HSC Topic One

SPACE

A summary of the entire space topic arranged as per dot-points of the

syllabus.

Tim Sergeant
2/7/2010
THE EARTH’S GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

WEIGHT

Weight is the force on an object due to a gravitational field. Unlike mass, weight is not constant,
instead, it changes according to the strength of the gravitational field the mass is in.

𝑊 𝑚𝑔

W is weight, m is mass, g is gravitational field strength or acceleration due to gravity.

The strength of a gravitational field depends upon mass of the planet and the distance between the
object and the planet.

Generally, on earth, g=9.8m/s/s. However, small variations in the value may occur due to:

 Altitude changes due to geographic formations (mountains, valleys)

 Mass changes, such as dense ore bodies underneath a certain location
 The Earth not being a perfect sphere (radius is greater at the equator than at the poles).

FINDING G FROM A PENDULUM

We used a pendulum to determine the value of g on Earth. We made a pendulum out of a string and
a mass carrier, and attached it to a retort stand. We measured the length of the pendulum and then
measured the time for 10 oscillations. We repeated this for several different lengths. We graphed

our results and used the formula √ to determine a value for g.

Our results were valid because changing the angle of swing does not affect the swing time of a
pendulum, however, it was difficult to ensure that the pendulum swung straight, causing a small
variation from the value of g=9.8m/s/s. Reliability was increased by taking the time for 10
oscillations.

WORK AND GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

When we do work on an object, some form of energy is converted into kinetic energy in the object.
When we move an object against a gravitational field, the energy is stored within the object as
gravitational potential energy.

DEFINITION OF GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

Gravitational potential energy is the work done to move an object from a very large distance away to
a point within a gravitational field.

As we move an object away from Earth, its potential energy increases. When gravity pulls the object
back towards Earth, this potential energy is converted back into kinetic energy.

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Thus, potential energy increases the further away an object is from the Earth’s surface. However, we
say that Gravitational Potential energy is zero at an infinite distance away from an object, and so
potential energy is considered to be negative.

𝑚𝑀
𝐸𝑝 −𝐺
𝑟

Where G is the gravitational constant, m is the mass of the object, M is the mass of the planet,
and r is the distance between the centres of the two objects.
ROCKET LAUNCHES, ORBITING AND RE-ENTRY

PROJECTILE MOTION

Any object moving through the air is a projectile. Projectile motion can be analysed in terms of two
separate components: Horizontal motion, which is constant and vertical motion, which is
accelerating. Two objects dropped from the same height will always land on the ground at the same
time, regardless of their initial horizontal motion. The trajectory of a projectile is always a parabola.

Horizontal Component:

Vertical Component:

SOLVING PROJECTILE MOTION PROBLEMS

EQUATIONS OF HORIZONTAL MOTION:

𝑈2𝑥 𝑉 2𝑥

∆𝑥 𝑈𝑥 𝑡

EQUATIONS OF VERTICAL MOTION:

𝑉𝑦 𝑈𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡

𝑉 2𝑦 𝑈 2 𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 ∆𝑦

1
∆𝑦 𝑈𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2

Where: Ux is initial horizontal velocity, Vx is final horizontal velocity, Uy is initial vertical velocity,
Vy is final vertical velocity, Δx is horizontal displacement, Δy is vertical displacement, ay is
gravity and t is time.

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FEATURES OF PROJECTILE MOTION:

 Assumes no air resistance

 Assumes no curvature of Earth
 Time to maximum height is equal to time down from maximum height.
 At maximum height, vertical velocity is zero
 The negative sign indicates direction and must be used. Going down is negative.

STEPS TO SOLVE THESE PROBLEMS

1. Draw a diagram
2. Find components of velocity
3. Write down variables you know
4. Find an equation that will allow you to find other variables

Only round off your answer at the end.

INVESTIGATING PROJECTILE MOTION

We used projectile motion to predict the landing position of a ball bearing:

1. Use a track to launch the ball bearing, catching it before it lands. Measure speed using two
light gates. Repeat 10 times to get average speed.
2. Measure height of table.
2
3. Find time of flight: ∆ +
2
4. Find range: ∆
5. Launch ball bearing and mark landing position.

