Article

Media Consumption Young

23(2) 171–189
and the Identity Projects © 2015 Sage Publications and
YOUNG Editorial Group
SAGE Publications
of the Young sagepub.in/home.nav
DOI: 10.1177/1103308815569391
http://you.sagepub.com

Jenniina Sihvonen1

Abstract
The purpose of this research is to discern the different roles of media in the iden-
tity projects of the young. Building on the idea of social identification, the analysis
is focused on defining the different ways and criteria in which their own media
consumption is accounted for by the young when making sense of themselves and
others. Empirical data for the study included 53 Finnish university students’ essays
on their relationships with different media vehicles and contents. The findings
indicate that media consumption attaches to the identity projects of the young by
relating to their taste preferences, everyday concerns, lifestyles and life themes,
thereby addressing the basic states of human existence, namely having, doing and
being. The findings demonstrate that media consumption connects with five differ-
ent identity projects: (a) being a global citizen, (b) being a student, (c) being young,
(d) being a devotee and (e) being healthy.

Keywords
identity project, media consumption, media relationship, the young, narrative,
having, doing, being, consumer goals

Introduction
Different media vehicles and contents play a significant role in our lives. As Bolin
(2014) has recognized, there are several approaches, such as technological, institu-
tional and phenomenological world perspective, to look at the relationships between
media, culture and society. In this study at hand the focus is on assessing young
people’s perspective on media use, especially in terms of their identity construction.
Indeed, for the young, a life without television, the Internet, gaming and mobile
phones is very uncommon in Western countries, although individual, gender and
age differences do exist. Depending on the media vehicle, some of the young are
living ‘life in the media’, whereas others may have a ‘life sans media’ (Westlund
and Bjur, 2014). When acknowledging that the young also are in the critical phase

1
Department of Marketing, University of Vaasa, Finland.

Corresponding author:
Jenniina Sihvonen, Department of Marketing, University of Vaasa, Finland.
E-mail: jeha@uva.fi
172 YOUNG 23(2)

of developing their identities, the connection between media consumption and

identity formation becomes an interesting topic of research (Buckingham, 2008).
According to Zemmels (2012), the central role of the media especially in the
contemporary West, can be understood from the viewpoint of identity-related media
use. On the one hand, we can realize that the media certainly have some effect on
us; on the other hand, it can also be deployed by us in many ways. In terms of chil-
dren and youngsters, the central concern has typically been whether they possess the
capacity to deal with the media or not (e.g., Hagen, 2007). Steele and Brown (1995)
have recognized that those in their teens and early twenties are already very active
and sophisticated in their use of media. The sense of who they are plays a central
role in their use of media, but also the media affect their sense of self. Moreover,
Miles (2000) sees that media are one of the most prevalent and important arenas
in which young people construct and interpret their lifestyles. Media consumption
is also tightly intertwined with other areas of popular culture such as clothing and
music (Badaoui et al., 2012). Various public and private contexts of media use (such
as home and school) bring about the complexity of goals, practices and outcomes of
media consumption in the lives of the young (Lee, 2005; Ligas, 2000).
The process of digitization has restructured the connections of media technolo-
gies and led to changing audience roles from passive receivers to active producers
(Bolin, 2010). The evolving media environment calls for new conceptualizations
and approaches for studies focusing on the relationship between identity and the
media (Zemmels, 2012). For example, Awan and Gauntlett (2013) have recently
discussed the place of media in everyday lives by studying the online practices
and related concerns of young people aged 14–15 in England. Wilska and Pedrozo
(2007) focused on examining the connections between the use of new information
and communication technology and consumer identities, but also recognized that
the role of old media should not be forgotten either. The study at hand has a broader
spectrum of media relationships (TV, the Internet, radio, magazines and newspa-
pers), and a narrative-approach to the analysis of young adults’ understandings of
their media consumption when making sense of self and others within the country
context of Finland.
In Finland, the statistics show that young people aged 20–24 are the most active
internet users, but are also frequently watching TV and using other media (Nurmela,
2012). In 2010, the Internet surpassed TV as the most important media for Finns
under 35 years. As a whole, radio and print media have faced a loss of audience
(MTV-STT, 2011). Mobile use has gained an increasing share of media time, espe-
cially among the young (Wilska and Pedrozo, 2007). Moreover, social networking
sites such as Facebook and Twitter have risen to prominence in internet usage in
recent years in Finland and abroad (Browning et al., 2011).
Several authors (e.g., Aslama and Pantti, 2007; Halkoaho, 2012; Hirschman and
Thompson, 1997; O’Sullivan, 2005; Starr, 2004) have pointed out that media con-
tents provide relevant resources for the identity formation of an individual. However,
little has been done so far to understand what drives consumers to use media as
resources for their identity. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to discern the
different roles that media can play in the identity projects of the young. The study
begins with an examination of the nature of identity formation in connection to life-
style and media use in the light of previous literature. After these theoretical insights,
Sihvonen 173

the level of analysis and methodological issues concerning the empirical research
will be outlined and the findings of the empirical analysis will be presented. The
empirical findings will elicit different identity projects of the young and show how
media consumption is entwined in those. The conclusions and limitations of the
study will be discussed at the end of the article.

