B-2 Physics PDF

Student Resource
B-2: Physics
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Part-66 Subject B-2 Physics
CONTENTS
Definitions 5
Student Resources 6
Introduction 7
What is Physics? 2.0-1
Matter 2.1-1
Statics 2.2.1-1
Kinetics 2.2.2-1
Dynamics 2.2.3-1
Fluid Dynamics 2.2.4-1
Thermodynamics 2.3-1
Optics (Light) 2.4-1
Wave Motion and Sound 2.5-1
Issue: 2013/01/07 Training Material Only Page 3 of 10


DEFINITIONS
Define
• To describe the nature or basic qualities of.
• To state the precise meaning of (a word or sense of a word).
State
• Specify in words or writing.
• To set forth in words; declare.
Identify
• To establish the identity of.
List
• Itemise.
Describe
• Represent in words enabling hearer or reader to form an idea of an object or
process.
• To tell the facts, details, or particulars of something verbally or in writing.
Explain
• Make known in detail.
• Offer reason for cause and effect.

STUDENT RESOURCES
Jeppesen General
Student Resource B-2

INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this subject is to familiarise you with mathematics and physics
associated with aircraft design, manufacture and maintenance.
On completion of the following topics you will be able to:
Topic 2.1 Matter

Define the nature of matter regarding:
• The chemical elements
• Structure of atoms
• Molecules.
Define chemical compounds.
Define matter in solid, liquid, and gaseous states.
Identify changes between states of matter and define the process.
Topic 2.2.1 Statics

Describe forces, moments and couples and represent the interaction
of these as a vector describing simple machines and mechanical
advantage.
Describe the centre-of-gravity of a mass.
Describe the elements of theory of stress, strain and elasticity to the
following:
• Tension
• Compression
• Shear
• Torsion.
Describe the nature and properties of solids, fluids, and gases.
Describe the action of pressure and buoyancy in liquids
(barometers).

Topic 2.2.2 Kinetics

Describe the following aspects of linear movement:
• Uniform motion in a straight line
• Motion under constant acceleration (motion under gravity).
Describe the uniform circular motion (centrifugal/centripetal forces)
aspect of rotational movement
Describe periodic motion and pendular movement.
Describe simple theory of the following:
• Vibration
• Harmonics
• Resonance.
Describe velocity ratio, mechanical advantage and efficiency.
Topic 2.2.3 Dynamics

Describe the following with regard to mass:
• Mass
• Force
• Inertia
• Work
• Power
• Energy (potential, kinetic and total)
• Resultant force and equilibrium
• Heat
• Efficiency.
Describe momentum and conservation of momentum.
Describe impulse.
Describe gyroscopic principles.
Describe friction, its nature and effects, and the coefficient of
friction (rolling resistance).
Topic 2.2.4.1 Fluid Dynamics (SG)

Describe specific gravity and density in relationship to fluids.

Topic 2.2.4.2 Fluid Dynamics (Viscosity)

Describe the following in relationship to fluids:
• Viscosity - fluid resistance
• Effects of streamlining
• Effects of compressibility
Describe the following types of pressure:
• Static
• Dynamic
• Total
State Bernoulli’s Theorem and describe the operation of a venturi.
Topic 2.3 Thermodynamics

Describe temperature and the operation of thermometers.
Describe the following temperature scales:
• Celsius
• Fahrenheit
• Kelvin.
Define Heat
Define specific heat and describe heat capacity
Describe the following methods of heat transfer:
• Convection
• Radiation
• Conduction
Describe volumetric expansion
State the first and second laws of thermodynamics
Describe the following regarding gases:
• Ideal gas laws
• Specific heat at constant volume and constant pressure
• Work done by expanding gas
Describe the following:
• Isothermal expansion and compression
• Adiabatic expansion and compression
• Engine cycles
• Constant volume and constant pressure
• Refrigerators and heat pumps
• Latent heats of fusion and evaporation
• Thermal energy
• Heat of combustion

Topic 2.4 Optics (Light)

Describe the nature of light and state the speed of light
Describe the laws of reflection and refraction:
• Reflection at plane surfaces
• Reflection by spherical surfaces
• Refraction of light through various media
• The use of lenses
Describe the nature and use of fibre optics.
Topic 2.5 Wave Motion And Sound

Describe the nature of wave motion:
• Mechanical waves
• Sinusoidal wave motion
• Interference phenomena
Describe the characteristics of sound:
• Production
• Intensity
• Pitch
• Quality
State the speed of sound and describe factors that affect it
Describe the Doppler Effect.

WHAT IS PHYSICS?
Ever since Humankind developed the ability to ponder its existence, questions have
been asked concerning the nature of its environment. Latin, the language of the
Roman Empire, contained the word ‘Physica’ for ‘Nature’, hence our use of ‘Physics’
as the overall name of the body of knowledge which attempts to describe the
inanimate world.
We have become adept at observing and measuring the phenomena that surround
us. Certain individuals, e.g. Archimedes and Newton, through chance and
circumstance, were able to develop the relationships, between elements of these
events, which are now called the Laws of Physics.
In many cases, the absolute truths still elude us, and the scientific community has
only ‘models’ to offer. For example, the origin of the Universe, or the structure of the
atom.
Even so, we have now gained enough knowledge to create and control the
technological environment in which we live.
This course attempts to address the basics which serve to underpin most of the
technical knowledge that an Aircraft Maintenance Engineer needs. For
organisational purposes, Physics is divided up into a number of topics, however it is
important to remember that nature works its various strands of magic
simultaneously.
The rest of this introduction endeavours to provide the reader with the absolute
minimum of knowledge with which to attack these separate topics.
Issue: 2013/01/07 Training Material Only 2.0 - 1

Origins of the Universe
Recent observations have given us the “Big Bang Theory”, which in its most basic
form, tells us that the space in which you and I, and the rest of the 1050 kg of
matter exist, began as a point source, and has expanded into what we call the
Universe.
The universe has clumped together into Galaxies, and within these are Planetary
Systems associated with Stars.
The most frequently asked question when faced with this concept is:
“OK, what was there before the Big Bang?” Well, the simplest answer is “nothing”
because time itself came into existence and there is can be no concept of “before.”
See Fig 1. There are no time values for any universe size less than zero.
For all intents and purposes, our concept of time as a means by which we can
measure the rate at which events occur will suffice, and our studies will
concentrate on those topics which explain our everyday lives.

Nature of the Universe
Apart from its size, what are the other characteristics or properties of the Universe
as we perceive it today? What does it contain?
We have already mentioned one - the 1050 kg of matter. The other is energy.
What is energy?
The Greek word, “energos” - means “that by which activity is possible”, so in non-
physics terms, it could be thought of as “that which causes change”. However, that
is not measurable enough for physicists.
We say that energy provides the “capability to change the state of motion, or matter”
of some object or other, and exists in many forms in a fixed amount. For example,
kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a moving mass capable of causing change,
while potential energy is the energy within a compressed spring which could cause
change.
Energy used is always fully accounted for in terms of the activity produced.
What is matter?
The states of matter can be solid, liquid or gaseous, and each of these is related to
the amount of internal energy possessed by the matter being under consideration.
We can detect this internal energy, and call it heat. It was originally thought to be
an invisible fluid called caloric; however, we now know it is bound up in the
vibratory motion of the basic particles which make up matter, called atoms and
molecules.
The amount of heat present depends on the quantity of matter, but how hot it is
doesn’t. We express “hotness” as “temperature” and it is measured in degrees.
Our star, called the Sun, has radiated energy on to this planet all through its
existence, and all changes of state or motion we experience today, are only possible
because of this radiation, past and present.
An exception to this is the development and use of Atomic or Nuclear Energy, which
involves the conversion of matter into energy, in a similar way to that process used
by stars.
Properties of Matter
Amounts of matter are measured in units of mass of which the standard is the
kilogram, and the presence of a mass affects space in two ways.
Firstly, there is the amount of space occupied by a certain mass. This is
represented by its size in three dimensions. The product of an object’s length,
width, and height is called volume, and when all three dimensions are measured in
metres, we get cubic metres.
Secondly, all masses in space attract each other to a certain degree, depending on
their size and distance apart. It is this property of mass that gives all objects on the
giant mass we call Planet Earth, (including us), weight. The Latin word meaning
heavy was, “gravitas,” - hence the property is now called, “Gravity”. Because the
effects of gravity extend outwards from a mass, the mass is said to have a
“Gravitational Field” surrounding it.

Density
To compare different types of matter, let us see how much of each occupies each
cubic metre of space, i.e. the number of kilograms of the substance per cubic metre.
This derived property thus measures the density of a particular substance, and we
get the first relationship between properties, i.e. our first Law of Physics:
Density (d or p) = Mass m kg / m3 ki log rams per cubic metre

Volume V
As mentioned, the units kilogram and metre, are standardised, and most countries
maintain an organisation to ensure that they represent the same measurement at
all times.
In Australia, this is the National Measurement Laboratory, located within the
CSIRO Division of Applied Physics in Sydney.
The unit kg/m3 is a derived unit.
Time
The measurement of space occupies three dimensions of the Universe, but is not
sufficient for us to include the progress of an event in that measurement.
For this we have the concept of time, often called the Fourth Dimension. Our
ancestors observed the cycles of nature, the passage of the sun etc. which gave
them the initial units of days and years.
The basic unit of time, the second, s is now fundamental and standardised.
Motion
With the concept of time, we can measure how a mass may change its position in
space, in other words, the idea of motion.
An object, (a mass), can be in particular state of motion:
• At rest (not moving), zero metres per second, (0 m/s).
• Changing its position at a constant rate, (i.e. a certain number of m/s).
• Or, that rate could itself be changing with time, giving us m/s per second,
(m/s2).
A constant rate of m/s is called speed or velocity
A constant rate of m/s per s is called acceleration
What is required to be able to change this State of motion?

Energy and Force
English scientist, Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727), observed that if you gave a mass a
push or a pull, its state of motion changed.
For example, just going from “at rest” to “moving” meant acceleration must have
taken place.
Energy has been used in this process, but not used up. The energy used to propel
the object still exists as the object’s motion, (and in other forms that will be
discussed later).
The energy required to provide the push to change this state of motion was found to
depend on the mass contained in the object and the amount of acceleration.
More mass and/or more acceleration required more push.
To quantify this push or pull, Newton took the product of the mass and acceleration
required, and called it force, - that which is required to change motion state.
Force = Mass × Accelerat ion
This will give us another derived unit for force, the kg.m/s per s. Far too unwieldy,
so appropriately enough 1 kg.m/s per s, is actually called 1 Newton.
Forces are not always applied by direct contact with an object. Let us revisit gravity.
Should you be unlucky enough to be unsupported by the ground or a floor in the
Earth’s gravitation field, you will experience a change in motion state. (Fall !).
Ignoring for the moment that we have an atmosphere which actually slows thing up
a bit, it can be shown that we fall with an acceleration of 9.8 m/s per s. This is
called the “acceleration due to gravity” for Earth, and has its own symbol - “g”.
From above, Force = Mass x Acceleration, and when that acceleration is “g”, that
force is called your weight.
Weight = Mass × g (in Newtons)
To all intents and purposes, g is constant for all us Earth bound surface dwellers,
so interchanging the words mass and weight does not lead to short measures!
Pressure
Pushing on a surface (or just allowing weight to act on the surface) creates
pressure.
It is defined as Force per unit area or:
P = F / A N / m2 or Pascals (Pa)
After Blaise Pascal (1623 - 1662).

Work and Power
Energy was used during our application of force, and to help quantify what happens
to this energy, we take the product of the applied force and the distance moved
during the change of position, and call it work.
Work = Force × Dis tan ce moved
The work done equals the energy used, including the energy used to overcome any
resistance, e.g. friction and air resistance.
Another derived unit appears, the Newton Metre, better known as the Joule after
James Joule (1818 -1889), and can now be used as the standard unit for energy of
any form.
Power is simply a measurement of the rate at which work is done or energy is used.
Energy Used
Power = Work done or J/s
Time Time
Joules per second are called Watts, after James Watt (1736 – 1819), who
experimented with the work done by horses as they pulled barges around the
canals of England.
1 horsepower = 746 W
Initial Conclusions
So, what is physics? The study of matter and the activity it gets up to with the
energy available?
In its simplest form, the Universe can be said to be a collection of Matter and
Energy, so that may be as good an answer as any, but to be sure we must now start
investigating things further by in the more traditional manner topic by topic.
Initially, we will take a closer look at the structure of matter, both in its everyday
and smallest form. Then there will be more on how force can be put to good use and
how different types of motion can be analysed.
Different forms of energy are discussed, including Heat, Light, and Sound, to see
how they create the various phenomena that occur. The relationships between the
Matter and Energy could just as easily be called the Laws of Nature. Add Chance to
the mix and maybe, just maybe, the picture is complete.
PS What about Electricity?
Try to imagine a world without electricity! Not easy, however there has been no
mention of it so far in this introduction to Physics.
The use of electricity is so important that it has its own Module. However, it too has
its origins in nature, and will be briefly introduced when we look at the structure of
matter in its smallest forms. (Atoms and molecules).

Fundamental Units
The System Internationale, (SI or Metric System) has been internationally agreed,
but there are many examples of the British System still used. For example, psi for
pressure.
PROPERTY METRIC (SI) BRITISH CONVERSION

MASS KILOGRAM KG SLUG 1 SLUG = 14.59 KG
LENGTH METRE M FOOT FT 1 FT = 0.305 M
TIME SECOND SECOND N/A
FORCE NEWTON N POUND LB 1 LB = 4.45 N
PRESSURE PASCAL PA LB/SQ IN (PSI) 1 PA = 0.00015 PSI
WORK/ENERGY JOULE FOOT POUND 1 J = 0.738 FT.LB
ACCELERATION 9.81 M/S PER 32.2 FT/S PER S N/A
DUE TO S
GRAVITY
Order of Magnitude
In the metric system, many prefixes are used to denote how many of any particular
unit are being used. The following table will be useful.

Ambient Conditions
Atmospheric Pressure
We live at the bottom of an atmosphere comprising of a mixture of gaseous
elements and compounds called air. The weight of air acts over the surface of the
planet causing it to be ‘under atmospheric pressure’, according to the rule P = F/A.
Extending to 160,000 km, with a varying density depending on height, one
atmosphere exerts an average pressure, at sea level of 101,320 N/m2 .
i.e. 101,320 Pa, which is more commonly written as 1013.2 hPa (hectopascals).
Alternatively, 1 bar = 100,000 Pa, so I atmosphere is 1.0132 bar or 1013.2 mb.
In British units, 1 atmosphere is 14.7 lb/in2.
One practical method of determining atmospheric pressure is to measure how high
a column of liquid can be supported by this pressure. (A barometer).
It turns out to be 29.92 inches or 760 mm of mercury.
We feel no ill effect from this pressure because we are permeable enough to allow
the pressure inside us to equalise to this. Rapid ascents or descents through the
atmosphere are a different story, and aircraft are engineered to cope with this.
Ambient Temperature
The sun radiates its energy continuously on the planet and its atmosphere. Over
time, this ocean of air has settled into a complex series of weather patterns, one
element of which is the temperature at any given location.
This changes from place to place, and with your height above sea level.
The temperature is measuring the relative degree of hotness of one area over
another and is constantly changing as the day proceeds and the weather patterns
shift.
At sea level, the temperature ranges from about -30 “degrees Celsius” to about
+50°C. At the typical cruising height of a passenger jet, the temperature is just
above -60°C.
International Standard Atmosphere
The performance of any aircraft depends heavily on air density, and we’ve just seen
that density varies from location to location and with height, as the atmospheric
pressure changes with the time of day and weather experienced.
To create a benchmark against which aircraft performance can be measured, an
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) was defined. The essential features of the
ISA are a sea level temperature of 15°C, and pressure equal to 1013.2 hPa.
Should the conditions be different from these at a particular location, then
important performance factors like take-off and landing distances can be easily
calculated.

