1.

Electromagnetic Waves

The Wave Equation in One Dimension

In one dimension, the wave equation is (f= f(z,t))

2 2
! f = 1 ! f
2 2 2 (v=const.) (1.1)
!z v !t

where "z" is the space coordinate and "t" the time. Notice the
partial derivative in (1.1). Because these are partial
derivatives, Eq.(1.1) admits any solution of the form

f(z,t) = g(z-vt). (1.2)

This is easily proved as follows. Define u z-vt. Then

!f !g !u !g !f !g !u !g
= !u !z = !u, = =-v !u, (1.3)
!z !t !u !t

Therefore

2 2 2
! f ! !g ! g !u ! g
2 = !z (!u) = 2 !z = 2, (1.4)
!z !u !u
2 2 2
! f ! !g ! g !u 2 ! g
2 = -v !t (!u) = -v 2 !t = v 2. (1.5)
!t !u !u
2 2
! f 1 ! f
" 2 - 2 2 = 0. (1.6)
!z v !t

Actually, it is easy to see that

f(z,t) = h(z+vt), (1.7)

1.2

is also a solution to (1.1), so the most general solution can

be represented by

"term1" "term2"
f(z,t) = g(z-vt) + h(z+vt). (1.8)

If v > 0, then "term 1" above represents a wave traveling

toward more positive z-values, "term 2" represents a wave
traveling to more negative z-values. Both waves maintain their
shape as they move.
Please note the usual connections

#$ = v,

2%
# = wavelength (= |k| ),

|k|v
$ = frequency (= 2% ),

v = wave velocity.

We will use a convenient representation of a sinusoidal wave

as (& = 2%$ is called "angular frequency")

i(kz - &t)
cos( k z - &t ) = Re [e ]. (1.9)

Obviously, one also has

i(kz - &t)
sin ( k z - &t ) = Re [-ie ]. (1.10)

One may absorb a general phase factor, ', into the plane wave
by using

i(kz - &t ')

cos( k z - &t + ') = Re [e ]. (1.11)

Thus, a general sine wave in 1 dimension is (incorporating 2

undermined constants, A and ')
 1.3

real

<
~
f(z,t) = A cos ( kz - &t + '),
~
= Re [f(z,t)], (1.12)

where

~ ~ i(kz - &t)
f(z,t) = A e , (1.13)

~ i' ~
and A = A e . f(z,t) is real but f(z,t) is complex in
general.
There are two ways to characterize the general solution
to Eq.(1.1). The first is to write

+ ~
~ 1
f(z,t) = *dk A(k) ei(kz - &(k)t). (1.14)
) 2%
( -+

We choose &(k) = |k|v (v=c for electromagnetic waves in free

space) so that k>0, k<0 represent waves traveling in the
positive or negative z directions, respectively. This is just
a linear combination of the sinusoidal waves in Eq.(1.13).
Then

1 + ~ +ikz ~
f(z,0) = *dk [A e + A* e-ikz], (1.15)
2)( 2% -+

!f(z,0) +
1 ~ +ikz ~
!t = *dk(-i&) [A e - A* e-ikz]. (1.16)
2)( 2% -+

We can invert these using the Fourier theorem and solve for
~
A(k):

~ 1 + .- !f(z,0)10
i
A(k) = *dz e-ikz -, f(z,0) + &(k) !t 0/, (1.17)
) ( 2% -+
1.4

!f(z,0)
Thus, if we know f(z,0) and , we can solve for the wave
!t
at later times.
The second form of a general solution is given by

+
1
f(z,t) =
2%
*d& e-i&t [A(&)e+ik(&)z + B(&)e-ik(&)z], (1.18)
) ( -+

where we are now integrating over & rather than k. Here we

choose k(&) = &/v. Notice I now include 2 terms to allow the
possibility that the wave with given & can go in + or - z
directions with different amplitudes. We can now get A(&) and
B(&) in terms of initial conditions on f(z,t):

+
1
f(0,t) = * d& e-i&t [A(&) + B(&)], (1.19)
) 2% -+
(
+
!f(0,t) 1
= * d&(ik)e-i&t [A(&) - B(&)]. (1.20)
!z
) 2% -+
(

Can invert and solve for A, B:

+ .- !f(0,t)10
1 *dt e+i&t 1
A(&) = -, f(0,t) + ik(&) !z 0/, (1.21)
2)( 2% -+

1 + .- !f(0,t)10
1
B(&) = *dt e+i&t -, f(0,t) - ik(&) !z 0/. (1.22)
2)( 2% -+

(1.21), (1.22) show that A*(-&) = A(&), B*(-&) = B(&) if k(-

&) = - k(&), consistent with the above choice. One can show
that this makes f(z,t) real and restricts the integration in
(1.18) to positive & values. Thus, if we know both f(0,t) and
!f(0,t)
at the origin, we may solve for the the complete
!z
!f(0,t)
spatial behavior. (Note that f(0,t), are real.) There
!z
are only two independent real functions here just like the
previous case.
 1.5

One Dimensional Scattering

Let us discuss aspects of the reflection and transmission of

electromagnetic waves. We will talk about sinusoidal waves, because any
other wave, as we have just seen, may be built up from these.

Consider the one-dimensional interface. (We will generalize this later.)

incoming wave

transmitted wave

reflection wave

1 2
z = 0- z = 0+
+ Z

interface

We will assume two conditions on f(z,t) at the interface:

1. f is continuous

!f
2. !z is continuous

~
Mathematically, these say (notice f now instead of f)

~ ~
1 => f(0-,t)=f(0+,t), (1.23)

~ ~
!f !f
2 => (!z)2z=0- = (!z)2z=0+ . (1.24)
1.6

We have in general that the wave has different velocities in

region 1 and 2 . We have the initial wave,

pos. z direction

<
~ ~ i(k z - &t)
fI(z,t) = A I e 1 , (1.25)

where k1 is the wave number in region 1. In addition, we have

(k1,k2 > 0)
neg. z direction

<
~ ~ i(- k1z - &t)
fR(z,t) = AR e , (1.26)
~ ~ i(k z - &t)
fT(z,t) = AT e 2 ,
(1.27)

for the reflected and transmitted waves, respectively.

