu-
rization of surimi was investigated by Aoki et al. (1989). A mixiure con-
taining pollock surimi (94%), salt (2.3%) and starch (3.8%) was extruded
in a twin-screw extruder, equipped with a cooling die maintained at 10°C.
The feed rate and scrcw speed used were 30 kgh and 100 rpm, respective-
ly. The barrel temperature was varied from 160 to 180°C. A fibrous '
structure was developed in Lhe extrudate.
Texturization of chum salmon using twin-screw extruders was at-
tempted by two researchers. Kitagawa and Nishi (1989) extruded a mix-
ture of freeze-pulverized chum salmon (80%) and defatted soy flour
(20%) in a twin-screw extruder (L/D ratio = 24), equipped with a nozzle
die with and without breaker plales. The barrel temperature, screw speed.
and die temperature were in the range of 145-180°C, 80-100 rpm and
73-180°C, respeclively. The feed moisture content was maintained at
65%. Isobe et al. (1990) used boiled, pressed and flaked chum salmon
mixed with 10% wheat flour. The extrudate was produced using a twin-
screw extruder (LP ralio = 20) equipped with either a cooling die or a
molding unit. The barrel temperature from feed end to die end was in-
c:eased from 30°C to 160°C. Both studies demonstrated development of
f~brousstructure in the exuudate.
The study of Kitabatake et al. (1988) attempted continuous production
of fish meat sol from a mixture of fish meat and sodium chloride at low
barrel temperatures. The screw speed and barrel temperature ranged from
100-400 rpm and 5-25"C, respectively. The feed rates of fish meat and
sodium chloride solution (26.1% wlv) were maintained at 320 glmin and
28.1 mumin, respectively, except one experiment where these flow rates
were doubled. Fish meal sol obtained was heated in a water bath for 20
minutes at 50" or 90°C to form a gel having a texture close to that of
kamaboko.
Choudhury (1994) studied the effecls. of feed composition, moisture
content (18-32%). feed ratio (0-60% fish, dry basis) and feed flow rate
(5.8-1 1.6 kglh) on system parameters and extrudate characteristics during
extrusion processing of pink salmon muscle and rice flour blends. The
barrel temperature of the last 100 mm section at h e die end was main-
tained at 160°C. The preceding four- sections towards the feed end were
maintained at 80°', 60°, 40" and 20°C, respectively. The L/D ratio and
TABLE 2. Studies on twin-screw extrusion of fish muscle.
EXTRUDER MODEL INGREDIENTS USED RESULTS REFERENCE
Werner 8 Pfleiderer, Cod mince, potato flour, Expanded snacks, soups, and Kristensen. Gray,
Continua 3715. wheat flour, potato starch, pastamth fish content up and Holm, 1984.
waxy maize starch, and salt. to 50%.
Sardine and defatted Multilayeredexbudate having Kitagawaand
soy flour. bundles of protein sttings, Nishi. 1987.
formed parallel to extrurion
drection, in each layer.
Werner 8 Pfleiderer. Flying fish mince Adhesive meat sol giving a Kitabatake, Shirnizu.
Continua 37. and salt texture similar to kamaboko and Doi. 1988.
upon heating.
Koyo Kogyo KEI 45-25. Pollock surimi Fibrous e m d a t e sbucture Aok. Ham, and
and starch. in the direction of extrusion. Ohimichi. 1989.
Kobelco TCV-SOL Chum salmon and defamd Fibrous e m d a t e sbucture in Kitagawaand

