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Article history: One of the most widely used approaches for transformer protection is the low impedance differential
Received 24 August 2014 relay, which can be adversely affected by inrush currents. Although the conventional inrush current
Received in revised form 16 August 2015 detectors, i.e. the gap detection and second harmonic criteria, can block the differential relay in most
Accepted 28 August 2015
of such cases, they are severely prone to maloperation in the case of large inrush currents. This paper pre-
Available online 11 September 2015
sents a new strategy to enhance the security of the differential relay. The suggested approach exploits an
intrinsic feature of large inrush currents in three-limb three-phase transformers with the widely used
Keywords:
star-delta connection. Based on the feature, some novel criteria are proposed to improve the inrush cur-
Differential relay
Helping effect
rent detection scheme. To evaluate the performance of the proposed approach for both inrush current
Large inrush current and internal fault phenomena, a real 230/63-kV power transformer is modeled based on the time-
Power transformer protection based transient simulation. Extensive simulation studies and also evaluation using real data reveal that
Security the proposed approach results in a more secure inrush current discrimination method.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction ential relay should be blocked when the current harmonic ratio
exceeds a predefined set-value [3]. The current harmonic approach
Power transformer is one of the most important equipment in may fail to distinguish large inrush currents, which can occur dur-
electrical systems. Thus, it should be protected by fast and accurate ing energizing a transformer with a considerable remanent flux,
relays to prevent subsequent damages to the transformer due to especially for newly designed transformers [4]. Traditionally, the
internal faults. The low-impedance differential relay is one of the length of the time interval between the zero-crossing points of
most widely used approaches for transformer protection. However, the differential current, the so-called gap detection technique,
this relay may maloperate due to system disturbances, such as has been used by some relay manufacturers to discriminate inrush
over-excitation, CT saturation and especially magnetizing inrush and fault currents [5,6]. However, correct operation of the gap
current. detection technique is likely to be threatened by CT saturation
When a transformer is switched on, the core is likely to satu- which is probable due to a large dc component of the inrush cur-
rate. Under such a condition, the primary windings draw large rent [7].
magnetizing currents from the power system, known as inrush A variety of algorithms have been recently presented to over-
current, even when there are no secondary currents. This results come the inrush current detection problem. These include artificial
in a large differential current causing the transformer differential neutral network (ANN) [8], fuzzy logic [9,10] and wavelet analysis
relay to maloperate [1]. The ability of the differential relay to dis- [11–13]. However, some of these methods (1) need a large data set
tinguish magnetizing inrush currents from internal or external for training, (2) impose a high computational burden on the differ-
fault currents is a major concern when this relay is applied to pro- ential relay, (3) depend on the transformer parameters or initial
tect a transformer [2]. conditions, and (4) seem to be unpredictable against high-
To avoid the differential relay maloperation due to the inrush frequency noise [7]. Owing to these limitations, the methods have
current, it is a common practice to utilize the ratio of the second not reached a practical level yet, and the second harmonic and also
harmonic component of the differential current to its fundamental gap detection techniques are still widely used regardless of their
harmonic component. In this widely utilized approach, the differ- drawbacks to detect large inrush currents [14]. This paper
addresses a new strategy to improve the security of a differential
relay subjected to a large inrush current. In addition, unlike the
⇑ Corresponding author.
gap detection method, the approach is not sensitive to the inrush
E-mail addresses: h.dashti@ut.ac.ir (H. Dashti), m.davarpanah@ut.ac.ir
(M. Davarpanah), msanaye@ut.ac.ir (M. Sanaye-Pasand), h.lesani@ut.ac.ir
current measured by a saturated CT. Furthermore, the proposed
(H. Lesani).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2015.08.025
0142-0615/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Dashti et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 75 (2016) 74–82 75
Nomenclature
iA[j] instantaneous current of phase A at the HV-side NDF normalized difference function
iZ[j] zero-sequence current of the HV-side NDF mean value of NDF in each cycle
ia[j] LV-side current of phase-a DF difference function
ic[j] LV-side current of phase-c pu per unit
IN rated current of the HV-side Br residual flux density
In rated current of the LV-side CT current transformer
KCF correction factor equal to the HV-side CT ratio over the NO not operated (illustrating a poor performance)
LV-side one T sampling interval
N number of samples per cycle ms millisecond
np differential current peak value sample number
Current (pu)
with the conventional methods. 0.8
0.6
Conventional inrush current detection approaches
0.4
Conventional approaches often utilize instantaneous differen-
tial current to discriminate between inrush and fault currents. This 0.2
section precisely reports how the differential current should be cal- dwell time
0
culated and how conventional approaches exploit such a current.