Conditions 1 & 2 lead to

~ ~ ~
(1) => AI + AR = AT , (1.28)

~ ~ ~
(2) => k1 (AI - AR) = k2 AT. (1.29)

5k v 8
and therefore 4 2 = 17
3 1 v26
k

~ k -k ~ v -v ~
AR = ( k1 +k2 ) AI = (v2+v 1) AI, (1.30)
1 2 1 2

~ 2k ~ 2v2 ~
AT = ( k +1k ) AI = (v +v ) AI. (1.31)
1 2 1 2

~
Notice that if k2 > k1 (=> v1 > v 2) A R is negatively related to
~
A I . They are said to be out of phase by 180°. If k2 < k1
(=> v 1 < v2) all three amplitudes have the same complex phase,

'R = 'T = 'I , where

 1.7

~ ~ ~
A R = A R e i'R , A T = A T e i'T , A I = A I e i'I . (1.32)

Two Dimensional Scattering

Now let's consider scattering of waves from a two

dimensional interface in order to set up the general case.
See the below:

reflected transmitted

9R 9T

9I ^
n = ^z
+y
1
incident +z
2
interface
As far as the wave number vectors are concerned, the vectors
look like:
y

kI
kR
kT

9R 9T z
9I

R I
We now have (kz = -kz by definition; x = (y, z))

~ ~ I
fI(x,t) = AI ei(k • x- &t), (z<0) (1.33)
1.8

~ ~ R
fR(x,t) = AR ei(k • x- &t), (z<0) (1.34)

~ ~ T
fT(x,t) = AT ei(k • x- &t). (z >0) (1.35)

The two dimensional wave equation is

2 2 2
! f + ! f 1 ! f
2 2 = 2 2 , (1.36)
!y !z (vI,R,T) !t

and the above are solutions as long as

2
2 &
( k I, R, T) = 2 , (1.37)
(vI,R,T)

2 2 2 2
respectively. We of course have vI = vR => k I = kR . We will
generalize the boundary conditions, on the z = 0 line, to be

~ ~
: 1 f1 = :2 f2, (1.38)

•< ~ •< ~
; 1 n̂ f1 = ;2 n̂ f2, (1.39)

where n̂ = ẑ. We then get

~ ~ ~
: 1 (AI + AR) = :2 AT , (1.40)

I R T
ky = k y = k y , (1.41)

and

I ~ R ~ T ~
; 1 (kz AI + kz AR) = ;2 kz AT . (1.42)

I,R,T I,R,T
The above then gives (k are the magnitudes of k and
vI,R,T are velocity magnitudes)
 1.9

I R T
k sin 9I = k sin 9R = k sin 9T. (1.43)

=> sin 9I = sin 9R or 9I = 9R (1.44)

sin 9T I v
k
=> sin 9 = T = vT . (1.45)
I k I

~
Then, solving for AR,T from the above we have

~ 2 ~
AT = : AI, (1.46)
2
:1 + =

:2
~ : - = ~
AR = : 1 AI, (1.47)
2
:1 + =
where

T
;2 kz ; v cos9
= > I = ; 2vI cos9T. (1.48)
; 1 kz 1 T I

Electromagnetic Plane Waves

We are now ready to apply these considerations to plane

wave solutions of the macroscopic Maxwell equations in a
linear, non-conducting (dielectric) medium. We will assume ?,
" to be independent of &. We have (no sources; we use SI
units)

<@ E = 0, (1.49)
!B
< × E + !t = 0, (1.50)

<@ B = 0, (1.51)
1.10

!E !D
< × B - "? = 0. (< × H - !t = 0)) (1.52)
!t

We now have that

!B
< × (< × E + !t ) = 0, (1.53)
0
2 !
<(<@ E ) - < E + !t < × B = 0, (1.54)

!E
"? !t
2 !2
( < A "? )E = 0. (1.55)
!t2
Likewise

2 !2
( < A "? )B = 0. (1.56)
!t2

Equations (1.55) and (1.56) are three dimensional wave

equations. From either equation we identify the wave velocity,

1 c (1.57)
v = "? > n ,
) (

"? ck
where I have defined the index of refraction, n >
)( "0?0 = & .
The solutions are plane waves:

~ ik@x-i&t
E = Re (E0 e ) , (1.58)
~ ik@x-i&t
B = Re (B0 e ) . (1.59)

~ ~
(There can be arbitrary complex phases in E0, B 0.) These waves
travel in the k direction, the magnitude of which is given by

k2 = "? &2. (1.60)

 1.11

If we ride on the crest of a wave,

k@ x - &t = const.,
dx
k@ = &. (1.61)
dt

Define ^
k = k/k (does not mean the z-direction!). In the
@
direction of k, x > vphase^
kt, we have

& 1
vphase = k = . (1.62)
)( "?

< @ E = 0 demands

~ ik@x-i&t
<@ E = Re (iE 0@ k e ) = 0, (1.63)

~ ~
Re(E 0@ k) = Im(E0@ k) = 0, (1.64)

~
E 0@ ^
k =0. ( E@ k = 0 ) (1.65)

!B
From < × E = - !t , we then get

~ ~
B 0 = )( "? ^
k × E 0, ( B = )( "? ^
k × E,) (1.66)

~
B0@ ^
k = 0 also ( B@ k = 0 ). (1.67)

Oscillating motion of E & B is transverse to the direction of

motion. Since there are 2 directions B to a given k, there
can be two linerly indep. states of E or B.

