Theories

of
learning

Thorndike, Pavlov, Skinner,

Kohler, Rogers, Bandura ,
Vygotsky
Thorndike’s Trial and
Error Theory:
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949) is generally
considered to have been the foremost educational
psychologist not only of the United States but of the
world. He contributed to research and theory in the
field of learning and genetic psychology, testing and
social psychology, testing and social psychology.
Thorndike first stated the elements of his theory of
learning in 1913 that connections are formed in the
nervous system between stimuli and response. These
connections formed are illustrated by the symbols S-R.
Another word used to describe these connections is the
word ‘bond’ and hence,’ this theory is sometimes called
a ‘Bond Theory of learning’. Thorndike has written-
“Learning is connecting. The mind is man’s connection
system.”
According to Thorndike learning takes place by trial
and error. Some people call it, “Learning by selection
of the successful variant,” accordingly when no ready-
made solution of a problem is available to the learner,
he adopts the method of trial and error. He first, tries
one solution. If it does not help him, he rejects it, then,
he tries another and so on. In this way he eliminates
errors or irrelevant responses which do not serve the
purpose and finally discovers the correct solution.
When and how the connection is accomplished
was stated first in the following three laws:

1. Law or Readiness:

First primary law of learning, according to him, is the

‘Law or Readiness’ or the ‘Law of Action Tendency’,
which means that learning takes place when an action
tendency’ is aroused through preparatory adjustment,
set or attitude. Readiness means a preparation for
action. If one is not prepared to learn, learning cannot
be automatically instilled in him, for example, unless
the typist, in order to learn typing prepares himself to
start, he would not make much progress in a lethargic
and unprepared manner.

2. Law of Exercise:

The second law of learning is the ‘Law of Exercise’,

which means that drill, or practice helps in increasing
efficiency and durability of learning and according to
Thorndike’s S-R Bond Theory, the connections are
strengthened with trail or practice and the connections
are weakened when trial or practice is discontinued.
The ‘law of exercise’, therefore, is also understood as
the ‘law of use and disuse’ in which case connections or
bonds made in the brain cortex are weakened or
loosened. Many examples of this are found in case of
human learning. Learning to drive a motor-car,
typewriting, singing or memorizing a poem or a
mathematical table, and music etc. need exercise and
repetition of various movements and actions May
times.

3. Law of Effects:
The third law is the ‘Law of Effect’, according to which
the trial or steps leading to satisfaction stamps in the
bond or connection. Satisfying states lead to
consolidation and strengthening of the connection,
whereas dis-satisfaction, annoyance or pain leads to
the weakening or stamping out of the connections.
In fact, the ‘law or effect’ signifies that if the responses
satisfy the subject, they are learnt and selected. While
those which are not satisfying are eliminated. Teaching,
therefore, must be pleasing. The educator must obey the
tastes and interests of his pupils. In other words, greater
the satisfaction stronger will be the motive to learn.
Thus, intensity is an important condition of the ‘law of
effect’.
 Pavlov’s classical conditioning
After performing various experiments upon the subjects
like dogs, rats and cats. Psychologists like Watson and
Pavlov gave birth to a new theory of learning known as
conditioned response theory or simply as learning by
conditioning .
During the 1890s, Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov
was researching salivation in dogs in response to being
fed. He inserted a small test tube into the cheek of each
dog to measure saliva when the dogs were fed (with a
powder made from meat).
Pavlov predicted the dogs would salivate in response to
the food placed in front of them, but he noticed that
his dogs would begin to salivate whenever they heard
the footsteps of his assistant who was bringing them
the food.

When Pavlov discovered that any object or event which

the dogs learned to associate with food (such as the lab
assistant) would trigger the same response, he realized
that he had made an important scientific discovery.
Accordingly, he devoted the rest of his career to
studying this type of learning.
In behaviorist terms, food is an unconditioned
stimulus and salivation is an unconditioned response.
(i.e., a stimulus-response connection that required no
learning).
Unconditioned Stimulus (Food)
> Unconditioned Response (Salivate)
In his experiment, Pavlov used a metronome as his
neutral stimulus. By itself the metronome did not
elecit a response from the dogs.
Neutral Stimulus (Metronome) > No Conditioned
Response
In this experiment, the dog learned to salivate at the sound
of the bell. This kind of learning was named as ‘Learning By
Conditioning’.
BF Skinner: Operant
Conditioning
Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant
Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s
(1898) law of effect. According to this principle,
behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is
likely to be repeated, and behavior followed by
unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated.
Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect -
Reinforcement. Behavior which is reinforced tends to
be repeated (i.e., strengthened); behavior which is not
reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e.,
weakened).
Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by
conducting experiments using animals which he
placed in a 'Skinner Box' which was similar to
Thorndike’s puzzle box.
Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant,
that can follow behavior.
• Neutral operants: responses from the environment that
neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior
being repeated.
• Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that
increase the probability of a behavior being repeated.
Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
• Punishers: Responses from the environment that
decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
Punishment weakens behavior.

