Professional Documents
Culture Documents
November 3, 2016
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Contents
4 Triangles 13
4.1 Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.2 Angles of Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.3 Congruence between Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.4 Isosceles Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.5 Bisectors, Medians and Altitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
8 Circles 27
8.1 Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
8.2 Central Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
8.3 Inscribed Angles and Their Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8.4 TANGENTS ANS SECANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8.5 Angles formed by Tangets, Chords, and Secants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
8.6 Measures of Tangent Segments, Chords, and Secant Segments . . . . . . . . . . 29
9 Solids 31
9.1 SOLIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
9.2 Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
9.3 Surface Area and Volume Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
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Chapter 1
Geometry is the branch of mathematics that defines and relates the basic properties and measurement
of line segments and angles.
The word geometry is derived from the Greek words geos(meaning earth) and metron(meaning mea-
sure).
Definition 1.1 A point has no dimension. It has no length, width, or thickness.It is represented by a
dot. It is usually named by a capital letter.
Definition 1.2 A line is an infinite set of points. It is represented by a line with arrowheads but it
extends without end.
A line is designated by a capital letters of any two of its points or by a small letter.
A line may be straight, curved or a combination of these.
A straight line is generated by a point moving always in the same direction.
A curved line is generated by a point moving in a continuously changing direction.
Definition 1.3 A plane is a set of points that form a flat surface extending in all direction. It has two
dimensions. It is represented by a shape tha looks like a floor or a wall but it extends without end.
A plane can be name by using the letters that identify the three points in the plane that are not on
the same line.
Definition 1.4 A collinear sets of points is a set of points all of which lie on the same straight line.
Definition 1.5 A noncollinear set of points is a set of three or more points that do not all lie on
the same straight line.
Definition 1.6 The distance between two points on the real number line is the absolute value
of the difference of the coordinates of the two points.
Definition 1.7 B is between A and C, if and only if are distinct collinear points and AB + BC = AC.
This is also called betweenness.
Postulate 1.8 Through two distinct points, there is exactly one line.
Postulate 1.9 Through three noncollinear points, there is exactly one plane.
Definition 1.10 A line segment or a segment, is a set of points consisting of two points on a line
called endpoints, and all of the points on the line between the endpoints.
Definition 1.11 The length of a line segment is the distance between endpoints.
**The measure of a line segment is known as linear measure.
Postulate 1.12 (Ruler Postulate) The points of a line can be placed in correspondence with the real
numbers in such a way that
i) to every point of the line there corresponds exactly one real number
ii) to every real number there corresponds exactly one point of the line; and
iii) the distance between any two points is the absolute value of the difference of the corresponding
numbers.
1
Definition 1.14 Congruent segments are segments that have the same measure.
Definition 1.15 The midpoint of a line segment is the point that separates the line segment into two
congruent parts.
Theorem 1.17 If two different lines intersect, their intersection contains only one point.
Postulate 1.18 If two points of a line lie in a plane, then the line lies in the same plane.
Theorem 1.19 If a line intersects a plane not containing it, then the intersection contains only one
point.
Postulate 1.20 At a given point on a given line, one and only one perpendicular can be drawn to the
line.
Postulate 1.21 From a given point not on a given line, one and only one perpendicular can be drawn
to the line.
Postulate 1.22 For any two distinct points, there is only one positive real number that is the length
of the line segment joining the two points.
Postulate 1.23 The shortest distance between two points is the length of the line segment joining these
two points.
Theorem 1.24 Given a line and a point not on the line, there is exactly one plane containing both.
Theorem 1.25 Given two intersecting lines, there is exactly one plane containing both.
Postulate 1.26 If two different planes intersect, then their intersection is a line.
Definition 1.27 The bisector of a line segment is any line, or subset of a line that intersects the
segments at its midpoint.
Definition 1.28 Two points A and B are on one side of a point P if A, B and P are collinear and
P is not between A and B.
Every point on a line divides the line into two opposite set of points called half-lines. A half-line
consists of the set of all points on one side of the point of division. The point of division itself does not
belong to the half-line.
Definition 1.30 Opposite rays are two rays of the same line with a common endpoint and no other
point in common.
Definition 1.31 An angle is a set of point that is the union of two rays having the same endpoint(or
is formed by two noncollinear rays that have a common endpoint). The rays are called the sides of the
angle. The common endpoint is the vertex of the angle.
Naming an angles:
An angle may be named in any of the following ways;
1. with the vertex letter, if there is only one angle having this vertex
2. with a small letter, or a number between the sides of the angle and near the vertex
3. with three capital letters, such that the vertex is between two others, one from each side of the angle.
2
1. Acute angle
An acute angle is an angle whose measure is less than 90◦ .
2. Right angle
A right angle is an angle that measures 90◦ .
3. Obtuse angle
An obtuse angle is an angle whose measure is more than 90◦ and less than 180◦ .
4. Straight angle
A straight angle is an angle that measures 180◦ .
5. Reflex angle
A reflex angle is an angle whose measure is more than 180◦ and less than 360◦ .
2. Vertical angles
Vertical angles are two nonadjacent angles formed by two intersecting lines.
3. Linear pair
A Linear pair is a pair of adjacent angles whose noncommon sides are opposite rays.
4. Complementary angles
Complementary angles are two angles whose measures total 90◦ .
Each angle is the complement of the other. Complementary angles can be adjacent or nonadja-
cent.
5. Supplementary angles
Supplementary angles are two angles whose total 180◦ .
Each angle is the supplement of the other. Supplementary angles can be adjacent or nonadjacent.
Postulate 1.32 (Protractor Postulate) The measure of an angle is a unique positive number.
Postulate 1.33 (Angle-Addition Postulate) If a point D lies in the interior of an angle ABC, then
m∠ABD + m∠DBC = m∠ABC.
Definition 1.34 Congruent angles are two angles with the same measure.
Definition 1.35 An angle bisector is a ray that divides an angle into two adjacent angles that are
congruent.