^ 1,2 pointing in
(? spatial
Setup: some fixed directions)
1.12
12

^ ^
C ?1 × ^ ? 2 = k,
k
C ? 21,2 = 1.
^
C ?2
?1

So, in general we have

~
^i E0i eik@x-i&t),
E i = Re(? (1.68)
Still possibly complex
(i = 1,2) with

B = (
) "? ^
k × E i. (1.69)
i

Then, the most general plane waves can be written

E(x,t) = D Ei(x,t), (1.70)

i=1,2

B(x,t) = D Bi(x,t). (1.71)

i=1,2

~
Let us choose E0i real for the moment. Then E is given
instantaneously at a single point in space by

2 (E1, E2 oscillate
E (x,t) together in time)
E2

1
E1

^ out of page
k
 1.13
13

~
A complex phase difference in the E0i translates into a time
phase difference between the two components and the resulting
E can change in both magnitude & direction at a given x.
To understand what else it can do, let us introduce
another basis set:

^ 1 ^
? +_ = (? 1 -+ i ^
? 2). (1.72)
) ( 2

They are orthonormal in a complex sense:

? *+- . ^
^ ? -+ = 0, (1.73)

^
? *+- . ^
? +- = 1. (1.74)

The most general E can also be written:

~
? -+ eik@x
E +- = Re(E0-+ ^ i&t), (1.75)

E(x,t) = E + + E -. (1.76)

~
Let's say E0+ are real again. What do E + describe?
- -

~
E
E+ = 0+ ( ^? 1 cos (k@x-&t) - ^
? 2 sin (k@x-&t)), (1.77)
) ( 2

~
E
E- = 0- ( ^
? 1 cos (k@x-&t) + ^
? 2 sin (k@x-&t)). (1.78)
) 2
(

Pictures: (x fixed)
1.14
14

^ ^
?2 ?2

E+ E-

^? ^
?1
1

left circular right circularly

polarization polarized
(+ helicity) (- helicity)

The fact that 2 independent polarizations of the electric (and

magnetic) fields are possible is due to the photon nature of
light. The projection of photon spin can only point parallel
^.
or anti-parallel to k

Electromagnetic Scattering - Nonconducting Case

There are two cases, corresponding to the two types of

linear polarization. "Case I" is where the electric field is
parallel to the plane of incidence, defined by k I, k R. See
the below (x-axis into the page).

y E
ER T
kT
kR

9R 9T z

9I
EI
kI B "upward"

1 2

interface
= vector pointed "up"
 1.15
15

Notice that while E is in the plane of incidence, B is

everywhere parallel to the interface between the two mediums.
(The medium interface does not actually have to be flat; it's
radius of curvature must be much larger than the wavelength
being used.) The direction of B follows from

!B
<×E = - !t . (1.79)

Given the plane wave

~ ~
E (x,t) = E0 ei(k.x - &t)
, (1.80)
~ ~
B (x,t) = B0 ei(k.x - &t)
, (1.81)

~I ~I ^ ^ ~I ~I ^
where for example E 0 = E0 k I × x , B 0 = - B0 x for the incident
wave. In general

~ 1 ^ ~
B (x,t) = v k ×E (x,t) (1.82)

For the incident, reflected and transmitted amplitudes, this

means

~I 1 ~I ~R 1 ~R ~T 1 ~T
B0 = v E0, B0 = - v1 E0, B0 = v2 E0, (1.83)
1

The electromagnetic boundary conditions are:

(i) ?1E1z = ?2 E2z

(ii) B1z = B2z

|| ||
(iii) E 1 = E 2
1 || 1 ||
(iv) "1 B 1 = "2 B 2
1.16
16

||
("|| " refers to x, y components.) Notice in this case E has
only an y-component, and B has only a x-component. The only
conditions we will need in this case are (iii) and (iv).

We have

!E
"? !t = < ×B, (1.84)

~
~ -1 !Bx .
=> Ey = i&"? !z (1.85)

This means (iii) and (iv) may be written,

~ ~
1 !Bx 1 !Bx
(iii) => "1?1 !z|z = 0- = "2?2 !z |z = 0+ (1.86)

1 ~ 1 ~
(iv) => "1 Bx |z = 0- = "2 Bx |z = 0+ . (1.87)

By simply comparing this three-dimensional case to the (two-

dimensional!) equations (1.38) and (1.39) above, we see that

1 1
:1 = " , :2 = " , (1.88)
1 2

1 1
; 1 = " ? = v12 , ;2 = " ? = v22, (1.89)
1 1 2 2

; v cos9
=> = = ; 2 v1 cos9T , (1.90)
1 2 I

v2 cos9T
=
v1 cos9I . (1.91)

Thus we have immediately

 1.17
17

v
2 v1
~ ~
BT0 = 2 BI0 , (1.92)
"1v1 cos9T
"2v2 + cos9I

"1v1 cos9T
-
~ " v cos9I ~
BR = 2 2 BI0. (1.93)
0 "1v1 cos9T
+
"2v2 cos9I

~
How can these be related to the E0I,R,T? By (1.83) above,
we have that

~T 2 ~I
E0 = E0. (1.94)
"1v1 cos9T
"2v2 + cos9I

cos9T "1v1
-
~R cos9I "2v2 ~I
E0 = E0. (1.95)
cos9T "1v1
+
cos9I "2v2

Notice that

~T n1 ~I
n1 v1
E0 E0 1
= = n2 c = n2 .
~T ~I (1.96)
n2
cB0 cB0

~T ~T
Thus in the n 2 >> 1 limit, we have c B0 >> E0. Also notice in
the same limit that

~T n 2 >>1
E0 2
~I = "1n2 cos9T
0, (1.97)
E0 +
"2n1 cos9I
1.18
18

cos9T "1n2
~R - n 2 >>1
E0. = cos9I "2n1
- 1.
~I (1.98)
cos9T "1n2
E0 +
cos9I "2n1

and thus that there is a complete reflection at the wall with

a change of sign in the reflected wave. This limit will be
seen again when we consider conductors.
The case of E polarization perpendicular to the plane of
incidence (i.e. along the interface, which we will call "Case
II") is described by the picture:

y
kT
kR

BR 9R 9T
z

9I
BT
kI

BI E "upward"

1 2
interface

~ ~I
One may solve for ER,T
0 in terms of E0 as before, still using
only boundary conditions (iii) and (iv) above, written in
!Ex
terms of Ex and
!z . This will be left as an exercize.
The behavior of electromagnetic waves at interfaces are
determined by the laws of geometrical optics:

I. The incident, reflected and transmitted waves form a

plane.

