Practical FEA

Introduction
 Overview
• What is a Finite Element?
• Common terminology
• Elements
• Constraints
• Loads
• Analysis types
• Units
• Example model
• What’s coming..
 What is the Finite Element Method

• Component is broken down into many regular shaped elements

called Finite Elements
• Nodes - where elements are connected to each other
• Mesh – Arrangement of nodes and elements
• Degree of freedom – displacement or rotation of a node
 What is a Finite Element?
• A continuous structure has theoretically an infinite number of
degrees of freedom
• The finite element method approximates the behaviour of a
continuous structure with a finite number of grid points (degrees of
freedom)
• In essence, the finite element method is a piecewise approximation
of a function, by means of polynomials, each defined over a small
region (element) and expressed in terms of the nodal values of the
function.
– It interpolates displacements of points in space to get displacements
anywhere in the domain of the element.
• Because of the nature of the interpolation functions, the gradient of
the displacement field is continuous, meaning that a continuous
strain field is implied.
 What is a Finite Element?
• In other words, the strain field in an element is continuous. This
indirectly means that the stress field is continuous in an element

• Elements next to each other do not share any information about

their interpolation methods, so the strain, and therefore stress field
at element boundaries are almost always discontinuous
 What is a Finite Element?
• In a typical first-order quad-element, strain can vary linearly across
an element.

• This capability is used to model more complex stress fields by using

a series of linear approximations to model a nonlinear stress-field. In
general, the more elements, the better the approximation
 What is a Finite Element?
• It’s already said that the stresses across element boundaries are not
continuous. What now?
– We simply average the values at the nodes.

• Isn’t this dangerous?

– Yes it is: If the mesh is not fine enough to accurately represent the
stress state.

• The error at the nodes can however also be used to check for
convergence of the mesh:
– A small error (i.e.. (max predicted) – (min predicted) ) gives a good
indication that the mesh has converged.
 What is a Finite Element?

• This brings us to one of the most important concepts in Finite Elements:

Mesh Convergence
– A mesh is converged if it is able to represent the stress-state of a component
with the required level of accuracy.
– Mesh Convergence has absolutely nothing to do with convergence settings in
Non-linear analysis! Both are needed for Non-linear analysis, while only Mesh
convergence are required for linear analysis

• A linear analysis has a linear relationship between forces, displacements

and stresses.

• A nonlinear analysis has a nonlinear relationship between forces and

displacements due to nonlinear material properties, large rotations, loads
changing as the structure deforms or if boundary conditions are dependent
on displacements. Convergence for a non-linear analysis has to do with the
difference between the applied load and the reaction-forces generated by
the elements.
 Concept of Finite Elements
Physically the finite element method is the subdivision of the model
into discrete components of simple geometry called finite elements.
(discretization)
 Common Terminology
• Node: A point in space that is used to connect the elements to.
– Loads / Boundary conditions can only be applied to nodes. Even
pressure values or gravitational loads are reduced to loads at nodes by
the finite element solver.

• DOF (Degree of Freedom): This is the displacement of a Node

– Three translations (ux,uy,uz)
– Three rotations (θx, θy, θz)
 Common Terminology
• Element stiffness matrix: The matrix that maps forces at nodes to
displacements at the nodes of an element

{ f } = [k ] ⋅ {d }
[ k ] is the stiffness matrix of the element
Compiled using Material properties and geometry

{d } is the element nodal displacement vector

Ux, Uy, Ux, θx, θy, θz ….

{ f } is the vector of element nodal loads

fx, fy, fx, Mx, My, Mz …..

• Elements share common nodes – element matrices can be combined to

form a global stiffness matrix
– Global stiffness matrix: The assembled matrix that contains the stiffness of
each element in the model, thereby having the stiffness of each node

{F } = [ K ] ⋅ {d }
 Common Terminology
• Constraint:
– Applying an enforced motion (zero or otherwise) to a node. This is the
same as connecting an infinite stiffness at this node.

• Rigid body mode:

– The ability of a body to move in space without generating stresses. A
model without any constraints can move in 6 directions without
generating strain. NO rigid body modes are allowed in a static analysis.
Why?
 Elements

• Solid elements have only translational DOF at each node. A solid

element is able to translate or rotate by only translating the nodes.

• Because the element has the ability to generate internal moments

by applying a couple, no rotational DOF are needed.