TOPIC 2.1: MATTER
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures ................................................................................................................. 2
Elements...................................................................................................................... 4
The Periodic Table of Elements ................................................................................. 4
Ions .......................................................................................................................... 5
Isotopes .................................................................................................................... 5
Compounds .............................................................................................................. 5
Molecules.................................................................................................................. 6
Mixtures ................................................................................................................... 6
States of Matter ........................................................................................................... 7
Solids ....................................................................................................................... 8
Liquids ..................................................................................................................... 8
Gases........................................................................................................................ 8
Flow ............................................................................................................................. 8
Training Material Only B-2.1 Matter

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Carbon atom and oxygen atom .......................................................................... 3
Figure 2 Copper atom ..................................................................................................... 4
Figure 3 The Periodic Table of Elements .......................................................................... 5
Figure 4 Water molecule ................................................................................................. 6
Figure 5 Alumina molecule ............................................................................................. 6
Figure 6 Saltwater ........................................................................................................... 7
Figure 7 Crystalline structure of metal alloy.................................................................... 7
Figure 8 The three states of matter ................................................................................. 8

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TOPIC 2.1: MATTER
Matter refers to everything which occupies space, and has mass which exists in one of
three physical states, solid, liquid and gaseous. The total mass of the Universe is
conserved, this meaning it cannot be created or destroyed, only changed from one form
to another. If you burn 1kg of wood, you finish with 1 kg of ash, smoke, and other gases.
Before we can discuss the different properties of each state, let us look at how all forms
of matter are put together.
Matter itself is made up of small particles. The simplest forms of matter are the elements,
whose constituent particles are called atoms, as modelled below. (Fig 1).
Atoms are largely space with a relatively dense nucleus made up of elementary particles,
protons and neutrons, and one or more shells of electrons at certain fixed distances.
Each shell represents an energy level within the atom.
It requires some two hundred million of them side by side to form a line a centimetre
long.
Imagine the full stop at the end of this sentence. It is probably about 0.5 mm in
diameter.
If that represents the nucleus, then the electrons in the first shell would be about 50
meters away.
Figure 1 Carbon atom and oxygen atom
Within the atom, there are four Fundamental Interactions which give rise to all other
physical processes in the Universe. Simply described, and in order of increasing
strength, they are:
1. Gravity; this is the same as already discussed, but very insignificant on the atomic
scale.
2. The Weak Nuclear Interaction, which contributes to radio activity.
3. The Electromagnetic Interaction; acts between the nucleus and electrons and is
the source of electrical and magnetic energy.
4. The Strong Nuclear Interaction; holds the nuclei together.

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To help analyse interaction 3, we say the proton has a positive electric charge, and the
electron, a negative electric charge, where charge is a fundamental property of matter at
this level, (in a similar way to mass at all levels.)
(The words ‘electron’ and ‘electricity’ come from the Greek word for ‘amber’, the first
substance investigated with some of the properties we now control so confidently today).
Elements
Elements are detailed in the Periodic Table. For example, pure copper (Fig 2) is an
element because it is comprised only of copper atoms (Cu). An atom is the smallest part
of an element that retains the properties of that element.
Figure 2 Copper atom

Electrons surround the nucleus in successive groups or shells – like spheres within
spheres.
A Copper atom has 2 electrons in its first or K shell, 8 in the second or L shell, and 18 in
the third or M shell, and one electron in its fourth (N) and final, outer shell.
Whether the outer shell is relatively empty, half full, or nearly full determines some of the
electrical properties of the element.
All atoms follow this rule:
Maximum number of electrons possible in each shell = 2n2 where n is the shell number.
The Periodic Table of Elements
Each atom has an identifiable number of protons, neutrons, and electrons. In addition,
every atom has its own atomic number, as well as its own atomic mass (as depicted in
the periodic table below (Fig 3).

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Figure 3 The Periodic Table of Elements
Copper has an Atomic Number of 29, because it has 29 protons. Its Atomic Mass is
63.55 amu, a more complex calculation involving averaging the mass of the total number
of protons and neutrons together. (Electron mass is 0.0005 times less than either a
proton or a neutron, and considered insignificant).
I amu = 1.6 × 10 - 27 kg
or 1kg = 625,000,00 0,000,000, 000,000,00 0,000 amu
Ions
Atoms which have lost or gained an electron during a process. An atom losing an
electron will become positive, whilst an atom gaining an electron will become negative.
Isotopes
Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. The Atomic Number
remains the same, but the Atomic Mass changes.
Compounds
There are 109 known elements currently, however most of the matter around us has
been formed by one or more elements combining in such a way to form completely new
substances called compounds.
This is called chemical bonding, and generally when atoms bond together, they share or
transfer electrons and form molecules.
Water is a compound because it is made up of hydrogen and oxygen atoms (H2O). The
same is true of carbon dioxide (CO2) and common salt, sodium chloride (NaCl).
In the example of H2O ,water, (Fig 4) the oxygen atom has six electrons in its outer, or
valence shell. Because there is room for eight electrons in the valence shell, one oxygen
atom can combine with two hydrogen atoms by sharing the single electron from each
hydrogen atom.

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Figure 4 Water molecule
A compound is matter in which all the molecules are identical, but the molecules are
comprised of different atoms in exact proportions. The two or more individual elements
are chemically combined to form a separate substance whose characteristics may be
completely different from the original element characteristics.
Molecules
A molecule can have:
• Just one atom (helium)
• Two atoms of the same element (oxygen – O2)
• Atoms of several different elements (water – H2O)
Subscripts indicate number of particular atoms in the molecule Al2 O3 means two atoms
of aluminium and three atoms of oxygen in each molecule of alumina.
Figure 5 Alumina molecule
Mixtures
A mixture is a mingled mass of two or more substances where each substance retains it
own individual characteristics. For example, figure 6 below is a representation of NaCl in
H2O (salty water).
Mixtures have varying ratios of ingredients that do not combine chemically as they do in
a compound.

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Figure 6 Saltwater
Other examples of mixtures are, air (a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and
other gases) and metal alloys.
Metal alloys sometimes change characteristics when the metals are merged. For example,
aluminium becomes stronger and harder when alloyed with certain other metals. This is
a physical rather than a chemical combination, occurring at a microscopic scale.
Figure 7 is a microscopic cross-section of a metal alloy showing crystalline structure.
Mixtures may be separated into the original substances.
Figure 7 Crystalline structure of metal alloy
States of Matter
All atoms and molecules in matter are constantly in vibratory motion. The degree of
motion i.e. the internal kinetic energy possessed by the matter, determines its physical
state. This internal KE is what we know as heat. What we call ‘temperature’ is, in fact,
only a measure of this molecular activity.
So, at the everyday scale of things, these elements, compounds and mixtures exist as
solids liquids or gases, depending on their internal energy or heat content. The physical
state of a compound has no affect on a compound’s chemical structure. Ice, water, and
steam are all H2O. (Fig 8).

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Figure 8 The three states of matter
Solids
A solid has a definite volume and shape, and is independent of its container. For
example, a rock that is put into a jar does not reshape itself to form to the jar. In a solid
there is very little heat energy and, therefore, the molecules or atoms cannot move very
far from their relative position. For this reason a solid is incompressible, that is, has
constant density.
Liquids
When heat energy is added to solid matter, its molecular movement increases. This
causes the molecules to overcome their rigid shape. When a material changes from a
solid to a liquid, the material’s volume does not significantly change.
However, the material conforms to the shape of the container it’s held in. Liquids have
definite volume but not shape.
An example of this is molten steel. Although the molecules of a liquid are farther apart
than those of a solid, they are still not far enough apart to make compressing possible
and liquids are also considered incompressible.
In a liquid, the molecules still partially bond together. This bonding force is known as
surface tension and prevents liquids from expanding and spreading out in all directions.
Surface tension is evident when a container is filled.
Gases
As heat energy is continually added to a material, the molecular movement increases
further until the liquid reaches a point where surface tension can no longer hold the
molecules down. At this point the molecules escape, becoming gas or vapour. The
amount of heat required to change a liquid to a gas varies with different liquids.
Gases differ from solids and liquids in the fact that they have neither a definite shape nor
volume. Chemically, the molecules in a gas are exactly the same as they were in their
solid or liquid state. However, because the molecules in a gas are spread out, gasses are
compressible.
Flow
The same property that allows liquids and gases to adopt the shape of their containers,
also allows them to flow, and they can both be called fluids.

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TOPIC 2.2.1: STATICS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures ................................................................................................................. 2
Forces ............................................................................................................................. 3
Moments and Levers .................................................................................................... 4
First-Class Lever ....................................................................................................... 5
Second-Class Lever ................................................................................................... 5
Third-Class Lever...................................................................................................... 6
Velocity Ratio ............................................................................................................ 6
Couples .................................................................................................................... 7
Centre of Gravity (CG) .................................................................................................. 8
Balance of Rotating Components ................................................................................. 9
Stress ........................................................................................................................ 10
Strain ........................................................................................................................ 10
Tension ...................................................................................................................... 11
Compression .............................................................................................................. 11
Shear Stress .............................................................................................................. 12
Torsional Stress ......................................................................................................... 12
Pressure .................................................................................................................... 13
Pressure in Fluids................................................................................................... 14
Density and Specific Gravity ................................................................................... 14
Buoyancy................................................................................................................ 15
Pressure .................................................................................................................... 16
Pascal’s Principle .................................................................................................... 16
Measurement of Pressure ....................................................................................... 17
Properties of Solids, Liquids and Gases................................................................... 17
Training Material Only B-2.2.1 Statics

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 A vector has magnitude and direction ............................................................... 3
Figure 2 Vector addition .................................................................................................. 4
Figure 3 Lift is the resultant force of the vertical and horizontal components .................. 4
Figure 4 Simple lever ..................................................................................................... 5
Figure 5 First class lever ................................................................................................. 5
Figure 6 Second-class lever ............................................................................................. 6
Figure 7 Third-class lever ................................................................................................ 6
Figure 8 Pulley system .................................................................................................... 7
Figure 9 The roll forces are equal, but act in opposite direction....................................... 7
Figure 10 The Centre of Gravity is the point from where the weight appears to act ......... 8
Figure 11 CG is the intersection of the verticals .............................................................. 8
Figure 12 Safe CG range ................................................................................................. 9
Figure 13 CG may not coincide with the geometric centre or axis of rotation................... 9
Figure 14 Propeller in a static balancing rig .................................................................. 10
Figure 15 Tension forces tend to pull an object apart .................................................... 11
Figure 16 Compression force that tries to push an object together ................................ 11
Figure 17 Shear stress tries to slice a body apart. ......................................................... 12
Figure 18 Compression and tension forces action on a wing and strut .......................... 12
Figure 19 Torsional stress ............................................................................................. 13
Figure 20 Pressure between solid surfaces .................................................................... 13
Figure 21 The amount of fluid has no effect on pressure at the bottom of the column ... 14
Figure 22 Buoyancy ...................................................................................................... 15
Figure 23 Three bodies of the same volume ................................................................... 15
Figure 24 The pressure in a hydraulic cylinder acts at right angles to the cylinder ....... 16
Figure 25 Mechanical advantage obtained in a hydraulic system. ................................. 16

Issue: 2013/01/07 Page 2 of 18
TOPIC 2.2.1: STATICS
FORCES
A force can be described as that which can produce a change in a body’s state of motion.
An application of force will:
• Start
• Stop
• Accelerate, or
• Decelerate, a mass
If energy is available, then forces can be used to do work.
Force is an example of a vector quantity that need magnitude (size) and direction to be
fully defined. (Fig 1).
Figure 1 A vector has magnitude and direction

Most quantities are scalars and are defined with size only. For example, temperature,
length, and time.

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Scale drawings are a convenient way to represent vectors. (Fig 2).
Figure 2 Vector addition

Sometimes, forces act at different directions on a body. In cases such as these, forces
must be resolved to calculate a resultant net force.
Figure 3 Lift is the resultant force of the vertical and horizontal components
When an object does not change its state of motion or rest, the resultant of all the forces
acting on it is zero, and it is said to be in a state of equilibrium.
For example, if a car is being pushed at one end by a person and opposed at the other
end by a similar force, the car does not move. The sum of the positive and negative forces
are zero.
Moments and Levers

Either side of the lever below (Fig 4), has a moment which is the force multiplied by the
distance, from the fulcrum, or pivot, (called the arm).

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Figure 4 Simple lever
The system is balanced when the load moment and the effort moment are equal. If the
effort force is increased, the load will be raised. The smaller effort force moves through a
larger arc to raise the heavier load a small distance.
This is the principle behind “leverage”.
A lever is an example of a Simple Machine, which is a device used to gain a Mechanical
Advantage( MA), In other words, the multiplication of a force by the use of leverage.
The mechanical advantage of a first-class lever depends on the distance moved by effort
compared to load.
First-Class Lever
The purpose of a lever is to perform work, for a load (L) to be lifted by an effort (E),
pivoting around a fulcrum (F). If the load moved is greater than the effort used, the
machine has a positive MA. A crowbar is an example of a first-class lever .
In Figure 5, the fulcrum is situated between the load and the effort, and the load is
greater than the effort. The load only needs to be raised a short distance but effort travels
a larger distance, hence “leverage”.
Figure 5 First class lever

Second-Class Lever
Examples of a second-class lever (Fig 6) include cockpit control levers, such as a throttle
or thrust lever, and a simple wheelbarrow. The load is situated between the fulcrum and
the effort. The load is greater than the effort. Positive MA.

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Figure 6 Second-class lever
Third-Class Lever
The effort is between the fulcrum and the load (Fig 7). The effort is greater than the load,
and moves through a smaller distance MA is less than 1. An example of a third-class
lever is the retraction mechanism on an aircraft landing gear.
Figure 7 Third-class lever

Velocity Ratio
A Velocity Ratio is the direct ratio of two speeds that may be present in the same system.
For example, consider a pulley system that uses a Mechanical Advantage of 4. The
operator will pull through a metre of rope to raise the load by 0.25m. Therefore, the rope
moves 4 times as fast as the load is being raised. (Fig 8).
The velocity ratio is 4:1.
So, MA = Distance Ratio = VR.

Issue: 2013/01/07 Page 6 of 18
Figure 8 Pulley system
Couples
A couple is a type of moment which is derived from two equal forces acting in parallel but
opposite directions on two different points of a body.
To explain this concept, consider an aircraft flying straight and level. If a control input is
made to turn the aircraft to the left, a force is generated at both the left wing tip and the
right wing tip through the ailerons. (Fig 9).
Figure 9 The roll forces are equal, but act in opposite direction
The forces produce a torque or twisting force to the aircraft, causing it to turn. If the
wing span of the aircraft is b metres, then the torque produced by this couple is given by:
T = F × b Nm
Other examples include taps and steering wheels.

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Centre of Gravity (CG)
The Centre of Gravity (‘CG’ or ‘C of G’) of a body is the point from where the weight
appears to act, irrespective of the body’s position.
The CG of regularly shaped bodies of uniform density is easy to find. It is simply the
geometric centre of the bodies. (Fig 10).
Figure 10 The Centre of Gravity is the point from where the weight appears to act
If an irregularly shaped solid is hung first from one point, and then from another point,
its CG is the intersection of the verticals passing through these points. The entire weight
of a body is considered to act down through the vertical passing through its CG. The
body can be raised without toppling by an upward-acting force applied to the underside
of the body where the vertical exactly leaves it. Application of the upward force at any
other point would tend to tilt the body. Therefore sling or lift loads as near to the CG as
possible.
Figure 11 CG is the intersection of the verticals

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The centre of gravity of an aircraft shifts if passengers, baggage, or equipment in the
cabin move, or if unequal amounts of fuel are used from tanks in opposite wings.
There is a range of acceptable CG positions between a forward limit and an aft limit. This
will ensure the aircraft remains controllable without becoming tail heavy or nose heavy.
(Fig 12).
Figure 12 Safe CG range

Consider a perfectly circular disc of constant thickness and density with an axle through
its centre. The disc will be balanced at all positions to which it may be rotated around its
CG at the centre of the axle. But further to this, balance will be retained regardless of the
number of weights that are added to the disc, providing they are paired off diametrically
with equal and opposite moments.
Balance of Rotating Components

Even with an object of regular shape—a disc or wheel for instance—the thickness or
other dimensions may vary slightly because of manufacturing tolerances, or because of
wear or damage during use. Also the density may not be perfectly uniform throughout
the material. These factors may mean the CG does not coincide with the geometric centre
or axis of rotation.
Figure 13 CG may not coincide with the geometric centre or axis of rotation.
The unbalanced condition will cause vibration during rotation. To rectify this problem
the CG must be shifted to make it the same point as the centre of rotation.