The ball bearing landed close to where was predicted. When only one light gate was used, less
reliable results were obtained.

GALILEO’S ANALYSIS OF PROJECTILE MOTION

Galileo showed that:

 All projectiles move in a parabolic shape

 All projectiles fall at the same rate, regardless of weight
 Horizontal and vertical motion are separate, by using an inclined plane.

This was contrary to what his predecessors believed, which was that thrown objects created a
vacuum behind them which would propel them until they lost ‘impetus’, causing them to fall straight
down.

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ESCAPE VELOCITY

If an object has a great enough velocity, it will be going fast enough that the gravitational field of a
planet will be able to slow it down, but will never be enough to stop or turn around the object (the
field loses strength faster than the object loses speed).

The velocity at which an object must travel to be slowed down to 0m/s at an infinite distance from
the planet is defined as the escape velocity. A velocity greater than this will cause the object to
continue moving forever.

For an object to escape a field, its kinetic energy must be greater than potential energy, allowing us
to derive

𝐺𝑀
𝑉𝑒
𝑅

Where Ve is escape velocity, G is the gravitational constant, and M and R are the mass and radius
of the planet.
Thus, the escape velocity is the same for all objects. The escape velocity for Earth is 11.2km/s.

NEWTON’S CONCEPT OF ESCAPE VELOCITY

Newton proposed that an object could be put into orbit if it was launched horizontally from a tall
mountain. Given enough speed, the curvature of the Earth would match the curvature of the
projectile’s trajectory, and the object would go into orbit.

On Earth, if an object has a velocity of 8 < v < 11.2 km/s, and is given horizontal motion, it will go into
orbit.

CIRCULAR MOTION

An object moving in a circle will experience a constant speed, however, it will undergo acceleration
aimed towards the centre of the circle. Centripetal acceleration is given by , and from ,
it follows that:

𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹𝑐
𝑟

For Fc as centripetal force, m and v as the mass and velocity of the object, and r as the radius of
the circle.
Centripetal force does not arise because of circular motion, instead, circular motion results because
of centripetal force. The centripetal force for a satellite is provided by the gravitational field of the
Earth.

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ACCELERATION AND THE HUMAN BODY

The body is not affected by velocity, but by acceleration. The ‘g-force’ on an object is a term used to
describe the force on an object compared to its weight (or the force of gravity)

When an object is in freefall, its apparent weight is 0, and thus zero g’s of force apply. This is why
people in orbit are weightless. 3-5g’s of force are tolerable if acted from above, but any more than
this can cause organ displacement and blackouts. If the astronaut is lying down, up to 10g’s are
tolerable for short periods of time. Astronauts have oxygen supplies and contoured seats to reduce
the effects of high g forces.

USING THE EARTH’S ROTATION TO PUT ROCKETS IN ORBIT

We can use the Earth’s rotation to help put satellites into orbit. At the equator, the Earth rotates at
464m/s, and thus this velocity can be used to ‘help’ a satellite reach orbit. Launch sites are located as
close to the equator as possible to help with this.

LAUNCHING A ROCKET

The space shuttle consists of the orbiter, a fuel tank and two booster rockets. As the fuel is burnt,
the resulting gases are ejected from the base of the rocket. In order to conserve momentum, the
rocket itself moves upwards.

As fuel is burnt and empty tanks are ejected, mass decreases and thus the rocket accelerates at an
increasing rate.

FORCES ON ASTRONAUTS

However, because acceleration is increasing, the g-forces on astronauts will increase throughout the
take-off. In an ideal take-off, a multiple-stage rocket will increase g-forces to a safe limit, before
switching to the second stage once fuel is exhausted, decreasing g-forces before they begin to climb
again.