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
Furthermore, conventional approaches shortcomings to detect Samples
large inrush currents are scrutinized.
Fig. 2. A typical inrush current.
Calculating instantaneous differential current
The schematic diagram of a power transformer is illustrated in of the HV-side and LV-side, respectively. KCF is a correction factor
Fig. 1 with the vector group YNd11. Since the currents at the equal to the HV-side CT ratio over the LV-side one.
transformer low voltage (LV)-side lag those of the high voltage
(HV)-side by 30°, the current phase-shift due to the YNd vector Conventional approaches
group should be compensated to calculate the differential current.
Furthermore, the zero-sequence current should be eliminated from Most commercial differential relays are supplemented by the
the transformer HV-side whose winding is grounded [15]. To ratio of the second harmonic to the fundamental component of
achieve these objectives, the instantaneous differential current of the differential current to recognize inrush current conditions.
phase A is calculated by The ratio has been usually set at the range of 12–20%. Fig. 2
illustrates a typical transformer inrush current waveform, which
iA ½j iZ ½j ia ½j ic ½j
iAdiff ½j ¼ þ K CF pffiffiffi ð1Þ includes a fraction of time in each power system cycle, known as
IN 3I n dwell time as specified in Fig. 2, where the differential current is
almost zero. Therefore, an inrush condition can be identified where
where iA[j] is the instantaneous current of phase A at the HV-side.
current enters the differential relay operating characteristic
iZ[j] is the zero-sequence current of the HV-side calculated by
whereas the differential current is less than 5% of the rated current
adding up the phase currents. ia[j] and ic[j] are the LV-side currents
for about a quarter of the fundamental power system cycle [16].
of phase-a and phase-c, respectively. IN and In are the rated currents
This criterion is known as the gap detection approach.
CT saturation due to both of the short circuit fault and inrush
currents adversely affects both inrush current detection criteria.
iA
When CT saturation occurs after a short interval subsequent to
an internal fault, CT output currents may be distorted which
A ia
include large harmonic components. Consequently, second har-
a monic criterion may incorrectly operate and block the differential
b relay. However, the gap detection approach can usually distinguish
ib
such a case from inrush current conditions.
On the other hand, when CT saturates due to the transformer
C B c inrush current, the CT output current will shift down in respect
ic
iC to the non-saturated CT current as illustrated in Fig. 3, which
endangers correct operation of the gap detection approach.
iB However, the second harmonic criterion can well operate and
block the differential relay. Accordingly, to take advantage of both
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of a YNd11 power transformer. methods while avoiding their drawbacks, combination of the
76 H. Dashti et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 75 (2016) 74–82
IA shown in Fig. 3a, second harmonic ratio becomes smaller than the
2 pre-defined threshold of 0.15 at 517 ms, i.e., 17 ms after the
Current (kA)
t4
lows the hysteresis curve to zero, whereas the flux density may t2
be a non-zero value Br, i.e., remanent flux. This depends on the O
0
instant of the transformer switching-off and the power factor of
the load connected to the secondary side [18,19]. For a remanent
flux density of +Br, a maximum inrush current is drawn when a
transformer is switched on at the instant of the zero voltage with t3
the positive rate of change of the voltage, as shown in Fig. 4. In such -2
conditions, the flux density can theoretically reach the peak posi-
tive value of Br + 2Bmp, where Bmp the is peak of the flux density
which is produced by applying the rated voltage to the transformer
at the voltage peak with zero remanent flux [18]. This condition -4
0 10 20 30 40 50
drives the core into a heavy saturation and thus leads to large
Time (ms)
inrush currents.