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This can be done by adding small masses of material to the light side of the component,
or by removing small masses of material from its heavy side until it balances (Fig 14).
The propeller’s supporting mandrel or spindle rolls freely on a pair of horizontal knife
edges with very little friction. This kind of balancing is also called mass balancing. The
heaviest blade moves downward. When perfectly balanced the propeller will remain
stationary in any position to which it is turned. Care must be taken that even slight air
movements do not cause wrong indication of balance or imbalance.
Many other rotating components are balanced during manufacture. Examples include
landing-gear wheel assemblies, helicopter rotors, compressors, turbines, fans, and the
rotors in generators, magnetos, and gyroscopes. Some of these may require re-balancing
during reconditioning procedures following wear, damage, or replacement of parts. For a
component spinning at very high speed even a tiny amount of unbalance may produce
excessive vibration.
Figure 14 Propeller in a static balancing rig
Stress
Stress is the force acting through a section of solid material and defined as force per unit
area.
Stress = Force
Area
Strain
Strain is the deformation of the material as a result of the stress. If the strain is less than
the material’s elastic limit, the elasticity of the material will allow it to return to its
natural length.
Strain below the elastic limit is directly proportional to the applied stress (Hooke’s Law).
Doubling stress will double the strain, (below the elastic limit). If the cross sectional area
of the bar is 2 sq m, then the stress will be.
Stress = 1000×9.8
2
= 4900 N/m 2

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If it was 0.5 m long and extends by 2 mm, what is the strain?
Strain = 2 × 100% = 0.4%

500
Tension
Tension describes forces that tend to pull an object apart (Fig 15). Flexible steel cable
used in aircraft control systems is an example of a component designed to withstand
tension loads.
Figure 15 Tension forces tend to pull an object apart
Compression
Compression is the resistance to an external force that tries to push an object together.
The weight of an aircraft causes compressive stress to the runway. Aircraft riveting is
performed using compressive forces. When compression loads are applied to the rivet
head, the rivet shank will expand until it fills the hole and forms a butt to hold the
materials together.
Figure 16 Compression force that tries to push an object together

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Shear Stress
Shear stresses occur when external forces distort a body so that adjacent layers of
material tend to slide over one another. Shear stress tries to slice a body apart (Fig 17).
Shear stress may also occur in fluids, for example a layer of oil or grease between two
sliding metal surfaces. Some molecules of lubricant cling to each sliding surface. The
subsequent layers of lubricant tend to slide over each other to reduce friction between
the metal surfaces.
Figure 17 Shear stress tries to slice a body apart.

An aeroplane wing or a helicopter rotor blade is very similar to a plank or board.
Aerodynamic and gravitational forces try to bend the wing or blade upwards and
onwards. Consequently, the top and bottom surfaces of the wing are under alternating
compression and tensile stresses and must be constructed to withstand the fatigue that
could develop from this situation.
During operation, moving parts experience a variety of loadings, caused by vibration,
changes of load, and temperature changes.
Repeated applications of small loads may eventually result in fatigue failure. Fatigue
failures are quite common in aircraft and motor cars, and are at least as common as
overload failures.
Figure 18 Compression and tension forces action on a wing and strut
Torsional Stress
Torsion or torque is a form of shear stress. If a twisting force is applied to a rod that is
fixed at one end, the twist will try and slide sections of material over each other.
The result is that, in the direction of the twist, there is compression stress and in the
direction opposite to the twist, tension stress develops. A crack can originate at the point
of highest tensile stress in a part.

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Such a crack can grow progressively and the part’s strength is reduced so much that it
suddenly breaks.
Residual Stress (“Locked In Stress”). Abrupt or uneven temperature changes tend to
cause internal stress.
This often occurs when heat-treating metals.
This effect often explains why a component fails in service even though its externally
applied stress levels are low. Residual Stress can be beneficial. The controlled crazing of
some car windscreens in a crash or when hit by a stone, is achieved by building residual
stress into the glass when the windscreen is made.
Figure 19 Torsional stress
Pressure
Both liquids and gases are fluids, therefore the theory behind buoyancy and pressure in
liquids, such as water, and gases, such as air, is similar. (Fig 20).
An important difference to remember, though, is that liquids are considered
incompressible, that is, have a constant density, while gases are compressible.
Figure 20 Pressure between solid surfaces

Pressure is defined as ‘force per unit area’ Using g = 10 m/s per s
Pr essure = Force N/m 2

Area
Block A, P = 100 × 10 = 250 N/m 2

4
Block B, P = 100 × 10 = 1000 N/m 2

1

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This explains why high heel shoes do more damage to wooden floors, and wide wheels
distribute a car’s weight over the tarmac.
Pressure in Fluids
Pressure is still defined as ‘force per unit area’, but in a fluid it is caused by the
continual bombardment of the molecules against the inside of the container. The
pressure exerted by a column of liquid is determined by the vertical height of the column,
gravity, and the density of the fluid. (Fig 21).
Figure 21 The amount of fluid has no effect on pressure at the bottom of the column
where p = density kg/m3
m = mass kg
h = depth m
Density and Specific Gravity
Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance. A given volume of lead
has many times the mass of the same volume of water.
When the density of other liquids are compared to water, a table of comparative densities
or specific gravities can be determined.
Gasoline has a specific gravity of 0.72, which means its weight is 72% of the same
amount of water.
Gases are compared to air to obtain an SG.
Note: The term Relative Density is used to compare the density of air at different
altitudes to sea level.
The SG of aviation fuel varies due to a variety of factors such as:
• Refining process;
• Storage facilities;
• Ambient conditions.
The pilot or engineer must check the SG of the fuel supply, to calculate how many litres
will provide the weight of fuel requested.
Weight of fuel = Volume (litres) × SG

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Buoyancy
Archimedes principle states that an item placed in fluid will displace a volume of fluid
equal to its own volume.
Furthermore, the object submerged in the fluid is supported by a force equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced. This is the buoyancy force. Therefore if a body displaces
more fluid than its own weight it will float.
Figure 22 Buoyancy
Figure 23 Three bodies of the same volume

Three bodies of the same volume but of different SG’s are shown either floating or
submerged in water:
• Body A with SG of 0.25 – only ¼ submerged
• Body B with SG of 0.5 – only ½ submerged
• Body C with SG of 2 – will not float in water – weight is ½’d though
If tank were filled with fluid with SG greater than 2 – Body A & B would float higher, and
body C would also float – ships float higher in salt water than in fresh water. Lower
density materials float on higher density materials.
For example:
• Gasoline or oil will float on water; Water sinks to the bottom of a petrol tank.
• Ice will float on water;
• Lead will float on mercury but sink in water.

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Pressure
Pascal’s Principle
Pascal’s law states, ‘Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to
every part of the fluid, as well as to the walls of the container. (Fig 24).
Figure 24 The pressure in a hydraulic cylinder acts at right angles to the cylinder
Pascal’s Law can be used to provide Mechanical Advantage, e.g. A Hydraulic Jack. The
same volume of fluid is displaced at each end of the system. (Fig 25).
The same volume of fluid is displaced at each end of the system, 1 psi spread over 10
square inches can support 10 lb. so, MA = 10.
Note that the large piston will only move up 1/10 of the distance the small piston moves
in.
If a piston such as the above is used to drive in both directions an interesting situation
occurs. The same pressure provides different forces according to direction of travel due to
the differing area available. This will also affect the speed at which the operation will
occur.
Figure 25 Mechanical advantage obtained in a hydraulic system.

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Measurement of Pressure
Atmospheric pressure at a location then depends on the weight of the column of air
above that location. Typically 14.7 psi at sea level up to 4.4.psi at 29,000 ft.
Gauge pressure reads pressure above (or below) atmospheric pressure, tyre pressure
gauges read Gauge pressure. An absolute pressure gauge reads line pressure plus
atmospheric pressure.
For passenger comfort, modern aircraft retain a cabin altitude equivalent to 8000’ or 11
psi. Cruising at 29,000 ft, the outside pressure is 4.4 psi. Therefore, the structure of the
aircraft is experiencing a differential pressure of:
11 - 4.4 = 6.6 psi
This is a significant component of the total stress on the airframe.
Properties of Solids, Liquids and Gases
Solids have a definite shape and a definite volume which is independent of its container.
In a solid the forces (bonds) that keep the atoms or molecules together are strong.
Therefore, a solid does not require outside support to maintain its shape.
Most metals are solids and as such are usually hard and strong and capable of being
shaped mechanically, (malleable and ductile).
Both liquids and gases are classified as fluids. At any point on the surface of a
submerged object, the force exerted by a fluid is perpendicular to the surface of the
object. The force exerted by the fluid on the walls of the container is perpendicular to the
walls at all points.
Although liquids and gases both share the common characteristics of fluids, they have
distinctive qualities of their own.
A liquid is regarded as incompressible, (fixed density) whereas a gas is comparatively
easy to compress.
A change in volume of a gas can easily be achieved by changes of temperature and/or
pressure. A given mass of gas has no fixed volume and will expand continuously unless
restrained by a containing vessel.

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Page Intentionally Left Bank

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TOPIC 2.2 – KINETICS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures ................................................................................................................. 2
Displacement and Distance ............................................................................................. 3
Speed and Velocity .......................................................................................................... 4
Linear Motion .................................................................................................................. 6
Circular Motion ............................................................................................................... 7
Periodic Motion ............................................................................................................... 9
Resonance..................................................................................................................... 11
Training Material Only B-2.2.2 Kinetics

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Displacement and Distance ............................................................................... 3
Figure 2 Speed and Velocity ............................................................................................ 4
Figure 3 Circular Motion ................................................................................................. 7
Figure 4 Orbits................................................................................................................ 8
Figure 5 Periodic Motion ................................................................................................. 9
Figure 6 Wave Energy ..................................................................................................... 9
Figure 7 Restoring force ................................................................................................ 10
Figure 8 Resonance ....................................................................................................... 11
Figure 9 Harmonics ...................................................................................................... 12

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TOPIC 2.2: KINETICS
Kinetics is all about states of motion. We will look at how objects can transfer from place
to place, and in some cases have a motion whilst not actually getting anywhere!
DISPLACEMENT AND DISTANCE
Displacement refers to the position of an object relative to its point of origin. This is
different to distance which is the total length travelled by an object from its point of
origin.
Displacement takes direction into consideration, but distance does not care about
direction.
• The aircraft may travel a total distance of 2 km as it veers left and right, but
its displacement, measured only as the difference between the start point and
finish point, will be less.
• The displacement of the aircraft in an easterly direction only is less again.
Figure 1 Displacement and Distance

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SPEED AND VELOCITY
A similar distinction can be made between speed and velocity.
They both refer to the distance travelled per unit of time, for example, miles per hour,
metres per second etc. However, velocity is a vector quantity, so direction is important.
Speed is a scalar quantity, so direction is irrelevant.
Average speed is distance travelled divided by time taken.
Figure 2 Speed and Velocity

Average velocity is the final displacement divided by the total time.
Acceleration
When an object has an initial velocity then, after a period of time, that velocity has
changed (increased or decreased), the object is said to have accelerated.
Acceleration can be positive or negative. Negative acceleration is called deceleration.
Acceleration is the rate of change in velocity. Average acceleration is found by dividing
the change in velocity by the total time taken for this change to occur.
A formula can be used to represent this:
a = ∆v
∆t
(acceleration equals change in velocity divided by change in time)

or,
( v −u)
a=
t
where v = final velocity, u = initial velocity and t = time.

Acceleration is a vector, so a change in direction even when undertaken at constant
speed, is an acceleration.

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You will remember that force is defined as that which uses energy to produce a change in
motion state. NEWTON explored this and formulated his three famous Laws.
1. A body will remain at rest or continue its uniform motion in a straight line until acted
upon by an external net force
This law is a statement about INERTIA which is the property of mass that resists
changes in motion.
2. The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the force applied to it and is
inversely proportional to the mass of the body.
This law is represented by the formula:
F = ma (force equals mass multiplied by acceleration).

Imagine an object at rest on a table. It will stay that way unless pushed. (Newton 1).
It is pushed forward by an external force and accelerates. (Newton 2) Stop the force and if
there was no further resistance it would continue for ever at its new speed.
In fact, there is friction, which provides another external force and the object decelerates
and stops. (Also Newton 2)
Now imagine a spacecraft outside our atmosphere. A single push will accelerate it to a
new velocity which it will maintain for ever, (or until it hits something!).
Alternatively, if the same craft was given a continuous push by a motor, it would
continue to accelerate reaching enormous velocities.
A special case of F = ma is W = mg, where g is the acceleration caused by the
gravitational attraction between the mass m and the Earth, equalling 9.8 m/s per sec,
and produces the force we call weight W.
3. For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
The upward thrust of a rocket is the reaction to the force propelling the mass of hot gas
downward.
Stand on a skate board and throw a large mass away from yourself, and you will roll in
the opposite direction.

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LINEAR MOTION
Motion is said to be uniform if equal displacements occur in equal periods of time. In
other words constant velocity.
Consider a body moving in a straight line. We have several relationships we can use.
displaceme nt
Average velocity =
time
and
Average speed = distance

time
and
a = v -u
t
where v = final velocity, u = initial velocity and t = time.
However for linear motion, distance and displacement will be the same, and we can
extend the above to include the following, where s = distance.
s = ut + 1 at 2
2 s = vt - 1 at 2
2
v = u + at
s = u +v ⋅t
2
2 2
v = u + 2as

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CIRCULAR MOTION
In accordance with Newton’s First Law, the object would shoot off on a straight path
unless a Centripetal Force is continually applied to keep it turning along the curve.
Newtons 3rd Law demands that there is a reaction the this force keeping the string in
tension, the Centrifugal Force.
The object is accelerated towards the centre of the orbit.
An object travelling along a curved path tends, at all instants, to fly off on the straight
line that forms a tangent to the curve of its path (if the string breaks, for example).
Tangential
direction
Figure 3 Circular Motion

Centripetal force is given by Newtons 2nd Law:
F = ma
= mv or mw 2 r
2
r
Where m is mass, v is velocity, w is angular velocity (rpm) and r is the radius.
Therefore doubling the rpm, quadruples the centrifugal force, which in a grinding wheel,
for example, is trying to pull it apart! Observe RPM limits!
This is also one of the reasons a turbine blade ‘creeps’ or elongates during operation.
Other aircraft components susceptible to centrifugal stresses are:
• Propeller and Helicopter rotor blades
• Wheels and tyres

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Orbits
The Earth orbits the Sun and the Moon orbits the Earth. In both cases the orbiting body
uses the centrifugal force created by their motion to balance the attraction of gravity.
The Space Shuttle and other satellites do exactly the same. The further from the Earth
the craft is, the slower the orbital rpm needs to be, however the linear velocity is greater.
Figure 4 Orbits
Eventually at a height of about 22,300 miles, we have a Geosynchronous orbit, that is,
an orbit where the satellite speed matches the rotation of the Earth, and it stays over the
same spot.
The “weightlessness” experienced by an astronaut is a result of the same equilibrium.
His or her weight, is balanced by centrifugal force.