Theoretical Insights Connecting Identity Construction

and Media Use
Katz, Haas and Gurewitch recognized already in 1973 that among other things mass
media use gratifies important needs in human life, such as understanding of self,
status and social contact with both closest ones and society. In essence, all these
personal strivings relate to identity construction by pointing out different views and
challenges to it. Next, different perspectives on identity construction will be dis-
cussed in relation to media consumption. First, what identity is by definition and
how it is constructed will be outlined. Also social and cultural aspects of identity
construction will be discussed before outlining the analytical frame for the empirical
part of the study.

Identity as Being and Becoming

In the era of post-modernity, identity is conceptualized not as the given product of a
social system, nor as a fixed entity which the individual can simply adopt, but some-
thing that a person develops over time (Giddens, 1991). In essence, identity work
can be defined as a reflexive project of the self that is in need of continuous work and
reflection, as Giddens (1991) states. In his developmental theory, Erikson (1968)
sees adolescence as a critical period of identity formation. However, the construction
of identity does not end in childhood, and many identity theorists, such as Lee
(2001: 5), suggest that both children and adults are always in the process of ‘being’
and ‘becoming’. Lee breaks down the division between childhood and adulthood
with regard to identity construction, stating that there are stable and independent
aspects as well as changeable and dependent aspects in every one of us. Moreover,
according to contemporary views, each individual has various dynamic and context-
dependent identities which are likely to change over time due to different life tasks
and projects (Deaux, 1992).
In addition to past and present, identity has a strong future orientation, as
identified by Arnett (1995: 522), who defines identity formation as ‘the cultiva-
tion of a conception of one’s values, abilities, and hopes’. Relatedly, Markus and
Nurius (1986: 954) have introduced the concept of possible selves, which refers to
‘individuals’ ideas of what they might become, what they would like to become,
and what they are afraid of becoming’. Possible selves represent the ideal selves
that we would like to become, such as the successful self, the creative self or the
rich self. They are also the selves that we could become and the selves we are
afraid of becoming, such as the alone self, the depressed self or the unemployed
self (Yannopoulou and Elliott, 2008: 10). Possible selves are important because
they provide an evaluative and interpretive context for the current view of the self
174 YOUNG 23(2)

(Adamson et al., 2007). Moreover, they function as incentives for future behaviour;
thus, possible selves provide a conceptual link between cognition and motivation
(Markus and Nurius, 1986).
As regards media use, Hoffner and Buchanan (2005) have found that young adults
show wishful identification: a desire to be or act like a media character, especially
when a character shares similar attitudes and is of the same gender. Wildermuth
and Dalsgaard (2008: 12) in their study on the uses and meanings of media among
low-middle-class youth in Brazil noticed that the work of imagination and dreaming
are central elements of media reception. Evidently, media constitute an important
resource for the processes of being and becoming.

Identity Formation through Meaningful Acts of (Media) Consumption

In the field of consumer research, the role of consumption and possessions in defin-
ing who one is has been of great interest already for some time. In this concept,
people are conceived of as identity seekers and makers, and they actively rework and
transform symbolic meanings encoded in advertisements, brands, retail settings or
material goods to manifest their particular personal and social circumstances and
further their identity and lifestyle goals (Arnould and Thompson, 2005: 871).
Sidney Levy (1959: 117) pioneered research on symbolic consumption by recog-
nizing that ‘modern goods are essentially psychological things which are symbolic
of personal attributes and psychological goals’. Also Grubb and Grathwohl (1967:
25–26) noticed that goods are symbolic communication devices that serve the indi-
vidual’s needs for self-enhancement in the eyes of significant others, such as parents,
teachers and peers. Here, a matter of personal taste comes out as an expression of
identity because it involves classifying practices through which cultural diversity
becomes meaningful and distinctive (Bourdieu, 1984).
As regards media use, Zemmels (2012: 17) suggests that a new logic to media
research is needed, where audience members are seen as social and active agents
in meaning making and constructing their identities through the choices of media
channels and contents. As the reception of media product always involves interpreta-
tive activity on the part of the recipient, the meanings of the media contents are not
predetermined by the producers of content, but created, negotiated and altered by
the audience members (Thompson, 1995). For instance, Aasebø (2005) found in the
context of Norway that boys already at a young age can see changes in their use of
television as a sign of growing up.