TYPES OF ORBIT

 Low Earth orbits are satellites with an altitude of less than around 1500km. They are
commonly used for fast communication and for satellite imagery. Many of these satellites
are in polar orbits, so they span the Earth as it rotates.
 Geostationary orbits are satellites with an orbit period of 24 hours. This requires an altitude
of around 35,800km. Thus, geostationary orbits will always stay above the same point on
Earth, making them useful as weather satellites.

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ORBITAL VELOCITY

2
Orbital velocity is the speed at which an object in orbit moves. It is found by .

KEPLER’S LAW OF PERIODS

𝑟3 𝐺𝑀
𝑇2 4𝜋 2

Where r is orbital radius, T is period, G is the gravitational constant and M is the mass of the
planet

Thus, orbital velocity depends upon the radius of the orbit and mass of the planet, but is
independent of the mass of the satellite. The smaller the radius, the faster the satellite must travel.

ORBITAL DECAY

The exosphere extends to around 9600km above the Earth’s surface, and thus low-Earth satellites
experience atmospheric drag. Friction results in a loss of energy to heat, which decreases speed,
then radius, increasing friction…eventually, heat from collisions will cause the satellite to burn up.

SAFE RE-ENTRY

Several issues need to be taken into account when attempting to return a spacecraft sately to Earth.

HEATING

As a spacecraft enters, its kinetic and gravitational potential energy are converted into heat. This
must be distributed, or…it won’t be pretty. By presenting a blunt, flat surface to strike the
atmosphere, a shock wave is created which absorbs a lot of heat. In addition, the outer layers of the
spacecraft may ablate, vaporise and thus carry away heat energy. The space shuttle uses carbon
coatings and porous tiles to absorb heat. They do not ablate.

G-FORCES

Re-entry requires large deceleration and therefore large g-forces. For early spacecraft, this was
around15g’s, but for the space shuttle it is no more than 3g’s. In order to achieve this, the shuttle
makes s-bends to make its descent last longer.

IONISATION BLACKOUT

Heat around the craft causes ionisation of particles, preventing communication signals. This lasts for
16 minutes for the space shuttle.

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ANGLE OF DESCENT

Spacecraft have a re-entry window of between 5-7o. If the craft descents at less than this angle, it
will bounce off the atmosphere, but if it descents too steeply, the craft will burn up due to the heat
of acceleration.

PIONEERS OF SPACE EXPLORATION

HERMANN OBERTH

Oberth’s book, ‘The Rocket into Interplanetary Space’ set out the requirements for a rocket to reach
escape velocity, and proved that travel above the atmosphere is possible. Another of his books, ‘The
Road to Space Travel’ predicted many elements of modern spacecraft design, such as liquid fuels,
multistage rockets and methods of re-entry well before they were put into use. He also worked on
the long-distance V2 rocket during World War 2.

THE SOLAR SYSTEM IS HELD TOGETHER BY GRAVITY

NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

Newton proposed that ‘any two objects attract each other with a force proportional to the product
of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their separation.’

𝑚 𝑚2
𝐹 𝐺
𝑑2

For F as force, G as the gravitational constant, m1 and m2 as the masses of the two objects and d
as the distance between them.
THE GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

A gravitational field surrounds any object which has mass. Any other mass placed within this field
will experience a force. Theoretically, this field extends to an infinite distance from the object.

Gravitational field strength is a ratio of force to mass of an object in a field. Also, . g can refer
to the strength of a gravitational field and to the acceleration of any object within it (Because ,
but .

THE STRENGTH OF THE GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

G is proportional to the mass of the planet and inversely proportional to the square of its radius, and
thus any object will experience the same acceleration. On Earth, minor variations to g may result
because of mineral formations, underground cavities, mountains, valleys and other formations.

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NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION AND SATELLITE MOTION

Satellite motion is only possible because of the centripetal force between the satellite and the planet
which it is orbiting, which is in turn only possible because of the gravity between the satellite and
the planet, and thus Newton’s law of universal gravitation is greatly important for satellite motion.

This relationship can be seen through the face that Kepler’s law of periods can be derived using
Newton’s law of universal gravitation and the equation for centripetal force.