Theorem 1.36 There is one and only one angle bisector for a given angle.
Definition 1.37 Perpendicular lines are two lines that intersect to form right angle.
Definition 1.38 The distance from a point to a line is the length of the perpendicular from the
point to the line.
Theorem 1.39 If two angles are right angles then they are congruent.
Theorem 1.40 If two angles are straight angles, then they are congruent.
Theorem 1.41 If two angles are complements of the same angle, then they are congruent.
Theorem 1.42 If two angles are congruent then their complements are congruent.
Theorem 1.43 If two angles are supplements of the same angle, then they are congruent.
Theorem 1.44 If two angles are congruent, then their supplements are congruent.
Theorem 1.45 If two angles form a linear pair, then they are supplementary.
Theorem 1.46 If two lines intersect to form congruent adjacent angles, then they are perpendicular.
Theorem 1.47 If two lines intersect, then the vertical angles are congruent.
Theorem 1.48 If supplementary angles are congruent, each of them is a right angle.
3
Theorem 1.49 If the exterior sides of two adjacent acute angles form perpendicular rays , then these
angles are complementary.
Theorem 1.50 If the exterior sides of two adjacent angles form a straight line, then these angles are
supplemenatry.
Theorem 1.51 If two line segments are congruent, then their midpoints separate these segments into
four congruent segments.
Theorem 1.52 If two angles are congruent, then their bisectors separate these angles into four congru-
ent angles.
4
Chapter 2
2.1 Statements
Definition 2.1 Logic is the study of reasoning.
Definition 2.2 A statement (or proposition) is a declarative sentence that is either true or false,
but not both. The truth or falsity of a statement is called its truth value. It is represented by letter
as p or q.
Example 2.3 Classify each of the following as a true statement, a false statement, or neither.
1. 2 − 4 = 15
5. Every man
Definition 2.5 An open sentence is any sentence that contains variable. It is denoted by px , qx
Example 2.6
1. x + 2 = 6 the variable is x
Definition 2.7 The domain or replacement set is the set of elements that are possible replacements
for the variable.
Definition 2.8 The solution set or truth set is the set of all replacements that make the open
sentence true.
Example 2.9
1. px : 5 + x = 8
variable: x
doamin: 1,2,3,4,5
soluton set: {3}
Definition 2.10 The negation of a statement p, denoted by ∼ p, is the statement “ not p”.
The negation of a statements always has the opposite truth value of the given or original statement and
is usually formed by adding the word not to the given statement.
1. 5 + 3 = 8
5
2. A duck is a mammal.
solution:
• 5 + 3 6= 8
Definition 2.12 A compound statemet is a combination of two or more statements formed by using
the connectiveness not, and, or, if, ..., then, or if and only if .
Definition 2.13 A conjunction is a compound statement formed by joining two or more statements
with the word and.
Notation: p ∧ q, read p and q.
Definition 2.14 A disjunction is a compound statement formed by joining two or more statements
with the word or.
Notation: p ∨ q, read p or q
Definition 2.15 A truth table is a summary of all possible truth values of a logic statement.
Negation
p ∼p
T F
F T
Conjunction Disjunction
p q p∧q p∨q
T T T T
T F F T
F T F T
F F F F
Definition 2.16 A conditional statement is a statement that can be written if −then form. If −then
statement is written in the form if p then q(p ↔ q). A hypothesis, also called a premise or antecedent,
is an assertion that begins an argument. The hypothesis is usually follows the word if. A conclusion,
also called a consequent, is an ending or a sentence that closes an argument. The conclusion usually
follows the word then.
Definition 2.17 *The inverse of a conditional statement (∼ p →∼ q)is formed by negating the hy-
pothesis and negating the conclusion.
*The converse of a conditional statement (q → p)is formed by interchanging the hypothesis and
the conclusion.
*The contrapositive of a conditional statement (∼ q →∼ p) is formed by negating both the
hypothesis and the conclusion and then interchanging the resulting negation.
Definition 2.18 A biconditional is a compound statement formed by the conjunction of the condi-
tional p → q and its converse q → p. It is a statement that contains the phrase “if and only if”
Notation: (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
Applications of the biconditional:
TRUTH TABLE
p q ∼p ∼q (p → q) (∼ p →∼ q) (q → p) (∼ q →∼ p) (p ↔ q)
T T F F T T T T T
T F F T F T T F F
F T T F T F F T F
F F T T T T T T T
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1. Two points are collinear, if they lie on the same line
Answer: If two points lie on the same line, then they are collinear.
2. All birds have feathers. Answer: If an animal is a bird, then it has feathers.
Example 2.20 Write if-then form, the converse, the inverse, and the contrapositive of the conditional
statement ” Guitar players are musicians”. Decide whether each statement is true or false.
Example 2.21 Rewrite the biconditional statement “Three lines are coplanar if and only if they lie in
the same plane” as a conditional statement and its converse.
Example 2.22 Determine the truth value of the biconditional 3y + 1 = 28 if and only if y = 9
Example 2.23 Write the definition “ Congruent segments are segments that have the same measure”.
2.2 Reasoning
Definition 2.24 Reasoning is a process based on experience and principles that allow ono to arrive
at a conclusion.
Types of reasoning
• Intuition → An inspiration to the statement of a theory.
In intuition, a sudden insight allows one to make a statement without applying any formal
reasoning. When it is used, we sometimes err by “jumping ” to conclusions.
• Induction( Inductive Reasoning) → An organized effort to test and validate the theory.
*Inductive Reasoning uses specific examples and patterns to form a conjecture(or is a reasoning
that uses a number of specific examples to arrive at a plausible generalization or prediction).
A conjecture is an unproven statement that is based on observations(or is an educated guess
based on known information).
*** To show that a conjecture is true, show that it is true for all cases. To show that it is false,
simply find one counterexample.
A counterexample is a specific case for which the conjecture is false.