Identity in the Making

Miles (2000: 147) suggests that identities cannot be discussed without reference to
the construction of identities. Lifestyle is important to the way in which identities are
mediated, produced and lived (Bell and Hollows, 2005: 2; Jenkins, 2004: 4).
According to Giddens (1991: 81), ‘A lifestyle can be defined as a more or less inte-
grated set of practices which an individual embraces, not only because such prac-
tices fulfill utilitarian needs, but because they give material form to a particular form
of self-identity.’ Thus, lifestyle can be understood as an everyday manifestation of
self-identity.
Sihvonen 175

Lifestyle basically means how one lives, and encompasses activities, interests,
opinions and/or values. In prior research, the essence of lifestyle has no longer been
associated with traditional groupings, such as social class and gender, but rather
connoting ‘individuality, self-expression and a stylistic self-consciousness’ (Bell
and Hollows, 2005: 4). Giddens (1991: 14) reminds us that the question: ‘How
shall I live?’ has to be answered in day-to-day decisions about how to behave, what
to wear and what to eat, and many other things, including media consumption.
Consumption, by definition, has been considered to be the activity that best cap-
tures what is meant by lifestyle (Jagose, 2003; Sobel, 1981). The range of choices
concerns not only aspects of appearance and lifestyle, but also life goals and rela-
tionships in broader terms.
The popular media readily offer a plethora of alternatives from which to choose
(Buckingham, 2008: 9). Make-over, cooking, furnishing, dieting and dating
TV-programmes, together with increasing number of lifestyle magazines and self-
help books have especially spurred the rise of lifestyle media in the 21st century,
thereby predisposing the audiences to the idea of the possibility of life transforma-
tion and personal growth. In this way, media provide people with symbolic resources
for realizing and expressing their own identities.

Identity is Socially and Culturally Situated

It has been suggested that identity construction always has a social character, in that
is possible only in interaction with other people (Deaux, 1992; Jenkins, 2004). In
seeking to define their identity, people attempt to assert their individuality, but also
to join with others, and they work to sustain their sense of status or self-esteem in
doing so (Buckingham, 2008: 6). Moreover, people derive a part of their self-concept
from the social groups and categories they belong to (Tajfel and Turner, 1986).
Accordingly, where individual identity may be said to demonstrate ‘me’, affiliative
identity establishes ‘we’ (Schau and Gilly, 2003: 387).
Identity denotes negotiation between an individual and the social group. In other
words, individuals identify others and are identified by them in turn. This dialecti-
cal process involves the comparison of similarity and difference between persons or
things. Buckingham (2008: 1) sees that identity is about identification with others,
who we assume are similar to us. Thereby, the formation of identity often involves
a process of stereotyping, which simplifies sense making with regard to the similar-
ity and difference of other people (Buckingham, 2008: 6). Moreover, as Hirschman
and Thompson (1997) point out, people also compare themselves in relation to the
cultural norms they are embedded in. In support of this, Autio (2004) found that
young people in Finland represent their identities as consumers through combining
both traditional and prevailing consumer ideologies that are present in the con-
sumer culture.
The media contents represent a myriad of overarching phenomena in life, such
as issues of family and social roles, subcultures, gender and race (Mastro, 2003;
Russell et al., 2004: 151). Moreover, subcultures, such as fan communities, provide
meanings and practices that structure a consumer’s identity (Kozinets, 2001). With
regard to media consumption, Harwood and Roy (2005: 202) suggest that ‘media
serve as the locus for group identifications’ since, for example, the act of viewing the
176 YOUNG 23(2)

same TV programme can create a shared identity. Also Russell and Puto (1999) have
noticed the importance of relationships within the community of audience members.
The young have more control over their media choices than over other socialization
agents, such as family, school and community (Arnett, 1995).

Constructing an Analytical Frame for Identity-related Media Use

When integrating the discussions earlier, identity-related media use turns should
refer to the kind of process that becomes relevant for a person when striving for a
coherent sense of self and ideal end state of being in his/her everyday social and
cultural context. In the light of this, a consumer would entwine identity construction
by acquiring, performing, and realizing his/her life goals through media use. Indeed,
Baumgartner (2002: 287–88) stresses that approaching consumers as goal-striving
beings and researching consumption in terms of motivational concepts such as per-
sonal projects and life tasks would contribute to a very fundamental question of
consumer behaviour—the ‘why’ of consumption.
We may think back to the basic states of our human existence: having, doing and
being (Belk, 1988; Ligas, 2000; Sartre, 1966). These modes of existence are relevant
to the question of who we are, and provide a bridge connecting motivation, cognition
and behaviour. Huffman, Ratneshwar and Mick (2000) suggest that consumer goals
can be situated at the ordered levels of abstraction: see Figure 1. Together, the differ-
ent levels represent projects manifesting personally relevant action. ‘They can range
from the mundane acts of a Monday afternoon to the galvanizing commitments of a
lifetime’ as Little et al. (1992: 502) outline.
At the most concrete level—having there are many individual and situation-
specific differences in current concerns, consumption intentions, benefits sought
and feature preferences. Use of a car for work, hosting a lunch for a neighbour, or
organizing an apartment are examples of current concerns that all involve also more
concrete consumption intentions, ideas and varied possibilities for their actualization