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PERIODIC MOTION
Periodic motion or simple harmonic motion (SHM) refers to repeated motion, i.e. that
which repeats over time. For example, the mass on a spring (below) or a pendulum.
The simple pendulum consists of a weight hanging from a point by a string. If the weight
is set swinging, the oscillations are termed periodic motion, and the oscillations are
predictable.
Figure 5 Periodic Motion
The energy contained in a body moving with SHM is called wave energy.
Figure 6 Wave Energy

SHM occurs around an equilibrium position when a mass is subject to a linear restoring
force.

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A linear restoring force is one that gets proportionally larger with displacement from the
equilibrium position.
Figure 7 Restoring force

Elasticity is the property of an object or material which causes it to be restored to its
original shape after distortion.
It is said to be more elastic if it restores itself more precisely to its original configuration –
a piano wire is MORE elastic than a rubber band.
A mass on a spring is a good example – when stretched, it exerts a restoring force which
tends to bring it back to its original length.
Below the elastic limit, the restoring force is proportional to the amount of stretch.
(Hooke's Law).
The motion is sinusoidal and demonstrates a single natural or resonant frequency.
The amplitude is the maximum distance the mass moves from its equilibrium position. It
moves as far on one side as it does on the other.
The time that it takes to make one complete repetition or cycle is called the period of the
motion. We will usually measure the period in seconds.
Frequency is the number of cycles per second that an oscillator goes through. Frequency
is measured in "hertz" which means cycles per second.
Period and frequency are closely connected; they contain the same information:
T = 1/f or f = 1/T
The key feature of SHM is that the period or frequency of the motion does not depend on
the amplitude of the oscillation.
From a practical viewpoint, this effect was used to make the first accurate clocks – a
pendulum takes the same time to make one oscillation, even though the amplitude of the
oscillations damps with time – the period does not change.
A pendulum ‘s period T is given by:
T = 2π [L/g] where L is length
In reality, oscillations do not continue forever – they gradually decrease their motion as
energy is lost to friction. You may want the sound caused by a piano or a guitar to
continue in this way.
But you want the oscillation of your car to stop immediately after going over a bump.
Hence the dampers, (shock absorbers).

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Vibration is a term normally reserved for high frequency periodic motion.
In an aircraft, rotating or reciprocal components such as engines and propellers produce
vibration which can be annoying and destructive.
Vibration experienced in an aircraft may originate from the engines, turbulence, or from
flight control flutter due to worn hinges or linkage bearings.
The constant vibration is annoying to flight crew and passengers.
Also, the structure of the aircraft and other components can vibrate in sympathy and
structural damage and component wear can occur.
Metal fatigue is an example of such structural damage.
RESONANCE
The natural or resonant frequency of an object is the frequency where that object
vibrates naturally, or without an external force.
Figure 8 Resonance
If two objects have the same natural frequency and are joined to each other, when one of
them vibrates, it can transfer its wave energy to the other object making it vibrate.
This transfer of energy is known as resonance.
Because resonance can induce vibration it can exert destructive forces on an aircraft. For
example, it is possible to have portions of an aircraft, such as the propeller, vibrate in
resonance at certain engine speeds.

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Harmonics
Harmonics exist as multiples of an original, natural frequency.
That is;
• if the natural frequency is 100 Hz
• the 1st harmonic is at 200 Hz
• and the 2nd harmonic is at 300 Hz etc
Harmonics can resonate as well as natural frequencies.
Figure 9 Harmonics

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TOPIC 2.4 – FLUID DYNAMICS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures ................................................................................................................. 2
PHYSICAL NATURE OF MATTER..................................................................................... 3
DENSITY ......................................................................................................................... 4
Specific gravity (S.G.) ...................................................................................................... 5
VISCOSITY IN LIQUIDS ................................................................................................... 6
VISCOSITY IN GASES ..................................................................................................... 7
Training Material Only B-2.2.3 Dynamics

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Characteristics of matter ................................................................................... 3
Figure 2 Physical state of matter ..................................................................................... 3
Figure 3 Density.............................................................................................................. 4
Figure 4 Hydrometer used for specific gravity.................................................................. 5
Figure 5 Viscosity in liquids ............................................................................................ 6
Figure 6 Viscosity of liquids for lubrication ..................................................................... 6
Figure 7 Viscosity of gases varies directly with temperature ............................................ 7
Figure 8 Viscosity Index for aircraft at high altitudes ...................................................... 7
Figure 9 Streamlining ..................................................................................................... 8
Figure 10 Compressibility ............................................................................................... 8
Figure 11 Effects of compressibility ................................................................................. 9
Figure 12 Pitot probe used to measure airspeed ............................................................ 10
Figure 13 Pitot and static probe pressure equation ....................................................... 11
Figure 14 Airspeed and Altimeter which indicate pitot and static inputs ....................... 11
Figure 15 Measuring of static pressure for indication of altimeter ................................. 12
Figure 16 Bernoulli’s principle ...................................................................................... 13
Figure 17 Total pressure ............................................................................................... 14
Figure 18 Venturi effect................................................................................................. 14
Figure 19 Piston forces air through the venturi ............................................................. 15
Figure 20 How lift is created.......................................................................................... 15

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Topic 2.4 – FLUID DYNAMICS
PHYSICAL NATURE OF MATTER
Matter is composed of several molecules. The molecule is the smallest unit of a
substance that exhibits the physical and chemical properties of the substance.
Furthermore, all molecules of a particular substance are exactly alike and unique to that
substance.
Matter may exist in one of three physical states, solid, liquid, and gaseous. All matter
exists in one of these states. A physical state refers to the physical condition of a
compound and has no effect on a compound’s chemical structure. In other words, ice,
water, and steam are all H2O and the same type of matter appears in all of these states.
Characteristics of Matter
Solid Liquid Gas
Definite Shape Indefinite Shape Indefinite Shape
- Independent of the container - takes the shape of the container - takes the shape of the container
Define Volume Define Volume Indefinite Volume
Not easily compressible Not easily compressible Compressible

- little free space between particles - little free space between particles - lots of free space between particles
Does not flow easily
Flows easily Flows easily
- particles cannot move past one
- particles can move past one another - particles can move past one another
another
Figure 1 Characteristics of matter

All atoms and molecules in matter are constantly in motion. This motion is caused by the
heat energy in the material. The degree of motion determines the physical state of matter.
Figure 2 Physical state of matter

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DENSITY
The density of a substance is its weight per unit volume.
The density of solids and liquids varies with temperature. However, the density of a gas
varies with temperature and pressure. To find the density of a substance, divide the
weight of the substance by its volume. This results in a weight per unit volume.
Density = Weight / Volume

For example, the liquid which fills a certain container weighs 1,497.6 pounds.
The container is 4 feet long, 3 feet wide and 2 feet deep. Therefore, its volume is 24
cubic feet (4 ft. x 3 ft. x 2 ft.).
Based on this, the liquid’s density is 62.4 lbs/ ft³.
62.4 pounds per cubic foot = 1,497.6 / 24 ft³.
Because the density of solids and liquids vary with temperature, a standard temperature
of 4°C is used when measuring the density of each. Although temperature changes do
not change the weight of a substance, they do change the volume of a substance through
thermal expansion or contraction. This changes a substance’s weight per unit volume.
When measuring the density of a gas, temperature and pressure must be considered.
Pressure is more critical when measuring the density of gases than it is for other
substances. The density of a gas increases in direct proportion to the pressure exerted on
it.
Standard conditions for the measurement of the densities of gases have been established
at 0°C for temperature and a pressure of 76 cm of mercury (Hg) (This is the average
pressure of the atmosphere at sea level). Density is computed based on these conditions
for all gases.
Figure 3 Density

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SPECIFIC GRAVITY (S.G.)
It is often necessary to compare the density of one substance with that of another. For
this reason, a standard is needed from which all other materials can be compared. The
standard when comparing the densities of all liquids and solids is water at 4°C. The
standard for gases is air.
In physics the word “specific” refers to a ratio. Therefore, specific gravity is calculated by
comparing the weight of a definite volume of substance with the weight of an equal
volume of water. The following formulas are used to find specific gravity (sp. gr.) of
liquids and solids:
• sp. gr. = weight of a substance / weight of equal volume of water.
• sp. gr. = Density of a substance / density of water.
The same formulas are used to find the density of gases by substituting air for water.
Specific gravity is not expressed in units, but as a pure number. For example, if a certain
hydraulic liquid has a specific gravity of 0.8, 1 cubic foot of the liquid weighs 0.8 times
as much as 1 cubic foot of water.
Specific gravity is independent of the size of the sample under consideration and varies
only with the substance the sample is made of.
A device called a hydrometer is used to measure the specific gravity of liquids. This
device has a tubular- shaped glass float contained in a larger glass tube. The float is
weighted and has a vertically graduated scale.
The scale is read at the surface of the liquid in which the float is immersed. When filled
with a liquid having a density greater than pure water, the float rises and indicates a
greater specific gravity. For liquids of lesser density, the float sinks.
Figure 4 Hydrometer used for specific gravity

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VISCOSITY IN LIQUIDS
Viscosity is one of the most important properties of hydraulic fluids. It is a measure of a
fluid’s resistance to flow. A liquid, such as gasoline, which flows easily, has a low
viscosity; and a liquid, such as tar, which flows slowly has a high viscosity.
Figure 5 Viscosity in liquids

The viscosity of a liquid is affected by changes in temperature and pressure. As the
temperature of a liquid increases, its viscosity decreases. That is, a liquid flows more
easily when it is hot than when it is cold. The viscosity of a liquid increases as the
pressure on the liquid increases. A satisfactory liquid for a hydraulic system must be
thick enough to give a good seal at pumps, motors, valves, and so on. These components
depend on close fits for creating and maintaining pressure. Any internal leakage through
these clearances results in loss of pressure, instantaneous control, and pump efficiency.
Leakage losses are greater with thinner liquids (low viscosity). A liquid that is too thin
will also allow rapid wearing of moving parts, or of parts that operate under heavy loads.
On the other hand, if the liquid is too thick (viscosity too high), the internal friction of the
liquid will cause an increase in the liquid’s flow resistance through clearances of closely
fitted parts, lines, and internal passages. This results in pressure drops throughout the
system, sluggish operation of the equipment and an increase in power consumption.
Figure 6 Viscosity of liquids for lubrication

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VISCOSITY IN GASES
The term Viscosity is used mostly in regard to liquids, especially oils, but it also applies to gases.
The viscosity of air is a consideration in aerodynamics.
When the temperature of a gas rises, it becomes more viscous. In other words, the viscosity of
gases varies directly with temperature, and the viscosity of liquids varies inversely with
temperature.
Figure 7 Viscosity of gases varies directly with temperature

VISCOSITY INDEX
The viscosity index (V.I.) of an oil is a number that indicates the effect of temperature changes on
the viscosity of the oil. A low V.I. signifies a relatively large change of viscosity with changes of
temperature. In other words, the oil becomes extremely thin at high temperatures and extremely
thick at low temperatures. On the other hand, a high V.I. signifies relatively little change in viscosity
over a wide temperature range.
An ideal oil for most purposes is one that maintains a constant viscosity throughout temperature
changes. The importance of the V.I. can be shown easily by considering automotive lubricants. An
oil having a high V.I. resists excessive thickening when the engine is cold and, consequently,
promotes rapid starting and prompt circulation; it resists excessive thinning when the motor is hot
and thus provides full lubrication and prevents excessive oil consumption.
Another example of the importance of the V.I. is the need for a high V.I. hydraulic oil for aircraft,
since hydraulic control systems may be exposed to temperatures ranging from below –65°F at high
altitudes to over 100°F on the ground.
Figure 8 Viscosity Index for aircraft at high altitudes

For the proper operation of the hydraulic control system, the hydraulic fluid must have a sufficiently
high V.I. to perform its functions at the extremes of the expected temperature range.

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STREAMLINING
All three objects have the same cross-sectional area.
A flat shape fights air flow and causes more drag or resistance.
A curved shape allows air to flow smoothly around it.
Streamlining is the shaping of an object, such as an aircraft body or wing, to reduce the amount of
drag or resistance air, due to viscosity, to motion through a stream of air.
Figure 9 Streamlining
Streamlining reduces the amount of resistance and increases lift.
To produce less resistance for subsonic streamlining:
• The front of the object should be well rounded
• The body should gradually curve back from the midsection to a tapered rear section
COMPRESSIBILITY
The terms compressibility and incompressibility describe the ability of molecules in a fluid to be
compacted or compressed (made more dense) and their ability to bounce back to their original
density, in other words, their "springiness."
An incompressible fluid cannot be compressed and has relatively constant density throughout.
Liquid is an incompressible fluid.
A gaseous fluid such as air, on the other hand, can be either compressible or incompressible.
Figure 10 Compressibility

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EFFECTS OF COMPRESSIBILITY
Generally, for theoretical and experimental purposes, gases are assumed to be incompressible
when they are moving at low speeds--under approximately 220 miles per hour. The motion of the
object travelling through the air at such speed does not affect the density of the air. This
assumption has been useful in aerodynamics when studying the behaviour of air in relation to
airfoils and other objects moving through the air at slower speeds.
However, when aircraft began travelling faster than 220 miles per hour, assumptions regarding the
air through which they flew that were true at slower speeds were no longer valid. At high speeds
some of the energy of the quickly moving aircraft goes into compressing the fluid (the air) and
changing its density. The air at higher altitudes where these aircraft fly also has lower density than
air nearer to the Earth's surface. The airflow is now compressible, and aerodynamic theories have
had to reflect this. Aerodynamic theories relating to compressible airflow characteristics and
behaviour are considerably more complex than theories relating to incompressible airflow.
At lower altitudes, air has a higher density and is considered incompressible for theoretical and
experimental purposes.
Figure 11 Effects of compressibility

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STATIC, DYNAMIC AND TOTAL PRESSURE
When an aircraft flies, it travels through a fluid (air) which has a certain atmospheric pressure due
to the weight of the atmosphere (static pressure).
The aircraft also has forward, dynamic, motion which means that it is striking air molecules at a rate
proportional to its speed (dynamic pressure).
The sum of the static and dynamic pressure is the total pressure (Pt or P0), also known as the total
pitot pressure, stagnation pressure of the fluid.
Aircraft use pitot tubes to measure airspeed.
Figure 12 Pitot probe used to measure airspeed

Static pressure is the actual pressure of the fluid, which is associated not with its motion but with its
state. In aircraft, static pressure is open to the atmosphere and is measured perpendicularto the
airflow through a hole in the wall.
Dynamic Pressure is parallel to the flow of air and can be expressed as: q = ½rV², where r is the
fluid density and V is the fluid velocity.