2. While in a grocery store, you examine a several 8 − oz catons of yogurt. Although the flavors and
brands differ, each carton is priced at 75 cents. What do you conclude?
Answer: Conjecture Every 8 − oz of yogurt in the store costs 75 cents.
3. Make and Test a conjecture about the sum of any consecutive integers.
Answer: Conjecture The sum of any three consecutive integers is three times the second number.
4. Conjecture: The sum of two numbers is always greater than the larger number. Find a counterex-
ample to disprove the conjecture.
• Cathy knows that Mark is a sophomore and Jack is a junior. All the other juniors that Cathy
knows are older than Mark. Therefore, Cathy reasons inductively that Jack is older than Mark
based on the past observations.
• Cathy knows that Jack is older than John. She also knows that John is older than Mark. Andrea
reasons deductively that Jack is older than Mark based on accepted statements.
7
Example 2.27 A. Use the Law of Detachment to make a valid conclusion in the true situation.
• If two segments have the same length, then they are congruent. You know that AC = DE
• Nathan goes to the movies every Friday and Saturday night. Today is Saturday.
• Carl knows that if he misses the practice the day before a game, then he will not be a starting
player in the game. Carl misses practice on Monday so he will not be able to start the game on
Tuesday.
• If two angles form a linear pair, then they are supplementary. ∠A and ∠B are supplementary. So,
∠A and ∠B form a linear pair.
II.The Law of Syllogism states that if p → q and q → r are true conditional statements, then p → r
is true.
Example 2.28 If possible, use the Law of Syllogism to write a new conditional statement that follows
from the pair of true statements.
1. If Nathan takes biology this year, then Alex will be Nathan’s lab partner.
If Alex is Nathan’s partner, then Nathan will get an A in biology.
Answer: If Nathan takes biology this year, then Nathan will get an A in biology.
3. If a polygon is regular, then all angles in the interior of the polygon are congruent
If a polygon is regular, then all of its sides are congruent.
* The Law of Disjunctive Inference states that when p ∨ q is true and p is false then q must be
true.
Symbol: [(p → q) ∧ (q → r)] → (p → r)
2.3 Proof
Definition 2.29 A proof in geometry is a valid argument that establishes the truth a statement(or is
a logical argument in which each statement you make is supported by a statement that is accepted as
true). It uses the deductive reasoning by either direct or indirect.
A proof that starts with the given statements and uses the laws of logic to arrive at the statement to
be proved is called a direct proof , while a proof that starts with the negation of the statement to
be proved and uses the law of logic to show that it is false is called indirect proof or proof by
contradiction
A postulate is a statement that describes a fundamental relationship between the basic terms of geom-
etry. Postulates are accepted as true.
A theorem is a statement that is proved by deductive reasoning.
Types of Proofs
• TWO-COLUMN PROOF This is the most formal type of proof. It lists numbered statements
in the left column and a reason for each statement in the right column, that is, each step is called
a statement , and the properties that justify each step are called reasons.
• PARAGRAPH PROOF or INFORMAL PROOF This type of proof describes the log-
ical argument with sentences. It is more conversation than a two-column proof.(or you write a
paragraph to explain why a conjecture for a given situation is true.)
• FLOW PROOF This type of proof uses the same statements and reasons as a two-column
proof, but the logical flow connecting the statements is indicated by arrows.
8
• Distributive Property: a(b + c) = ab + ac
• Angle Measure: For any angle ∠A and ∠B, if m∠A = m∠B then m∠B = m∠A
• Angle Measure: For any angle ∠A, ∠B and ∠C, if m∠A = m∠B and m∠B = m∠C,then
m∠A = m∠C.
• One and only one straight line can be drawn throughany two points.
• One and only one circle can be drawn with any given point as center and a given line segment as
a radius.
• Through any point on a line, one and only one perpendicular can be drawn to the line.
• Through any point outside a line, one and only one perpendicular can be drawn to the given line.
9
10
Chapter 3
Postulate 3.2 (Parallel Postulate) If there is a line and a point not on the line,then there is exactly
one line through the point parallel to the given line.
Postulate 3.3 (Perpendicular Postulate) If there is a line and a point not on the line, then there is
exactly one line through the point perpendicular to the given line.
Theorem 3.4 If two parallel planes are intersected by a third plane, then the lines of intersection are
parallel.
Theorem 3.5 If two lines intersect to form a linear pair of congruent angles, then the lines are perpen-
dicular.
3.2 Transversal
Definition 3.6
A transversal is a line that intersects two or more coplanar lines at different points.
Angels formed by two lines and a transversal:
• Corresponding angles are a pair of nonadjacent angles- one interior, one exterior–both on the
same side of the transversal.
• Alternate Interior Angles are a pair of nonadjacent angles, both interior angles, on opposite
sides of the transversal.
• Alternate Exterior Angles are a pair of nonadjacent angles, both exterior angles, on opposite
sides of the transversal.
Postulate 3.7 (Corresponding Angles Postulate) If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then
the pairs of corresponding angles are congruent.
Theorems about Parallel Lines
Theorem 3.8 (Alternate Interior Angles Theorem) If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then
the pairs of alternate interior angles are congruent.
Theorem 3.9 (Consecutive Interior Angles Theorem) If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then
the pairs of consecutive interior angles are supplementary.
Theorem 3.10 (Alternate Exterior Angles Theorem) If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then
the pairs of alternate exterior angles are congruent.
11
Theorem 3.11 (Perpendicular Transversal Theorem) If a transversal is perpendicular to oneof two
parallel lines, then it is perpendicular to the other.
Postulate 3.12 (Corresponding Angles Converse) If two lines are cut by a transversal so that corre-
sponding angles are congruent, then the lines are parallel.
Theorem 3.13 (Alternate Interior Angles Converse) If two lines are cut by a transversal so that alter-
nate interior angles are congruent, then the lines are parallel.