Positive Reinforcement: Skinner showed

how positive reinforcement worked by placing a
hungry rat in his Skinner box. The box contained a
lever on the side, and as the rat moved about the box,
it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it
did so a food pellet would drop into a container next to
the lever.

The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after

a few times of being put in the box. The consequence of
receiving food if they pressed the lever ensured that
they would repeat the action again and again.
Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by
providing a consequence an individual finds
 rewarding. For example, if your teacher gives you £5
each time you complete your homework (i.e., a reward)
you will be more likely to repeat this behavior in the
future, thus strengthening the behavior of completing
your homework
Negative Reinforcement :The removal of
an unpleasant reinforcer can also strengthen behavior.
This is known as negative reinforcement because it is
the removal of an adverse stimulus which is
‘rewarding’ to the animal or person. Negative
reinforcement strengthens behavior because it stops or
removes an unpleasant experience.
For example, if you do not complete your homework,
you give your teacher £5. You will complete your
homework to avoid paying £5, thus strengthening the
behavior of completing your homework.
Skinner showed how negative reinforcement worked by
placing a rat in his Skinner box and then subjecting it to an
unpleasant electric current which caused it some discomfort.
As the rat moved about the box it would accidentally knock the
lever. Immediately it did so the electric current would be
switched off. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the
lever after a few times of being put in the box.
Theory of Learning by
Insight
Meaning of Theory of Learning by Insight:

This theory is also called Gestalt Theory of Learning.

An explanation of Gestalt School of Psychology. The
word Gestalt in German language means ‘whole’, ‘total
pattern’ or ‘configuration’. This school believes that the
whole is more important than the parts. So learning
also takes place as a whole’. In this respect Kohlar
performed a number of experiments on monkeys, and
arrived at the result that highest types of learning is
through insight.
Learning by insight means sudden grasping of the
solution, a flash of understanding, without any process
of trial and error. All discoveries and inventions have
taken place through insight. Of course the discoverer
possessed a complete knowledge of the whole situation
in peace-meal.
Experiments of Theory of Learning by Insight:
(i) Kohler s experiment on Sultan (Experiment
with box):
Kohlar kept a monkey (named Sultan) hungry for
some time, and then shut him in a large cage. He hung
bananas from the ceiling, and kept a box on the floor of
the cage, fast beneath. The monkey could not reach the
banana. Another box was put in a corner of the
cage.But Sultan could not get the idea of placing one
box on the other and thus reaching the banana.
Ultimately Kohlar gave demonstration of putting one
box on the other. Sultan could now learn the whole
situation. He used his intelligence and insight to put
the two boxes one upon the other, stand on these and
then reach the bananas.
(ii) Experiment with two sticks:
In another experiment Kohler kept two sticks in the
cage. One end of the shorter sticks could be fitted in
the one end of the longer sticks, so as to make them
longer. The monkey did not get the idea of forming the
two sticks through trial and error. When Kohlar gave a
hint through putting his finger in the whole of the
bigger stick, the monkey viewed the whole situation
and performed the right task through understanding
the insight.
 Laws of Insight Formation:
1. Capacities:
Insight depends upon the capacity of the organism.
Individuals offer in their capacities. The more
developed is the individual, the more will be the
capacity to develop insight.
2. Previous experience:
Insight depends upon relevant previous experience and
maturation. Some practice, trial and error and maturation
upto the level is essential before insight develops. A child of
five years cannot develop mathematical insight since he has
not done sufficient practice in it.
3. Experimental arrangement:
Development of insight depends upon experimental
arrangement also.
4. Fumbling and search:
Insight follows a period of fumbling and search.
5. Readily repeated:
Insightful solutions can be readily repeated.
6. Use in new situation:
Insight once achieved can be used in new situation.
7. Wholesome experience:
Experience of insight is always wholesome. Whole is
just not equal to its parts.
Experiential Learning (Carl
Rogers)
Rogers distinguished two types of learning: cognitive
(meaningless) and experiential (significant). The
former corresponds to academic knowledge such as
learning vocabulary or multiplication tables and the
latter refers to applied knowledge such as learning
about engines in order to repair a car. The key to the
distinction is that experiential learning addresses the
needs and wants of the learner. Rogers lists these
qualities of experiential learning: personal involvement,
self-initiated, evaluated by learner, and pervasive
effects on learner.

To Rogers, experiential learning is equivalent to

personal change and growth. Rogers feels that all
human beings have a natural propensity to learn; the
role of the teacher is to facilitate such learning. This
includes: (1) setting a positive climate for learning, (2)
clarifying the purposes of the learner(s), (3) organizing
and making available learning resources, (4) balancing
intellectual and emotional components of learning, and
(5) sharing feelings and thoughts with learners but not
dominating.
According to Rogers, learning is facilitated when: (1)
the student participates completely in the learning
process and has control over its nature and direction,
(2) it is primarily based upon direct confrontation with
practical, social, personal or research problems, and
(3) self-evaluation is the principal method of assessing
progress or success. Rogers< also emphasizes the
importance of learning to learn and an openness to
change.

Roger’s theory of learning evolved as part of the

humanistic education movement (e.g., Patterson,
1973; Valett, 1977).

