Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Dr.Jasmeet Sidhu
INTRODUCTION
Excitement
•The patient displays excessive, purposeless motor activity that
is not influenced by external stimuli.
Staring
•Fixed gaze,little or no visual scanning of environment,decreased
blinking.
Posturing/Catalepsy
•Spontaneous maintenance of posture,including mundane
eg,standing for long periods without reacting.
.
Grimacing
•Maintenance of odd facial expressions.
Echopraxia/echolalia
•Mimicking of examiner’s movements/speech.
Stereotypy
•Repetitive,non goal-directed action that is carried out in a
uniform way.
•It may be possible to discern the remnants of a goal-
directed movement in a stereotypy.—”Eesa marider”
Mannerisms
•Unusual repetitive performances of a goal directed motor
action or the maintenance of an unusual modification of an
adaptive posture.
•Example:-hopping or walking tip toe,saluting
passersby,pecularities of hair styles etc.
•BIZARRERIES
Verbigeration
•Repetition of phrases or sentences
Rigidity
•Maintenance of a rigid postion despite efforts to be
moved,exclude if cog-wheeling or tremor present.
Negativism
•Apparantly motiveless resistance to instructions or
attempts to move/examine patient.Contrary behaviour,does
exact opposite of instruction.
Waxy Flexibilty
•During reposturing of patient,he offers initial resistance
before allowing himself to be repositioned,similar to that of
a bending candle.
Withdrawal
•Refusal to eat,drink and/or make eye contact.
Impulsivity
•Patient suddenly engages in inappropriate behaviour (eg-
runs down the hallway,starts screaming or takes off
clothes) without provocation.Afterwards can give no,or only
a facile explanation.
Automatic obedience
•Exaggerated cooperation with the examiner’s request or
spontaneous continuation of movement requested.
•COMMAND AUTOMATISM
Mitgehen
•A very extreme form of cooperation,because the patient
moves their body in the direction of the slightest pressure
on the part of the examiner.”ANGLEPOISE LAMP”
Gegenhalten
•Resistance to passive movement which is proportional to
strength of the stimulus,appears automatic rather willful.
Ambitendency
•Patient appears motorically “stuck” in indecisive,hesistant
movement.
Grasp Reflex
•Patient automatically grasps all objects placed in his hand.
Perserveration
•It is an induced movement;senseless repetition of a goal-
directed action that has already served its purpose.
•Example:-tongue out-in.
•Logoclania/palilalia
•Compulsive repetition/Ideational perseveration
Combativeness
•Usually in an undirected manner,with no,or only a facile
explanation afterwards.
Autonomic abnormality
•Temperature,BP,pulse,respiratory rate,diaphoresis.
Causes of catatonia
1. Depression
2. Schizophrenia
3. Mania
4. Organic disorders: e.g. infections,
epilepsy,
5. Metabolic disorders,endocrinopathies
6. Drugs:opiate intoxication,bzd withdrawal
7. Hysteria (psychogenic catatonia)
8. Idiopathic
Differential diagnosis
1. Elective mutism:
Is usually associated with pre-existing personality
disorders, stress, and no other catatonic features, does
not respond to benzodiazepines or ECT.
2. Locked in syndrome:
The mutism of the locked-in syndrome is associated with
total immobility except for vertical eye movements and
blinking. These patients typically try to communicate by
these movements, whereas patients with catatonia make
little or no effort to communicate.
3.The Stiff person syndrome:
Is associated with painful spasms that are precipitated by
touch, noise, or emotional stimuli. Does not respond to
benzodiazepine, can be relieved by baclofen.
4. Malignant hyperthermia:
Is an autosomal dominent transmitted muscle sensitivity to
inhalation anesthetics and depolarizing muscle relaxants.
Occurs after surgical procedure.
5. Akinetic parkinsonism:
Usually occurs after years of illness with parkinsonian
symptoms and dementia. Relieved by anticholinergic drugs
not by benzodiazepines.
6. Malignant catatonia:
Is acute onset of excitement, delirium, fever, autonomic
instability and catalepsy.
8. Serotonin syndrome:
Is also similar to malignant catatonia except for gastro-
intestinal features.
9. Delirious mania:
Patient with this syndrome exhibit many signs of catatonia
and respond to the same treatment algorithm (BDZ&ECT)
Catatonia in ICD–10 and DSM–IV
• It is becoming increasingly clear that catatonia is more
commonly a consequence of mood disorders than of
schizophrenia. However, historically catatonia has been
regarded more strongly associated with schizophrenia.
• After Kahlbaum first described catatonia, Kraepelin
included it as a type of dementia praecox, and when
Bleuler introduced the concept of schizophrenia, he
recognised catatonia as one of the schizophrenic
subtypes.
• This bias, giving schizophrenia an exaggerated place in
the discussion of catatonia, continues to be reflected in
ICD–10 (World Health Organization) and DSM–IV
(American Psychiatric Association).
ICD–10
• The ICD–10 diagnosis of catatonic schizophrenia
(category F20.2) requires that the patient prominently
exhibits at least one of the following catatonic features, for
at least 2 weeks: stupor, excitement, posturing,
negativism, rigidity, waxy flexibility and command
automatism (automatic obedience).
• If a patient with severe depression is in a stupor, a
diagnosis of ‘severe depressive episode with psychotic
symptoms’ (F32.3) is made, even if there are no delusions
or hallucinations.
• Similarly, a patient with manic stupor will be diagnosed as
having ‘mania with psychotic symptoms’ (F30.2).
• Thus, for depression or mania, only stupor, which is the
most extreme of catatonic signs, seems to have
diagnostic implications, whereas for schizophrenia a
broader range of signs are considered relevant.
• Catatonia due to physical causes is diagnosed as ‘organic
catatonic disorder’ (F06.1).
DSM–IV
• In DSM–IV a diagnosis of ‘schizophrenia, catatonic type’
(code 295.20) is made if the clinical picture is dominated
by at least two of the following: motor immobility,
excessive motor activity, extreme negativism, peculiarities
of voluntary movements, and echolalia/echopraxia.
• If a physical cause is identified the diagnosis is ‘catatonic
disorder due to a medical condition’ (code 293.89).
• As in ICD–10, there is no separate diagnostic category for
catatonia due to either depression or mania, but catatonia
can be added as a specifier in mood disorders.
Types of catatonia