Theorem 3.14 (Consecutive Interior Angles Converse) If two lines are cut by a transversal so that
consecutive interior angles are supplementary, then the lines are parallel.
Theorem 3.15 (Alternate Exterior Angles Converse) If two lines are cut by a transversal so that
alternate exterior angles are congruent, then the lines are parallel.
Theorem 3.16 If two lines are parallel to the same line, then they are parallel to each other.
Theorem 3.17 In a plane, if two lines are perpendicular to the same line, then they are parallel to
each other.
Theorem 3.18 In a plane, if two lines are equdistant from a third line, then the two lines and any
point on the other line.
12
Chapter 4
Triangles
4.1 Triangles
The word polygon is from the two ancient Greek words: poly meaning many , and gon, meaning angles.
Definition 4.1 A polygon is a closed figure in a plane that is the union of line segments such that the
segment intersect only at their endpoints and no segments sharing a common endpoint are collinear.
A polygon consists of three or more line segments, each of which is a side of the polygon; each
endpoint vertex, belongs to exactly two segments.
Definition 4.2 A triangle is a polygon that has exactly three sides. A vertex of a triangle is a point
at which two of the sides meet. The symbol of a triangle is 4.
A triangle may be named with its three letters in any order or with a Roman numeral place inside
of it.
In a triangle, two sides sharing a common vertex are adjacent sides.
Definition 4.3 A point lies in the interior of a triangle if it lies in the interior of each of the angles of
the triangle. A point lies in the exterior of a triangle if it lies in the plane of the triangle but does not
lie on the triangle or in the interior.
Classification of triangles
I. Classifying Triangles According to Sides:
1. Scalene triangle: A scalene triangle is a triangle that has no congruent sides.
2. Isosceles triangle: An isosceles triangle is a triangle that has two congruent sides.
3. Equilateral triangle: An equilateral triangle is a triangle that has three congruent sides.
II. Classifying Triangles According to Angles
1. Acute Triangle: An acute triangle is a triangle that has three acute angle.
2. Right Triangle: An right triangle is a triangle that has a right angle.
* The two sides of the right triangle that form the right angles are called the legs of the right
triangle. The side opposite the right angle is called the hypotenuse.
3. Obtuse Triangle: An acute triangle is a triangle that has an obtuse angle.
Definition 4.4 An equiangular triangle is a triangle that has three congruent sides.
13
4.3 Congruence between Triangles
Recall: Angles are congruent if they have the same measure. Segments are congruent if they have the
same length.
Two geometric figures are congruent if they have exactly the same size and shape. In two congruent
figures, all the parts of one figure are congruent to the corresponding parts of the other figure.
Definition 4.10 Two polygons are congruent if and only if there is a one-to-one correspondence between
their vertices such that corresponding angles are congruent and corresponding sides are congruent.
Remark 4.11 When writing a congruence statement for two polygons, always list the corresponding
vertices in same order.
ABC ↔ DEF
between the vertices of two triangles. If every pair of corresponding sides are congruent, and every pair
of corresponding angles are congruent then the correspondence ABC ↔ DEF is called a congruence
between the two triangles.
Definition 4.13 (Congruent Triangles-CPCTC) Two triangles are congruent if and only if their
corresponding parts are congruent.
Postulate 4.15 Side - Side - Side (SSS) Postulate If three sides of one triangle are congruent to
three sides of another triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.
Postulate 4.16 Side - Angle -Side (SAS) Postulate If two sides and the included angle of one
triangle are congruent to two sides and the included angle of another triangle, then the two triangles are
congruent.
Postulate 4.17 Angle - Side - Angle (ASA) POstulate If two angles and the included side of
one triangle are congruent to two angles and the included side of another triangle, then the two triangles
are congruent.
Theorem 4.18 Angle - Angle - Side (AAS) Theorem If two angles and the nonincluded side
of one triangle are congruent, respectively, to the corresponding angles and nonincluded side of another
triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.
section Proving Right Triangles are Congruent
The side of a right triangle that is opposite the right angle is the hypotenuse. The sides that are opposite
the acute angles are legs.
Theorem 4.19 (LA Theorem) If a leg and an acute angle of one right triangle are congruent to the
corresponding parts of another right triangle then triangles are congruent.
Theorem 4.20 (HA Theorem) If the hypotenuse and an acute angle of one right triangle are
congruent to tthe corresponding parts of another right triangle, then the triangles are congruent.
Theorem 4.21 (LL Theorem) If the two legs of one right triangle are congruent to the two legs of
another right triangle, then the triangles are congruent.
Theorem 4.22 (HL Theorem) If the hypotenuse and a leg of one right triangle are congruent to
the corresponding parts of another right triangle, then the triangles are congruent.
14
4.4 Isosceles Triangles
Parts of an Isosceles Triangle
* The two congruent sides of an isosceles triangle are called the legs of the isosceles triangle.
* The angle formed by the two congruent sides of the isosceles triangle is called the vertex angle
of the isosceles triangle.
* The angles whose vetices are the endpoints of the base of the triangle are called the base angles
of the isosceles triangles.
Definition 4.23 An angle bisector of a triangle is a line segment that bisects any angle of the
triangle and terminates in the side opposite that angle.
Theorem 4.24 (Isosceles Triangle Theorem) If two sides of a triangle are congruent, then the
angles opposite those sides are congruent.
Theorem 4.25 (Converse Isosceles Triangle Theorem) If two angles of a triangle are congruent,
then the sides opposite those angles are congruent.
Theorem 4.29 Any point on the perpendicular bisector of a segment is equidistant from the endpoints
of the segment.
Theorem 4.30 Any point equidistant from the endpoints of a segment lies on the perpendicular bisector
of the segment.
Definition 4.31 Three or more lines are concurrent if and only if they intersect in the same pointand
their point of intersection is called the point of concurrency.
Definition 4.32 The point of concurrency of the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle is
called a circumcenter.