Application

Roger’s theory of learning originates from his views

about psychotherapy and humanistic approach to
psychology. It applies primarily to adult learners and
has influenced other theories of adult learning such
as Knowles and Cross. Combs (1982) examines the
significance of Roger’s work to education. Rogers &
Frieberg (1994) discuss applications of the experiential
learning framework to the classroom.
Example

A person interested in becoming rich might seek

out books or classes on ecomomics, investment,
great financiers, banking, etc. Such an individual
would perceive (and learn) any information
provided on this subject in a much different
fashion than a person who is assigned a reading
or class.

Principles

1. Significant learning takes place when the subject

matter is relevant to the personal interests of the
student
2. Learning which is threatening to the self (e.g., new
attitudes or perspectives) are more easily
assimilated when external threats are at a
minimum
3. Learning proceeds faster when the threat to the
self is low
4. Self-initiated learning is the most lasting and
pervasive.
Bandura’s Social Learning
Theory
It was Albert Bandura’s intention to explain how
children learn in social environments by observing and
then imitating the behaviour of others. In essence, be
believed that learning could not be fully explained
simply through reinforcement, but that the presence of
others was also an influence. He noticed that the
consequences of an observed behaviour often
determined whether or not children adopted the
behaviour themselves. Through a series of
experiments, he watched children as they observed
adults attacking Bobo Dolls. When hit, the dolls fell
over and then bounced back up again. Then children
were then let loose, and imitated the aggressive
behaviour of the adults. However, when they observed
adults acting aggressively and then being punished,
Bandura noted that the children were less willing to
imitate the aggressive behaviour themselves.
From his research Bandura formulated four principles
of social learning. These were:
1. Attention. We cannot learn if we are not focused on the
task. If we see something as being novel or different in
some way, we are more likely to make it the focus of their
attention. Social contexts help to reinforce these
perceptions.
2. Retention. We learn by internalising information in our
memories. We recall that information later when we are
required to respond to a situation that is similar the
situation within which we first learnt the information.
3. Reproduction. We reproduce previously learnt
information (behaviour, skills, knowledge) when
required. However, practice through mental and physical
rehearsal often improves our responses.
4. Motivation. We need to be motivated to do anything.
Often that motivation originates from our observation of
someone else being rewarded or punished for something
they have done or said. This usually motivates us later to
do, or avoid doing, the same thing.
Vygotsky's Theory on
Constructivism
Lev S. Vygotsky believed that culture is the principal
determinant of cognitive progress. In Vgostsky's
theory on constructivism, knowledge leads to further
cognitive development. The societal configuration of
intelligence states that the individual growth could
not be comprehended without indication to the
societal and cultural context where the
aforementioned evolution is entrenched mind
development is continuous.

Vygotsky focuses on the actual mechanism of the

development. He excludes discernible stages of
development as theories and assumptions. Vygotsky's
theory on constructivism does not adhere to the idea
that a single abstract principle is able to explain
cognitive development. As a substitute to Piaget's
constructivism, he argues that knowledge is
internalization of social activity.
Mediation refers to people intentionally interject
items between their environment and themselves, so
that they are able to modify it and gain specific
benefits. Mediation is the key propoent of Vygotsky's
theory of constructivism. His theory offers a
harmonizing viewpoint to the behaviorist view.
Vygotsky's theory of constructivism supports that the
use of mediators helps the human to alter their
environment, and this is her way of interacting with
the nature. Vygotsky's theory of constructivism also
supports that the use of activity mediators provides a
way in which people are able to interact with the
nature. Mediation is also defined as the use of certain
tools within socially organized activity. There were
two phenomena which encompasses the mediated
relationship of individuals to their environment.
These are 1) Humans use language and physical signs
to change social relations into psychological functions
between their minds and their environment. The
second thing was that higher intellectual progression
will actually use symbolic mediation.

Zone of proximal development (ZDP) characterizes

one of the biggest differences which can be found
between Vygotsky's and Piaget's differing views of
cognitive development. ZPD is defined as the rupture
between a persons actual competence (on which
level a student is able to independently solve
problems), and their individual prospective
development level (on which level the student could
solve the problems assuming they were given
guidance from teacher).

ZPD is founded upon the psychological functions

which have yet to mature but nonetheless are in the
process of maturing. The concept of ZPD as it
functions within Vygotsky's theory of constructivism
supports a depiction of academic advancement based
on permanence. Learning is able to propel cognitive
growth. The role of the teacher is one of a mediator
for the child's cognitive development. In Vygotsky's
theory of constructivism, learning, instruction and
development are the only positive forms of
instruction. These three lead the cognitive
development. Teachers must use teacher resources,
worksheets, lesson plans, and rubrics all in a
combined attempt to aid the student's progress and
measure said progress as the child continues to grow
in their abilities to solve problems independently.
Learning that is situated within the current
developmental level is not desirable. More
Knowledgeable Other (MKO) goes hand in hand with
ZDP, although in a more remedial sense. The MKO is
generally the teacher, or person of higher intellect
and learning ability.