Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ON
Fiber Optics
By
- Abhishek Jain
TABLE OF CONTENTS:
SR TITLE PAGE
NO NO
1. INTRODUCTION 4
3. PCM 6
6. DWDM 13
SR TITLE PAGE
NO NO
2. SDH FRAME 9
4. LEASED CIRCUIT 11
5. MLLN ARCHITECTURE 12
The Internship was for a period of one month, we were provided with a three
day orientation which covered other topics too than our selected course. We
were given an overview on broadband technology, GSM and 3G, IT, OFC and
also the corresponding lab visits.
REP REP
F
D F D DE D
MUX OLT OLT
D D F MUX D
F F F
Where,
DDF-digital distribution frame
MUX-multiplexer
OLT-optical line terminating unit
REP-repeater
FDF-fiber distribution frame
The data from the exchange is terminated on the IDF (intermediate distribution
frame) on the bottom side of a tag block, the exchange and the DDF are
connected via jumper on tag block.
The DDF is used for fault testing by using a loop chord. It consists of 2
sides one is the line side and the other is the exchange side. Line side is where
the PCM systems are connected and exchange side is where the exchange is
connected through which all the subscribers are connected and the line side is
connected to the exchange side through the U link.
The MUX multiplexes all the signals and sends them to the OLT which
converts the electrical signals into the optical signals and then terminates on
the optical fiber. The optical fibers are then connected to the FDF, where they
are respectively distributed to the required destinations and then from the FDF
they are placed underground, they travel the desired distance and then
terminate on the exchange B’s FDF, between the two FDF many repeaters are
used to regenerate the signal, which is then given to their OLT to convert
optical signals into electrical signals, which is then de-multiplexed and given
to the DDF on the line side then from the exchange side terminated on the IDF
and given to the exchange B, the connection is vice-versa i.e. from exchange
B to exchange A.
The electrical signals are produced from the analogue signals by the telephone
on either side and is sent on to the connection without modification, but now
before sending it on the connection short samples of the signals are taken at
regular intervals, and these samples are sent on to the connection. The
amplitude of each sample is identical to the signal voltage at the time when
the sample is taken. Typically 8000 samples are taken per second, so that the
interval between samples is 125 micro seconds and the duration of each
sample is approximately 4 micro seconds.
The process of converting the amplitude of each pulse into a stream of 1’s
and 0’s is called pulse code modulation (PCM).
In Europe the PDH hierarchy is based upon the 30 channels, 2048 k bits/
sec primary rate. Recall that each PCM channel operates at 64 K bits/sec, in
addition, ITU-T defined the world standard known as SDH. This is designed to
interface with both the 2048 K bits/sec and 1544 K bits/sec hierarchies.
However we have adopted SDH and not PDH due to its following
limitations:
1. Inability to identify individual channels in a higher order bit stream
2. Insufficient capability for network management
3. Most PDH network management is proprietary
4. There is no standardized definition of PDH bit rates greater than 140 M
bits/sec.
5. There are different hierarchies in use around the world. Specialized
interface equipment is required to inter work the two hierarchies.
PDH is mostly used for point to point communication in areas where there are
less number of subscribers.
ADVANTAGES OF SDH:
3. High availability and capacity matching with SDH, network providers can
react quickly and easily to the requirements of their customers. For
example, leased lines can be switched in a matter of minutes. The
network providers can use standardized network elements (NE) that can
be controlled and monitored from a central location via a
telecommunications management network system
5. Future proof platform for new services SDH is the ideal platform for a
wide range of services including POTS, ISDN, Mobile radio, and data
communications (LAN, WAN etc.) It is also able to handle more recent
services such as video on demand and digital video broadband casting
via ATM
BITRATE OF STM-1
It is derived as,
Number of rows in a frame = 9
Number of columns in a frame = 9+261 = 270
Number of bytes per frame = 9*270
Number of bits per frame = 9*270*8
Number of bits per second = 9*270*8*8000
= 155520000 bps
= 155.52 Mbps
Higher order bit rate are calculated by simply multiplying STM-1 bit rate by
4, 16, 54 etc are given below,
1. TERMINAL MULTIPLEXERS:
Terminal multiplexers are used to combine plesiochronous and synchronous
input signals into higher bit rate STM-N signals.
2. ADD/DROP MULTIPLEXERS:
Plesiochronous and lower bit rate synchronous signals can be extracted from
or inserted into high speed SDH bit streams by means of ADMs. This feature
makes it possible to set up ring structures, which have the advantage that in
the event of a fault, automatic back-up path switching is possible using
elements in the ring.
SDH FRAME:
The frame repetition rate is 125 microseconds. Each byte in the payload
represents a 64 Kbps channel. The STM-1 frame is capable of transporting any
PDH tributary signal (<140 Mbps).
SECTION OVERHEADS:
The first nine bytes in each of the nine rows are called the overhead. F.707
makes a distinction between the RSOH and the MSOH.
PATH OVERHEADS:
The path overhead (POH) when combined with a container forms a virtual
container. The POH has the task of monitoring quality and indicating the type
of container. The format and size of POH depends on the container type. A
distinction is made between two different POH types – VC-3/4 POH and VC-
11/12 POH.
SDH NETWORK TOPOLOGY:
TESTING INSTRUMENTS:
DATA CIRCUIT:
This is an error free communication link between two digital devices used to
transport digital signals. Data circuits are classified on the basis of connectivity.