Theorem 4.33 (Circumcenter Theorem) The circumcenter of a triangle is equidistant from the
vertices of the triangle.
Definition 4.34 An angle bisector of a triangle is a ray or a segment from the vertex of the bisected
angle.
Theorem 4.35 Any point on the angle bisector is equidistant from the sides of the angle.
Theorem 4.36 Any point equidistant from the sides of an angle lies on the angle bisector.
Definition 4.37 The point of concurrency of the angle bisectors of a triangle is called the incenter.
Theorem 4.38 (Incenter Theorem) The incenter of a triangle is equidistant from each side of the
triangle.
Remark 4.39 In most trangles, a perpendicular bisector will not pass through the vertex opposite a
given side and also an angle bisector usually will not bisect the side opposite an angle.
Definition 4.40 A median of a triangle is a line segment that joins any vertex of the triangle to the
midpoint of the opposite side.
Definition 4.41 The point of concurrency of the medians of any triangle is called the centroid.
Theorem 4.42 (Centroid Theorem) The centroid of a triangle is located two thirds of the distance
from a vertex to the midpoint of the side opposite the vertex on a median.
Definition 4.43 An altitude of a triangle is a line segment from a vertex perpendicular to the
opposite side(or a seg,ent from a vertex to the line containing the opposite side and perpendicular to
the line containing that side).
15
Definition 4.44 The point of concurrency of the altitudes is called the orthocenter.
Remark 4.45
1. Since the median contains the midpoint, it is also a bisector of the side of the triangle.
Theorem 4.46 The lines that contain the altitudes of a triangle intersect in one point.
Theorem 4.47 The bisector of the the vertex angle of an isosceles triangle is perpendicular to the base
at its midpoint. In other words, in an isosceles triangle, the bisector of the vertex angle is also an altitude
and a median of the triangle.
16
Chapter 5
5.1 Inequalities
Definition 5.1 Let a and be be real numbers, a > b if and only if th ere is a positive number p for
which a = b + p.
Properties of Inequality: Let a, b, c, and d be any real numbers.
Lemma 5.2 If B is between A and C on AC, then AC > AB and AC > BC. (The measure of a line
segment is greater than the measure of any ofits parts.)
Lemma 5.3 The measure of an angle is greater than the measure of any of its parts.
Theorem 5.5 If one side of a triangle is longer than another side, then the angle opposite the longer
side is larger than the angle opposite the shorter side.
Theorem 5.6 If one angle of a triangle is larger than another angle, then the side opposite the larger
angle is longer than the side opposite the smaller angle.
Theorem 5.7 (Triangle Inequality) The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a traingle is greater
than the length of the third side.
Theorem 5.8 The length of any side of a triangle must lie between the sum and difference of the lengths
of the other two sides.
Lemma 5.9 If a triangle contains a right or an obtuse angle, then the measure of this angle is greater
than the measure of either of the remaining angles.
Theorem 5.10 (Hinge Theorem/SAS Inequality Theorem) If two sides of one triangle are
congruent to two sides of another triangle, and the included angle of the first is larger than the included
angle of the second, then the third side of the first is longer than the third side of the second.
Theorem 5.11 (Converse of the Hinge Theorem/ SSS Inequality) If two sides of one triangle
are congruent to two sides of another triangle, and the third side of the first is longer than the third side
of the second, then the include angle of the first is larger than the included angle of the second.
17
18
Chapter 6
Definition 6.1 Given two numbers a and b, y 6= 0, a ratio is the quotient a divided by b. A ratio can
be written as a to b, a : b, or ab . All of these ratios are read a to b.
Remark 6.2 ,
• To express the ratio in simplest form, divide out the common factor.
• If units of measure are found in ratio, these units must me commensurable(convertible to the
same unit of measure). If two quantities cannot be compared because no common unit measure is
possible, the quantities are incommensurable. .
• An extended ratio compares more than two quantities and must be expressedin a form such as
a : b : c or d : e : f : g
• Unknown quantities in the ratio a : b : c : d should be represented by ax, bx, cx and dx.
Definition 6.3 A rate is a quotient that compares two quantities that are incommensurable.
a c
Definition 6.4 A proportion is the equality of two ratios. In symbols, = (c 6= 0, d 6= 0), or
b d
a : b = c : d. It is read a is to b as c is to d.
Each number in a proportion is called a term.
The first and fourth terms are called the extremes of a proportion; the second and third terms are
called the means of the proportion.
Properties of Proportion
1. (Means-Extremes Property) THe product of the extremes equals the product of the means,that
a c
is, if = , then ad = bc.
b d
2. (Reciprocal Property) If two ratios are equal, then their reciprocals are also equal, that is, if
a c b d
= , then = .
b d a c
a c a b
3. If = ,then = .
b d c d
a c a+b c+d
4. If = , then =
b d b d
Definition 6.5 The geometric mean of two positive numbers a and b is the positive number x such
a x
that = .
x b √
If we solve this proportion x, we find that x = a · b, which is a positive number.
19
6.2 Proportions involving Line segments
Definition 6.6 Two line segments are divided proportionally when the ratio of the lengths of the
parts of one segment is equal to the ratio of the lengths of the parts of the other.
Theorem 6.7 If two line segments are divided proportionally, then the ratio of the length of a part of
one segment to the length of the whole is equal to the ratio of the corresponding lengths of the other
segment.
Theorem 6.8 If the ratio of the length of a part of one line segment to the length of the whole is equal
to the ratio of the corresponding lengths of another line segment,then the two segments are divided
proportionally.
Definition 6.9 Two polygons are similar if there is a one-to-one correspondence between their vertices
such that:
2. the ratios of the lenghts of all pairs of corresponding sides are equal (the lengths of corresponding
sides are proportional).
Theorem 6.10 If two polygons are similar, then the ratio of their perimeters is equal to the ratios of
their corresponding side lengths.