II. 9I = 9R ,
 1.19
19

sin9T vT nI
III. sin9 = v = n ("Snell's law").
I I T

These laws hold in the limit # << radius of curvature of the

interface. Geometrical optics ignores the phenomena of
diffraction and interference and treats the light paths as
straight lines.

Notice that for

cos9T "1v1 "1n2

= (1.99)
cos9I "2v2 = "2n1 ,

~ ~
that both B R0 and E R0 vanish for Case I. This is called
Brewster's angle. Since

n
sin9T = 1 sin9I, (1.100)
n2

we obtain for this angle (9I > 9B)

"1n
1-( " n2)2
2 1 .
sin 29B = (1.101)
n "n
( n1)2 - ("1n2)2
2 2 1

Since the other polarization, Case II, does not vanish, at

this angle, this means the reflected wave is totally polarized
with E perpendicular to the plane of incidence (i.e.,
parallel to the interface)
For normal incidence (9I,R,T = 0) these results reduce to

"
2n1 n1 - ("1) n 2
~T ~I ~ ~I
E0 = "1 E0 (1.102) ER0 = 2
"1 E0 (1.103)
n1 + (" ) n 2 n1 + (" ) n 2
2 2
1.20
20

"
2n2 n1 - ("1) n2
~T ~I ~ ~I
B0 = "1 B0 (1.104) BR0 = - 2
"1 B0 (1.105)
n1 + (" ) n2 n1 + (" ) n2
2 2

"
Notice that for "1 E 1 (" E 1 is true for most materials) that
2
~
the results for E0 above just reduce to those of the one-
dimensional interface in (1.30) and (1.31). These normal
incidence results hold for both polarizations.

Energy Flow Across a Nonconducting Interface

One thing is sort of troubling about the discussion. We

started with a wave equation in one-dimension with quite
understandable boundary conditions, Eqs.(1.23) and (1.24),
expressing continuity. The boundary conditions on the three
dimensional fields which replaced them, (i)-(iv), involve
discontinuous field components. Surely, however, the energy
flow should be continuous. Is it?
We have the so-called Poynting vector,

1
S = E ×H = " E ×B , (1.106)

which describes the flow of electromagnetic energy. Using the

previous results, we may work out the incident (I) components
of S in the z-direction at the interface for the E parallel
to the plane of incidence polarization case:

1 ~ ~
I > <SIz > = 2 Re (E I x H I*)z. (1.107)

1
The factor of 2 comes from a time average (see the HW

problem.) Now

~ ~
(EI0)y = EI0 cos9I, (1.108)
 1.21
21

~ 1 ~ 1 ~I
(HI0)x = " (BI0)x = - E0 , (1.109)
1 " 1v1

1
=> II =
2"1v1 |~EI0|2 cos9I. (1.110)

Similarly, we have

1
IT =
2"2v2 |~ET0|2 cos9T, (1.111)

1
IR =
2"1v1 |~ER0|2 cos9R. (1.112)

Written in more detail for case I polarization,

cos9T
IT =
2"2v2 |~EI0|2 "1v1
4
cos9T 2
. (1.113)
(" v + cos9 )
2 2 I

cos9T "1v1
cos9
IR = 2" vR
1 1
|~EI0|2 ( cos9I
cos9T
-

+
"2v2
"1v1
) 2
.

cos9I "2v2

(1.114)

We have that

2cos9T cos9I cos9T "1v1 2

"2v2 + (
2"1v1 cos9I - "2v2)
IT + I R = |~EI0|2 [ cos9T "1v1 2
]. (1.115)
(
cos9I + "2v2 )
1
= 2"1v1
cos9I |~EI0|2 = I I. (1.116)

So, the flow of energy across the interface is continuous. Let

us define the transmission (T) and reflection (R) coefficients
as follows:
1.22
22

IT "1v1 |~ET0|2 cos9T

,
T = (1.117)
II "2v2
|~EI0|2 cos9I

IR |~ER0|2 .
R
II = (1.118)
|~EI0|2
So an equivalent statement is

T+R=1. (1.119)

Again, consideration of Case II will be left to an exercize.

Electromagnetic Scattering - Conducting Case

We now wish to change gears and establish what happens

when electromagnetic waves impinge on metallic surfaces.
First, write Maxwell's equations for Ohmic materials. Relevant
Maxwell eqns (E = E(x,t)):

.
< × H = D + J, (1.120)

.
-< × E = B . (1.121)

Let us consider the time motion of free charges (either

volume electrons in a metal or free electrons in a plasma) in
a medium for which (F(0) called "conductivity")

F(0)
J = F(0)E = ? D. (1.122)

More realistic treatments recognize that F=F(&), but here we

will treat F as a constant (essentially F(0)). Combining this
with charge conservation
 1.23
23

!G (x,t)
+ <@ J(x,t) = 0, (1.123)
!t

we get

!G 5 F(0) 8
+ <@ 4 ? D 7 = 0. (1.124)
!t 3 6

But because

< . D = G, (1.125)

we find

.- ! F(0)10
-, !t + ? 0/ G(x ,t) = 0. (1.126)

Then, given an initial charge density, G(x ,0), the solution to

this is

F
G(x ,t) = G(x ,0) exp(- ? t). (1.127)

