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Poultry production and performance in the Federal Democratic Republic of

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 doi:10.1017/S0043933910000528

Poultry production and performance in

the Federal Democratic Republic of
Ethiopia
R.T. WILSON

Bartridge Partners, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, Devon EX37 9AS, United

Kingdom
Corresponding author: trevorbart@aol.com

In this review, the production of poultry in the Federal Democratic Republic of

Ethiopia (FDRE) is described. Data from field observations, published works,
government and other documents are presented. Some 95% of poultry, which in
Ethiopia are overwhelmingly domestic fowl, are kept in villages, mainly under
scavenging, systems, and only 5% are in industrial systems. Poultry are kept by
about 60% of households. Most households in the highlands keep birds whereas far
fewer do so in the pastoral lowlands. ‘Average’ households own a flock comprising
6-10 birds, and genetic resources are almost entirely indigenous in the scavenging
system. National poultry meat production is of the order of 76,000 tonnes and egg
production approaches 80,000 tonnes. Annual production per bird is 55-80 eggs for
scavenging fowl, of which about half are used for replacement and the remainder
for consumption and sale. Disease is an important constraint to production. More
attention should be given to smallholder producers, as this, together with
interventions in housing, sanitation, nutrition and disease control would greatly
increase output and have a positive impact on human health and nutrition.
Smallholder producers would be the principal beneficiaries of these interventions
in improvements to food security and nutritional status and in reduced production
risk.

Keywords: Ethiopia; village poultry; production; disease; scavenging

Introduction
The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) was established on 21 August
1995. It comprises 11 Regional States or Administrative Areas having considerable
degrees of autonomy. The country covers 1,220,000 sq km and varies in altitude from
almost 120 m below sea level to over 4600 m above sea level, with much of the country
being above a nominal ‘highland line’ of 1500 m. The human population comprises
many ethnic groups speaking different languages or dialects and of various religious

© World's Poultry Science Association 2010

World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 66, September 2010
Received for publication December 3, 2009
Accepted for publication May 3, 2010 441
Poultry production in Ethiopia: R.T Wilson

persuasions. The number of people was estimated at more than 75 million in 2006
occupying the national territory at a density of 61.5 persons/sq km. Annual population
growth is 2.9%. In 2006 the rural population was equivalent to 84% of the total. Women
account for about 42% of the labour force. Infant mortality is 113 per thousand and life
expectancy at birth is 49 years with women having an advantage over men of about 3.2
years. Average income is US$ 91.37 per person per year. Poverty and malnutrition are
major challenges to the country which, with a UN Human Development Index of 0.414,
was ranked 171 of 182 world countries in 2007 (UNDP, 2009).
Agriculture is the cornerstone of the economy and about 80-85% of the Ethiopian
people are employed in the sector which contributes about 40% of total GDP. Within
agriculture some 60% of the output derives from crop production. Livestock and their
products (but notably excluding draught power and manure that contribute perhaps
almost 60% of the real gross value of livestock output) account for 30% of
agricultural GDP. Livestock production has expanded recently at a faster rate than
agriculture in general. In the early 1970s livestock contributed about 25% to
agricultural GDP but in the 1990s this had risen to about 33%. Domestic animals are
a major repository of national wealth but in relation to potential they make a
disproportionately small and disappointing addition to national income and to food
security. Livestock provide only 6% – less than 100 Kcals – of daily energy intake in
the human diet. Poor performance is attributable, inter alia, to most native livestock
resources being adapted to survival rather than to high production, a high disease
challenge, inferior nutrition, inadequate support services and mediocre management.
Poultry, especially in the small scale scavenging village context, can make considerable
contributions to poverty alleviation and in the supply of high quality protein. They have a
high reproduction rate per unit time, are efficient in transforming otherwise largely
unusable protein and energy into human food and require very little capital
investment. Poultry are kept by all strata of society from the landless rural poor to
the well off in the cities. Eggs and poultry meat are more readily available than many
other animal products and the small unit size does not require them to be stored or
preserved.
This paper reviews the poultry sector in Ethiopia with emphasis on traditional small
scale activities and builds upon, expands and brings up to date some earlier studies
(Alemu Yami, 1995; Dessie and Ogle, 1996; 2001; Tadelle et al., 2003a).