Fig. 3 illustrates a simulated large inrush current for which both Fig. 5. Three phase inrush currents in a three-phase transformer with YNd
of the second harmonic and gap detection criteria are evaluated. As connection.
H. Dashti et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 75 (2016) 74–82 77
After t1, phase-B saturates and starts to experience its own I x-diff
inrush as the current magnitude begins to increase quickly and 1.5
thus affects on the helping current. From t1 to t2, phase-C current
is larger than phase-B current. Consequently, the helping-current
1 39
is mainly influenced by the phase-B current during the above men- 11 DF [14]≈ 0
tioned time interval. As such, phase-A current has an opposite rate
of change with respect to that of the phase-B current. This current 0.5
Current (pu)
helps to decrease the phase-C inrush current by generating the
opposite magnetic flux. 0 np=75
np=25
After t2, the phase-B inrush current is greater than that of the
phase-C in magnitude. Thus, phase-A current, which is propor- -0.5
tional to the helping current, helps to reduce the phase-B inrush
current by generating a magnetic flux with the opposite polarity. DF [14]≈ 0 61 89
-1
From t3 to t4, phase-C is dominated and determines the helping
current polarity and amplitude. This process is repeated in the next
cycle. -1.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
According to Fig. 5, the helping effect distorts phase-B and
Time (ms)
phase-C inrush current waveforms specifically at the t1 and t3
instants, respectively. These phenomena result in distortion of (a)
instantaneous differential currents, especially for large inrush cur-
Ix-diff
rent conditions. Phase-A differential current of a YNd transformer
as compared with that of a YNy transformer is illustrated in 3.5
data window
Fig. 6, when both are energized at phase-A zero voltage instant
with the remanent flux of 84%. The YNy transformer inrush current 3
is almost symmetrical with respect to its corresponding peak;
however, symmetry of the YNd transformer inrush current 2.5
waveform is affected due to the abovementioned phenomena. Current (pu)
It should be noted that a larger inrush current results in more 2
asymmetry of one or two transformer current waveforms. This is
exploited to extract an index for applying a novel inrush current 1.5
detection approach that can well operate under large inrush cur- 27
rent conditions and therefore can complement the conventional 1 DF [28]
approaches. The index is elaborated in the following section.
0.5
Difference function 83
np= 55
0
The proposed method is activated once the power transformer 0 4 8 12 16 20
is energized, which can result in a large inrush current unde- Time (ms)
tectable by the conventional approaches. Afterwards, a window
is constructed that begins at one sample after the zero-crossing
instant of the differential current. At the np sampling point, the
current extremum is reached whose current value is denoted by
ixdiff[np], where x represent one of the phase A, B or C. As DF [5]
IdiffA (YNd)
4.5 Peak
IdiffA (YNy)
3.5
Current (pu)
2.5
(b)
2
Fig. 7. DF calculation for the differential current of a typical large inrush event.
1.5
illustrated in Fig. 7a, the two sides of the current local extremum
1 is thoroughly symmetrical for a fault current neglecting the decay-
ing DC component. Fig. 7b illustrates an inrush current of the same
0.5 transformer. It can be seen that the samples are not symmetrical
anymore with respect to vertical line passing through the current
0
peak. To quantify such asymmetries, the difference function, i.e.,
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
DF, is defined as
Samples
DF½j ¼ ixdiff ½np j ixdiff ½np þ j; j ¼ 1; . . . ; np ð2Þ
Fig. 6. Phase-A inrush current waveform of YNy and YNd transformers.
78 H. Dashti et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 75 (2016) 74–82
where ixdiff [0] denotes the differential current sample after the Saturated CT current
zero-crossing instant, when the transformer is energized. It should 3 Non-saturated CT current
be noted that DF is computed in each cycle after transformer ener-
gization including the time interval when the calculated differential 2.5
currents enter the differential relay characteristic. When the inrush
current damps out, applying the proposed complementary 2
approach is not required anymore.