The physical picture is: the free charges (and thus the fields
associated with them) are all expelled from the interior to
the surface. We know this is true since free charge resides
only on the surface of a conductor.
Fourier transform the field equations in time,

~
E = Re[E (x,&)e-i&t], (1.128)

~
B = Re[B (x,&)e-i&t]. (1.129)

We now have (? and " are space constants) the field equations, in
sourceless regions,

~
< . B = 0, (1.130)
1.24
24

~
< . E = 0, (1.131)

~ ~
< × B = -i"&? eff E, (1.132)

~ ~
< × E = i&B, (1.133)

where (using (1.122))

F
? eff = ? + i &. (1.134)

Think of a plane interface as a small portion of a

larger, non planar surface. Situation:

vacuum
",?eff
nˆ

constants in space
+ z region 1
region 2

As before,

~ ~
< ×(<× E) = i& < × B, (1.135)

which give for the Fourier time-transformed E field,

~
=> (<2 + "?eff &2) E = 0. (1.136)

Similarly we have the wave equation

~
=> (<2 + "?eff &2) B = 0. (1.137)
 1.25

Consider the special case of plane waves traveling in the z-direction.

2 !2
Then < H only and the above wave equations have solutions
!z2
~ ~
(E = Re[E (z,t)], B = Re[B (z,t)])

~ ~ i(k~ z-&t)
E (z,t) = E 0 e z , (1.138)

~ ~ i(k~ z-&t)
B (z,t) = B 0 e z , (1.139)

as long as

~2
k 2
z = "?eff & ,
F
= "&2 (? + i &),

(1.140)
and

~ ~
k ^ ~
B 0 = &z z × E 0. (1.141)

~
kz has both real and imaginary parts. One may show that

~
kz = k + iI, (1.142)

"?&2 F
k = 2 (
2
)( 1+(&?) 2 + 1), (1.143)

"?&2 F
2 ( 1+(&?)2 - 1).
I2 =
) ( (1.144)

Define "skin depth":

1
d > I. (1.145)

The boundary conditions for a conducting interface are the

same as the above, (i)-(iv). Reflection and transmission of
electromagnetic waves at a plane interface can be solved for
~ ~
by a modification of the above formulas for E and B and the
1.26

previous results for a nonconducting interface. We have, based on

Eqs.(1.102)-(1.105),
" ~
1 - ("1) n 2
~T 2 ~I ~R 2 ~I
E0 = "1 ~ E0 (1.146) E0 = " E0 (1.147)
~
1 + (" ) n2 1 + ("1) n 2
2 2
" ~
~ 1 - ("1) n 2
~T 2n ~I ~ ~I
B0 = 2
"1 ~ E0 (1.148) BR0 = - 2
" ~ B0 (1.149)
1 + (" ) n2 1 + ("1) n 2
2 2

(I am assuming n1=1.) The difference now is that I am writing

~
n2 for the effective dielectric constant rather than the n2 in
Eqs.(1.102)-(1.105). ~
n 2 is given by

~ c
n2 = & ~
kz. (1.150)

~ | becomes large (as discussed before

For conductors |n2
Eqs.(1.97), (1.98)), except that it goes to infinity through
complex numbers. Thus the fields are indeed mostly magnetic in
the interior of the conductor and the limits (1.97) and (1.98)
hold for the transmited and reflected waves.

Model of Constitutive Relations for Nonconductors

Let us now discuss some simple models for constitutive

relations in dielectrics. This model leads to a qualitative
understanding of the electromagnetic properties, especially
the response to external fields, in these materials. There is
a lot of physics here, but we must keep in the back of our
minds that the following is only a phenomenological
description.
In the macroscopic Maxwell equations, a distinction is
made between bound and free charges and currents. Of course in
real materials, these charges and currents are almost always
electrons. Consider such an electron, either bound or free,
 1.27

moving under the influence at an external electric field, but

being slowed by a resistive - like force. We write

.. .
m[ x + = x + &02x] = e E(t). (1.151)

This equation, and it's solution, should be familiar to you

(at least in one spatial dimension) from classical dynamics.
&0 is a natural frequency of the electron (due to energy
levels), and &02 x represents a restoring force for a bound
electron (&0 = 0) for a free or conductive (valence)
electron). = is a damping constant primarily due to radiation
for bound electrons, whereas for free electrons the origin is
in collisions with other electrons, lattice imperfections,
impurities, etc. [For bound electrons usually = < < &0.].
Let us examine again the situation of harmonic time
dependence. Consider

.. . ~
m[ x + = x + &02 x] = e Re [ (&)e-i&t], (1.152)

The steady state solution to this is given by assuming

~
x(t) = Re [x (&)e-i&t], (1.153)

from which we find

. 1
e - (&)e -i&t 0
x(t) = m Re -- 0.
0 (1.154)
- - & 2 + &2 - i=&0
, 0 /

Within this model we are trying to calculate the effective

macroscopic properties (constitutive relations). If the
electrons are in their "equilibrium" positions, then we assume

that the volume polarization, P, of the sample vanishes.

However, for an electron displaced to x, we assume
1.28

e
P(t) = V J xi(t).
i=electrons
(1.155)

If x i = x K i, then

~
P(t) = nbe x(t) > Re [L(&) (&)e-i&t], (1.156)
M "bound" electrons

where the & A dependent suseptibility is given by

2
n e 1
L(&) = b
m -&2 + &2 - i&= . (1.157)
0

In the static case

2
n e
L(0) = b 2 > 0, (1.158)
m&0
?(0)
=> ?0 > 1 + L(0) > 1 as expected.

For arbitrary &, we can define the D-field by

~
D(t) > Re (?0(1 + L(&)) (&)e-i&t), (1.159)

where the frequency dependent dielectric constant is given by

2
?(&) n be 1
= 1 + = 1 + m & -& -i&= ,
?0 L(&) 2 2 (1.160)
0

?(&) n be
2 (&20 -&2)
" Re = 1 + m (&2 -&2)2 +&2=2,
?0 (1.161)
0

2
?(&) nbe & =
Im ?0 = m (& -&2)2 +&2 =2.
2
(1.162)
0

The dependence of ? on & is called "dispersion".