Proving Triangles are Similar(∼)
Theorem 6.11 AAA Postulate If the three angles of one triangle are congruent to the three angles
of a second triangle, then the triangle are similar.
Postulate 6.12 AA Postulate If two angles of one triangle are congruent to two angles of another
triangle, then the triangles are similar.
Theorem 6.15 The lengths of the corresponding altitudes of similar triangles have the same ratio as
the lenghts of any pair of corresponding sides.
Theorem 6.16 SAS Similarity Theorem If an angle of one triangle is congruent to an angle of
a second triangle and the pairs of corresponding sides including the angles are proportion, then the
triangles are similar.
Theorem 6.17 SSS Similarity Theorem If the three sides of one triangle are proportional to the
three corresponding sides of a second triangle, then the triangles are similar.
Theorem 6.19 Converse of the Triangle Proportionality Theorem: If a line segment divides
two sides of a triangle proportionally, then this line segment is parallel to the third side of the triangle.
Definition 6.20 A midsegment of a triangle is a segment whose endpoints are the midpoints of two
sides of the triangle.
20
Theorem 6.21 (Triangle Midsegment Theorem) A midsegment of a triangle is parallel to one
side of the triangle, and its length is one-half of that side.
Corollary 6.22 If three or more parallel lines intersect two transversals then they divide the transversals
proportionally.
Corollary 6.23 If three or more parallel lines cut off congruent segments on one tranversal, then they
cut off congruent segments on every transversal.
Theorem 6.33 Pythagorean Theorem The square of the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle
is equal to the sum of the squares of the length of the legs.
Theorem 6.34 Converse of Pythagorean Theorem If a, b and c are the lengths of the three sides
of a triangle, with c is the length of thelongest side, and if c2 = a2 + b2 , then the triangle is a right
triangle with the right angle opposite the side of length c.
Definition 6.35 A Pythagorean triple is a set of three natural numbers (a, b, c) for which a2 +b2 = c2 .
Theorem 6.36 Let a, b and c represent the lengths of the three sides of a triangle, with c the length
of the longest side.
i) If c2 > a2 + b2 , then the triangle is obtuse and the obtuse angle lies opposite the side of length c.
ii) If c2 < a2 + b2 , the the triangle is acute.
Special Right Triangles
Theorem 6.37 (45-45-90 Theorem) In a triangle √ whose angles measure 450 , 450 and 900 , the
hypotenuse has a length equal to the product of 2 and the length of either leg.
Theorem 6.38 (30-60-90 Theorem) In a triangle whose angles measure 300 , 600 and 900 , the
hypotenuse has√a length equal to twice the length of the shorter leg, and the length of the longer leg is
the product of 3 and the length of the shorter leg.
√
Theorem 6.39 If the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle equals the product of 2 and the
length of either leg, then the angles of the triangle measure 450 450 , and 900 .
Theorem 6.40 If the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is twice the length of one leg of the
triangle, then the angle of the triangle opposite that leg measure 300 .
21
22
Chapter 7
7.1 Polygon
Definition 7.1 A regular polygon is a polygon that is both equilateral and equiangular.
Definition 7.2 A diagonal of a polygon is a line segment that joins two nonconsecutive vertices.
n(n − 3)
Theorem 7.3 The total number of diagonals of n sides is given by the formula D = .
2
ANGLE MEASURES IN POLYGONS
Theorem 7.4 Theorem: Polygon Interior Angles Theorem The sum of the measures of the
interior angles of a polygon with n sides is given by (n − 2) · 1800 , n > 2
(n − 2) · 1800
Corollary 7.5 The measure of each interior angle of a regular n-gon is .
n
Corollary 7.6 The sum of the four interior angles of a quadrilateral is 3600 .
Theorem 7.7 Theorem: Polygon Exterior Angles Theorem The sum of the measures of the
exterior angles of a polygon, one angle at each vertex, is 3600
3600
Corollary 7.8 The measure of each exterior angle of a regular n-gon is .
n
POLYGRAM
Definition 7.9 A polygram is the star-shaped figure that results when the sides of convex polygons
with five or more sides are extended.
*When the polygon is regular, the resulting polygram is also regular- i.e., the interior acute angles
are congruent , the interior reflex angles are congruent, and all sides are congruent.
7.2 Quadrilateral
Definition 7.10 A quadrilateral is a polygon with four sides.
General parts:
*Consecutive vertices or adjacent vertices are vertices that are endpoints of the same side.
*Consecutive sides or adjacent sides are sides that have a common endpoint.
*Opposite sides of a quadrilateral are sides that do not have a common endpoint.
*Consecutive angles of a quadrilateral are angles whose vertices are consecutive.
*A diagonal of a quadrilateral is a line segment whose endpoints are two nonadjacent vertices of the
quadrilateral.
7.3 Parallelogram
Definition 7.11 A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides are parallel.
Theorem 7.13 If a quadrilateral is a parallelogram, the its opposite sides are congruent.
Theorem 7.14 If a quadrilateral is a parallelogram, then its opposite angles are congruent.
Theorem 7.15 If a quadrilateral is a parallelogram, then its consecutive angles are supplementary.
Theorem 7.16 If a quadrilateral is a parallelogram, then its diagonals bisect each other.
23
Definition 7.17 The distance between two parallel lines is the length of the perpendicular from any
point on one line to the other line.
Properties of a Parallelogram
1. Opposite sides are parallel.
2. A diagonal divides a parallelogram into two congruent triangles.
3. Opposite sides are congruent.
4. Opposite angles are congruent.
5. Consecutive angles are supplementary.
6. The diagonal bisect each other.
Proving Quadrilaterals are Parallelograms
Theorem 7.18 If both pairs of opposite sides of a quadrilateral are congruent, then the quadrilateral
is a parallelogram.
Theorem 7.19 If both pairs of opposite angles of a quadrilateral are congruent, then the quadrilateral
is a parallelogram.