Being Values
Life themes
Identity projects
Doing Current concerns
Consumption intentions

Having Benefits sought

Feature preferences

Figure 1. Identity Projects within the Frame of Having, Doing and Being
Source: Modified from Huffman et al. (2000).
Sihvonen 177

(Huffman et al., 2000: 17). Similarly, we may consider that media use comprises
various forms and purposes. Even if we had a homogeneous group of people, such
as students, they would be likely to show great variation in their media consumption
preferences and reasons for media use.
When moving to the middle level of abstraction—doing, which is the realm
in the focus of this present study, we can recognize the existence of life projects,
also termed personal projects (e.g., Little et al., 1992) and identity projects (e.g.,
Harré, 1983) as in this study. These refer to the construction and maintenance of
an individual’s key life roles and identities, such as being a responsible mother, a
successful teacher, or a loyal employee (Huffman et al., 2000: 18). Identity projects
are dynamic in accordance with the changes in circumstances and life cycle. The
initiation and management of the projects reveal each person’s specialized orienta-
tions in life. McCracken (1987) has characterized these projects as each person’s
development, refinement, and disposal of specific concepts, such as manliness and
Americanism, from culturally established alternatives. It is not suggested here that
the projects would encompass the personal aspect only, but they also reflect the
underlying social processes and comparisons. Salmela-Aro et al. (2007) have iden-
tified that young adults’ goals in life tend to generally relate to education, travelling,
friendship, work, family, children, health, daily life, lifestyle, housing, hobbies,
wealth and self.
Identity projects are subsets of life themes (Belk, 1988; Mick and Buhl, 1992;
Parker, 1998). These, as values, are profound in human existence, limited in number
and rather invariant once developed (Holland, 1975). Csikszentmihalyi and Beattie
(1979) suggest that a life theme is the fundamental basis for an individual’s interpre-
tation of reality and way of coping with it. In the study by Huffman et al. (2000), the
life themes and values included such examples as being active, patriotic or appre-
ciative of art and style. In accordance with the research purpose, the analysis of the
empirical data will especially focus on the identity projects of the young, whilst also
recognizing the underlying life themes as well as the related concrete concerns and
needs for media use.

Research Methodology
Researchers rarely have direct access to people’s experiences, and have to rely on the
people’s own representations. Escalas and Bettman (2000) note that we can gain an
understanding of the role that acts and objects of consumption play in our lives by
analyzing stories that we tell. In fact, people are claimed to be natural story-tellers
(Bloor and Wood, 2006: 119). Narratives provide people with a cognitive vehicle to
achieve a sense of self and to understand what they and other people do. Thus, in
essence, narrative is a way to structure and understand reality. Specifically, Riessman
(2008: 137) sees that the construction and portraying of identities are central to nar-
rative inquiry. In the light of this, narratives should be essential sources for gaining
insight into young people’s identity projects in this study.
A sample of 53 essays written by students of the University of Vaasa in Finland
was collected in 2006. Altogether, 30 female and 23 male undergraduates in their
early twenties participated in the study. For the purposes of analysis, the informants
178 YOUNG 23(2)

were given an identification code: female 1–30 or male 1–23. However, all names of
those mentioned in the data have been either changed or removed in order to ensure
anonymity. All of the writers were students taking part in a course on consumer
behaviour, and the writing of the essays was one of their course assignments (although
without evaluation). The essays were written on the theme of media consumption
(consumption of television, radio, magazines, newspapers and the Internet).
The idea of social identification (i.e., social self-categorization) involves people
looking for sources of similarity and difference around them (Hogg and Abrams,
1990). In that way people are able to compare and situate themselves in relation to
their close others and to the broader cultural norms and values they are embedded in.
Guided by this conception, there were two kinds of data collected: 36 students wrote
about their own media consumption and 17 students about the media consumption
of a friend, relative or spouse. The length of the essays varied between and 106 and
493 words. Most were handwritten in a classroom situation, but some of the students
wrote their essay at home and delivered it to the researcher via e-mail. The task of
essay writing was only loosely guided, which meant that the students were given
some questions that would help them to write about their media use. The students
were asked questions, such as which medium they consume, for what purposes they
consume the media, when they consume these media, which media contents are their
favourites, which ones they hate, and what kind of media consumers they consider
themselves. Those who wrote about media consumption other than their own were
provided with corresponding questions. The students were not asked to follow any
specific structure in their writing or to cover all of the topics provided.
The narratives collected for this study are not aimed at accounting for change in
media consumption over time. Accordingly, the analytic focus is on the thematic
content of the narratives instead of their temporal structure. The contents of the nar-
ratives are analyzed in the light of the analytical framework of having, doing, and
being in order to address the different roles of media in the identity projects of the
young. Narratives are able to give reasons for particular consumer behaviours, such
as the formation of likes and dislikes. However, the aim is not to assemble a list of
student’s media preferences, but to connect media consumption to the identity con-
struction of the young.
Baumeister and Newman (1994) point out the specific tenets that guide narrative
thought and are worth taking into account when analyzing narratives. First, people
interpret their experiences relative to their intentions, which means that they are reflec-
tive about their goals and states of fulfilment. Second, people tend to make stories that
depict their behaviour and intentions as right and good. As Autio (2004) has noticed,
the writers may feel that they have to present themselves in an idealized way, especially
when the essays are written in a school environment. Third, people seek to portray a
feeling of control and efficacy in their accounts; thus they want to find rational explica-
tions for their thoughts and actions. Also in the light of the study at hand, it is expected,
and even taken advantage of, that people tend to think of their ideal selves and behav-
iour when writing about their media relationships. Most narratives do not simply
report events, but rather give the teller’s perspective on their meaning, relevance and
importance (Cortazzi, 2001: 384). Finding the truth can become a secondary concern
to the narrative researcher, when the primary interest is actually on how the writer sees
and presents himself or herself.
Sihvonen 179