Ethiopian field studies

Field surveys were undertaken in several areas of Ethiopia between 2001 and 2009. Key
informants in villages were poultry owners (mainly women), extension workers and
community leaders. One-on-one interviews and group discussions were held in
villages with information being provided on reasons for keeping poultry, numbers and
species kept, general management practices (housing and feeding), marketing and prices,
production parameters and diseases and mortality. Further key informants were district
(‘wereda’) and regional livestock extension workers.
Field information was complemented by data from district, regional and national
statistics and agricultural censuses. Other sources of data included conventional
literature sources, records and surveys of livestock and rural development projects
(and information from their personnel if projects were still extant) and statistics from
international organizations. In spite of the plethora of formal publications and
mimeographed documents data remain deficient and are often contradictory. There is,

442 World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 66, September 2010

 Poultry production in Ethiopia: R.T Wilson

nonetheless, sufficient information to provide an adequate overview of the poultry sector

in Ethiopia.

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Poultry production is characterised by small scavenging flocks of local birds kept by
individual households and is concentrated in the temperate zones at 1500-3000 m
altitude. Product output is achieved from a feed resource which is unsuitable for
human consumption (FAO, 2004) but inputs are low and housing, nutrition and health
care are poor. Women own a large proportion of the birds and cash income is usually
kept by them (Dessie and Ogle, 2001).
There are few farms in the commercial subsector. They have varying flock sizes. In
addition to truly commercial enterprises, agricultural training centres, military camps, the
Universities and Colleges of Agriculture, children's villages, women's organizations, the
former Peasant Associations and the state owned Poultry Development and Animal Feed
Processing Enterprise are considered commercial or semi-commercial. The main unit of
the last at Shola on the outskirts of Addis Ababa - never very efficient or effective - is
now defunct. The preferred breed for genetic improvement is the Rhode Island Red,
although in the past White Leghorn, Brown Leghorn, New Hampshire, Light Sussex and
Barred Rock were evaluated for egg production (DZARC, 1984). There is also a third
and possibly increasing category of ‘small scale’ intensive systems with flocks of 50-500
birds in urban and peri-urban areas that uses mainly exotic birds and has somewhat better
feeding, housing and health care (Alemu and Tadelle, 1997). The leading commercial
producer runs a vertically integrated operation at Debre Zeit some 50 km from the capital
Addis Ababa. It maintains a modern hatchery to supply its own operations (and to
farmers on demand), has efficient broiler and layer facilities, compounds its own
feeds and slaughters and dresses birds in its own abattoir whence they are marketed
throughout the country and beyond.

NUMBERS AND DISTRIBUTION

In the Ethiopian context poultry effectively means domestic fowl (‘chicken’). In no part
of the available data, however, is there as much confusion as in the size of the national
flock. Time series data in various Statistical Abstracts for the period 1980-2006 show
very considerable – and sometimes almost unbelievable – fluctuations in annual numbers
of all livestock species from year to year or over short blocks of years. Short term
fluctuations in poultry numbers have apparently been more marked than those of
ruminant species but an upward trend of 2.5% per year was considered to have been
achieved that pushed numbers from approximately 14.2 million in 1981 to more than 32
million in 2005 (CSA, 2006). The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO) estimated 36 million birds in 2007, up from 30 million in 1997 based on
its own earlier estimates (FAOSTAT, 2003). A comparative analysis of FAO data ranks
Ethiopia as fourth in African countries in the number of poultry. The principal and
‘official’ national source provides a precise (but estimated and extrapolated from
sample surveys at varying intervals in the past) figure for 2005 of 42 915 625 birds
(CSA, 2006).
Ethiopia comprises many agro-ecological zones but, put very simply, there is a
dichotomy of moist highlands at altitudes over 1500 metres above sea level in the
centre surrounded by dry lowlands below that elevation. The highlands are
characterised by high human population density and a mainly sedentary mixed crop-
livestock farming system. Pastoral systems of production are common in the lowlands
where there is an almost universal degree of transhumance or nomadism. Consequent on
these ecological and demographic factors most poultry are found in the highland areas

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Poultry production in Ethiopia: R.T Wilson

(Figure 1). The large central regions of Oromiya and Amhara each have more than 30%
of the national poultry flock with parts of the Southern Nations and Nationalities Peoples
and Tigray Regions also maintaining large numbers of birds (Table 1). Rural areas are
home to more than 95% of all poultry with less than 5% in urban areas.