THE SLINGSHOT EFFECT

The slingshot effect is a consequence of the gravitational field around planets and can be used to
provide spacecraft with momentum without burning fuel.

Relative to the planet, the spacecraft’s potential energy changes into kinetic energy as it approaches
the planet and changes back into potential energy as it leaves. There is a change of direction, but not
of speed.

Relative to the sun, the change of direction means that the spacecraft has gained velocity, as it was
previously moving against the planet, but is now moving with it. The spacecraft has taken some of
the planet’s angular momentum, however, because of the planet’s huge mass there is little decrease
in velocity.

The slingshot effect has been successfully used many times to give a spacecraft velocity without
burning fuel.

MODELS FOR LIGHT, TIME AND SPACE

THE AETHER

The aether model was a model suggested first by the ancient Greeks and was widely accepted until
the 1900s. It suggested that all space was filled with an invisible, massless subject called the aether.
In the model of Rene Descartes, planets could only move because of contact with the aether, and
light was transmitted by the aether putting pressure on your eye. Light was considered to be a
compression wave moving through the aether.

It was suggested that the aether was a solid substance similar to wax. It had to be solid, as it was
believed light could only travel through solids. However, it also had to allow motion.

It was concluded that, because the Earth moves through the aether, we should be able to detect an
‘aether wind’, just as a car has a wind blowing past it, this wind would be detectable through
variations to the speed of light.

THE MICHELSON-MORLEY EXPERIMENT

The Michelson-Morley experiment attempted to prove the existence of the aether by having two
light beams travel different paths along an apparatus. One beam would travel with the aether, and

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the other against it, and thus the beams would arrive at different times at the receiver.
However, it was found that both beams arrived at the time, no matter what, and thus no motion of
the Earth relative to the aether was detectable.

COMPETING THEORIES

The Michelson-Morley experiment showed the aether model to be invalid, and instead supported
Einstein’s theory. However, the aether model was later modified to explain these results, such as by
saying that the Earth ‘dragged the Aether along with it’. As a result of these modifications, the
aether model continued to be popular well into the 1900s.

FRAMES OF REFERENCE

A frame of reference is a system in which we take measurements. All measurements are relative to a
certain frame of reference.

An inertial frame of reference is a frame of reference moving at a constant velocity (or at rest).
Newton’s First Law holds true in these frames.

A non-inertial frame of reference is a frame which is accelerating. Observers in these frames will
have forces acting upon them, and thus Newton’s First Law does not hold true within these frames.

INVESTIGATING FRAMES OF REFERENCE

To perform this investigation, we went to maccas. We did a prac in the bus on the way to maccas.
To perform this investigation, we did an investigation on the school bus. We tied hanging masses to
the roof of the bus, and observed them as we:

 Were stationary
 Accelerated
 Travelled at a constant velocity
 Decelerated
 Turned a corner.

We found that the masses hung directly vertical when we were in an inertial frame of reference, but
hung at an angle when we were in a non-intertial frame. (Then we possibly went to maccas).

PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY

Relativity did not begin with Einstein, in fact, it had been around in various forms since Galileo’s time.
Galileo began by saying The laws of mechanics are the same for a body at rest and a body in motion.
Newton extended this by saying It is impossible to do any mechanical experiment within an interial
frame to show whether that frame is moving or at rest. Poincare extended the principle of relativity
to include the laws of electromagnetism.

Finally, Einstein made two postulates which form the modern principle of relativity:

1. The laws of physics are the same for all inertial frames of reference

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 2. The speed of light is constant for all observers.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF EINSTEIN’S ASSUMPTION ABOUT THE SPEED OF LIGHT

This is one of the greatest changes of thinking experienced by modern science to date. This
assumption explained the Michelson-Morley experiment and thus proved that there is no such thing
as an absolute frame of reference, overturning the aether theory that had stood for centuries.

IMPLICATIONS OF THE CONSTANCY OF THE SPEED OF LIGHT

As a result of the constancy of the speed of light, time and space are both relative. That is, when we
travel at high speeds, variables that we assume to be true (length, mass and time) must change in
order to keep the speed of light constant.