soy flour. the direction of extrusion. Nishi, 1989.
Mibubishi FT 60-N. Chum salmon and wheat Fibrous extrudate sbucture. Isobe. Uernura,
flour. and Noguchi,
1990.
Clextral BC-21 147. Pink salmon rninm and Feed composition and flow rate Choudhury, 1994.
r i m flour. significantly influence
e m d a t e characteristics and
system parameters.
Clextral BC-21 147. Pinksalmon mince, soy Emudate texture is significantly Choudhury and
flour, rice flour, and influenced by type and level of Bhattacharya. 1994.
salt additives and temperature during
high-moistureextrusion.
Clextral BC-21 147. Arrawtaoth flounder and Complete inhibition of pmtease Choudhury and
soy isolate. activity in arrowtooth muscle. Gogoi. 1994.
Clextral BC-21 147. Pink salmon mince and Expanded food pmduct with Choudhury,
lice flour. aunchy texture up to 30% fish Bhattacharya, and
solids. Gogoi. 1994.
Clextral BC-21 147. Pink salmon rninm and Screw configuration and fish Choudhury. 1995.
rim flour. solids content significantly
influenca pmduct attributes.
screw speed were 20 and 200 rpm, respectively. Extrudate characteristics

and system parameters were found to be sigmficantly influenced by feed
composition, moisture content and feed flow rate. An expanded product
having fish solids up to 30% can be produced with a crunchy texture
(Choudhury et al., 1994). In another study, the effects of location and
spacing of kneading and reverse screw element(s) on characteristics of
extrudates from pink salmon and rice flour blends were evaluated (Choud-
hury, 1995). Experiments were conducted in a Clextral BC-21 twin-screw
extruder having a IJD ratio of 241. Composite screws were built using
various combinations of conveying, kneading and reverse pitch screw

elements. Blends of pink salmon muscle and rice flour were extruded
through a circular die. The response variables measured were specific
mechanical energy, die pressure, and extrudate characteristics such as peak
force during shearing, water absorption index, water solubility index, ex-
pansion ratio, and bulk density. Severity of screw configuration and loca-
tion of kneading and reverse pitch screw element(s) systematically af-
fected system parameters and extrudate characteristics. Specific mechanical
energy, water solubility index, and expansion ratio increased with increas-
ing severity but decreased with increasing fish solids content. Bulk density
showed an opposite trend. The peak force during shearing decreased sub-
stantially with the introduction of mixing element(s). The screw configu-
ration and feed composition can be manipulated to vary product attributes.
High-moisture extrusion study on pink salmon mince was carried out
by Choudhury and Bhattacharya (1994) to determine the effects of type
and level of additives and temperature on extrudate characteristics. The
additives studied were soy flour (0-15%), rice flour (0-25%) and salt
(0-5%). Experiments were carried out in a Clextral BC-21 twin-screw
extruder with a L/D ratio of 24. The screw speed and feed rate were
maintained at 200 rpm and 11.5 kglh, respectively. The temperature in the
last section of the barrel was varied from 40 to 120°C. The feed composi-
tion, level of additives and temperature of extrusion significantly in-
fluenced textural attributes of the extrudates. The high-temperature, short-
time (HTST) capability of a twin-screw extruder to inactivate protease in
fish muscle was examined by Choudhury and Gogoi (1994). The effects of
temperature of extrusion and screw speed on enzyme inhibition and extru-
date characteristics were evaluated. Experiments were carried out in a
Clextral BC-21 twin-screw extruder with a 4D ratio of a.Arrowtooth
flounder mince and 1% soy isolate were used for extrusion experiments.
Temperature and screw speed were varied from 100 to 160°C and 40 to 100
rpm, respectively. The enzyme activity in Ule exlrudate and untreated fish
mince was determined. The temperature and residence time significantly
influenced protease inhibition in fish muscle. The data indicale that pro-
tease in Arrowtooth muscle can be completely inhibited by a combination
of temperature and residence time.
These studies on extrusion of minced fish and surimi suggest the poten-
tial of applying exirusion technology to develop value-added products from
fish muscle. A planned approach to both basic and applied research will be
needed to further the use of extrusion technology in fish processing.
CONCLUSIONS
Food extruders can process a wide range of ingredients of plant and