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Figure 13 Pitot and static probe pressure equation
Static pressure is used to calculate aircraft altitude.
Figure 14 Airspeed and Altimeter which indicate pitot and static inputs

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MEASURING DYNAMIC PRESSURE
Total pressure is fed to the inside of the sealed capsule. As the static pressure varies in the case,
the sealed capsule expands or contracts. This is equivalent to: ½pV2 = Total Pressure – P
A suitable link can moves an indicator as required.
q = ½ rV² is then used to calculate airspeed in flight:
Figure 15 Measuring of static pressure for indication of altimeter

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BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
The Swiss mathematician and physicist Daniel Bernoulli developed a principle that explains the
relationship between potential and kinetic energy in a fluid.
All matter contains potential energy and/or kinetic energy. In a fluid, the potential energy is that
caused by the pressure of the fluid, while the kinetic energy is that caused by the fluid’s movement.
Although the energy cannot be created or destroyed, it is possible to exchange potential energy for
kinetic energy or vice versa.
Figure 16 Bernoulli’s principle

In Figure a tube is shown in which the cross-sectional area gradually decreases to a minimum
diameter in its center section. A tube constructed in this manner is called a “venturi,” or “venturi
tube”. Where the cross-sectional area is decreasing, the passageway is referred to as a converging
duct. As the passageway starts to spread out, it is referred to as a diverging duct.
The venturi is used to illustrate Bernoulli’s principle, which states that: the static pressure of a fluid
(liquid or gas) decreases at points where the velocity of the fluid increases, provided no energy is
added to nor taken away from the fluid.
As a liquid (fluid) flows through the venturi tube, the gauges at points “A,” “B,” and “C” are
positioned to register the velocity and the static pressure of the liquid.
In the wide section of the venturi (points A and C in Figure), the liquid moves at low velocity,
producing a high static pressure, as indicated by the pressure gauge. As the tube narrows in the
center, it must contain the same volume of fluid as the two end areas.
In the narrow section(points B), the liquid moves at a higher velocity, producing a lower pressure
than that at points A and C, indicated by the velocity gauge reading high and the pressure gauge
reading low.
BERNOULLI'S THEOREM EQUATION
Bernoulli's principle can be applied to various types of fluid flow, resulting in what is loosely
denoted as Bernoulli's equation. In fact, there are different forms of the Bernoulli equation for
different types of flow. The simple form of Bernoulli's principle is valid for incompressible flows (e.g.
most liquid flows) and also for compressible flows (e.g. gases) moving at low Mach numbers. More
advanced forms may in some cases be applied to compressible flows at higher Mach numbers.
One of many forms of Bernoulli's equation which appears in many physics, fluid mechanics, and
airplane textbooks:
Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure = Total Pressure = Constant

Bernoulli's principle can be derived from the principle of conservation of energy. This states that in
a steady flow the sum of all forms of mechanical energy in a fluid along a streamline is the same at
all points on that streamline. This requires that the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy
remain constant.

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Figure 17 Total pressure
VENTURI EFFECT
The Venturi effect is the reduction in fluid pressure that results when a fluid flows through a
constricted section of pipe. The fluid velocity must increase through the constriction to satisfy the
equation of continuity, while its pressure must decrease due to conservation of energy: the gain in
kinetic energy is balanced by a drop in pressure.
An equation for the drop in pressure due to the Venturi effect may be derived from a combination of
Bernoulli's principle and the equation of continuity.
The limiting case of the venturi effect is choked flow, in which a constriction in a pipe or channel
limits the total flow rate through the channel, because the pressure cannot drop below zero in the
constriction.
Figure 18 Venturi effect

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Referring to the diagram shown, using Bernoulli's equation in the case of incompressible flows
(such as the flow of water or other liquid, or low speed flow of gas), the relationship of the pressure
P of a fluid to its velocity V would be given by:
where ρ is the density of the fluid, v1 is the (slower) fluid velocity where the pipe is wider (point 1),
v2 is the (faster) fluid velocity where the pipe is narrower (point 2). This assumes the flowing fluid
(or other substance) is not significantly compressible - even though pressure varies, the density is
assumed to remain approximately constant.
The Venturi effect is named after Giovanni Battista Venturi, (1746–1822), an Italian physicist.
Venturis are found in many applications.
The piston forces air through the venturi in figure so the pressure at the throat drops. Atmospheric
pressure in the round container (reservoir) is now greater, and the liquid (red) travels up the tube,
joins the airstream, and is sprayed.
Figure 19 Piston forces air through the venturi

An extension of Bernoulli’s Theorem is the basis of how some of the lift is generated by aircraft
wings, propellers and helicopter rotor blades.
The top of the wing roughly approximates to half of a venturi. The air passing over the top surface
of the wing moves at a higher velocity. The higher velocity causes a decreased pressure there, and
a pressure difference between upper and lower wing surfaces contributes to the force known as
‘lift’.
Note: Leading edges experience total pressure, not dynamic pressure only.
Figure 20 How lift is created

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TOPIC 2.3 – THERMODYNAMICS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures ................................................................................................................. 2
TOPIC 2.3: THERMODYNAMICS ..................................................................................... 3
Heat Transfer .................................................................................................................. 4
Kinetic Theory of Matter .................................................................................................. 7
Temperature ................................................................................................................... 9
Latent and Sensible Heat .............................................................................................. 11
Latent Heat and the Refrigeration Cycle. ....................................................................... 12
Gas Laws ...................................................................................................................... 14

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Engine cylinder cooling fins............................................................................... 4
Figure 2 Convection currents ............................................................................................. 5
Figure 3 Electric E, and Magnetic field M ........................................................................ 6
Figure 4 Radiation of heat from the sun .......................................................................... 6
Figure 5 Molecules in a solid, liquid and gas ................................................................... 7
Figure 6 Bi-metallic strip ................................................................................................ 7
Figure 7 Heat by burning gasoline .................................................................................. 8
Figure 8 Temperature conversion chart ......................................................................... 10
Figure 9 Heat – Temperature graph ............................................................................... 11
Figure 10 Refrigeration cycle ......................................................................................... 12
Figure 11 Air-conditioning cold cycle ............................................................................ 13
Figure 12 Air-conditioning heat pump........................................................................... 13
Figure 13 Molecules remain the same as volume decreases .......................................... 14
Figure 14 Volume, temperature and pressure ............................................................... 15
Figure 15 gas cylinders need relief valves if overheated ................................................. 15
Figure 16 Work done by expanding gases...................................................................... 17
Figure 17 Engine gas cycles .......................................................................................... 18
Figure 18 Otto cycle ...................................................................................................... 19
Figure 19 Graph of pressure verses volume................................................................... 20
Figure 20 Brayton cycle ................................................................................................ 21
Figure 21 Turbine nozzle expansion graph .................................................................... 22
Figure 22 Turboprop ..................................................................................................... 22
Figure 23 Turbofan ....................................................................................................... 23
Figure 24Turboshaft ..................................................................................................... 23

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TOPIC 2.3: THERMODYNAMICS
Earlier energy was described as that property of the Universe which can cause change.
Through the application of force, work is done.
Every star radiates the energy it develops internally, and any associated planets at the
appropriate distance can absorb and use this energy to evolve accordingly.
Heat is one form of energy, and in many cases the production of heat and its subsequent
release can do useful work.
The Conservation of Energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only
converted from one form to another.
Energy concerning the application, loss or transfer of heat is termed thermal energy.
According to the law of conservation of energy, thermal energy cannot be created or
destroyed, but it is converted from, and to, other forms of energy.
For example, thermal energy may be created from electrical, chemical, mechanical or
nuclear energy.
It can be converted to mechanical or kinetic energy. The heat in a thermal process can
also add energy to chemical reactions.
Although all substances can absorb and radiate heat energy, it is the gases that can
most easily turn this into useful work. The work done by an expanding gas is one of the
basic principles behind propulsion.

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HEAT TRANSFER
Conduction
Conduction requires physical contact between a body having a high level of heat
energy and a body having a lower level of heat energy.
When a cold object comes into contact with a hotter object, the action of the molecules in
the hot material transfers some of their energy to the molecules in the colder material.
Similarly, if one part of a body is heated then the energy will be transferred internally
molecule to molecule as they become more agitated.
Eventually the activity of the molecules in the two materials becomes equalised and thus
the temperatures also equalise, before falling as heat is lost to the surroundings.
An example of heat transfer by conduction is the removal of heat from an engine cylinder
by cooling fins.
Figure 1 Engine cylinder cooling fins

The combustion of gasoline in the cylinder releases heat which is conducted to the
cylinder head and cooling fins.
The heat is then conducted to the cooler air and carried away.

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Convection
Convection is the process by which heat is transferred by bulk movement of a fluid.
As fluid is heated by a heat source, it becomes less dense and rises, being replaced by
cooler fluid.
Heating water in a kettle, heating air in a house and the circulation of atmospheric
heat are examples of convection.
Figure 2 Convection currents

The handle of the saucepan is made from a material that does not conduct heat very
well.
Therefore the handle will stay relatively cool while the metallic saucepan becomes hot.

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Radiation
Electromagnetic Radiation refers to the emission of energy from the surface of most
objects, and is related to the acceleration of charged particles.
EMR is energy propagation by periodic variation of the electric E, and magnetic field M,
strengths caused by the acceleration of charged particles.
There are charged particles within the molecules that make up a substance. The nature
of the motion possessed by these particles is acceleration because they constantly
change direction.
Figure 3 Electric E, and Magnetic field M

These are not mechanical waves, but they display similar behaviour, and are able to
travel through vacuum. The M and E waves are perpendicular to each other.
At a certain frequency of this wave motion, approximately 1013 Hz, the energy is
propagated as heat. (Actually called Infra-Red as it is just lower than red light).
Figure 4 Radiation of heat from the sun

All the energy we receive from the sun has been radiated to us across 93 million miles of
vacuum.
There is no need for intermediate matter to transfer radiant energy.
Only a small part of the energy we receive from the sun is light. Much of the rest is
radiant heat.
Conduction and convection take place relatively slowly while radiation takes place at the
speed of light.

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KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER
It was discovered that the smallest particles of most substances, molecules, are
constantly in random motion. (For elements, read atoms).
Heat is described as the kinetic energy associated with this motion.
The more heat energy there is in a material, the faster its molecules move, and changes
will occur to the substance.
Figure 5 Molecules in a solid, liquid and gas

Initially solids will expand as their molecules take up more space with the movement.
Railway tracks have expansion joints fitted to allow the track to move under hot sun.
Expansion is calculated using the formula.
E = kL(T 2 –T 1 )
Where L is the original size, T 2 -T 1 is the temperature difference, and k is the Co-efficient
of Linear Expansion for the material.
Remember, if two dissimilar substances are joined and heated, they will expand at
different rates and create stress in the structure. (Bi-metallic strip).
Figure 6 Bi-metallic strip

The two metals in the bi-metallic strip expand different amounts with heating. Hence the
strip bends with temperature changes.
The bending operates the electrical contacts for thermostats, and keeps the clock wheel
in balance for constant speed at differing temperatures.

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Change of State
Eventually, as heat is added, the same molecules have become so far apart that the
substance changes state to a liquid.
Keep heating the material and it changes state again and becomes a gas. The molecules
are so far apart now that they become independent of each other.
Remember our goal is to understand the transfer of energy (as heat), to effect change by
the application of force. It is fairly simple to see using incompressible substances such as
solids, (hitting something with a hammer!), and liquids. (Hydraulic Systems).
For gasses, which are compressible, it is more complicated and we must investigate the
behaviour of gasses as they absorb and release heat before we see how they help create
propulsion.
Firstly though, some terminology:
Units of Heat
Calorie (cal): one calorie is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one
gram of water by one degree Celsius.
British thermal unit (Btu): one Btu is the quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of one pound of water by on degree Fahrenheit.
Joule (J): the SI unit for all forms of energy. Energy provides the capacity for work to
be done.
One joule of energy can do one joule of work.
The heat produced by burning one litre of gasoline is about 8 x 106 cal, 3 x 104 Btu, or
3 x 107 J (30 MJ).
Figure 7 Heat by burning gasoline

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TEMPERATURE
Temperature represents the degree of heat possessed by one mass over another. When
heat flows from one body to another, the hotter is said to be at a higher temperature.
However, a cup of water at 90°C contains less heat than a swimming pool at 20°C.
For this reason we define two properties, one called the Specific Heat of a substance,
and the other, the Heat Capacity.
Specific Heat and Heat Capacity

The specific heat of a substance is the number of calories required to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of the substance by 1°C.
Or, the number of Btu’s required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of the substance by
1°F.
Water is used as the benchmark as it takes 1 calorie to raise 1 gram of water by 1°C.
Other substances, notably metals, take very much less energy to raise their temperature.
The high specific heat of water is why ocean temperature does not vary as much as land
temperature.
This allows the oceans and large lakes of the earth to act as heat sinks or temperature
stabilisers.
The heat capacity C of a substance is the amount of heat required to change its
temperature by one degree, and has units of energy per degree.
Temperature Scales
Temperature represents the average kinetic energy of molecules and is measured in
degrees (°).
There are four main temperature scales:
• degrees Celsius (°C),
• degrees Fahrenheit (°F),
• degrees Rankine (°R) and
• Kelvin (K).
With the Kelvin scale, the unit ‘degrees’ and its symbol (°) is not used. It is said that
water boils at 373 K.
Thermometers are used to measure temperature and they are constructed using the fact
that changes of state occur at a constant temperature.

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Figure 8 Temperature conversion chart
The heat added during change of state is not used to expand the substance so mercury
in a thin glass tube will expand and contract between the temperature of melting ice and
boiling water.
This provides fixed marks to relate other temperatures.
Calling the melting point of pure ice 0° and the boiling point of pure water 100° gives us
the centigrade or Celsius scale divided into 100 increments.
The Kelvin scale also has 100 increments between the freezing and boiling point of
water, but zero on the Kelvin scale represents the minimum temperature at which
molecular activity ceases (absolute zero). This point is equivalent to – 273°C.
To convert temperatures between Kelvin and Celsius scales is relatively easy:
• K = °C + 273
• °C = K - 273
The Fahrenheit scale has 180 increments between the freezing point and boiling point of
water. The freezing point is at 32°F and the boiling point is 212°F.
The Rankine scale has the same number of increments but, like the Kelvin scale, uses
absolute zero as the zero point for the scale. This point corresponds to -460°F.
Therefore, to convert between these two scales, the following formulas are used:
• °R = °F + 460
• °F = °R – 460
To convert between Kelvin/Celsius to Rankine/Fahrenheit takes a little more calculation.
Because there are 5 Kelvin units for every 9 Rankine degrees and both scales start at
absolute zero, the formulae for converting them are:
• K = 5/9 °R
• ° R = 9/5 K
There are 5 Celsius degrees to every 9 Fahrenheit degrees. To convert between these
scales, the same fractional factors apply, but because 0°C = 32°F, the formulas are:
• ° F = 9/5 °C + 32
• ° C = 5/9 (°F – 32)

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LATENT AND SENSIBLE HEAT
A thermometer is constructed using the change of state of water. It was noted that the
mercury does not expand or contract during the change of state. This is because the heat
added once the change has begun, is used to overcome the bonding forces rather than
change the temperature of the water.
Once the water starts to boil, the heat that enters the water is used to convert the liquid
into a gas and the temperature of the water remains constant until all the liquid has
evaporated.
No temperature change occurs during the change of state, even though heat is
added. This heat that causes a substance to change its state with no change in
temperature is known as ‘latent heat’.
The amount of heat required to boil or vaporise, the liquid is called the latent heat of
vaporisation (or evaporation).
The amount of heat required to melt a solid is called the latent heat of fusion.
Sensible heat is heat, when applied, causes a temperature change that can be detected.
Latent heat is used to break down intermolecular bonds, and sensible heat is stored in
intermolecular forces, increasing kinetic energy of the molecules.
If heat is extracted from a substance then the changes of state will eventually occur the
other way.
The amount of heat extracted to condense a vapour is still called the latent heat of
vaporisation (or evaporation).
The amount of heat extracted to solidify a liquid is still called the latent heat of fusion.
Example:
Figure 9 Heat – Temperature graph

540 calories of latent heat will cause one gram of water at 100°C to change to steam at
100°C.
One gram of steam at 100°C condenses to liquid water at 100°C if it loses 540 calories of
heat.
100 calories of heat changes one gram of water at 0°C to one gram of water at 100°C.
(Sensible heat).