1. 2 wire circuit.
2. 4 wire circuit.
Speed of the data circuit is measured in terms of bits per second (BPS) i.e. 2.4
K, 4.8 K, 9.6 K, 64 K, 128 K, 2MB.. etc.
Where,
DTE: Data terminating equipment i.e. computer or I/O device.
DCE: Data connecting equipment i.e. modem
LEASED CIRCUIT:
G3 G703 G703 G3
MDM MDM MDM MDM
SUB PERMIS. TRANS. STN. LINK TRANS.STN SUB PREMIS.
These circuits are also sometimes called non-exchange (NE) circuits because
leased circuits are used mostly for data communication within the organization
and do not need voice connectivity. Hence they are not terminated in
exchange. Leased lines are used for data communication between two sites
and also with ISP (Internet service provider) for internet access.
FUNCTIONS OF MODEMS:
1. DAD conversion
2. Transmission and reception
3. Error detection and correction
4. Detect equipment/transmission failure
5. Handshaking
6. Initiate call and automatic answer to I/c call
7. Voice/data capabilities. Etc
MLLN:
MLLN (Managed lease line network) is a fully managed access network which
allows the operator to keep a end to end control over the customer circuit and
hence provide him guarantees of uptime of the circuit (QoS, SLA’s).
CUSTOMER
DACC
VMUX
DACC
DACC
VMUX CUSTOMER
We can see on which port, which subscriber is placed, and how much bytes of
QMH trunk is given to the subscriber.
DWDM:
ADVANTAGES:
USES:
It is used for centralized monitoring of all the SDH systems and point to point
systems.
Each vendor has their own NMS software to monitor all the rings. All the
stations can be coordinated through NMS.
There are three main factors that can affect light transmission in an optical
communication system:
ATTENUATION:
As the light signal transverses the fiber, it will lose optical power due to
absorption, scattering, and other radiation losses. At some point, the power
level may become too weak for the receiver to distinguish to between the
optical signal and the background noise.
BANDWIDTH:
Since the light signal is composed of different frequencies, the fiber will limit
the highest and lowest frequencies and will limit the information carrying
capacity.
DISPERSION:
As the light signal transverses the fiber, the light pulses will spread or broaden
and will limit the information carrying capacity at very high bit rates or for
transmission over long distances.
CONSTRUCTION:
An optical fiber is a flexible, transparent fiber made of high quality extruded
glass (silica) or plastic, slightly thicker than a human hair. It can function as a
waveguide, or “light pipe”, to transmit light between the two ends of the fiber.
The field of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and
application of optical fibers is known as fiber optics.
Step-Index (SI) multimode fiber guides light rays through total reflection on
the boundary between the core and cladding. The refractive index is uniform
in the core. Step-Index multimode fiber has a minimum core diameter of 50
micrometer or 62.5 micrometer, a cladding diameter between 100 and 140
micrometer, and a numerical aperture between 0.2 and 0.5. Due to modal
dispersion, the drawback of step-index multimode fiber is its very low
bandwidth, which is expressed as the bandwidth-length product in MHz.Km. A
fiber bandwidth of 20 MHz.Km indicates that the fiber is suitable for carrying a
20 MHz signal for a distance 1Km, a 10 MHz signal for a distance of 2Km, a 40
MHz signal for a distance of 0.5km, etc. Step-index multimode fiber is
surrounded by a plastic coating and is used mostly for short distance links that
can accommodate high attenuations.
SINGLEMODE FIBER:
Splice is the permanent joint between the fiber. Splices are critical points in
the optical fiber network, as they strongly affect not only the quality of the
links, but also their lifetime. In fact, the splice shall ensure high quality and
stability of performance with time. High quality in splicing is usually defined as
low splice loss and tensile strength near that of the fiber proof-test level.
SPLICING TECHNIQUES:
1. Mechanical splicing
2. Fusion splicing
3. Adhesive or glue splicing
FUSION SPLICING:
The fusion splicing technique is the most popular technique used for achieving
very low splice losses. The fusion can be divided can be achieved either through
electrical arc or through gas flame.
The process involves cutting of the fibers and fixing them in micro-
positioners on the fusion splicing machine. The fibers are then aligned either
manually or automatically core aligning process.
Afterwards the operation that takes place involve withdrawal of the fibers
to a specified distance, preheating of the fiber ends through electric arc and
bringing together of the fiber ends in a position and splicing through high
temperature fusion.
If proper care taken and splicing is done strictly as per schedule, then the
splicing loss can be minimized as low as 0.01 Db/Joint. After fusion splicing,
the splicing joint should be provided with a proper protector to have following
protections:
a. Mechanical protection
b. Protection from moisture.
Sometimes the two types of protection are combined. Coating with Epoxy
resins protects against moisture and also provides mechanical strength at the
joint. Now-a-days, the heat shrinkable tubes are most widely used.
In order to qualify the use of an optical fiber or an optical fiber system for
proper transmission, several key measurements are performed.
1. End-to-end optical link loss
2. Rate of attenuation per unit length
3. Attenuation contribution to splices, connectors, and couplers
4. Length of fiber or distance to an event
5. Linearity of fiber loss per unit length
6. Chromatic dispersion
7. Polarization mode dispersion
8. Attenuation profile
OTDR:
1. Break point
2. Total loss of fiber
3. Loss per Km
4. Loss of splices
5. Return loss
6. Loss given by a particular section etc.