Theorem 7.20 If an angle of a quadrilateral is supplementary to both of its consecutive angles, then
the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
Theorem 7.21 If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, then the quadrilateral is a paral-
lelogram.
Theorem 7.26 If the diagonals of a parallelogram are congruent, then the parallelogram is a rectangle.
Theorem 7.32 If the diagonals of a parallelogram are perpendicular to each other, then the parallelo-
gram is a rhombus.
Theorem 7.36 If one of the angles of a rhombus is a right angle, then the rhombus is a square.
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7.7 The Trapezoid
Definition 7.37 A trapezoid is a quadrilateral with exactly one pair of parallel sides.
*the parallel sides are the bases of a trapezoid.The angles whose vertices are the endpoints of a base
are called base angles. The nonparallel sides are the legs of the trapezoid.
Definition 7.38 An isosceles trapezoid is a trapezoid in which the nonparallel sides are congruent.
Theorem 7.39 If a trapezoid is isosceles, then each pair of base angles is congruent.
Theorem 7.40 If a trapezoid has a pair of congruent base angles, then it is an isosceles trapezoid.
Theorem 7.41 A trapezoid is isosceles if and only if its diagonals are congruent.
Definition 7.42 The median of a trapezoid is a line segment whose endpoints are the midpoints of
the nonparallel sides of the trapezoid.
Theorem 7.44 The length of the median of a trapezoid is equal to one-half the sum of the lengths of
the bases.
Theorem 7.45 An altitude of a trapezoid is a line segment from one vertex of one base of the trapezoid
perpendicular to the opposite base(or to an extension of the base).
Definition 7.46 A kite is a quadrilateral that has two pairs of consecutive congruent sides.
Theorem 7.48 If a quadrilateral is a kite, then exactly one pair of opposite angles are congruent.
7.8 Area
Area Postulates
Area of a Square Postulate: The area of a square is the square of the length of its side, A = s2 .
Area Congruence Postulate: If two polygons are congruent, then they have the same area.
Area Addition Postulate: The area of a region is the sum of the areas of its nonoverlapping parts.
Area Theorems
Area of a Rectangle
The area of a rectangle is the product of its base and height, A = bh.
Area of a Parallelogram
The area of a parallelogram is the product of a base and its corresponding height, A = bh.
Area of a Triangle
The area of a triangle is one half the product of a base and its corresponding height, A = 12 bh
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26
Chapter 8
Circles
8.1 Circles
Definition 8.1 A locus is the set of all points and only those points that satisfy a given condition (or
set of conditions).
Definition 8.2 A circle is the set of all points in a plane that are at a fixed distance from a given point
known as the center of the circle.
*A circle is named by its center point, symbol .
* The distance from the center to a point on the circle is the radius of the circle. The distance
across the circle, through its center, is the diameter of the circle. The diameter is twice the radius.
* A radius (plural radii) is a segment whose endpoints are the center of the circle and a point on
the circle.
Definition 8.4 Congruent circles are two or more circles that have congruent radii.
*The interior of a circle is the set of all points whose distance from the center of the circle is less
than the length of the radius of the circle.
*The exterior of a circle is the set of all points whose distance from the center of the circle is
greater than the length of the radius of the circle.
Definition 8.6 The degree measure of an arc is equal to the measureof the central angle that
intercepts the arc.
*The measure of a minor arc is defined to be the measure of its central angle.
*The measure of a major arc is defined as the difference between 360◦ and the measure of its
associated minor arc.
Definition 8.7 Congruent arcs are arcs of the same circle or of the congruent circles that are equal
in measure.
Postulate 8.8 Arc Addition Postulate The measure of an arc formed by two adjacent arcs is the
sum of the measure of the two arcs, mABC
\ = mAB
d + mBCd
Theorem 8.9 In a circle, or in congruent circles, central angles are congruent if and only if their
intercepted arcs are congruent.
Definition 8.10 A chord of a circle is a line segment whose endpoints are points of the circle.
A diameter of a circle is a chord that has the center of the circle as one of its points.
Theorem 8.11 In a circle or in congruent circles, two chords are congruent if and only if their central
angles are congruent.
27
Theorem 8.12 In a circle or in congruent circles, two chords are congruent if and only if their arcs are
congruent.
Theorem 8.13 A diameter perpendicular to a chord bisects the chord and its arcs.
Corollary 8.14 A line through the center of a circle that is perpendicular to a chord bisects the chord
and its arcs.
An apothem of a circle is a perpendicular line segment from the center of a circle to the midpoint
of a chord.
Theorem 8.15 The perpendicular bisector of the chord of a circle contains the center of the circle.
Theorem 8.16 Two chords are equidistant from the center of a circle if and only if the chords are
congruent.
Theorem 8.17 In a circle, if the lengths of two chords are unequal, then the shorter chord is farther
from the center.
Theorem 8.18 A polygon is inscribed in a circle if its vertices are points on the circle and its sides
are chords of the circle. Equivalently, the circle is said to be circumscribed about the polygon. The
polygon inscribed in a circle further described as a cyclic polygon.
Theorem 8.20 (Measure of an Inscribed Angle) If an angle is inscribed in a circle, then its measure is
half of its intercepted arc.
Theorem 8.21 If two inscribed angles of a circle intercept the same arc, then they are congruent.
Theorem 8.22 If a right triangle is inscribed in a circle, then the hypotenuse is a diameter of the
circle. Conversely, if one side of an inscribed triangle is a diameter of the circle,then the triangle is a
right triangle and the angle opposite the diameter is the right angle.
Theorem 8.23 A quadrilateral can be inscribed in a circle if and only if its opposite angles are supple-
mentary.
Postulate 8.25 At a given point on a given circle, one and only one can be drawn that is tangent to
the circle.
Theorem 8.26 A line is tangent to a circle if and only if it is perpendicular to a radius at its point of
intersection with the circle.
Coplanar circles that intersect in one point are called tangent circles. Coplanar circles that have
a common center are called concentric. A line or segment that is tangent to two coplanar circles is
called a common tangent.