MEASUREMENT

All measurements are relative to a particular frame of reference, and are made by comparing a
particular measurement to a standard.

In the past, the standard for 1 metre was the distance between two lines marked in a platinum-
iridium bar kept in a French museum. However, in order to make a standard when measuring
relative lengths, it has been necessary to redefine length in terms of time. 1 metre is now defined as
the length travelled by light in of a second.]
2 2 45

THOUGHT AND REALITY

Einstein used many thought experiments to prove his theories, largely due to the technical
limitations of the time. Thought experiments can be quite accurate, however, care needs to be taken,
as our expectations of what will happen are largely determined by our previous experiences.

One thought experiment performed by Einstein was holding a mirror in front of him on a train
moving at the speed of light. If he could see his image, an observer outside the train would see light
travelling at 2c, which is not possible. If he could not see his image, he would be able to infer that he
was moving, which is also not allowed. This thought experiment was a major part of Einstein’s
theory of relativity.

RELATIVITY OF SIMULTANEITY

The relativity of simultaneity states that observers I different frames of reference will disagree about
whether or not events are simultaneous. This can be shown through the thought experiment of light
operated doors on a fast moving train.

LENGTH CONTRACTION

From simultaneity, it can be proven that lengths must contract within a fast moving object. Einstein
proved this with another trains-and-mirrors thought experiment, which I won’t go into here.

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 𝑣2
𝑙𝑣 𝑙𝑜 1 −
𝑐2

𝑣
Where lv is observed length, lo is stationary length and 𝑐 is the ratio of speed to speed of light.

TIME DILATION

Due to time dilation, time passes slower in a moving frame than in a stationary frame. This cannot be
noticed by an observer in the moving frame. To them, time passes more quickly outside the frame.
This was shown through a ‘light-clock’ experiment. In a moving frame, the light must travel further
for the clock to tick, thus, an observer sees that time passes more slowly in the moving system.

𝑡𝑜
𝑡𝑣
2
√1 − 𝑣 2
𝑐
𝑣
Where tv is measured time, to is stationary time, and 𝑐 is the ratio of speed to the speed of light.

EQUIVALENCE OF MASS AND ENERGY

When work is done on an object, energy becomes acceleration. As an object approaches c, its
acceleration slows, and the energy is instead converted into mass. Thus, mass and energy are
interchangeable. Small amounts of mass can be converted into huge amounts of energy in
accordance with Einstein’s famous equation:

𝐸 𝑚𝑐 2

Where E is energy, m is mass and c is the speed of light…squared.

MASS DILATION

As objects cannot continue to accelerate past the speed of light, when they reach very high speeds,
their mass begins to increase to slow acceleration. Thus, the mass of a moving object is greater than
when it is at rest.

𝑚𝑜
𝑚𝑣
2
√1 − 𝑣 2
𝑐
𝑣
Where mv is measured mass, mo is stationary mass, and 𝑐 is the ratio of speed to the speed of
light.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THEORIES AND THE EVIDENCE SUPPORTING IT

Usually, predictions are made after data is recorded. However, at Einstein’s time, there was no
technology available that would be able to validate his predictions.

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Today, there exists plentiful evidence for relativity:

 Time dilation has been shown through atomic clocks that have been flown around the world.
On their return, they lag behind stationary clocks.
 Muons created in the upper atmosphere have a longer lifespan when travelling to the
surface at near-light speeds.
 Mass (and time) dilation can be seen in particle accelerators.
 2
can be seen in atomic weapons and nuclear reactors.

SPACE TRAVEL AND RELATIVITY

Space travel has great implications for space travel. It proves that time travel into the future is
possible. Extremely long distances can be theoretically travelled with little ageing by the astronaut.
However, communication with the spacecraft is almost impossible and by the time the ship returned,
potentially hundreds of years would have passed on Earth. In addition, mass dilation means that
even just getting a spacecraft to the sorts of speeds required would be impossibly expensive and
difficult.

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