• Constraining the rotational DOF of a solid element will have

EXACTLY ZERO EFFECT
 Elements

• Plate/Shell elements
– Used to model thin walled regions
– 5 DOF at each node: 3 Translations and 2 Rotations.
– They have no ‘drilling’ degrees of freedom
• Some Finite Element implementations actually has a third rotation as well, but
it is not a necessity to have it to be able to fully load such an element.
– Need thickness
– Shell elements do not have nodes spaced apart in the thickness direction to
be able to apply a couple. Therefore, rotational DOF are needed to be able
to bend a shell element out-of-plane.
– In-plane bending is possible using only forces because of the possibility of
applying a couple. It is this rotational DOF about the normal to the shell that
is commonly neglected in element formulations
 Elements

• Plane stress element:

– A thin element that can only move in a plane. The stress normal to the
element is zero. Used to model thin structures loaded in 2D
• Plane strain element:
– An element that is constrained in it’s thickness direction. The strain
normal to the element is zero. Used to approximate thick structures
loaded in 2D
• Axisymmetric Element
– An element that describe the cross-section of axially symmetric parts
 Elements

• Bar/Beam type elements

– Six degrees of freedom per node (ux,uy,ux,θx, θy, θz)
– Can support axial, shear, bending, and torsional forces
– (Without the 3 rotational DOF, the element would not be
able to load or constrain the two bending directions or to
apply a torque)
– Need Area, Ixx, Iyy, , Ixy J and
– Direction vector to define beam orientation in 3D
• Rod/Truss type elements
– One degree of freedom only
– Can only support force in axial direction
– Need Area property
• Cable element
– only tension stiffness, no compression stiffness
 Beam Elements
• Beam Orientation
 Elements

Linear

Second
Order

• Second order elements gives more accurate answers than first order
elements in most cases. They are a lot more expensive in computer
resources, so they end up being selectively used
– Use parabolic elements for geometry with curved edges.

• One important thing to remember about second order elements is

that they are a lot more sensitive to distortion than their first-order
equivalents
 Elements
• First order Tri and Tet elements have a constant stress state, while
First order Quad and Hex elements has a Linear stress distribution.
• This means that first order Tri and Tet elements do a really bad job
of representing a linear stress gradient as found in bending
problems, while Quads and Hexes can (in theory at least) represent
it with a single element.
• Second order Tet elements has an accuracy very similar to that of
first order Hex elements.
• Their drawback is the large increase in number of nodes for the
same accuracy.

TRIA QUAD TET HEX

 Elements
• A factor that impacts element-choice for an analysis is how easy it is
to create a mesh using that type of element.

– Meshing of Curves into beam elements is trivial

– It is also easy to mesh surfaces to get Tri or Quad elements. Getting a

good mesh may take a bit longer when you need to specify where to
refine a model.

– Meshing solid elements into Tet elements is simple. To generate a hex-

mesh takes a lot longer because there is no consistent way to mesh
complex solids with good-quality Hex elements.
 Elements
• This brings us to the most important question in meshing:
– What element should I use?

• The answer is very simple:

– The simplest element that will answer the question that I have!