animal origin to'produce a large number of food products. It is possible to
monitor extrudate attributes by controlling composition and process vari-
ables. Published literature on fish muscle extrusion seems to indicate that
addition of starchy and/or proteinaceous ingredients, and in some cases
salt, was necessary to obtain desirable product attributes. Our research so
far has indicated that such additives are needed to impart texture, product
expansion and fiber formation. While the potential of extrusion technolo-
gy for fish processing in low, intermediate and high moisture ranges has
been demonstrated, there is little published information available on the
effects of process variables on physicochemical changes during extrusion.
Kinetic, thermodynamic, and rheological studies to link process variables
to material transformation will contribute to a better understanding of the
extrusion process. Such studies will help in process design, scale-up and
quality control.
There is need to develop and implement new technologies and diversify
processing of fish. With the demand for more efficiently produced (with
least waste of raw mateiials) healthy foods, extrusion processing of fish
muscle is expected to grow in the near future and improve the economic
viability of the fishing industry. However, systematic research on both
basic and applied aspects of fish muscle extrusion will be required before
the technology finds extensive application in fish processing.
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Journal of Aquatic Food Product

Extrusion Processing of Fish Muscle

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Extrusion Processing of Fish Muscle:

ABSTRACT. Extrusion processing is widely used in the food indus-

Gour S. Choudhury, PhD,is Assistant Professor of Seafood Engineering, and

human food chain (Grantham, 1981). Technological developments in the

physicochemical changes during extrusion of fish muscle, examples are

EXTRUSION PROCESSING: AN OVERVIEW

1970). The physicochemical changes that occur in food during extrusion

et al., 1987). These system parameters, also termed intermediate process

Nutri~jonalValue Texture Flavor Color Microbial Quality

Mechanical and Thermul Energy During Extrusion

(Net torque of motor) . N

where k~ is the thermally induced rate constant. T is the absolute temvera-

to thermal effects are negligible for corn starch at barrel temperatures

Bhattacharya, 1994; Choudhury and Gogoi, 1994). Several studies on the

kinetics of physicochemical changes in waxy corn starch using a Brabend-

where E, is the shear activation energy, r is shear stress on the material, v is

where t is reaction time.

Recently, using a co-rotating twin-screw extruder (Werner & Pfleiderer

rial in a co-rotating twin-screw extruder (Werner & Pfleiderer ZSK-30)

throughput decreases mean residence time. Similar observations were re-

Rheology During Food Extrusion

An important component of predictive models is the rheological behav-

protein dough. Such models need to be further developed and adapted to

FISH MUSCLE EXTRUSION

Single-Screw Extrusion of Fish Muscle

muscle. The studies on single-screw extrusion of fish muscle are summa-

maintained at 120 rpm and 100°C. respectively. The temperature of the

flesh in 0.3% orthophosphoric acid followed by pressing in a screw press.

TABLE 1. Studies on single-screw extrusion of fish muscle.

EXTRUDER MODEL INGREDIENTS USED RESULTS REFERENCE

Brabender, Model 2001. Fermented red hake, corn Shelf-stableintermediate Hilmarsdottirand

vegetable to fish protein ratio on functional and nutritional qualities of the

TABLE 2. Studies on twin-screw extrusion of fish muscle.

EXTRUDER MODEL INGREDIENTS USED RESULTS REFERENCE

Kobelco TCV-SOL Chum salmon and defamd Fibrous e m d a t e sbucture in Kitagawaand

screw speed were 20 and 200 rpm, respectively. Extrudate characteristics

various combinations of conveying, kneading and reverse pitch screw

Food extruders can process a wide range of ingredients of plant and

Aguilera, J.M.and Kosikowski, F.V. 1976. Soybean extruded product: a response

the residence time distribution in a twin-screw cooking extruder. AIChE Paper

engineering aspects of extrusion on biopolymers in a single-screw extruder. J.

twin-screw extrusion. Paper No. 71E-11,presented at the Annual Meeting of

extruded soybean product. Can. Inst. Food Sci. Technol. I. 5: 124-128.

H&, J.M. 1981.Extrusion o b d s . ~ & m e s 1 and 2.CRC M,&a at on, a.

Kitagawa, M. and Nishi, K. 1987. Studies on the extrusion cooking of marine

specific changes to the characteristic properties of extrudates by HTST extru-

extrusion of protein doughs. J. Food Process Eng. 11: 55-78.

vegetable products by the extrusion process. I. Effects of processing variables

an energy equivalent concept to the study of the kinetics of starch conversion

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