Table 1 Percentage distribution of Ethiopian livestock numbers by regional state, 2005 (Adapted from
CSA 2006).

Regional Livestock species

state Cattle Sheep Goat Horse Donkey Mule Camel Poultry

Tigray 6.14 2.96 7.71 5.06 9.72 4.62 1.85 11.65

Afar 4.55 9.93 17.35 0.01 4.22 0.83 35.4 0.13
Amhara 24.06 22.95 16.72 20.4 35.3 29.67 1.33 31.31
Oromiya 41.19 20.23 18.29 59.54 39.19 44.54 7.81 34.45
Somali 2.7 29.61 25.85 0.01 3.07 0.18 54.54 0.36
Beneshangul 0.71 0.25 0.88 0.04 1.03 0.39 0 2.24
Gumuz
SNNP 20.17 13.67 11.62 19.47 7.35 19.78 0.05 18.89
Gambella 0.29 0.19 0.22 0.02 0.01 0 0 0.55
Harari 0.08 0.02 0.08 0 0.15 0 0 0.08
Dire Dawa 0.12 0.15 0.4 0.01 0.24 0 0.29 0.11

Figure 1 General distribution of poultry (domestic fowl) in Ethiopia.

444 World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 66, September 2010

 Poultry production in Ethiopia: R.T Wilson

HOUSEHOLD OWNERSHIP
Ethiopia is exceptional over much of its territory in that more households own cattle
(mainly as work oxen) than any other domestic livestock species. In the 12
Administrative Zones (sub-regional entities) of the huge Oromiya Region, for
example, 95% of households own cattle whereas only 59% own poultry (CSA, 2006).
Average household flock sizes over the country as a whole are 6-10 birds. Flock numbers
and composition vary over time, however, as a function of natural recruitment, disease
and the occurrence of festivals which induce high rates of offtake through household
consumption and sale.
Poultry ownership among zones in Oromiya varies from 32 to 74% of households
(Table 2). At a microlevel in four Oromiya zones (which may or may not be
representative of other areas), in Abigar 87% of households owned an average of
10.5 birds, in Gurage 42% of households owned 2.9 birds, in Horro 73% owned 6.4
birds and in Sheko 73% owned 4.2 birds (Stein et al., 2009).

Table 2 Percentage of households owning domestic livestock species in Oromiya Regional State (Workneh
et al., 2004).

Administrative Livestock species

Zone Cattle Sheep Goat Horse Mule Donkey Camel Poultry

Borana 99.2 69.3 79.8 20 11.2 39.3 24.3 47.8

Bale 94.6 50.7 54.2 31.3 7.9 44.6 10.5 33.6
Arssi 99.6 79.8 58.4 57.6 7.8 51.3 1.3 62
East Shewa 98.8 65.9 66.5 23.5 5.9 86.1 2.2 61
West Harerge 92.8 49.4 65.2 0.7 0.7 50.8 1.2 58.9
East Harerge 89.3 53.6 71.7 2.4 0.5 53.8 16.4 31.7
North Shewa 98.6 61.9 44.7 25.6 5.8 61.1 0 59.7
West Shewa 98.2 56.5 47.7 48 8.2 46.3 0 71.8
East Wollega 97.9 66.2 40 20.3 7.7 42.8 0 67.3
Jimma 92.4 49.4 42.4 11 11.4 17.4 0 45.7
Illubabor 92.8 64.9 46.4 32.1 8.5 7.2 0 73.6
West Wollega 85.7 55.3 46 5.5 15.5 46 0.2 81

Overall 95 60.4 55.9 23.4 8 46.1 5.1 58.6

In general the flock comprises about 72% female birds and 28% males although at
times the male ratio may be higher due to their being kept for sacrifice or for sale at
festivals. Laying hens are equivalent to 23.0% of the total flock, cocks 9.4%, growers
31.5% and chicks 36.1% (Tadelle et al., 2003b).
As already indicated women are the nominal owners – and are more knowledgeable –
of poultry and much of the income accrues directly to them. Children own the next
largest share. Poultry keeping is apparently too demeaning for grown men. Social status
appears to have little effect on the numbers of birds owned but does affect use: wealthier
families are ‘hobby farmers’ who keep birds mainly for home use whereas poorer
households depend on birds for a securer income and for improved diets – one egg
or 40 g of poultry meat provides all essential amino acids for one person for one day
(Tadelle et al., 2003c).