We can then write
 1.29

~2 2
k = & " ?(&), (1.163)

~ :
k > ; + i 2, (1.164)

the quantity : is called the absorption coefficient while the

index of refraction is

c;
n = &. (1.165)

The speed of propagation of electromagnetic waves in a

medium is in general different from v, the phase speed.
Equation (1.14) was
+ ~
~ 1
f(z,t) = *dk A(k) ei(kz - &(k)t), (1.14)
) 2%
( -+

&(k)
where the phase speed was v = |k| . Notice in (1.14) that k

is taking on many values, so the resultant wave with frequency

& has many phase velocities for a general function &(k). For
~
a slowly varying function A(k) in (1.14), (corresponding, say,
to a sufficiently peaked function in position space) most of
the contribution to the rapidly varying exponential integral
will come from the integration domain

!(kz - &(|k|)t)
E 0,
!k

(this is called the stationary phase approximation) which

identifies the average particle propagation velocity as

!&
vg >
!k .
1.30

!&
The vector quantity H is called group velocity. Of
!k
!&
course, the group speed of light in free space is |!k | = c,

the same as its phase speed.

Wave Guides

We now come to a very practical subject: wave guides.

Usual geometry = cylindrical. Expect: plane waves in z-
direction, but standing waves (static) in x,y directions. We
will do the opposite of what we did before. Problem was
translationally invariant in x, y; now it is only transl.
indep. along z. Assume it is filled with a medium for which ?,
" = const.(in space & time). Fields inside (no sources;
~
nonohmic; we have E(x,t) = Re[E (x,&)e-i&t], although we will
suppress the ~ field notation for convenience):

< × H = - i&?E, (1.166)

< × E = i&"H. (1.167)

Also Fourier transform in z (E(x,t) = Re[E(x B,k,&)ei(kz-&t)];

"k" can be pos. or neg.):

< H < B + ikê3, (1.168)

(<B + ikê3) × (H B + Hz ê3) = -i&?(E B + Ez ê3), (1.169)

(<B + ikê3) × (E B + Ez ê3) = i&"(H B + Hz ê3), (1.170)

These give:

< B × H B = - i&? Ez ê3, (1.171)

< B Hz - ikH B = - i&? ê3 × E B, (1.172)

 1.31

< B × E B = i&" Hz ê3, (1.173)

< B Ez - ikE B = i&" ê3 × H B . (1.174)

First of all if Bz, Ez are known, then so are B B, E B. Show it.

2 2 2
(1.172) and (1.174) can be written as ( = > & ?" - k ; we are
assuming = is nonzero)

i .- 10
EB = 2 -, k < B Ez - &"(ê3 × <B)Hz0/, (1.175)
=
i .- 10
HB = 2 -, k < B Hz + &?(ê3 × <B)Ez0/. (1.176)
=

So, if we can find D.E.'s for Ez, Hz, we will have solved the
problem in principle. Go back to the original set. It is clear
that

(< 2 + &2"?) Ez,Hz = 0, (1.177)

or (<32 H -k2)

2
(<B2 + = ) E z,Hz = 0. (1.178)

Only thing left: B.C.'s on E z, H z. Write down (1.175) and

(1.176) in a local Cartesian coordinate system.

ˆ
n
x
y

ˆ out (z)
e3

i .- !Ez !Hz10
Ex = -, k !x + &" !y 0/,
2 (1.179)
=
i .- !Ez !Hz10
Ey = 2 -, k !y - &" !x 0/, (1.180)
=
1.32

i .- !Hz !Ez10
Hx = -, k - !y 0/,
2 &? (1.181)
= !x
i .- !Hz !Ez10
Hy = 2 -, k !y + &? !x 0/. (1.182)
=

First of all, for a perfect conductor the boundary condition

n̂ × E = 0 says here

Ez|s = 0. (1.183)

This statement is indep. of our local frame. In addition, we

have the local statements

Ex|s = 0, (1.184)
By|s = 0. (1.185)

The latter comes about because n̂@B |s = 0. We also have that

!Ez
!x |s = 0 (since x is along the surface). (1.186)

Then, from (1.179) or (1.182) we get

!Bz
!y |s = 0. (1.187)

Generalizing these local statements, these say

Ez|s = 0, (TM case) (1.188)

(n̂@<)Hz|s = 0. (TE case) (1.189)

Should now be clear that arbitrary and independent choices of

Ez, Hz are possible. We choose to characterize the solutions
by:

1. Hz = 0 everywhere,"TM waves"
2. Ez = 0 everywhere,"TE waves" }
mainly study these

3. Hz,Ez = 0 everywhere, "TEM waves"

 1.33

TEM is the circumstance where Hz = Ez = 0. This implies =

= 0, so (1.179)-(1.182) can not be used. Instead, from (1.173)
and (1.131), we have

<B × E B = 0, (1.190)

<B@ E B = 0, (1.191)

2
( <B E B = 0 = = 0) so we just have a 2-D electrostatic

problem for E B. H B is then given by (1.172) (assuming k =

( &)( "?):

?
H B = sign(k)
)( " ê3 × E B. (1.192)

Only possible for certain geometries. Uniqueness theorem

implies that if N = const. on a simple boundary, as would be
the case for a perfect conductor, then E B = 0 inside. Not
necessarily true for volumes bounded by distinct surfaces.