Current (pu)
1.5
The difference function might be sensitive to the differential
current extremum. Therefore, its associated threshold to recognize
1
the inrush current should be determined for each transformer. To
overcome such a problem, the normalized difference function
0.5
(NDF), i.e., DF/max(Ixdiff) is used and compared with the pre-set
threshold Th to eliminate the current extremum dependency. It
0
should be noted that Ixdiff is the rms value of the differential cur-
rent that is determined for each sample, and max(Ixdiff) is the -0.5
maximum value for each cycle. The next section reports NDF eval-
uation under various system disturbances and also explains how 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Th should be selected. Time (ms)
The defined NDF is initially evaluated for large inrush currents. gap detection approaches until 366 ms after the transformer
Subsequently, to determine the appropriate threshold, NDF should energization.
also be determined under system disturbances including CT satu-
ration subsequent to the large inrush current, internal or external Inrush current distorted by CT saturation
fault current including maximum decaying dc and transformer Inrush currents usually contain a noticeable dc component,
internal faults that may occur after the transformer energization. which results in CT saturation. Fig. 9 illustrates phase-A differential
These are studied in the following. current where the CT output current saturates as a result of the
inrush current, 380 ms after transformer energizing, in comparison
with a non-saturated one. Symmetry of the differential current
Large inrush current waveform not only is adversely affected due to the helping effect
The normalized difference function is computed for inrush cur- phenomenon, but also is severely influenced by CT saturation
rent waveforms of a YNd transformer for the following extreme distortions. Fig. 10 shows NDF calculated for the inrush current
conditions, as illustrated in Fig. 8. subjected to CT saturation, as compared with the non-saturated
CT. Since CT saturation intensifies the degree of asymmetry of
Case 1: Energizing the transformer with 84% remanent flux at the inrush current, larger NDF is resulted that facilitates discrimi-
the voltage zero crossing instant (VZCI). nation between the inrush current and other disturbances.
Case 2: Energizing the transformer with 84% remanent flux 1 ms
after VZCI.
Fault current including decaying DC
Case 3: Energizing the transformer with 84% remanent flux 2 ms
Fault currents often include a decaying DC component in addi-
after VZCI.
tion to the fundamental frequency component. In the presence of
Case 4: Energizing the transformer with 84% remanent flux 3 ms
the decaying DC component, the symmetry of the current wave-
after VZCI.
form with respect to its associated peak value is slightly affected.
The DC component depends on the X/R ratio of the system.
Larger inrush current leads to more asymmetry of current
Fig. 11a illustrates a typical current with a decaying DC component
waveform due to the helping current phenomenon. As shown in
resulted by a short circuit fault in a system with X/R = 40. As shown
Fig. 8, a noticeable NDF is resulted for the largest inrush, case 1,
in Fig. 11b, NDF increases only to 0.2, which has a considerable
which cannot be detected based on the harmonic ratio and the
margin the corresponding NDF for large inrush currents.
0.6
Internal fault subsequent to transformer energization
Energizing at VZCI
To enhance the performance of the conventional approaches to
1 ms after VZCI
recognize inrush currents and prevent differential relay malopera-
)
0.2
eration where an internal fault occurs subsequent to the transformer
energization. To evaluate the proposed approach performance sub-
0
jected to such a condition, various cases are studied as follows.
Saturated CT As shown in Fig. 8, the NDF crest exceeds 0.6 perunit for the lar-
0.9 Non-saturated CT gest inrush current whereas it is limited to 0.2 perunit for fault cur-
rents including a large decaying DC component. Furthermore, the
0.8 NDF crest is not beyond 0.2 for the studied internal faults following
0.7 the transformer energization. Accordingly, maximum NDF crest in
NDF = DF / Max ( Ix-diff )
idiff-A 0.1
Current (pu)
40
20
0 0.05
-20
(a)
0
0.2
NDF
0.1
Phase-to-phase fault
0 Turn-to-turn fault
-0.05
500 520 540 560 580 600 620 V_zero 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
(b) Time (ms)
Fig. 11. (a) Fault current including a noticeable decaying DC component, and (b) Fig. 12. NDF evaluation for energizing the YNd transformer subjected to internal
NDF evaluation for the fault current. faults.