GENETIC RESOURCES
The poultry flock is dominated by the domestic fowl (‘chicken’) that is found in small
scavenging flocks averaging 6-10 birds. There are very few ducks, geese and turkeys and

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Poultry production in Ethiopia: R.T Wilson

these are mostly kept by non-traditional producers. Less than 5% of domestic birds in
Ethiopia are internationally recognised or well known breeds.
Local fowl show great variation in body size and shape, feather contours, plumage
colour and comb type. Naked neck types are present in some areas but are not preferred
as they are considered to be poor mothers and also fetch lower prices when sold for meat
in local markets (Tadelle et al., 2003a). In addition to economic use poultry are kept for
socio-religious reasons. Plumage colour and cover, sex, comb type and age are important
in this respect. The right bird at the right time commands a premium in the market
whereas it may not be in such a situation on ordinary market days (Tadelle et al., 2003c).
The appearance of the right combination of characteristics may be fortuitous but selection
for these characteristics alone may have adverse effects on production traits.
Little work has been done on classification or characterisation and this has been limited
mainly to morphological characters or a distribution in a circumscribed area. Five
indigenous ‘genotypes’, based mainly on plumage colour, were identified in the 1980s
as Tikur (Black), Melata (Brown), Keiy (Red), Gebsima (Greyish mixture) and Netch
(White) (Shanawany and Banerjee, 1991). In another study five ecotypes from different
areas were described as Tilili from southern Amhara, Horro from western Oromiya,
Chefe from central Oromiya, Jarso from north-eastern Oromiya and Tepi from
Southern Nations and Nationalities Peoples Region (Tadelle et al., 2003a). In yet a
third study, seven so-called ecotypes from Amhara Region in north-western Ethiopia
were identified as Tilili, Gellilia, Debre-Ellias, Mello-Hamusit, Gassay, Guangua and
Mecha (Halima Hassen et al., 2006).

PRODUCTION
Poultry are kept mainly to produce eggs and meat for home consumption, to provide a
surplus for sale (Figure 2) and for use in ceremonies and to provide feasts for guests.

Figure 2 Eggs displayed by a woman trader for sale with other produce near Bedele, southwest Ethiopia.

446 World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 66, September 2010

 Poultry production in Ethiopia: R.T Wilson

Local chicks weigh about 28 g at hatching, 185 g at eight weeks and 1.035 kg at 6.5
months which is point-of-lay (Dessie and Ogle, 2001). Mature body weights range from
1.0-1.2 kg for hens to 1.3-1.7 kg for cocks with carcass weights being around 800 g
(Table 3; Shanawany and Banerjee, 1991). Annual egg production is 55-80 eggs per year
in 5-6 clutches of 10-15 eggs with an average egg weight of 30 g (Dessie and Ogle,
2001). A study at Asela Livestock Farm showed that the average production of local
birds was 34 eggs/hen/year with an average egg weight of 38 g (Brannang and Persson,
1990). In five areas of the highlands a further study showed somewhat higher production
of 17 eggs in the first clutch, 21 in the second and 25 for third and all other clutches with
2.6 clutches being laid per year (Tadelle et al., 2003b).

Table 3 Egg and meat production characteristics of indigenous Ethiopian fowl (Shanawany and Banerjee
1991).