Media Consumption as an Actualization of Different

Identity Projects and Life Themes
When analyzing the data on a general level it was soon found that university students
do not differ from other young people in seeing mass media consumption as an
inherent part of their lives (cf. Westman and Bjur, 2014). Female informant 23
described herself as ‘a large-scale consumer of media’ and stated that ‘the media are
such a relevant part of my life that I cannot really imagine my day without them’. In
a similar vein, female 2 had noticed the importance of media when ‘a while ago
when my television was broken for two days I felt like some important part was
missing. It was too quiet at home, and I did not know what to do.’ Given that in
Finland many of the university students live alone, television and radio are often
considered as a kind of company that provides background noise in the apartment.
Typically, the Internet and television were considered as the most significant
media, whereas radio, magazines and newspapers divided opinions as regards their
presence and importance in life. Magazines and newspapers were primarily consid-
ered as something extra and a luxury that only a few students could afford. In this
spirit, female 3 said that ‘I would like to read more magazines. However, as a student
I don’t feel like spending money on those.’ Finally, radio was mainly considered a
good background noise that was quite meaningless, but almost a necessity when
travelling by car. Female informant 9 wrote that ‘only when travelling by car I may
listen to radio… At work [as a part-time cashier along with studying] I am some-
times “forced” to listen to the Nova-channel’.
It was a common conception among the students that young adults are mixed
and active users of different media vehicles. However, there were a variety of dif-
ferent, context-dependent, even opposing, ways of consuming media recognized in
the writings. On the one hand, the students could recognize themselves as adaptable,
but on the other hand, as routinized media consumers. Female informant 17 told that
she watched television mainly in winter time and when she was not busy with school
work, while also mentioning that that her favourite newspaper is Kaleva because
she has read it since she started reading newspapers in the first place. Moreover, it
became evident that media consumption can be a rather carefree free time activity,
as one of the informants (Female 10) described: ‘Sometimes I relax by surfing on
the web pages of travel agencies’, but it can also contribute to basic questions in
life, such as what the priorities and necessities in life are, what to believe in, how
to manage in life and what to respect. Next, the key findings related to the roles of
media in the identity projects of the young and related concerns are presented and
exemplified.

Being a Global Citizen with the Help of Media

The first of the recognized identity projects in the data is labelled here as ‘being a
global citizen’, which relates to the broader life theme of ‘sophistication’. In this
context, the media turn out to be a necessity for those who want to join in discus-
sions. Male 14 described his friend as being ‘a typical student who wants to keep
up-to-date in an ever-changing world. Tom is busy, social, talkative and the trendiest
one in our school. Thus, the media are a very important part of Tom’s life.’
180 YOUNG 23(2)

Female informant 28 saw that she holds a different position with respect to media
use than her mother, considering that ‘I think that my mother could be more active
with respect to media use. Currently her relationship with media is rather passive’.
As regards this identity project it is important to be up to date, active in media use
and to make sense of reality by following domestic and foreign news and current
affairs regularly. In this spirit, female 25 said of her boyfriend:

I would describe Andy as a world citizen. He has travelled a lot and has good friends in
different countries and continents. Andy has language skills and he is interested in foreign
cultures. The Internet feeds these characteristics of his, and it is a means for him to keep
in touch with friends. It is also a good channel to keep dreams and plans alive and to feed
one’s imagination.

With reference to young adults’ goals as identified by Salmela-Aro et al. (2007), this
identity project connects specifically with the themes of travelling and friendship. In
terms of media user needs and gratifications, the identity project encompasses mainly
social integrative needs that relate to contacts with family, friends and the world
(Katz et al., 1973: 166–67).