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LATENT HEAT AND THE REFRIGERATION CYCLE.
The compressed gas heats up as it is pressurized.
The coils on the back of the refrigerator let the hot ammonia gas dissipate its heat.
The ammonia gas condenses into ammonia liquid (dark blue) at high pressure.
The high-pressure ammonia liquid flows through the expansion valve.
The liquid ammonia immediately boils and vaporizes using its own latent heat (light
blue), its temperature dropping to -27 F. This makes the inside of the refrigerator cold.
The cold ammonia gas is sucked up by the compressor, and the cycle repeats.
Figure 10 Refrigeration cycle

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Air-Conditioning (Cold Cycle)
Figure 11 Air-conditioning cold cycle
Air-Conditioning (Reverse Cycle) Heat Pump
Figure 12 Air-conditioning heat pump

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GAS LAWS
It has been stated that gasses differ from solids and liquids by being compressible. This
affects how they transmit forces that can use the thermal energy to effect change by
doing useful work.
The work done by an expanding gas in an engine is a prime example. Before looking at
actual power plants, we must investigate the general behavior of a confined quantity of
gas subjected to changes of pressure and temperature.
Boyles Law
A gas can be easily compressed. As it is compressed, its pressure increases and its
volume decreases, assuming temperature remains constant.
This is because the same number of molecules are bombarding a smaller area, as the
volume of the container decreases.
In reality, the compression raises the temperature, but if the container is cooled, then
the ratio holds.
If the volume is halved, the pressure doubles.
This relationship acts in accordance with Boyle’s Law which states that the volume of a
confined body of gas varies inversely as pressure varies, assuming temperature remains
constant.
Figure 13 Molecules remain the same as volume decreases
This can be expressed by the formula: V1 = P2

V2 P1
• (Temperature constant)
This is called an Isothermal process. That is, a process taking place at constant
temperature.
Charles’ Law
Just as changes in gas volume are related to pressure changes, they are also related to
temperature changes.
This characteristic is explained by Charles’ Law which states that the volume of a gas
varies in direct proportion to its temperature, assuming pressure remains constant.
V1 T1
=
V2 T2
(Pressure constant)
In other words, heating a quantity of gas in a very flexible container will cause the
container to increase in size.

Issue: 2013/01/07 Page 14 of 25
Doubling the temperature will approximately double the volume and vice versa.
Figure 14 Volume, temperature and pressure

If a gas is confined in a solid container, so that the volume remains constant, Charles’
Law becomes:
P1 T1
=
P2 T2
(Volume constant)
Welding gas bottles left out in the sun could over pressurise, hence the need for relief
valves.
BBQ gas suddenly released to a lower pressure feels very cold on your fingers.
The temperature change could occur without the addition of external heat or removal
of heat by external means.
A temperature change like this is called an adiabatic process. Another example is the
increase in cylinder temperature when the fill rate is too high.
Figure 15 gas cylinders need relief valves if overheated

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General Gas Law
In reality, if the container is at all flexible, then P, T, and V will change simultaneously.
The general gas law is derived by combining Boyle’s and Charles’ laws.
It is expressed by the equation:
P1 V1 P2 V2
=
T1 T2
Temps and Pressures must be absolute values to avoid negative values
Thermal Energy and Laws of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics is similar to the law of conservation of energy:
Heat energy cannot be destroyed; it can only be changed from one form of energy to
another.
For example, the heat energy of combustion in an engine is transformed into
mechanical energy, but there are losses or inefficiencies as some of the energy is
transformed to sound energy.
The second law of thermodynamics states that heat cannot flow from a body of a given
temperature to a body of a higher temperature. That is, heat will only flow from a warmer
body to a cooler body.
This is a logical process and the theory behind it is used in car radiators, heat
exchangers, oil coolers etc.
We can now look at how we make heat work for us.
Heat of Combustion
Any time fuel is burnt (combustion), heat is produced. Sometimes the heat is useful and
sometimes the heat is unwanted. We say that heat is a by-product of the combustion
process.
Combustion can range from lighting a match through to the furnace of a coal-fired
power station.
Combustion can use liquid, solid or gaseous fuel.
The domestic fireplace is desirable combustion!
When fuel is burnt in a combustion engine to produce power, the presence of heat is
inevitable. Often heat is wasted and needs to be dissipated for the engine to work
optimally.
For example, most car engines have water circulating around the engine. The water is
cooled by a radiator, allowing the engine temperature to remain within a specified range.
If too much heat is allowed to build up, the engine can be damaged.
In a gas turbine (jet) engine, the heat of combustion is necessary to expand gases and do
work while flowing through the engine.
It is the higher volume of gas which drives a turbine, making the engine self-sustaining
and it is the gas which contributes to the reactive force of thrust.
Nevertheless, it is also important for gas turbine engines for maximum operating
temperatures to be observed.
Materials used for construction of engine components cannot withstand temperatures
above a certain range.
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Work Done by Expanding Gases
Sometimes heat is not an unwanted by-product of combustion. Sometimes the expansion
of gas created by the heat is the prime purpose for the combustion.
For example, when a gun fires a bullet, the heat produced by the ignition of a small
pyrotechnic charge increases the volume of gas available to push the bullet out of the
barrel. Heat is necessary for the process to occur.
Likewise, a gas turbine engine relies on heat to expand gas. The expanded volume of
gas drives the engine turbines and contributes to the reactive force of thrust.
In this sense, expanding gases do work similar to other mechanical processes.
Remember, work is calculated by multiplying the force applied by distance:
W = Fs.
The greater the force applied to an object or the greater the distance an object moves,
the more work has been done.
If expanding gases in a rifle create a force of 10,000 newtons and move bullet 0.5
metres along the barrel of the rifle:
W=F x s
W= 10,000 x 0.5
W=5,000 Joules of Work has been expended
Figure 16 Work done by expanding gases

Remember, also, that power is the time rate of doing work. A man may expend 5,000
joules pushing a wheelbarrow for 1 hour. The rifle has expended the 5,000 joules in a
split second. It has generated a great deal more power than the wheelbarrow man.

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Ideal Heat Engine Gas Cycles
During compression of a gas, the molecules of the gas are squeezed so that the empty
space between them is reduced.
The total molecular content may not change, but the space available for their
motion is reduced.
Therefore, the collisions between the molecules themselves and between molecules and
the walls of the container are greatly increased.
It is this increased kinetic activity which causes a temperature rise in a compressed
gas.
Figure 17 Engine gas cycles

In both piston engines and gas turbine engines, the compression of air is necessary
before fuel is introduced and ignited.
In both these types of engines there is a significant increase in temperature of the air
medium due to this compression process.

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Piston Engine. (Otto Cycle)
A typical piston engine turns reciprocating motion into rotary motion to drive a propeller
in a four cycle operation as shown below.
Figure 18 Otto cycle

Crankshaft
Intake
Air and fuel are sucked into the cylinder through the intake valve.
Compression
This mixture (15:1) is adiabatically compressed into a smaller volume. (Charles Law).
Power
The compressed mixture is ignited with a spark plug and the piston is forced down by
the sudden expansion of hot gas, which cools adiabatically.
Exhaust.
The exhaust gases are forced out of the exhaust valve by the ascending piston which
then descends in the next intake stroke.
It is standard practice to have multiple cylinders connected to the same crankshaft to
increase the number of power strokes per revolution.

Issue: 2013/01/07 Page 19 of 25
Plotting how pressure varies with volume shows how the cycle develops its power.
Figure 19 Graph of pressure verses volume
The work done by the engine is equal to the enclosed area of the graph, Power is
work/time so more rpm = more power.
Note that the combustion process occurs at approximately constant volume, (3 - 4 on the
graph), so the Piston engine is called a Constant Volume engine.

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Gas Turbine Engine (Brayton Cycle)
A gas turbine is similar to a piston in that it compresses a mixture of air and fuel which
is burnt to release its energy. However, the cycle differs from there.
Figure 20 Brayton cycle
Intake
Air only is drawn in directly, at the front.
Compression
This air is gradually squeezed into a smaller volume through a series of compressing
fans.
Power
Fuel is added into a combustion chamber where, once ignited during the start procedure,
it is continuously burnt with the compressed air.
The expanding hot gas proceeds through another series of fans, (turbines) forcing them
to rotate. The power part of the cycle.
The turbines are connected back to the compressor causing it to keep rotating and
continually supply air for combustion. This uses about 50% of the power generated
leaving plenty to provide thrust.

Issue: 2013/01/07 Page 21 of 25
Exhaust
The hot gasses leave the engine through a suitably shaped duct providing thrust because
of the acceleration given to the mass of air originally taken in.
Figure 21 Turbine nozzle expansion graph

Once again, plot P against V:
This time the combustion takes place at approximately constant pressure, (B – C).
Hence the name Constant Pressure cycle.
The gas turbine cycle can deliver its power in more than one way.
Turbojet
All thrust is delivered via the exhaust, as above picture.
Turboprop
Extra turbines transfer the power to a propeller.
Figure 22 Turboprop

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Turbofan
The extra turbines transfer the power to a multi-bladed and shrouded fan which
accelerates the air mass similarly to a propeller. About 70% of the thrust is from the fan.
FAN
SHROUD
Figure 23 Turbofan
Turboshaft
These are similar to turboprops and fan engine in that they utilizes extra turbines to
deliver the power to a variety of applications, such as electrical generators, ship’s
propellers, and helicopter rotors.
Figure 24Turboshaft

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Development of Thrust
F = ma (Newton’s 2nd Law) and it can be shown that all of these engines provide thrust by
accelerating a mass of air.
( V − U)
F=m
t
which can be written
m
F= (V - U)
t
m
is the mass flow rate of air in kg/s.
t
U is the air initial velocity as it enters the engine.
V is the velocity at which the exhaust leaves.
A prop provides a large mass of air with a small acceleration.

A pure jet provides a small mass of air with a large acceleration.

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Issue: 2013/01/07 Page 25 of 25
TOPIC 2.2.3 – DYNAMICS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures ................................................................................................................. 2
The Difference between Mass and Weight ........................................................................ 3
Inertia ............................................................................................................................. 4
Work ............................................................................................................................... 4
Power .............................................................................................................................. 5
Energy ............................................................................................................................ 5
Friction ........................................................................................................................... 7
Heat ................................................................................................................................ 9
Efficiency ...................................................................................................................... 10
Momentum ................................................................................................................... 11
Impulse ......................................................................................................................... 12
A Simple Gyroscope ...................................................................................................... 13

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Newton’s first law .............................................................................................. 4
Figure 2 Friction ............................................................................................................. 7
Figure 3 Energy to heat ................................................................................................... 9
Figure 4 Streamlining to reduce friction ........................................................................ 10
Figure 5 Linear momentum ........................................................................................... 11
Figure 6 Angular momentum ........................................................................................ 11
Figure 7 Impulse ........................................................................................................... 12
Figure 8 Gyroscope ....................................................................................................... 13
Figure 9 Precession ....................................................................................................... 13

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Topic 2.2.3 – DYNAMICS
One of the fundamental properties of the Universe is that it contains energy, which in
turn can be used to effect change. When that change is the state of motion of a mass,
then a force has been created.
Dynamics is the study of forces at work in motion, and the use of energy.
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MASS AND WEIGHT
The Earth is a large mass in space and there is a mutual attraction between it and
everything on its surface. Because the Earth is so much bigger than everything else, it
seems like the attraction is only one way.
Newtons Laws tell us that F = mg
so when that force is the result of the acceleration due to gravity, g, we re-write this as:
W = mg
weight N = kg × m/s per s

So, why do we say our weight is 70 kg and not 70 x 9.8 ≈ 700 N?
Well, we shouldn’t!
It has only become acceptable because, if we all stay on the Earth, the error becomes
constant.
Go to the moon, whose mass I/6 that of the Earth, and your weight will not be the same.
You will still have 70 kg of mass, but the weight reduces to;
70 × 9.8 ≈ 114 Newtons

6
Our earthly muscles, used to supporting 700 N, can make our 114 N body jump much
higher.
Travel to Jupiter, (mass 2½ times Earth) and you will weigh 70 x 9.8 x 2.5 ≈ 1715 N.
The same muscles will collapse under the stress of trying to support this force.

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INERTIA
Inertia is the property of a mass which causes it to resist any change in its state of
motion.
Newton’s first law of motion states:
A body will remain at rest or continue its uniform motion in a straight line until acted
upon by an external net force.
Figure 1 Newton’s first law

The larger the mass, the greater the inertia.
WORK
When a force acts on an object, overcomes inertia, and sets it in motion, work is done.
Unless the object moves through a distance the work done is said to be zero.
Work done is found by the formula:
W = Fs
Where F = force, s = distance
The unit of work in the SI system is the joule, which equals 1 Newton metre (Nm)
Example:
If an object is moved 10 metres by a force of 100 newtons, the work is calculated as:
W = Fs
W = 100 × 10 (Nm)
W = 1 000 joules.
In the Imperial system of measurement, a measure of work is the foot-pound, the effort
of raising one pound of mass by one foot.

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POWER
Power is the rate of doing work. When determining the amount of work done, the time
required to do the work is not considered. Power on the other hand takes time into
consideration.
For example, if a person climbs a flight of stairs, they perform the same amount of work
whether they walk up or run up. However, when the person runs up they are working at
a faster rate and therefore using more power.
P=W/t
The unit SI unit of power is the watt. One watt is the power generated when one joule of
work is done in one second.
In the imperial system of measurement, power is expressed in foot/pounds per second
and one horsepower is equivalent to 550 foot/pounds per second and 746 Watts.
Because Work = Force × distance
Power ac be written as Force × distance

time
But distance divided by time is velocity;
So, Power = Force × Velocity

P = Fv (N × m/s = Watts) .
Activity
The drag (air resistance) of an aircraft is 1500 N. What power is required to fly at 360
km/hr (Ans in kW).
What is implied if you have a 230 kW motor?
ENERGY
Energy provides the capacity for work to be done and effect change. The SI unit of energy
is the joule.
One joule of energy can do one joule of work assuming there have been no losses like
friction.
An important concept when thinking about energy is the law of the conservation of
energy which states:
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only be changed from one form to
another.
For example, a car turns the chemical energy found in petrol into mechanical energy,
heat and sound.

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Potential Energy
The potential energy in a body or of a body means stored energy, stored in the body
because of its position, condition or chemical nature.
Even though an object is not doing work, it can still be capable of doing work. For
example, a mass held above the ground.
While it is being held it has no motion, so it is not doing work. If it is then released, it will
fall immediately, thus doing work.
(PE = mgh )
Mass(kg) × accn due to gravity (9.8m/s 2 ) × height(m)

Hydroelectric power uses the energy stored by a mass of water flowing downhill.
A drum of gasoline, a stick of explosive, or a chocolate bar all contain potential energy,
because of their chemical composition.
Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is energy a body has because of its motion. If a body is held aloft and
then released, as it starts to fall to ground the potential energy is converted to kinetic
energy.
The formula for calculating kinetic energy is:
KE = 1 mv 2 Joules ,
2
Where m = mass (kg) and v velocity in m/s.

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Total Energy
In accordance with the law of conservation of energy, the total energy does not change,
but potential energy can be transformed into kinetic energy and vice-versa.
A falling mass has maximum potential energy at highest elevation (PE = mgh). Kinetic
energy is zero because the body has no motion (KE = ½ mv2).
Once the mass is released and starts falling, the potential energy starts to be converted
to kinetic energy.
Half way through its fall, the potential energy exactly equals the kinetic energy.
Then, at the instant the body strikes the floor, the kinetic energy is maximum.
It has no distance left to fall so potential energy is zero.
FRICTION
Figure 2 Friction
When objects move they usually roll or slide in contact with other objects or substances.
Such sliding or rolling contacts have resistance to the force that causes the motion. This
resistance is called friction.
In most industrial applications the minimisation of friction is sought, with lubricant,
yet friction between our shoes and the ground is necessary to be able to walk and run.
Likewise, it is the friction between tyres and the road and between brake rotors and discs
that helps slow down a vehicle.
The coefficient of friction refers to the differences in friction between various
materials.
The higher the coefficient of friction (μ), the greater the resistance between two surfaces.
Lubrication reduces friction.
There are three types of friction:
• Starting or Static - Overcoming initial resistance until breakaway occurs.
• Sliding - Resistance during steady motion.
• Rolling - Single point contact resistance is less than sliding.
(Remember some friction is required otherwise the wheel will not grip).
The amount of sliding friction can be calculated from the relationship:
F = μN
Where N is the reaction to the weight of the object from the surface on which it is sliding.