Product and trait Genotype

Tikur Melata Kei Gebsima Netch

General
Mature weight
Male, kg 1.3 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4
Female, kg 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.1
Feed intake (kg/year) 50.9 53.2 37.0 36.4 39.1

Eggs
Age at first egg (days) 173 204 166 230 217
Eggs/bird/year 64 82 54 58 64
Egg weight (g)
Egg mass (kg/bird/year)
Albumen (% of egg) 50 49 51 49 49
Yolk (% of egg) 36 38 38 36 36
Fertility (%) 56 60 57 53 56
Overall hatchability (%) 42.0 41.8 44.3 39.3 39.0

Meat
Weight (g) at 6 months 960 1000 940 950 1180
Live weight gain (g/day) 5.2 5.4 5.0 5.1 6.4
Feed conversion (g DM/g gain) 4.17 3.57 3.45 4.00 3.70
Carcass weight (g) 541 560 543 511 608
Dressing percentage 56.4 56.0 57.8 53.8 51.5

Carcass composition (%)

Meat 65.7 64.3 65.8 65.1 68.0
Bone 23.0 25.0 22.5 24.2 21.3
Skin 11.3 10.7 11.7 10.7 10.7

Within a clutch, eggs are not laid every day and a 10-egg clutch may be laid in 15-18
days whereas a 15-egg clutch may take 25 days (WBISPP, 2003). Egg fertility under
broody hens is only about 55% and hatchability about 75% so that total eggs hatched is
only about 40% of the potential (Table 3). Other sources put eggs set as 13.5 per clutch
and eggs hatched as 70-81% of those set in the overall range of 44-100% (Dessie and
Ogle, 2001; Tadelle et al., 2003b. There is some evidence that the egg laying period and
the number of eggs laid per period are higher in urban than in rural areas which may be
due to better husbandry in general or to more use of exotic types.
In a trial under experimental conditions using a balanced diet, five local ecotypes were
compared to the Egyptian Fayoumi. The highest body weight gain per bird was recorded

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Poultry production in Ethiopia: R.T Wilson

for Fayoumi chicks which were 11.9% heavier than Chefe chicks at six weeks of age,
97.7% heavier than the Jarso and 49.4% heavier than all local ecotypes combined.
Fayoumi chicks consumed 41% more feed than Chefe, 115% more than Jarso and
65% more than all local types. Jarso and Tepi had the least body weight gains and
Chefe and Tilili the greatest among the local types. The results were similar at 12 weeks
of age. Highest feed requirement per unit gain was recorded for the Fayoumi followed by
Tepi and Horro with lowest feed per unit of gain recorded for Tilili and Chefe chicks with
overall feed conversion ratios in the range 4.95-5.20 (Tadelle et al., 2003c). Similar
differences in growth and feed conversion to those just described but for seven ecotypes
were reported from a study in northwest Ethiopia. In this last case birds were taken to
‘mature’ weights at 22 weeks when they weighed between 1.034 kg and 1.394 kg with
average daily gains in the range 6.6-8.8 g (Halima Hassen et al., 2006).
The state-owned Shola Poultry Development Enterprise on the outskirts of the capital
produced 69,789 kg of meat and 5,896,569 eggs in 1999, 125,209 kg of meat and
9,062,503 eggs in 2000 and 88,000 kg of meat and 6,474,000 eggs in 2001 (Addis
Ababa, 2003).
FAO data indicate that poultry meat production increased by about 45% between 1993
and 2006 and its availability per person by about 4.5% which is very much below the
world average. Data for 1990 suggest that annual national production was about 79,120
tonnes of eggs and 76,560 tonnes of meat. Poultry accounted for about 15% of all
Ethiopian meat production in 1990 but this had fallen to 11% in 2000 (FAO, 2004).
Total meat availability in relation to the national stocks of domestic animals remains,
however, derisory in comparison to the capability.

CONSUMPTION
Poultry meat and eggs are consumed readily in the highlands, however, in the lowland
pastoral areas, eggs are usually left to be brooded by the mother hens and meat is more
commonly consumed. Where there are alternatives, the preference is for meat and eggs
from local scavenging birds, but higher productivity of improved birds would almost
certainly offset any price disparity. In contrast to the very low per capita consumption of
meat and milk, the large number of fowl means that Ethiopians consume more eggs per
person than any other country in Africa. At an annual consumption per person of 57 eggs
and 2.85 kg poultry meat (Alemu and Tadelle, 1997) consumption level is still very low
by world standards. Many of the eggs consumed are in the form of ‘douro wat’ which is a
very popular spicy chicken and egg stew.
At the household level some 50% of eggs laid are set under hens to produce
replacement birds, 27% are sold and 23% are eaten at home. About 30.6% of mature
birds are kept as replacements, 44.4% are sold and 20% are used for home consumption
(Tadelle et al., 2003c). Some birds may be kept beyond their useful life for socio-
religious reasons and others may be consumed for health reasons as prescribed by
traditional healers (Tadelle et al., 2003c).