80 H. Dashti et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 75 (2016) 74–82
Current (pu)
idiff-A 4
4 2
Current (pu)
0
220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500
2 (a)
0.4
Criterion1
0 0.2
500 520 540 560 580 600 620
0
Time (ms)
(b)
Fig. 13. Fault current waveform for case 5.
Criterion2
5
Criterion3
value, i.e., Th, which is discussed in the following section. 0.1
0.05
0
Evaluating the proposed index
(d)
1500
To evaluate the proposed index performance under the worst
1000
FC
scenarios and to properly adjust the FC threshold for discriminat- 500
ing large inrush currents, this section reports a set of test cases Th
based on digital time-domain simulation studies. 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500
(e)
Studied system Second harmonic criterion
1
Fig. 14 shows the test system under study. The system is com-
Ratio
posed of a 230/63 kV, YNd transformer and the corresponding CTs, 0.5
which is connected to a voltage source through a Thevenine impe-
dance. A new power transformer model is developed in the PSCAD/ 0
EMTDC software environment to study both inrush currents con- Gap detection criterion
Dwell time (ms)
sidering the remanent flux and also internal faults [21]. Not only 5
4
internal faults and inrush currents can be individually studied 3
using the developed transformer model, but also the model can 2
1
be used to study their combination, i.e., an internal fault subse- 0
quent to an inrush current caused by the transformer energization. 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500
Time (ms)
Simulation results
(f)
Fig. 15. (a) Inrush current, (b)–(d) obtained criteria 1–3, (e) obtained final criterion,
Various simulation studies were performed on the system and (f) conventional approaches performance, for a large inrush current.
under study to investigate the proposed approach performance
and specially to adjust the Th parameter. As an example, Fig. 15
illustrates transformer phase-A current including 92% remanent Table 1
Proposed criteria amount and relay maloperation blocking time interval for conven-
flux energized at 1 ms after the voltage zero crossing instant. The
tional approaches, large inrush currents.
proposed three criteria are evaluated for the phase-A differential
current which are depicted in Fig. 15b–d. When the simulation Case Minimum value of criteria Maloperation time interval
no. (ms)
time elapses, the second and third criteria gradually decrease;
however, the first criterion increases at the same time. Conse- Criter. Criter. Criter. FC Second Gap
1 2 3 harmonic detection
quently, these criteria supplement each other, where they are com-
bined to produce the final criterion. The FC is shown in Fig. 15e 1 0.594 11.98 0.228 8480 366 142
which is greater than 1070 for the whole simulation time. 2 0.354 5.47 0.13 1200 276 243
3 0.181 3.38 0.09 276 165 243
Performance of the proposed approach for various inrush cur- 4 0.472 6.4 0.154 2330 164 0
rent conditions and CT saturations is summarized in Table 1. Since 5 0.537 12 0.21 6950 335 222
a combined scheme would be utilized for decision making, the pro- 6 0.306 5.8 0.121 1076 352 303
posed index should recognize inrush currents for which the con- 7 0.156 3 0.074 175 225 321
8 0.41 5.8 0.126 1496 52 241
9 0.93 18.1 0.29 26,200 0 NO
1
Real disturbance
0
To more precisely investigate the proposed strategy perfor-
-1 mance, energizing a real YNd11, 230/63 kV, 180 MVA transformer
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
is practically examined. The inrush current signals are recorded
(a) by the relay fault recorder at the sampling frequency of 1600 Hz.
400 The inrush current of phase-C is illustrated in Fig. 16a. Since the
inrush current contains a large decaying DC component, CT satu-
rates four cycles after transformer energization, which distorts
300
the inrush current. Fig. 16b illustrates the obtained FC whose least
amount is 148. Since Th is set at 100, the proposed approach can
FC
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