Definition 8.27 For two circles with different centers, the line of centers is the line (or line segment)
containing the centers of both circles.
If the common tangent does not intersect the line of centers, it is a common external tangent. If
thecommon tangent does intersect the line of centers for two circles, it is a common internal tangent
for the two circles.
Definition 8.28 A tangent segment is a segment of a tangent line, one of whose endpoints is the
point of tangency.
Theorem 8.29 Tangent segments drawn to a circle from an external point are congruent.
28
Corollary 8.30 If two tangents are drawn to a circle from an external point, then the line segment
from the center of the circle to the external point bisects that angle formed by the tangents.
Corollary 8.31 If two tangents are drawn to a circle from an external point, then the line segment
from the center of the circle to the external point bisects the angle whose vertex is the center of the
circle and whose rays are the two radii drawn to the points of tangency.
Definition 8.32 A polygon is circumscribed about a circle if all sides of the polygon are line
segments tangent to the circle; also, the circle is said to be inscribed in the polygon.
29
30
Chapter 9
Solids
9.1 SOLIDS
Definition 9.1 A polyhedron is a solid that is bounded by polygons, called faces, that enclose a
single region of space. An edge of a polyhedron is a line segment formed by the intersection of two
faces. A vertex of a polyhedron is a point where three or more edges meet. The plural of polyhedron
is polyhedra or polyhedrons.
Types of Solids :Prism, Pyramid, Cone, Cylinder and Sphere.
A polyhedron is regular if all of its faces are congruent regular polygons. A polyhedron is convex if any
two points on its surface can be connected by a segment that lies entirely inside or on the polyhedron.
If this segment goes outside the polyhedron, then the polyhedron is nonconvex or concave.
The intersection of the plane and the solid is called cross section.
Five regular Polyhedra(called Platonic solids)
1. Regular tetrahedron -4 faces, 4 vertices, 6 edges
2. Cube - 6 faces, 8 vertices,12 edges
3. Regular octahedron - 8 faces, 6 vertices, 12 edges
4. Regular dodecahedron - 12 faces, 20 vertices, 30 edges
5. Regular icosahedron - 20 faces, 12 vertices, 30 edges
Theorem 9.2 (Euler’s Theorem) The number of faces (F), vertices (V), and edges (E) of a polyhedron
are related by the formula F + V = E + 2.
Definition 9.3 A prism is a polyhedron with two congruent faces , called bases, that lie in parallel
planes. The other faces, called lateral faces, are parallelograms formed by connecting the corresponding
vertices of the base. The segments connecting these vertices are lateral edges.
The altitude or height of a prism is the perpendicular distance between its base.
Right prism- each lateral edges is perpendicular to both base.
Oblique prisms - have later edges that are not perpendicular to the bases. The length of the oblique
lateral edges is the slan height of the prism.
* Prisms are classified by the shapes of their bases.
The surface area of a polyhedron is thesum of the areas of its faces. The lateral area of a polyhedron
is the sum of the areas of its lateral faces.
Theorem 9.4 (Surface Area of a Right Prism) The surface area S of a right prism can be found
using the formula S = 2B + P h, where B is the area of a base, P is the perimeter of a base, and h is
the height.
Definition 9.5 A cylinder is a solid with congruent circular bases that lie in parallel planes. The
altitude, or height, of a cylinder is the perpendicular distancebetween its bases. The radius of the base
is also called radius of the cylinder. A cylinder is called a right cylinder if the segment joining the
center of the base is perpendicular to the bases.
The lateral area of a cylinder is the area of its curved surface. The lateral area is equal to the product
of the circumference and the height, which is 2πrh.
Theorem 9.6 (Surface Area of a RIght Cylinder) The surface area S of a right cylinder is S = 2B +
Ch = 2πr2 + 2πrh, where B is the area of a base, C is the circumference of a base, r is the radius of a
base, and h is the height.
Definition 9.7 A pyramid is a polyhedron in which the base is a polygon and the lateral faces are
triangles with a common vertex. The intersection of two lateral faces is a lateral edge. The intersection
of the base and a lateral face is a base edge. The altitude or height, of the pyramid is the perpendicular
distance between the base and the vertex.
A regular pyramid has a regular polygon for a base and its height meets the base at its center.
The slant height of a regular pyramid is the altitude of any lateral face. A nonregular pyramid does not
have a slant height.
31
Theorem 9.8 (Surface Area of a Regular Pyramid) The surface area S of a regular pyramid is
S = B + 21 P l, where B is the area of the base, P is the perimeter of the base, and l is the slant height.
Definition 9.9 A circular cone, or cone, has a circular base and a vertex that is not in the same
plane as the base. The altitude, or height, isthe perpendicular distance between the vertex and the base.
In a right cone, the height meets the base at its center and the slant height is the distance between the
vertex and a point on the base edge.
* The lateral surface of a cone consists of all segments that connect the vertex with points on the
base edge.
Theorem 9.10 (Surface Area of a Right Cone) The surface areaS of a right cone is S = πr2 + πrl.
where r is the radius of the base and l is the slant height.
9.2 Volumes
* The volume of a solid is the number of cubic units contined in its interior.
Volume Postulates
Volume of a cube. The volume of a cube is the cube of the length of its side, or V = s2 .
Volume Congruence Postulate. If two polyhedra are congruent, then they have the same volume.
Volume Addition Postulate. The volume of solid is the sum of the volumes of all its nonoverlapping
parts.
Volume of a Pyramid. The volume V of a pyramid is V = 13 Bhr, where B is the area of the base
and h is the height.
Volume of a Cone. The volume V of a cone is V = 13 Bh = 31 πr2 h. where B is the area of the base, h
is the height, and r is the radiius of the base.
Theorem 9.12 (Surface Area of a Sphere). The surface area S of a spherewith radius r is S = 4πr2
32