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From above it can be seen why pulling a box with a slight upward angle is easier that
pushing when your force may be slightly down on the box.
Consider an aircraft landing. Just after touchdown the wings are still supporting some of
the weight, and the friction between the wheels and the surface will be small and braking
will be inefficient.
F = µN
but N = W − L
F = µ( W − L )
The greater the lift, the smaller the friction.
Airflow spoilers are used to dump this lift and allow the pilot to begin braking earlier.
Some example of μ are:
Steel on steel 0.09

Rubber tyre on airport 0.7 (dry) and 0.5 (wet)
runway
Teflon on teflon 0.04

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Coefficients of rolling resistance are very small.
For example:
Rubber tyres on concrete 0.02

Roller bearings 0.001
Rolling one surface over another creates less friction than sliding one surface over
another.
HEAT
Heat is one of the most useful forms of energy because of its direct relationship with
work, and with the use of engines. Other types of energy can be transformed, in
accordance with the law of conservation of energy, into heat.
Figure 3 Energy to heat

Heat is also found as a consequence of friction. The heat produced by friction is usually
unwanted.

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EFFICIENCY
With any machinery, the efficiency is the ratio of work output to work or energy
input. If 100 joules of work is put into a gear train and the output is 90 joules, the
efficiency is said to be:
W (out)
Efficiency = × 100
W (in)
90
= × 100 = efficiency = 90%
100
Figure 4 Streamlining to reduce friction

It is friction that primarily determines the efficiency of a machine, because the friction
between moving parts creates heat, sound and sometimes light.
All of these are classified as energy losses.
Reducing friction is usually accomplished by lubrication or streamlining.

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MOMENTUM
Inertia has been defined as the tendency of a mass to resist changes in its state of
motion. Momentum however is the product of this inertia and the motion it already has.
There are two types of momentum, linear and angular.
Linear momentum is a measure of the tendency of a moving body to continue in motion
along a straight line. Momentum is defined as the product of the mass and velocity of a
body.
Figure 5 Linear momentum

M = mv.
Momentum is conserved, so if two masses m 1 and m 2 travelling at v 1 and v 2 collide,
sticking together, and continue as a single mass with new velocity v, then:
m1 v1 + m2 v 2 = (m1 + m2 ) v
(V is a vector, so direction is important)
Angular momentum is a measure of the tendency of a rotating body to continue to spin
about an axis.
M = mw where w is the rpm or angular velocity.
A spinning skater can vary her RPM by moving her arms in and out, changing the
resistance to her rotation.
Figure 6 Angular momentum

Extending her arms places their mass further from the axis of rotation and the resistance
to spin increases, reducing the rpm. Bringing them in brings their mass closer to the
axis and the rpm increases. That she somehow speeds up, seemingly gaining energy
from somewhere, is an illusion.
It is actually due to the Conservation of Angular Momentum.

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IMPULSE
If a force is applied to a moving body, that body’s state of motion is altered.
The momentum of the body is changed by an amount called the Impulse.
Figure 7 Impulse
(Impulse) I = Ft (Force multiplied by time)
A spacecraft’s “burn” i.e. applying thrust for a number of seconds is an example of an
Impulse.
Activity
Consider a mass m acted on by a force F for t seconds. It changes velocity from u to v.
Show that the Impulse = Ft is equivalent to a change in momentum mu to mv.

Issue: 2013/01/07 Page 12 of 14
A SIMPLE GYROSCOPE
A gyroscope is any rotating mass. A useful example is the type consisting of a rotor
mounted on gimbals, so that its supporting platform or case can be turned in one or
more planes around the rotor without changing the rotor’s plane of rotation.
Like all rotating masses, the gyroscope has two fundamental characteristics. These are
gyroscopic inertia (rigidity in space) and precession.
Figure 8 Gyroscope
Gyroscopic rigidity
This is the natural property of any rotating mass to resist changes to its plane of rotation
unless an external force causes a change.
This is the reason a spinning top or coin remains upright until it runs down.
If the rotor is in a case securely fitted to the airframe, it will show changes of aircraft
attitude. This is the basis for the instrument called the Artificial Horizon or Attitude
Indicator.
Precession
This the change of the plane of rotation caused by an external force.
If a force is applied to the rotating mass, overcoming the natural rigidity, then its plane of
rotation will deflect 900 in the direction of rotation.
Figure 9 Precession
Pushing the nose of this aircraft down causes the prop to swing the whole airframe left.
If the rotor is aligned nose to tail it will deflect when the aircraft is turned, and measure
Rate of Turn.
Try these with the bike wheel!!
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Issue: 2013/01/07 Page 14 of 14
TOPIC 2.4 – OPTICS (LIGHTS)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures ................................................................................................................. 2
Topic 2.4 – OPTICS (LIGHTS) .......................................................................................... 3
The Nature of Light ......................................................................................................... 3
Wave or Particle?............................................................................................................. 4
Reflection of Light ........................................................................................................... 5
Refraction ....................................................................................................................... 6
Total Internal Reflection .................................................................................................. 7
Dispersion....................................................................................................................... 8
Polarisation ..................................................................................................................... 8
Mirrors and Lenses ....................................................................................................... 10
Lenses........................................................................................................................... 13
Images, real and virtual ................................................................................................ 16
Optical Fibre Cable ....................................................................................................... 18
Training Material Only B-2.4 OPTICS (LIGHT)

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Electromagnetic Radiation – E and B fields ....................................................... 3
Figure 2 Visible light spectrum ....................................................................................... 3
Figure 3 Reflection of light .............................................................................................. 5
Figure 4 Refracted ray and reflected ray .......................................................................... 6
Figure 5 Refraction in water ............................................................................................ 7
Figure 6 Critical angle of light ......................................................................................... 7
Figure 7 Dispersion of light ............................................................................................. 8
Figure 8 Vertical vibrations ............................................................................................. 8
Figure 9 Plane polarised radiation ................................................................................... 9
Figure 10 Energy is polarized .......................................................................................... 9
Figure 11 Energy propagation is reversed ..................................................................... 10
Figure 12 extended object will create an image.............................................................. 10
Figure 13 Angle of incidence ......................................................................................... 11
Figure 14 Concave mirror ............................................................................................. 11
Figure 15 Plane wave is reflected................................................................................... 12
Figure 16 Convex mirror ............................................................................................... 12
Figure 17 Spherical mirror reflection............................................................................. 13
Figure 18 Snell’s Law .................................................................................................... 13
Figure 19 Lens one........................................................................................................ 14
Figure 20 Lens two........................................................................................................ 14
Figure 21 Outcome of lens one and two added .............................................................. 14
Figure 22 Convex and concave lenses ........................................................................... 15
Figure 23 Focal Length (f).............................................................................................. 15
Figure 24 Imaginary focal point..................................................................................... 15
Figure 25 Real image from a converging lens................................................................. 16
Figure 26 Virtual image from a diverging lens ............................................................... 16
Figure 27 The human lens ............................................................................................ 17
Figure 28 Optical fibre cable ......................................................................................... 18

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TOPIC 2.4 – OPTICS (LIGHTS)
THE NATURE OF LIGHT
Visible light is Electromagnetic Radiation that is detectable by the human eye.
EMR is energy propagation by periodic variation of the electric E, and magnetic field B,
Figure 1 Electromagnetic Radiation – E and B fields

These are not mechanical waves, but they display similar behaviour, and are able to
travel through vacuum.
The speed of EMR propagation c, commonly called the speed of light is 3 x 108 m/s in
a vacuum. (300,000 km/s or 186,000 mph).
Visible light, (often called white light) actually comprises of all of the EMR between 400
and 700 nm. (nanometres.) That is, between blue and red in the spectrum.
Figure 2 Visible light spectrum

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The sense of sight is due to the fact our EM detectors (eyes) pick up the energy reflected
from objects and transmit it to the brain.
The colour we see depends on the source of light and the atomic structure of the material
reflecting it. Electrons either absorb the energy or re- radiate it, (scatter or reflect).
As an example: we see grass as being green because it uses Chlorophyll to change light
into energy. Chlorophyll absorbs the blue and red colors of the spectrum and reflects the
green. The green is reflected back out to the viewer.
The sky is blue because atmospheric dust absorbs all the energies except blue.
Anything that is black, absorbs all colours of light, so reflect no colours at all.
White objects do not absorb any light so just reflect back the incoming light. So if you
were to shine a blue light on a white object, the white object would appear blue.
You may have experienced this when sitting in the sun. If you are wearing a white shirt,
the shirt will remain relatively cool to the touch. However, if you are wearing a black
shirt, you will find that the shirt feels relatively hot to the touch.
Black absorbs all the light energies and frequencies of the spectrum whereas white does
not.
WAVE OR PARTICLE?
Light is assumed to be wave-based, but there is also evidence that light is composed of
particles with mass. (photons).
Some of the evidence that light is composed of particles is:
• Light is affected by gravity – it is bent around large planets, so must have mass.
• Light exerts a force, - light from the sun causes the deflection of comet tails.
• Light can generate a photoelectric effect.
Some of the evidence that light is composed of waves is:
• Light can be reflected and refracted;
• Light can be dispersed, broken down into spectral components meaning that
each colour has a different wavelength;
• Polarisation and Polaroid lenses blocking out one plane of light waves;
• Light experiences a Doppler effect (red shift).
The analysis of light uses a combination of the two behaviours with great success.

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REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Reflection of light and other electromagnetic radiation occurs when waves encounter a
boundary that does not absorb the radiation’s energy and bounces the waves off the
surface.
Figure 3 Reflection of light

The incoming wave is known as the incident wave and the wave that is bounced from
the surface is called the reflected wave.
The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence equals the angle of
reflection.
The angles are measured against a line perpendicular to the surface of the reflective
material, called the ‘normal’.

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REFRACTION
When light waves pass from one transparent medium to another, they change velocity
and direction.
The angle of refraction is dependent on the density of the material through which the
light passes. For example, when light travels from air to water, it slows down and bends
towards the normal.
Figure 4 Refracted ray and reflected ray

Most substances have a refraction index n which gives an indication of their density,
how much the light slows down and, therefore, how much the light bends through the
substance.
The higher the refractive index number, the denser the material and the more the
light will slow down and refract or bend as it passes through the substance.
speed of light in a vacuum

n=
speed of light in material
Also
sin l
n= Snell’s Law
sin r

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A person may see a fish in the water but, in reality, the fish is in a different position
because the light from the image is refracted as it leaves the water.
Figure 5 Refraction in water
Example OF N Air is 1.00029

Diamond is 2.42
Glass is 1.5 TO 1.7
Ice is 1.31
Water is 1.33
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

As the incidence angle (i), increases, less and less energy is refracted and more is
reflected (r). At the Critical Angle, 100% of the light is reflected and Total Internal
Reflection is occurring. This phenomenon is important in the design of fibre optic cable.
Figure 6 Critical angle of light

Activity: Add i and r to the above diagram

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DISPERSION
The index of refraction also varies with the wavelength of the radiation.
If white light enters a prism, the different wavelengths of the component colours are
refracted by different amounts.
This is termed dispersion.
Figure 7 Dispersion of light

A rainbow is the cumulative effect of sunlight being dispersed through a large number of
raindrops.
POLARISATION
The rope will be vibrating up-and-down, side-to-side, and all the directions in-between,
giving it a really complex overall motion.
Now, suppose you passed the rope through a vertical slit. The rope is a really snug fit in
the slit. The only vibrations still happening on the other side of the slit will be vertical
ones. All the others will have been prevented by the slit.
Figure 8 Vertical vibrations

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What emerges from the slit could be described as "plane polarised radiation", because
the vibrations are only in a single (vertical) plane.
Figure 9 Plane polarised radiation

But if the second slit is at 90° to the first one, the string will stop vibrating entirely to the
right of the second slit.
The second slit will only let through horizontal vibrations - and there aren't any. The
energy is completely polarized.
Figure 10 Energy is polarized

Polarising sunglasses etc. do the optical equivalent of this using certain materials in
place of the slits, to reduce the energy of the radiation, and cut glare.

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MIRRORS AND LENSES
Plane Mirrors
Figure 11 Energy propagation is reversed

Reflection off a plane surface:
Note: direction of energy propagation gets reversed.
If we have an extended object, this will create an image. To find out where the image
appears to be, extend the line of sight.
To get the sensation of depth, we need binocular vision.
Figure 12 extended object will create an image

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This is based on angle of incidence = angle of reflection:
• θ 1 =θ 2
Figure 13 Angle of incidence
Spherical Mirrors
This is true even if the surface is curved: for example cut from a sphere.
E.g. concave mirrors: different areas of the mirror reflect the wave according to the local
angle of incidence.
Figure 14 Concave mirror

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This is reversible: if we have a source at the centre of a curved mirror, a plane wave is
reflected.
Figure 15 Plane wave is reflected
Focal length of a mirror:

• f = R/2 (Approximately)
This means that light from infinity is focused a distance (f) away.
Convex mirrors cause waves to diverge.
Figure 16 Convex mirror

Note that these behave as if there is a focus behind the mirror. Driving and security
mirrors are convex to increase coverage. For accurate focusing, a parabolic mirror is
required.

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Activity
Light from the centre of a spherical mirror is reflected back there (why?)
Figure 17 Spherical mirror reflection
LENSES
The use of lenses is an application of refraction Light is bent as it passes through
transparent material of different densities.
The velocity of light changes and we get a refractive index.
velocity in medium 1 sin i

= n and n =
velocity in medium 2 sin r
We have already seen how a single surface refracts. All optical instruments have at least
two surfaces. A prism deflects light via two successive refractions according to Snell's
law.
Figure 18 Snell’s Law

sinθ1 = n.sinθ 2 entering the prism
and
sinθ 3 = n.sinθ 4 exiting the prism

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We can build up a lens from a series of prisms.
Figure 19 Lens one
Figure 20 Lens two

We could add a 2nd prism, to deviate light more, so that two rays go to the same place.
Figure 21 Outcome of lens one and two added
More prisms are added and ground smooth.