TM case:

ik
EB = 2 < B Ez, (1.193)
=
i&?
H B = 2 (ê3 × <B) Ez, (1.194)
=
&?
H B = k ê3 × E B. (1.195)

TE case:

-i&"
EB = 2 (ê3 × <B) H z, (1.196)
=
ik
HB = 2 < B Hz, (1.197)
=
k
HB = &" ê3 × E B. (1.198)
1.34

1
Either: H B = Z ê3 × E B. (1.199)

Q2?&k
, TM
(can be +,-,or imag.)H Z > P"& "wave impedance" (1.200)
2O k , TE

Example: (a>b)

"? b

x
a

Wave eqn for TE (Ez = 0) mode:

5 !2 !
2 8
4 + +
27
4 2 2 = 7 Hz = 0,
43 !x !y 76

Hz = I(x)J(y),

2
! I 2
2 = -I I,
!x
2
! J 2 2
2 + (= - I )J = 0.
!y

I solution: I(x) = C1cos(Ix+:),

!I(0)
= 0 : = 0,
!x
!I(a)
!x = - C1sin (Ia) = 0,
m%
I = a , m = 0,1,2,....

Likewise
 1.35

5 n% 8
J(y) = C 2 cos 4 y 7, n = 0,1,2,...
3b 6

5 2 28
2 = %2 4 m + n 7,
= mn 43 a2 b 76
2

2 > "? &2 ,

= mn mn

k = ( )( "? ) (&2 - &2mn,

% 5 m2 28
4 2 + n27 .
1/2
&mn = 43 a
) "?
( b 76

&mn is the “cutoff frequency”. If & > &mn, k is real

traveling wave, if & < &mn, k is imag. static mode. In real
space

5 m%x8 5 n%y 8
Hz(x B,k,&) = H0 cos 4 7 cos 4 b 7.
3 a 6 3 6

For the TM modes in the same waveguide (m', n' both nonzero)

5 m'%x8 5 n'%y 8
Ez(x B,k,&) = E0 sin 4 a 7 sin 4 b 7.
3 6 3 6

Lowest mode now m', n' = 1. For general a, b values, except

for m=0 or n=0 TE modes, all higher TE, TM modes are singly
degenerate with one another. No TEM mode. Reminder: any linear
combination is also a solution.
1.36

E&M Chapter 1 Problems

+ |v|t, n̂ = v
1.(a) Show that f(u), where u = x·n̂ - , solves
|v|

5 2 2
4 1 ! 87
4 < - f(u) = 0,
43 v2 !t277
6

which is the 3D wave equation. Interpret these solutions.

(b) All solutions of the wave equation in 1 dimension can be

written formally as F = f(x-vt) + g(x+vt), where f and g are
arbitrary functions. In three dimensions, given F = f(u1) +
+ |v|t, u2 = x·n̂2 -
g(u 2), where u1 = x·n̂1 - + |v|t, is F a
solution?

~
2. Under what conditions does f(z,t) in Eq.(1.14) satisfy the
1D wave equation, Eq.(1.1)?

3. Given Eqs.(1.21), (1.22) of the notes, show that:

(a) A*(-&) = A(&), B*(-&) = B(&).

(b) f(z,t) in Eq.(1.18) is real and can be expressed as

+
1
f(z,t) = 2 Re [ * d& e -i&t [A(&)eik(&)z + B(&)e-ik(&)z].
) 2%
( 0

4. In reference to ps. 1.5, 1.6 of the text, show that

f(0 -,t) = g(0+,t),

!f !g
!z
| z=0+ = !z| z=0-

imply
 1.37

~ - ~
f(0 ,t) = g(0+,t),
~ ~
!f !g
!z
| z=0+ = !z| z=0-.

Note that both should result in Eqs.(1.28), (1.29) of the

text.

5. Consider the one dimensional scattering of a plane wave of

angular frequency & moving from vacuum (wavenumber k) from an
&
interface of depth D and index of refraction, n1. (k1 = c n1.)
The wave passes through the interface into vacuum again.

k k1 k
~
fI (z,t) ~ outgoing
fA (z,t)
incoming ~
~ fT (z,t)
fR (z,t) ~
fB (z,t)
outgoing
D

O +z
vacuum vacuum

There are five wave amplitudes in this problem. The incident

and relected waves are given by

~ ~
fI(z,t)= AI ei(kz-&t),
~ ~
fR(z,t)= AR ei(-kz-&t).

The waves in the interior are

~ ~
fA(z,t)= AA ei(k1z-&t),
1.38

~ ~
fB(z,t)= AB ei(-k1z-&t).

The transmitted wave is

~ ~
fT(z,t)= AT ei(kz-&t),

Write down the boundary conditions at the interfaces (analogs

of (1.23), (1.24)) and get the relations between the five
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
unknowns AI, AR, AA, AB and AT. How many equations do you get?
Does this make sense to you? (Do not try to solve this system
of equations! It's too hard!)

6. The the most general plane wave electric field, E = E + + E -,

can be written as (1.75) of the notes,

~
? -+ eik @x
E -+ = Re(E0-+ ^ i&t),

^ 1 ^
? +_ = (? 1 -+ i ^
? 2),
) 2
(
~
where E0-+ are constants. Suppose that

~ ~
E0+ = r E0-,

where r is a real constant.

(a) Show that this results in elliptical polarization of the
wave. That is, show that the 1,2 field components form an
ellipse,

~
E12 E22 |E0-|2
+ =
(1+r)2 (1-r)2 2 ,

where E1 = (E + + E -)1, and similarly for E2.

(b) Now suppose that

 1.39

~ ~
E0+ = r ei' E0-,

where ' is a real phase. Show that

~
E1'2 E'
2
2
|E0-|2
+ =
(1+r)2 (1-r)2 2 ,

where E'1 = cos('/2)E1 - sin('/2)E2, E '2 = cos('/2)E2 +

sin('/2)E1. (This gives a rotated ellipse.)

~ ~ ~ ~
7. Solve for the ET0/EI0, ER0/EI0 ratios for Case II polarization,

where E is perpendicular to the plane of incidence. (See

comments in notes.)