MARKETING
Consumers overwhelmingly prefer local to exotic birds and eggs, and hence, in local
markets, an indigenous bird of 1.25 kg live weight and its 40 g eggs (or lighter)
command the same prices as exotic birds of 1.5 kg and eggs of 60 g. The premium
for local birds is attributed to better meat flavour and more deeply coloured egg yolks
(Dessie and Ogle, 2001).
The marketing chain is almost completely informal. Birds are sold off the farm direct to
a final consumer, to a local middleman or through a local market in both rural and urban
areas (Tadelle et al., 2003c). Some 42% of live sales are made between farmer and

448 World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 66, September 2010

 Poultry production in Ethiopia: R.T Wilson

consumer, and 39% from farmer to trader. Due to the large number of traders attempting
to obtain a living the volume of product handled by each is low (Kennea et al., 2003).
Traders most often carry birds to regional centres where they change hands again to the
final retail point of sale (Figure 3). Householders attempt to produce birds that can be
sold at festival time to command high prices but, conversely, forced sales at periods of
high disease risk or actual disease cause prices to slump.

Figure 3 Local poultry at final retail point of sale in Jimma, southwest Ethiopia.

A survey of butchers’ shops in Addis Ababa area showed that all sold beef, 5.8% sold
sheep meat but only 2.9% sold poultry. The customer base for these butcheries is largely
local and mainly from lower social strata. In complete contrast to butchers, whereas
100% of supermarkets sold beef but 85.7% sold sheep meat, 28.5% goat meat and 85.7%
poultry meat. The retail price of poultry meat in supermarkets is cheaper than all red meat
types. Some 66.7% of supermarket poultry was obtained from the leading commercial
producer with the remainder bought from smaller commercial enterprises and from
farmers (Figure 4): the customer base of supermarkets is mainly expatriates and
higher social strata Ethiopians who require a more hygienic product or who want a
more ‘convenient’ presentation.

DISEASE AND MORTALITY

Newcastle disease is one of only two poultry diseases included in List A of the Office
International des Epizooties (OIE, 2007). The disease is enzootic in Africa and has a
major impact on village poultry production as it can devastate flocks every year
(Alexander, 2004). Up to 90% of fowl die every year from this pestilence
(Spradbrow, 1993). Village poultry owners interviewed at various times between 2000
and 2009 indicated Newcastle disease as a sporadic problem with devastating losses once

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Poultry production in Ethiopia: R.T Wilson

in four or five years. In spite of this the Ethiopian authorities reported only 14 outbreaks
in 1998, 16 in 1999, 8 in 2000, 34 in 2001, 67 in 2002, 16 in 2003 and 40 in 2004 (OIE,
2006).

Figure 4 Local scavenging birds and commercial broilers on sale in a supermarket in Addis Ababa.

Avian Influenza is also an important List A poultry disease yet there has been only one
suspected outbreak in Ethiopia in 1996 (OIE, 2006) and no confirmed case of Highly
Pathogenic Avian Influenza. A risk assessment considered possible sources of infection
as legal trade through imports of eggs and birds, illegal cross border trade with
neighbouring countries and transmission from the large number of resident and
migratory water fowl. The conclusion on the possible transmission of the virus from
wild to domestic birds was low for the scavenging system and negligible for the
commercial system (Goutard et al., 2006).
Overall mortality in village birds is generally very high, with up to 60% of chicks
dying before eight weeks of age (Dessie and Ogle, 2001). In a study of 250 households in
villages widely dispersed across the highlands average mortality to eight weeks was 49%
in the range 25-88% (Tadelle et al., 2003b). Coccidiosis is a major factor in the aetiology
of village chicken deaths (Halima Hassen et al., 2006), but other diseases and a
combination of neglect and predators (including domestic dogs and cats especially in
urban areas) are important mortality factors.
Although limited in extent, commercial private or semiprivate poultry production of
both layers and broilers is promoted by the Ethiopian authorities. This does not mean that
practical support is provided and this lack risks killing the goose before it has laid any
golden eggs. In three commercial broiler operations some 50 km from Addis Ababa, for
example, deaths up to 15 weeks (but mainly in the period 3-6 weeks) were 5.0% at one
farm, 23.3% at another and 44.5% at a third. A whole litany of risk factors was associated