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There are a variety of lenses, but essentially they are:
• converging or positive (convex)
• diverging or negative (concave)
Figure 22 Convex and concave lenses

The most important quantity for a lens is the focal length (f): i.e. how far from the lens do
parallel rays get focused.
Figure 23 Focal Length (f)

Concave lenses cause light to diverge, but the rays can be traced back to an (imaginary)
focus
Figure 24 Imaginary focal point

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IMAGES, REAL AND VIRTUAL
Real images are those where light actually converges, whereas virtual images are
locations from where light appears to have converged.
Real images occur when objects are placed outside the focal length of a converging lens
or outside the focal length of a converging mirror. A real image is illustrated below. Note:
that it is magnified, but inverted.
Figure 25 Real image from a converging lens

A real image has to be where the light is, which means in front of a mirror, or behind a
lens).
Virtual images are formed by diverging lenses. Image is upright but diminished.
Figure 26 Virtual image from a diverging lens

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If a convex lens does not focus the light passing through it at a single focal point, the
image will not be sharp .This is termed spherical aberration and is common in less
expensive lenses.
Sometimes the human eye does not focus images well enough on the back of the eye, the
retina. In these cases spectacles, contact lenses or corrective surgery can be used.
Figure 27 The human lens

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OPTICAL FIBRE CABLE
An optical fibre is a thin strand of high quality glass. Very little light is absorbed in the
glass. Light getting in at one end is totally internally reflected (refer earlier in the
package for an explanation), even when the fibre is bent.
Optical fibres are used in telecommunication because they can carry enormous amounts
of information in light pulses transmitted through them. This information is carried at
very high speed – about 2/3rds the speed of light.
Many optical fibres are combined to form an optical fibre cable.
Fibre optics are also used in medicine in flexible inspection probes which can carry a
low heat light source and transmit images back to an eyepiece or video screen.
Real optical fibre – glass cable so pure that light visible through it, even when many
kilometers long – thickness comparable to that of single human hair.
Laser at end of cable switches on & off to send digital bits – billions of bits per second.
Multiple lasers – different colors (frequencies) – multiple signals on same fibre.
Capable of carrying a signal quite a distance ≈ 100 km.
Figure 28 Optical fibre cable

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TOPIC 2.5 – WAVE MOTION AND SOUND
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures ................................................................................................................. 2
Topic 2.5 – WAVE MOTION AND SOUND ........................................................................ 3
Wave Motion ................................................................................................................... 3
Properties of Waves ......................................................................................................... 6
Wave Behaviour .............................................................................................................. 7
Standing Waves .............................................................................................................. 9
Sound ........................................................................................................................... 11
Quality .......................................................................................................................... 13
Speed of Sound ............................................................................................................. 14
Mach Number ............................................................................................................... 15
DOPPLER EFFECT ........................................................................................................ 16
Training Material Only B-2.5 Wave motion and sound

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Energy sent down a rope ................................................................................... 3
Figure 2 Transverse wave form........................................................................................ 3
Figure 3 Compression and rarefraction ........................................................................... 4
Figure 4 A compression sound wave, for example from a tuning fork. ............................. 5
Figure 5 Compression wave mapped as a sine wave ........................................................ 5
Figure 6 Wave energy refraction and reflection chart ....................................................... 7
Figure 7 Wave energy diffraction ..................................................................................... 7
Figure 8 Addition of wave forms ...................................................................................... 8
Figure 9 Young’s double slit experiment .......................................................................... 8
Figure 10 Wave resultant ................................................................................................ 9
Figure 11 Two wave form produce the resultant that is heard ....................................... 10
Figure 12 Sound Intensity Level chart ........................................................................... 12
Figure 13 Harmonics graphs ......................................................................................... 13
Figure 14 Speed versus Altitude graph .......................................................................... 15
Figure 15 Doppler effect in diagram B ........................................................................... 16

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TOPIC 2.5 – WAVE MOTION AND SOUND
WAVE MOTION
When energy is transferred by the passage of a periodic disturbance through an elastic
medium, it is said to be in Wave Motion.
Energy sent down a rope can cause change, (do work by applying a force), at the far end.
Figure 1 Energy sent down a rope

Water crashes onto a beach with tremendous power, showing just how much energy has
been transmitted.
Neither the rope or individual water particles move in the direction that the energy is
transmitted. However, they both move up and down between minimum and maximum
amplitudes of displacement.
These waves are called transverse, and can be represented by a graph of the values of
Sinθ between 0° and 360°. (Sinusoidal wave motion).
Figure 2 Transverse wave form

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Energy can be propagated through an elastic medium as well as along it, by a series of
density changes.
The maximum amplitude is at the region of maximum density, called a compression, and
the minimum amplitude is at the region of minimum density, called a rarefraction.
These are called compression or longitudinal waves and are a set of pulses through a
medium.
However, they can be mapped as sinusoidal waves.
Sound waves are compression waves because they use the mechanical action of
molecules to transfer their action through a medium.
For this reason, sound waves cannot travel through a vacuum.
compression rarefraction
Figure 3 Compression and rarefraction

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Figure 4 A compression sound wave, for example from a tuning fork.
Figure 5 Compression wave mapped as a sine wave
Light waves are different again. They are the type of Electromagnetic Radiation that is
detectable by the human eye.
EMR is energy propagation by periodic variation of the electric and magnetic field
They are not mechanical waves, but they display similar behaviour, and are able to travel
through vacuum.

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PROPERTIES OF WAVES
All waves have an amplitude, a wavelength, a frequency and a period.
Amplitude distance between crests

(maximum displacement) and troughs,(minimum displacement).
Wavelength λ “lambda”
Frequency (f) - the number of wavelengths occurring per second.
The period is the time taken for one cycle to complete and equals 1/f.
The speed of energy propagation is V and given by:
V = λf
Example
At sea, the distance and time between successive waves is measured to be approximately
200 m and 10 s respectively. At what speed is the energy being propagated?
1
V = 200 × = 20m/s
10

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WAVE BEHAVIOUR
Reflection and Refraction

A system of waves will change direction when it changes speed for any reason.
(Refraction).
If the system encounters a solid barrier, the energy will be reflected.
Figure 6 Wave energy refraction and reflection chart
Diffraction
If the obstacle has an edge then the wave system will “bend” and start a new system at
that point. This explains how we can hear around corners.
The nature of light waves has been proven by experiments showing the diffraction of
light.
Figure 7 Wave energy diffraction

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Interference Phenomena (Superposition)
When waves converge, their effect is algebraically added.
For example, if a sine wave is overlaid on another sine wave of identical amplitude and
frequency, it will produce a sinusoidal wave of same frequency but double the amplitude.
Similarly, if a sine wave was overlaid on another sine wave exactly half a phase out of
synchronisation, the result would be the two waves would cancel themselves out.
Figure 8 Addition of wave forms

(Noise cancelling technology uses this phenomena).
In Young’s double slit experiment, a light source illuminates slits in a screen and a small
amount of light passes through them, diffracting at the slit edges.
Figure 9 Young’s double slit experiment

The pattern of light displayed on a second screen shows the constructive and destructive
interference of the converging semi-circles of light waves.
Bright bands appear as the light waves coincide. Dark bands are indicative of the
amplitude of the waves cancelling themselves out.
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STANDING WAVES
Standing waves are formed when a wave interferes with its own reflection. This will occur
when the medium is secured at both ends like a guitar string or a structural member.
Figure 10 Wave resultant

The diagram above depicts two waves moving through a medium in opposite directions.
The blue wave is moving to the right and the green wave is moving to the left.
As is the case in any situation in which two waves meet while moving along the same
medium, interference will occur.
The blue wave and the green wave will interfere to form a new wave pattern known as the
resultant. The resultant in the diagram is shown in black.
The resultant is merely the result of the two individual waves - the blue wave and the
green wave - added together in accordance with the principle of superposition.
The point where the standing wave has no amplitude is called the node, and the point of
maximum amplitude is called the antinode.
Standing waves are formed when a fundamental wave (the longest wavelength that can
fit in a tube or on a string) is subjected to interference and a harmonic wave is
produced (a multiple of the original, fundamental wave).
Fundamental or 1st harmonic
1st overtone or 2nd harmonic
2nd overtone or 3rd harmonic

Resonance can set up a standing wave in a piece of structure, and cause fatigue at the
antinodes. Consider the following example.
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Designers of aircraft must be seriously concerned about the phenomenon of resonant
frequency because if a certain component of an aeroplane or helicopter is caused to
vibrate at its resonant frequency the amplitude of the vibration can become very large
and the component will destroy itself by vibration.
Let us examine the case of a helicopter which has a tail boom with a natural or resonant
frequency of 3 Hz. That is, if you were to strike the boom with your fist it would oscillate
once each second. The normal rotational speed of the rotor is 400 RPM and the
helicopter has 3 blades on its main rotor.
Each time a rotor blade moves over the tail boom the blade is going to cause a downward
pulse of air to strike the tail boom. The designer must determine the speed at which the
pulses will be equal to the resonant frequency of the boom. One cycle per second is
equivalent to 60 cycles/minute.
To make the tail boom vibrate at 3Hz, a three bladed rotor needs to rotate at 1 rev per
sec or 1x 60=60 rpm. All harmonics of 3 Hz will also resonate, so rpm’s of 60 x 2, 60 x 3,
60 x 4 etc should also be avoided for long periods of time.
The natural frequency of vibration is also an extremely important consideration in
designing the wings, horizontal and vertical stabilizers of an aircraft.
The designer must be certain that the resonant frequency when the surface is bent is
different from that resonant frequency when it is twisted. If that is not the case, an
aerodynamic interaction with the elasticity of the surface can result in "flutter" which can
cause the surface to fracture in a fraction of a second after it begins.
Beats
Suppose we tune two strings of a guitar to vibrate at almost, but not quite, the same
frequency. Plucked simultaneously, the volume of the sound produced by them appears
to rise and fall continuously. This rise and fall has a fixed frequency called the beat
frequency.
What is happening is that the sound waves produced by the two guitar strings interfere
and our ears detect the variation of the resultant intensity. Maximum intensity is heard
when the waves add together (interfere constructively) and minimum intensity is heard
when the waves cancel each other out (interfere destructively).
We can see what is happening by adding together the two separate waves as shown in
the diagram below. The resultant, obtained by the principle of superposition, is shown.
Figure 11 Two wave form produce the resultant that is heard

A similar phenomenon occurs when two or more propellers are rotating at slightly
different rpm’s. Pilots will use their ears to synchronise props, and eliminate the
annoying beat frequency.
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SOUND
Sound waves are usually defined as pressure waves of frequencies which our brains can
interpret. The eardrum would be affected by all pressure waves, but only those
frequencies, between 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz, are “heard” by most humans.
The pitch of a sound is directly related to the frequency.
Sound waves originate in some vibrating body such as the oscillation of a person's vocal
cords or the periodic rotation of a plane s propeller and travel through the air or some
other material medium.
As the source of sound vibrates, the air surrounding the source is periodically
compressed and rarefied (made less dense), as discussed earlier.
This periodic change in the atmospheric density and therefore pressure moves forward
with a definite speed of propagation called the "speed of sound".
The speed of sound in air is dependent on the temperature of the air. This is not
surprising since the molecules of air move faster in their random motion if the
temperature is higher. Thus we should expect these pressure waves to move somewhat
more rapidly in warmer air.
If an ear and its eardrum are in the vicinity of a sound wave, the air which strikes that
eardrum has a periodically changing atmospheric pressure. If the frequency of the sound
is middle C (256 Hz), and the atmospheric pressure that day is 14.7 lbs/in2, 256 times,
each second the air pressure is slightly above 14.7 Ibs/in2 and 256 times each second
the-pressure is slightly below 14.7 lbs/in2.
It should be emphasized that "slightly" means very small. The human ear is a remarkably
sensitive instrument. It can detect air pressure variations as small as about
0,000000005 Ibs./in2!
Sound travels faster in liquids, and even faster still, in solids.
Intensity of Sound
Intensity is determined by the amplitude of the sound wave and is measured in Watts
per metre2 , however it is more convenient to express a sound as a relative quantity called
Intensity Level.
The Intensity Level (IL) of sound waves is measured in a unit called the decibel (after
Alexander Graham Bell).
The relationship is defined as:
l
1L = 10log decibels dB (An increase of a factor of 10 is 1 Bell).
l0
The intensity, (1 0 ), is the intensity of the "threshold of hearing", the softest sound that
the average human ear can detect, and is standardised at 10-12 Watts/m2.
1L is the intensity of the sound we are measuring.

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Example:
Engine noise is measured as 10 -5 Watts/sq. m.
It should be noted that 120 db is the “threshold of pain". Sound of this intensity is
painful to the normal ear. If the ear is continuously subjected to sound of this intensity,
ear damage and hearing loss can result.
Figure 12 Sound Intensity Level chart

Those who work in the aviation industry should take precautionary measures and wear
ear protectors.
The intensity of sound decreases inversely with the square of the distance from the
source of sound.
Therefore, doubling the distance from a source of sound decreases the intensity to one-
fourth of the previous value.
A worker who is suddenly subjected to a very intense sound with unprotected ears
should move as quickly as possible away from the sound of the source.

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QUALITY
Quality or “timbre” of sound depends on the nature of the harmonics present. You will
recall that harmonics are numerical multiples of the original frequency.
In the figure below, 196 Hz is the fundamental, and each instrument has a different
sound due to the influence of its own harmonics.
Figure 13 Harmonics graphs

The tuning fork is a pure note, while the other sounds are affected by different
harmonics present.

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SPEED OF SOUND
Sound waves have been identified as longitudinal compression waves travelling through
an elastic medium, of which air is a good example.
These waves propagate at a speed which varies according to the medium through which
it travels.
Speed of sound in air varies according to atmospheric temperature.
In normal atmospheric conditions at sea level, it is 660 kt (knots) which equates to about
340 m/s, or 1,224 km/h.
An aircraft creates disturbances to the air as it moves through it. These disturbances act
like sound waves and travel at the same speed, but are of insufficient intensity to be
detected by the human ear.
• Less than speed of sound

• Subsonic
• More than speed of sound

• Supersonic
If the aircraft is moving at the speed of sound, then these disturbances cannot propagate
away from the airframe and pile up, creating the phenomenon known as a shock wave,
which is intense enough to be heard. (The sonic boom).
The “Sound Barrier” is the extremely large increase in air resistance which occurs at this
point.

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MACH NUMBER
At high speeds the aerodynamic forces depend on the Mach number.
Aircraft TAS
• Flight Mach Number =
Local Speed of Sound
The speed of sound in a medium varies with the properties especially density and
temperature. For air, the local speed of sound a given by:
a = 39 T Kts.
(Where T is the temperature in Kelvin)
The figure below shows the local speed of sound at different altitudes.
Figure 14 Speed versus Altitude graph

Example:
At 50,000 ft
The local speed of sound is 574 kt. If the aircraft TAS is 600 kt, then,
600
Flight Mach Number = = 1.05
574
At 10,000 ft
The local speed of sound is 639 kt. If the aircraft TAS is 600 kt, then,
600
Flight Mach Number = = 0.94
639

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DOPPLER EFFECT
A B
Figure 15 Doppler effect in diagram B
When a source of sound is not moving, the sound waves radiate out from the source like
ripples in a pond. A above.
When the source of sound moves, however, the frequency (and pitch) ahead of the source
becomes higher than the frequency behind it. B above.
Activity:
Label diagram B to show the regions of lower and higher frequency sound
This change in frequency is called the Doppler effect. It accounts for the sound of sirens,
motorbikes, and aircraft etc. becoming higher pitched as they approach, then decreasing
in pitch as the vehicle passes.
Any energy propagated by means of wave motion is subject to the Doppler effect.
Examples include light, which helped astronomers develop the Big Bang model, and
radio waves, which provide navigational information.

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Student Resource B-2

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Topic 2.1 Matter

Topic 2.2.1 Statics

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Topic 2.2.2 Kinetics

Topic 2.2.3 Dynamics

Topic 2.2.4.1 Fluid Dynamics (SG)

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Topic 2.2.4.2 Fluid Dynamics (Viscosity)

Topic 2.3 Thermodynamics

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Topic 2.4 Optics (Light)

Topic 2.5 Wave Motion And Sound

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Density (d or p) = Mass m kg / m3 ki log rams per cubic metre

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Weight = Mass × g (in Newtons)

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PROPERTY METRIC (SI) BRITISH CONVERSION

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Training Material Only B-2.1 Matter

Training Material Only B-2.1 Matter

Figure 1 Carbon atom and oxygen atom

Training Material Only B-2.1 Matter

Figure 2 Copper atom

Training Material Only B-2.1 Matter

Training Material Only B-2.1 Matter

Figure 5 Alumina molecule

Training Material Only B-2.1 Matter

Figure 7 Crystalline structure of metal alloy

Training Material Only B-2.1 Matter

Training Material Only B-2.1 Matter

Training Material Only B-2.1 Matter

Training Material Only B-2.2.1 Statics

Training Material Only B-2.2.1 Statics

Figure 1 A vector has magnitude and direction

Training Material Only B-2.2.1 Statics

Figure 2 Vector addition

Moments and Levers

Training Material Only B-2.2.1 Statics

Figure 5 First class lever

Training Material Only B-2.2.1 Statics

Figure 7 Third-class lever

Training Material Only B-2.2.1 Statics

Training Material Only B-2.2.1 Statics

Figure 11 CG is the intersection of the verticals

Training Material Only B-2.2.1 Statics

Figure 12 Safe CG range

Balance of Rotating Components

Training Material Only B-2.2.1 Statics

Figure 14 Propeller in a static balancing rig