Ans:
~T
E0 2
=
~I "1v1cos9T ,
E0 1 + " v cos9
2 2 I

~R " v cos9
E0 1 - "1v1cos9T
2 2 I
=
~I "1v1cos9T .
E0 1 + " v cos9
2 2 I

8. Given (A,B real)

f(x,t) = A cos(k·x - &t + 'a),

g(x,t) = B cos(k·x - &t + 'b),

show that

1 ~ ~*
<fg> = 2 Re (f g ),

where <...> denotes a time average and

1.40

~
f(x,t) = A ei( k·x - &t + 'a)
,

~
g(x,t) = B ei( k·x - &t + 'b)
.

9. Show that the flow of energy across a nonconducting plane

interface for Case II polarization is continuous. That is,
show that

T + R = 1,

Eq.(1.119), is true. (See answer to #7 above.)

10. Show that

~2 F
kz = "&2(? + i &),

where ? F are real, gives the real and imaginary parts,

~
kz = k + iI,

where

5 8
"?&2 4 F 2 7
k2 = 2 43 1 + 1 + ( ?& ) 76,

5 8
"?&2 44 F 27
I2 = 2 3 -1 + 1 + ( ?& ) 76 .

11. I disagree with a comment by Griffiths on p.402 of his

book. He says the k, I in his Eq.(9.165) have nothing to do
with conductivity. In fact, a conductor can be understood as a
material with a zero spring constant, giving &20 = 0, as in
Eq.(1.160) of the notes. (In this case change nb to nc to
designate the density of conducting electrons.)

(a) For a pure conductor assume

 1.41

iF(&)
?eff(&) = 1 + & ,

as a generalization to & 0 of Eq.(1.134). Comparing this with

(1.160), show that one has

F(0)
F(&) = & ,
(1 - i = )

where the static conductivity is

nce2 1
F(0) =
m =.

(b) Find the phase angle, R,

F(&) = eiR |F(&)|,

and discuss it's meaning.

12.(a) Using the dielectric model introduced for conductance

electrons (&20 = 0), show that at high frequencies (& >> =),
the dielectric constant is given by

2
nce &2p
?(&) E ?0(1 - 2 ) > ?0(1 - ),
m& &2

where nc is the density of conducting electrons. &p is called

the "plasma frequency". (This is applicable for a material
such as a dilute gas or plasma.)

(b) Assuming that & > &p, find the phase, vp, and group, vg,
velocities implied by this dielectric relation, and
demonstrate that v p > c > vg.

13.(a) For TM modes in a rectangular wave guide (a > b for "a"

along x, "b" along y), show that
1.42

m'%x n'%y
Ez = E0 sin( a ) sin( b ).

(b) Find expressions for Ex, Ey, H x, H y for these modes

(c) Find the ratios of cutoff frequencies, &TM/&TE, for the

lowest TM, TE modes in this wave guide.

Other Problems

14.(a) Starting from Eqs.(1.99) and (1.100) of the notes, show that
5" 8
the Brewster angle, 9B, may be expressed as (x > 4 "17)
3 26
51-x254n28728
5 n 82 4 3 n16 7
tan 29B = 4 n27 4 7,
3 16
4 1-543nn218762 7
3 6
5 n 82
and therefore that tan29B = 4 n27 for x=1.
3 16
(b) For 0<x<1, show that the Brewster angle exists only when

5 n282 1 5 n282
4 n 7 > x2 or 4 n 7 < 1.
3 16 3 16

[Actually, " values are quite close to one in the optical range.]

15. In the notes I showed that the flow of energy across an

interface between two nonconducting materials was continuous.
However, we did not examine the electromagnetic energy density,
1 5 v2 v 1 v2 v 8
U = 4 ?E (x, t) + B (x, t)7 , on the two sides. Consider normal
23 " 6
incidence (9T, 9I = 0) and calculate the difference in the time
averaged energy densities, SU > U2 A U1 , at the surface of the
interface. Show that (let "1 = "2 > ")

~
|E0I n1|2 5 n1 A n2 8
SU = 4 7.
"c2 3 n1 + n2 6
 1.43

[This difference can provide a small pressure on the surface,

P = SU .]

16. Given the Case II results,

~T
E0 2
=
~I "1v1cos9T ,
E0 1 + " v cos9
2 2 I

~R " v cos9
E0 1 - "1v1cos9T
2 2 I
=
~I "1v1cos9T .
E0 1 + " v cos9
2 2 I

~ ~ ~ ~
(a) Solve for the BT0/BI0, BR0/BI0 ratios for Case II polarization,

where E is perpendicular to the plane of incidence.

(b) Setting "1 = "2, and assuming v1 > v2, show that the ratio
of Case I to Case II transmission coefficients always
satisfies

(T) Case I/(T)Case II > 1.

~ ~
for the same initial amplitude (EI0)Case I = (EI0)Case II.

17. Find an expression for the power transmitted along the

waveguide, P, by an arbitrary TE mode of a rectangular
waveguide. Assume the frequency, & > &mn, where &mn is the
cutoff frequency of the m, n mode.

18. Unpolarized light (an equal mixture of Case I and Case II

polarizations) from a region with index of refraction n1 is
incident on an interface with a material of index of refraction
n2 at "Brewster's angle", 9I = 9B. Find an expression for the
1.44

ratio of transmitted to reflected light energy intensities,

"
IT/IR, in terms of n1 and n2. (Set 1 = 1.)
"2

19. Find phase and group velocities, v p(&), vg(&)

respectively, as a function of angular frequency, &, for
waves in a rectangular waveguide of sides "a" along x and "b"
along y, filled with a material with index of refraction, n.
According to the text, the wavenumber, k, is given by

n
k = ( c )( &2 - &2mn,

where the cutoff angular frequencies are given by (don't mix

up the two n's!!)

%c 5 m2 28
4 2 + n27 .
1/2
&mn = n 43 a 7
b 6