• Using too complex an element for the required job leads to a severe
penalty in runtime and resource-usage
 Elements
• Imagine modeling a Crane using solid elements.
– Of course it does not make sense. Beams do a much better job by
being able to use a lot less elements to get the forces and moments.
Catalogues exist that tells you what the force- and moment-handling
capabilities of beams are, so in a lot of cases you may not even care
what the stress is in the model!
• What happens to the connections between beams?
– Can beam elements model this accurately?
– No, of course not. The beam mesh models a “perfect” load-transfer path
from one beam to the next, but no local stress-distribution are taken into
account.
– For this, a shell model may be more appropriate. The loads found by a
beam model is applied to a shell-element sub-model to find the local
stresses and stiffness of the connection.
 Elements
• Solid elements are used when there are significant through-
thickness stresses at some location. This happens at each location
where the thickness changes
• Take note:
– Even though a structure is made up of plates, it does not mean that
shell elements are the correct choice! If the ratio of the plate thickness
to the other dimensions of the plate is too small, the through-thickness
stress becomes very significant.
– A ratio of 1:10 is about the limit for any kind of accuracy for Thin-Shell
elements and 1:5 for thick shells.
– More sensible would be 1:20 and 1:10.
– The difference between thin- and thick-shell elements is that thin shells
ignores through-thickness shear stiffness, while thick-shells include
them.
– Recommendation: Always use thick shell elements as they will give
more accurate answers. They take slightly longer to run, which is their
only “drawback”
 Elements
Further recommendations:
• Use Quad elements rather than Tri elements
• Use first order elements unless it is Tri or Tet elements
• Use Hex elements if
– Computer resources are a problem (Not enough disk / Memory)
– The meshing-time will be less than the run-time (Nonlinear analysis
having to perform thousands of iterations)
• Use second order Tet (Tet10) elements for most cases where an
answer is needed quickly for linear analysis. They are about as
accurate a Hex-8 element but takes a lot less time to mesh a
complex structure. It’s also easy to check convergence: Simply re-
mesh and re-run.
 Usefull Tips
• Aspect ratios
– Avoid elements with high aspect ratios
• Caution when exceeding 3
• Alarm when exceeding 10
• Skewness and taper
– Skewness is the angle between two sides
• At least greater than 30°
– Taper is the ratio of the areas on two side of a diagonal
• Less than .5
• Physical Interfaces
– Elements must not cross interfaces
 Constraints
• Constraints are there to generate reaction forces that balances the
applied loads
• In static analysis it is necessary to provide enough constraints to
prevent the model from behaving as a rigid body
– the minimum number of DOF that needs to be constrained (even for an
unloaded model) is 6: The model may not be able to rotate or displace
without reaction forces being generated.
– Even if there is no force in a global direction the model must be
constrained from moving in that direction
– Careful consideration of constraints to prevent spurious reaction forces
– Preferable to constrain translation dof’s rather than rotational dof’s
• Additional supports might be necessary to remove mechanisms
– Mechanisms occur most commonly in models using truss-, beams with
released dof’s, and membrane elements
• Shells have no ‘drilling’ degrees of freedom
– need constraints in the out of plane rotation
– artificial stiffness in the drilling direction
 Constraints
• There are two types of constraints:
– An SPC (Single-point constraint) is a constraint that prescribes the
motion of a single node
• Zero displacement/Prescribed displacement
• Specified in the global coordinate system
• Most programs make provision for rotating the coordinate system at the
node (skewing)
– An MPC (Multi-point constraint) is a constraint equation that relate one
degree of freedom of a node to one or more degrees of freedom with a
linear equation.
• This makes possible modelling a lever action between two nodes
• (Displacement 1 = 10* Displacement 2) or rigid connection between nodes
(Displacement 1 = Displacement 2).
– A series of “rigid” elements are implemented in most FEA codes that
defines the coefficients of the MPC constraint equations implicitly. This
makes it a lot easier to use them.
 Constraints
• In Nastran, the “R” type elements are implemented through MPC
equations.
– The RBE2 element is a Rigid connection, while
– the RBE3 is an averaging connection.

• SPC’s are easy to use and to understand the implications of

applying them.
• “R” (Rigid) type elements are more difficult to use, but mostly still
straightforward.
– Usually preferrable over MPC’s
• Easier to use
• Easier to display
• Less prone to error
• Explicit MPC’s can be very difficult to use, and it’s very easy to make
a severe modelling mistake.
 Constraints
• In practice, SPC’s are used to represent the connection to the rest of
the universe. Think very carefully before applying a constraint:
– Is the part of the structure you’re replacing with SPC’s really infinitely
stiffer then the part you are modeling? If not, at least the answers at the
SPC’s will be wrong. Further away it may be correct assuming the
constraints are equivalent
– Does the structure want to deform in a way in real life that the constraint
does not allow?
– Stress concentrations occur where parts of different stiffness are
connected together. Because an SPC is infinitely stiff, the stress-
concentration effect is extreme. Therefore, except where the constraints
exactly model a physical phenomenon, the results at a constraint will be
wrong.

• The same goes for MPC’s: Remember that they are infinitely rigid,
thereby causing severe stress-concentrations. They can also
severely affect the load-path because of the severe stiffness.
 Constraints
• Symmetry is used where both the loads and the structure have
mirror symmetry. Anti-symmetry can also be used to advantage

• Advantages:
– Less computer resources are needed for a symmetry model than a full
model
– Boundary conditions are greatly simplified. The symmetry constraints
removes certain rigid body modes without introducing any artificial
stiffness
• Disadvantages:
– Symmetry is slightly more difficult to interpret than a full model
– Very difficult to present results to non-technical people (especially anti-
symmetry!).
 Loads
• Loads applied can be point-, edge, face or body loads.

• To apply a load that is not impossible to re-create in real life, a Force

per unit area (pressure loading) or Force per unit volume (inertial
loading) must be applied.