450 World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 66, September 2010

 Poultry production in Ethiopia: R.T Wilson

with these heavy mortalities: concurrent infections with two or several pathogens
(salmonella, collibaccus, avian mycoplasma, coccidia and infectious bursal disease),
poor housing, overcrowding (12 birds/m2), movement of personnel and equipment
between clean and infected stock, easy ingress of wild birds, improper sanitation and
biosecurity and keeping of other species of domestic animals (Mersha Chanie et al.,
2009). On commercial farms in general, coccidiosis, Newcastle disease and respiratory
diseases are very common and constitute major health-related constraint to production
and profitability (Alamargot, 1987).

Conclusions
Poultry in Ethiopia, especially in villages, are kept for a multiplicity of reasons. In
addition to yielding animal protein and providing a surplus for sale to generate small
amounts of cash they are reared for sacrificial and cultural reasons. Small scale
scavenging production could be an effective means of transfer of wealth from higher
income urban consumers to poorer and poor rural and peri-urban members of the
community. Many producers recognise the contribution of poultry to an improved diet
that is higher in animal protein and thus promotes better growth in children and improved
health in adults.
The traditional system makes effective use of local resources but there are considerable
opportunities for improvement. Village poultry development should concentrate on the
rural and peri-urban areas where the majority of producers live and where most village
poultry are found. There is much academic and emotional support for this pathway out of
poverty but unfortunately little practical activity.
The oft-preferred route to higher output and productivity is to modify (‘improve’) the
local genetics. Before this takes place, however, it would be preferable to encourage
changes in management (e.g. provision of feed to newly hatched chicks, indoor
management of chicks and control of predators). This would considerably lessen the
high mortality and in turn increase off-take rates whether for home consumption or for
sale. One simple intervention – the manufacture and use of a hay-box brooder – was
successful in reducing chick mortality and there was no significant difference in survival
between hay-box and the far more expensive and complicated (and unreliable) electric
brooders (Solomon Demeke, 1999).
Much damage has been done and the confidence of producers lost by attempted
introductions of exotic stock either through cock exchange programmes or wholesale
imposition of both males and females – only for these to succumb to the fighting qualities
of the remaining local cocks or from disease and starvation. Producers should be made
aware that it is possible to increase the benefits from local birds with small additional
inputs and improvements in management as a first step. New breeding strategies to
improve the genetic potential of local birds should come at a later stage (Tadelle et
al., 2003a) although it has been advocated that ‘the introduction of exotic poultry breeds
either for crossing with indigenous stocks or for use in their pure form seems the best
choice’ (Alemu Yami, 1995). Introduction of exotic birds, at whatever stage of
development, should be carefully considered. Governmental and non-governmental
interventions have yet to cause serious erosion of the local gene pool but the danger
of losing valuable adaptive (and production) traits does exist.
Little action is taken by the local veterinary authorities against poultry diseases. This is
partially due to the scattered nature and small size of the flocks and the perception that
they are not of economic importance. It is additionally due also to the decentralization of
many services from the federal to the regional level, where staff levels and budgetary

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Poultry production in Ethiopia: R.T Wilson

allocations are inadequate and are not obliged to report to the federal services that hence
do not have a full perspective of the problems.
Interventions to improve village production could have considerable benefits. Improved
sanitation, for example, would improve all of growth (weight) rates, survival and
reproduction. Provision of shelter, regular supplies of clean drinking water and some
supplementary feeding would improve growth and reproductive rates and greatly increase
survival. Biosecurity measures and vaccination against Newcastle disease would greatly
increase survival rates. The smallholder producers would be the principal beneficiaries of
these interventions in additional improvements to their food security and their nutritional
status and in further reduced production risk.

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