Being a Student with the Help of Media

The second identity project can be labelled as ‘being a student’. This project
attaches to the life theme of ‘key life tasks’. Related to this theme, a student needs
to consider what is useful for him/her and of quality. In general, media were con-
sidered as tools for enacting a preferred way of life and handling one’s duties
effectively. The significance of the Internet as the most important media vehicle
due to its versatility came up in many of the narratives. For example, female writer
20 declared that:

The Internet is necessary as a help for school work and as entertainment. There’s no way
I could manage without it. It is my primary source of information, and among other
things I read the newspaper on the web every day. Through the Internet I also keep in
touch with my friends.

University students showed themselves to be very conscious of what they should be

like as media consumers. They should possess better skills for media literacy than
average people. Critical reading of the media and the use only of trustworthy media
sources is considered important. For instance, female 1 said that ‘when I am search-
ing for information, I am extremely critical because when surfing the web, one can
run into all kinds of pages’. Being a student also changes the relationship with media.
One of the writers, male 2, noticed that ‘since I study economics, I am used to think-
ing about almost everything in terms of its monetary value, meaning ‘what do things
cost’. This has an effect on how I interpret media messages’. Evidently, this recog-
nized identity project addresses the life areas of education and work (cf. Salmela-
Aro et al., 2007), and it relates specifically to cognitive needs for media use that
relate to strengthening one’s knowledge and understanding of the world (Katz et al.,
1973: 166–67).
Sihvonen 181

Being Young with the Help of Media

The third identity project that was identified from the data can be labelled as ‘being
young’. This project relates to the theme of seeking ‘meaningful content of life’.
Most of the students are in their twenties, so they feel they should enjoy life, have a
little luxury, relax, and keep in touch with their friends. For example, female infor-
mant 13 said ‘I would certainly manage without the Internet at home and without
subscription magazines, but I feel that these raise my quality of life, and with their
help I can better enjoy and relax when I am at home’. Female 20 was afraid that
‘without media she would be at a loose end and would feel a lot lonelier’. On the
other hand, male informant 15 concluded that his friend’s media consumption ‘tells
me that he has no life…without media he might even go out sometimes’.
Students appeared to be very conscious about their likes and dislikes with regard
to specific media contents. Hardly anyone had difficulties in describing what their
favourite media contents were. Even more easily, they could identify the media con-
tents that annoyed them most. However, the students typically spoke about their pref-
erences by programme types rather than naming specific programmes. Furthermore,
it was recognized among the writers that young consumers constitute a particular
segment of the population regarding preference for media products. For example,
female 26 wrote about her friend that ‘the papers that she is interested in include
local newspaper and magazines that are meant for young adults, such as Trendi mag-
azine, the target group she belongs to (at age 22)’.
When the students told about their specific favourites and dislikes in the media,
it was apparent that not all media products gained equal appreciation, but gossip
magazines, soap operas, chat forums and TV game shows were typically consid-
ered a waste of time and/or money. Female informant 2 evaluated a programme
that she disliked by arguing that ‘probably watchers of this programme (a TV
game show called Voittopotti) are seen as real dummies’. Moreover, there were
some TV programmes that the students were somewhat ashamed of watching. For
example, female 3 expressed that ‘I admit also watching the Finnish version of
Big Brother’.
Overall, this identity project taps into the concrete areas of daily life and lifestyle
of young people (cf. Salmela-Aro et al., 2007), and it points to the personal integra-
tive needs of gaining credibility, confidence, and stability as a young person (Katz
et al., 1973: 166–67). Overall, the dominant consumption styles in terms of this
identity project can be defined as social, versatile and carefree.

Being a Devotee with the Help of Media

Different practices of media consumption were part of the daily routines of many,
but some students appeared to be more highly involved in their media use than oth-
ers due to their media-enabled hobbies and/or social relations. The fourth identity
project highlights that it is important ‘to be a devotee’. This project reflects the
theme of ‘priorities in life’. There were several modes of involvement expressed in
the narratives. For some of the students media consumption was just a way of spend-
ing some spare time, but for others it was tightly entwined with their hobbies, inter-
ests and value judgements of good and bad.
182 YOUNG 23(2)

Media consumption is an alternative way of spending leisure time. As a sign of

great devotion to the choice of media hobby, male informant 15 noted that his friend
is ‘probably the biggest media consumer’ he knows. The basis for this opinion was
that his friend spends around eight hours per day on the web, and has ‘every possible
TV-channel that a man can have’. Emphasizing that the use of media is a matter of
choice, female 2 pondered that ‘…a lot of things may be discarded because of dif-
ferent media. For example, if you do not have a television, you could end up jogging
or meeting friends.’ Male informant 19 declared that his brother’s football-obsessed
media consumption ‘can go a little bit too far when he has to see every match and
to view the formation of the team on the web right before the beginning of match’.
Conversely, female writer 24 argued that media consumption should not be among
the priorities in life and saw that her mother is on the right track when:

Television is not a necessity to her, and she could manage perfectly without it. To me, this
kind of media consumption tells me that she has the right kinds of priorities in her life,
when she has included things other than watching TV in her leisure time.