• In practical problems distributed loads are more common than

concentrated loads
– Area (pressure loads)
• Wind load, water pressure, etc
– Body (Volume loads)
• Gravity, acceleration loads, etc
 Constraints: Best Practice in FEA
• Use minimum number of constraints where possible
• Loads are softer than constraints
• Large loads on few nodes -> singularity
• Must constrain 6 global dof’s
– Prevent rigid body motion
• All ‘components’ must have adequate constraints
– Prevent mechanism
• Graphically check constraints
– Loads/BC’s – Plot Markers
 Analysis types
• Static analysis:
– A static analysis is useful to model a structure where the loading is
applied slow enough so that dynamic effects are not excited. If a
structure is loaded at a frequency of about 1/3 of it’s first mode, a static
analysis can be performed with good results.
• The model must be fully constrained (No rigid body modes)
• Mass is only needed if inertial (gravity) loading is applied
• It’s the most common type of analysis performed. The key requirements of
a good static analysis are:
– A converged mesh (Relatively easy)
– Sensible constraints (Requires careful thought)
– Correct loading (Sometimes difficult to obtain)
– Good material properties (Usually easy)
 Analysis types
• Modal analysis: Used to find the un-damped modes of a structure
– There are no loads in a modal analysis, only boundary conditions. For
the analysis to run, boundary conditions are not a requirement, but
unless it is an aero-plane or a satellite, constraints needs to be used.
– The model must have mass and stiffness!
– Stresses can be requested. Yes they have meaning, but NOT to
determine if the structure will fail or not. The eigen-vectors (mode-
shapes) reported by the FEM code are arbitrarily scaled. The stress
corresponds to this scaled deformation shape. Nothing more, nothing
less. If you make a change to a model and the modal stress comes
down, it does NOT mean it is a better design!
– Eigenvalue is the square of the natural frequency
 Analysis types
• Buckling analysis: Used to find the scale factors for all the applied
loads for the structure to become unstable
– Buckling loads for some structures are extremely sensitive to the initial
shape. No structure is perfect, so introduce small imperfections into the
model to determine how sensitive your model is to initial shape.
– One way to do this is to run a buckling analysis on the perfect shape,
then to offset the mesh with the buckling shape within manufacturing
tolerances, and then to re-run the analysis
 Analysis types
• Frequency response: This is a transfer-function between input loads
and every node in the model

• Time dependant (transient) analysis

– used to determine displacements, strains, stresses, and forces in a
structure as they vary with time (Time history analysis)
– Similar to a static analysis, but with dynamics starting to play a role.
– Model should have mass, otherwise no dynamics will be present.
– No constraints are needed for the analysis to run because the inertia of
the structure can balance the applied loads
– Input load can be
• Static (impulse)
• Harmonic
• or time dependant.
 Linear Static Analysis
• All deformations and strains are small.

• Structural deformations are proportional to the loads applied.

• All materials behave in a linear elastic fashion.

• Loads are all static. (time independent)

• No boundary condition varies with time or application of load.

(contact)
 Non-linear Analysis
• Causes of non-linear behaviour
– Material nonlinearity
– Geometrical nonlinearity
• large strains (membrane analyses or metal forming)
• small strains, large displacements and/or rotations (cables, leaf-springs,
arches, fishing rods, snap-through buckling).
– Application of non-linear forces
• Force following deflection (pressure loading)
• Stress stiffening (structures that are weak in bending e.g. pressurised
membranes, turbine blades rotating at a high speed)
– Nonlinear displacement boundary conditions
• Contact
 Non-linear Analysis
• Identifying nonlinear behaviour
– Stresses that exceed that of the limit of proportionality of the material.
– Major changes in geometry
– Changes in geometry that remain after the process is finished.
– Processes involves buckling, crushing, wrinkling or plastic flows.
– Temperatures exceeding the melting temperature of the material.
– Large strains, finite strains can occur in hyper elastic materials.
– Nonlinear stress-strain laws, some materials have different compressive
than tensile strengths.
– Boundary conditions change due to the application of load (contact).
– The direction of load application changes with deformation (follower
forces such as pressures).
 Non-linear Analysis
• Tangent stiffness matrix
• Solution Techniques
– Newton Raphson method
– Modified Newton Raphson
• Termination Control
– Displacement control
– Force Control
– Internal Energy
 Units
• FEA codes uses a set of consistent units. This means that basic
equations such as F=m*a should hold for the units chosen.
• SI is a consistent set of units and it is strongly advised that it be
used.
• A seemingly attractive set of Engineering units is based on mm-N-s,
which has pressures (stresses) in MPa, velocity in mm/s,
acceleration in mm/s^2 etc.
– The catch is that mass is in Mg (tons) and density in Mg/mm^3!
– Units for thermal analysis are even more involved. It is very easy to
make a mistake during the process of calculating the correct units and
the required scale factors.

• Having consistent units for any dynamic-type of analysis is

especially important. Be very careful when not using SI!
 What’s coming
• Approaching a problem
• The importance of hand-calculations
• Debugging a model
• Why open the Nastran deck?
• Help! I’m lost in the documentation…
• Dynamics basics
• Nonlinear basics