Especially the essays that were written about other people’s media consumption
showed that media consumption provides symbolic resources for understanding
what other people do and what they are like, as the citation from male 20, who writes
about his friend’s media use, showcases:

He follows the media pretty much, but he is only interested in sports-related news and topics.
Text-TV is his biggest object of desire, and it is pretty much open always when he is at
home. The magazines he has subscribed to relate without exception to sports (Hockey
magazine and so forth). Every medium has a role in his hobby (betting).

‘Being a devotee’ stresses that young people have affective needs for media use that
relate to individual aesthetic, pleasurable and emotional experiences. Most typically,
this identity project relates to the hobbies of the young (cf. Katz et. al., 1973: 166–67;
Salmela-Aro et al., 2007).

Being Healthy with the Help of Media

The fifth identity project is labelled as ‘being healthy’ and it relates to the theme of
finding ‘life balance’. There were various daily challenges in media consumption
that concerned the students. In this spirit, male informant 3 described how he strug-
gled with his extensive use of media: ‘I have tried to reduce my internet use.
Sometimes I could spend five hours at a time, but now I strive to concentrate on
studying and sports. I try to keep the Internet and television as “rewards”.’
It seemed important to keep within reasonable and ‘average’ limits. Own media
consumption was typically described as average when compared to other young
consumers. Being an average media consumer was mainly judged by the amount
of consumption, not the particular nature of it. For example, female 18 stated ‘I think
that I am average; I use media daily, but not for hours at a time’. However, there were
a few examples of ‘addiction’ to media consumption. Male informant 18 concluded
about his friend that ‘the mass consumption of certain media tells me that, because
Reino is not on drugs, uses alcohol only a little, and does not smoke at all, that this
Sihvonen 183

has to be his addiction. It is his weak point, his Achilles heel.’ In a similar vein, male
8 described his use of the Internet:

I have noticed my addiction when I have had technical problems with the Internet connec-
tion. For example, if the connection crashed on Friday night when I could not get help
before Monday, it meant that the weekend is doomed to be a catastrophe. Thus, the com-
puter and internet connection constitute an unquestionable basis for my life, all of my
interests and hobbies. Without this medium I feel powerless and purposeless.

Male 7 summed up well the role of media consumption in the lives of many by stat-
ing that the ‘media’s influence is two-fold for me. On the one hand, I cannot be
without it, but an overdose of it makes me feel unwell.’ Female informant 29 recog-
nized that it is possible to achieve a balance in media use like her boyfriend has:
‘Even though he consumes a lot of media, he is not a slave to certain series.’ Media
consumption seems to provide diverse possibilities, but also a lot of challenges for
the students in their everyday lives. For the young as well as for adults, television
especially has an important role in a student’s life for enabling relaxation, as female
informant 7 described: ‘I need one night a week when I can relax by laying on a sofa
watching television.’
The last recognized identity project brings us to see that young people have tension-
release needs for media use that relate to escape from the social roles in one’s every-
day life. Fulfilling of this need matters when it comes to the life area of health (cf.
Katz et al., 1973: 166–67; Salmela-Aro et al., 2007).

Summary and Conclusions

The purpose of this study was to discern the different roles of media in the identity
projects of the young. The theoretical discussion connecting identity formation and
media consumption suggested that identity is constructed multi-dimensionally.
Identity formation is a process of ‘being and becoming’ that develops dynamically
during a lifetime, so that some parts of identity are relatively stable, whereas others
may change in line with different life stages and projects. Moreover, identity
involves both personal and social orientations, and needs, and it relates to consump-
tion, lifestyle and taste, as those are concrete ways to define and express identity.
A review of the literature with regard to media consumption built a premise that the
media play an important role particularly in the lives of the young. However, no
previous research investigating the role of media in the identity projects of the
young was found to exist.
The empirical data for this study consisted of 53 essays written by students
of the University of Vaasa in Finland. The students were asked to write about
their own relationship with different media or that of their acquaintance (friend,
partner, parent, etc.). Qualitative analysis of the writings was focused on the con-
tents rather than the structure. The underlying purpose for the empirical analysis
was to find out the university students’ own understanding of their media use, and
how they see their own media use in relation to other people. Specifically, the
analysis was framed by the notion of the three basic states of our human existence:
having, doing and being. These states constitute a bridge between the everyday
184 YOUNG 23(2)

acts of media consumption and identity formation by eliciting lower and higher
level goals of consumption.
Explicit referral to the connection of identity and media use was rare in the writ-
ings. In other words, it was not typical to express media consumption in terms of life
themes or identity projects, but instead to give descriptions about the preferences,
routines and styles of media consumption. However, on closer scrutiny, the students
referred to identity construction by implication when telling of their motivations for
media use and the role of media in their life, and especially when commenting on the
style of media use of their closest ones. In fact, it was noticeable that identity issues
are best crystallized in social reflection, as those students who wrote about the media
consumption of another person addressed different kinds of media references, life
situations and choices of lifestyle (for instance, hobbies) more clearly. This notion
demonstrates that symbolic meanings of media consumption arise in social interac-
tions and that social comparison appeared to be a meaningful tool for the students
when making sense of their own media consumption. Moreover, it was found out
that the time spent with the media, the specific style of consumption, and contents
consumed are all meaningful elements when making sense of oneself and others.
The university students were active in giving meanings and reasons for their
media use. Thus, the students turned out to be relatively highly involved media con-
sumers for whom media consumption is an essential part of life, providing them
with various communication channels, information resources, meaningful contents,
lifestyle choices and close companions. In recent studies of the uses of media by
the young, the aspect of communication has emerged very clearly (e.g., Awan and
Gauntlett, 2013; Wilska and Pedrozo, 2007). Also in this study it appeared as one,
but not the only, angle from which to look at media use. Indeed, the current concerns
included how to keep updated, how to choose the right media for searching for infor-
mation, how to enjoy and communicate with others, how to make the most of the
media in one’s free time, and how to keep control of media use.
Most importantly, five distinct identity projects of the students were discerned:
being a global citizen, being a student, being young, being a devotee and being
healthy. These identity projects attach to broader life themes encompassing the
generic striving for sophistication, taking care of key life tasks, finding meaning-
ful and pleasant content in life, cherishing one’s life priorities and maintaining an
overall balance of life (see Table 1). Based on the findings we can better understand
how media consumption relates to students’ identity projects through their concrete
taste preferences and lifestyle choices and also through their life themes and values
at the highest level of abstraction within the frame of having, being and doing.
Certain limitations for the findings of the study should be pointed out. A nar-
rative related on one occasion may not mirror the same story told on a different
occasion to a different party because narratives are always addressed to a particu-
lar audience, such as a researcher (Bloor and Wood, 2006: 121). Moreover, the
meaning of a narrative depends on the social context in which it is produced and to
whom it is addressed (Elliott, 2005: 11). In this study the narratives were written
in a classroom situation and were guided by the researcher, thereby foregrounding
the writers as students. This makes the style of the narratives relatively analytic and
evaluative, rather than very intimate or anecdotal accounts of media consumption.
Relatedly, we should take into account the fact that university students constitute
Table 1. Summary of Findings

Dominant Media Uses &

Consumption Gratifications Key The Role of
Identity Project Life Theme Styles Concerns Media Example from the Data
Being a global Sophistication Routinized Social integrative needs Channel He owns all possible gadgets and is more aware of the
citizen Active How to keep updated and happenings than STT. He has not spent a day without
Loyal communicate? the Internet since he got it. (Male 14 about his friend)
Being a student Life tasks Skillful Cognitive needs Resource I rarely just surf in the web. (Female 16)
Demanding How to choose the right
Critical media?
Being young Meaningful life Social Personal integrative needs Content Typically I watch the same TV program as my boyfriend.
Versatile How to enjoy and (Female 13)
Carefree differentiate?
Being a devotee Life priorities Individual Affective needs Choice Typically, I buy magazines that are related to fitness
Enthusiastic How to make the most of or decoration, because those are close to my heart.
Committed the media? (Female 7)
Being healthy Life balance (Un-)hooked Tension-release needs (Bad) ‘Big Brotherist’ Lasse is severely addicted to this reality
(Un-)controlled How to keep control over Company show. He won’t miss a single episode without a really
(Un-)reasonable media time? good reason. (Male 21 about his friend)
Source: Author’s own.
186 YOUNG 23(2)

a rather homogeneous group of informants who are likely to have shared life tasks
and identity projects that are not common to all young people in different life situa-
tions. However, when moving on to the more abstract level ideas of life themes and
values, we get more universally shared accounts.
The notion of the implicit nature of identity construction suggests that specific
research techniques and sub-concepts with which to explore identity-related media
consumption are needed also in further studies. The present study did not take a
stand on the role of specific media vehicles for identity construction, but identified
the more abstract level identity goals and needs related to media consumption. That
is why, even though the data may age fast as new media vehicles bring out and genera-
tions grow up, the conclusions about the roles of media in consumers identity projects
are expected to be relatively lasting. Having said that, media-specific elaborations,
together with elaboration of gender, class and/or race differences in terms of the role of
media in the identity projects would bring additional insights to this study.

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Author’s bio-sketch
Jenniina Sihvonen is University teacher at the Department of Marketing,
University of Vaasa. Her research interests include consumer behaviour and
branding especially in the context of media. Previously, she has published in journals
such as Place Branding and Young Consumers. Her doctoral dissertation (year 2012)
was on the topic of Identity-related Media Consumption.