TRAINING REPORT

On

CONSTRUCTION OF RESEDENTIAL BUILDING

Submitted to Kurukshetra University in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of
degree of

B.TECH

in

CIVIL ENGINEERING

Submitted By

SHIV MADHUKAR CHAUDHARY

(4915764)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

GEETA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
NAULTHA, PANIPAT

1
 PREFACE

This Training is an integral part of B. Tech and each and every student has to create this
Training before the 7th Semester while studying in Institute.

This record is concerned about my Training during 7th Semester i.e. final year of B. Tech.
course. I have taken my Training in BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

During this Training, I got to learn many new things about the technology and its practical
implementation. This Major Training proved to be a milestone in my knowledge of present
environment. Every say and every moment was an experience in itself, an experience which
theoretical study can’t provide.

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my gratitude to all those who gave me the possibility to complete
this training. I want to thank the Department of Civil Engineering of “GEETA ENGG.
COLLEGE, PANIPAT” for giving me such a golden opportunity to commence this
training in the first instance. I have furthermore to thank the Mr. AMAN who
encouraged me to go ahead with my training.

I am deeply indebted to our training in-charge at site ER. ARJUN CHAUDHARY

whose help, stimulating suggestions and encouragement helped me in all the time at the
training site and also for writing this report.

My colleagues from the Civil Engineering Department supported me in my training

work. I want to thank them for all their help, support, interest and valuable hints.
Especially I am obliged to DEEPAK, SANDESH, RAJESH who looked closely at the
final version of the report for English style and grammar, correcting both and offering
suggestions for improvement.

3
 CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION

I, SHIV MADHKAR CHAUDHARY Roll No. 4915764 B.Tech (Semester- VII) of the
Geeta Engineering College, Naultha (Panipat) hereby declare that the Training Report
entitled “BUILDING CONSTRUCTION” is an original work and data provided in the
study is authentic to the best of my knowledge. This report has not been submitted to any
other institute for the award of any other degree.

SHIV MADHUKAR CHAUDHARY

( 4915764)

4
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TOPICS P.NO.

1 INTRODUCTION 7

2 INTRODUCTION TO BUILDING 8
2.1 TYPES OF THE BUILDING BASED ON OCCUPANCY 8
2.2 PARTS OF A BUILDING 9
2.3COMPONENTS OF A BUILDING 10
2.4 BUILDING SPECIFICATIONS 11

3 FOUNDATION AND FOOTING 12

3.1 TYPES OF FOUNDATION 12
3.2 SHALLOW FOUNDATION 12
3.2.1 TYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION 12
3.3 DEEP FOUNDATIONS 14
3.3.1 TYPES OF DEEP FOUNDATION 15

4 COLUMN 16
4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF COLUMNS 16
4.1.1 BASED ON SHAPE 17
4.1.2 BASED ON SLENDERNESS RATIO 17
4.1.3 BASED ON TYPE OF LOADING 18
4.1.4 BASED ON PATTERN OF LATERAL REINFORCEMENT 19

5 BEAMS 20
5.1 TYPES OF BEAMS 20
5.1.1 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM 21
5.1.2 FIXED BEAMS 21
5.1.3 CANTILEVER BEAM 22
5.1.4 CONTINUOUS BEAM 22
5.1.5 OVERHANGING BEAM 23

6 BRICK MASONRY 24
6.1 COMPONENTS OF BRICK MASONRY 24
6.2 MORTAR 24
6.2.1 CEMENT MORTAR 25
6.3 BRICKS 25
6.3.1 COMMON BRUNT BRICKS 26
6.3.2 FLY ASH CLAY BRICKS 27

7 STAIRS 28
7.1 TYPES OF STAIRS 28
7.1.1 TURNING STAIRS 29
5
8 DESIGN OF SLAB 30
8.1 TYPES OF SOLID RCC SLAB 31
8.1.1 ONE WAY SLAB 31
8.1.2 TWO WAY SLABS 31
8.1.3 CANTILEVER SLAB 31

9 QUALITY CONTROL TESTS 32

9.1 TESTS ON CEMENT 32
9.1.1 STRENGTH TEST 32
9.1.2 SETTING TEST 32
9.2 TESTS ON BRICKS 32
9.2.1 ABSORPTION TEST 33
9.2.2 CRUSHING STRENGTH TEST 33
9.2.3 HARDNESS TEST 33
9.2.4 SHAPE AND SIZE TEST 33
9.2.5 SOUNDNESS TEST 33
9.3 TESTS ON AGGREGATES 34
9.3.1 SILT CONTENT TEST 34
9.3.2 SIEVE ANALYSYS 35
9.3.3 FINENESS MODULUS 35
9.4 TESTS ON CONCRETE 36
9.4.1 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST 36
9.4.2 WORKABILITY TEST 37

10 CONCLUSION 39

6
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
Building is a structure with a roof and walls standing more or less permanently in one place,
such as a house or factory. Building come in a variety of sizes, shapes, functions.

Buildings serve several needs of society primarily as shelter, security, living places, privacy,
to store belongings, and to comfortably live and work. A building as a shelter represents a
physical division of the human habitat (a place of comfort and safety) and the outside (a place
that at times may be harsh and harmful).

Ever since the first cave paintings, buildings have also become object or canvasses of much
artistic expression. In recent years, interest in sustainable planning and building particles has
also become an international part of the design process of many new buildings.

7
 CHAPTER 2

2.1 TYPES OF THE BUILDING BASED ON OCCUPANCY :-

 RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS
 EDUCATIONAL BUILDINGS
 INSTITUTIONAL BUILDINGS
 ASSEMBLY BUILDINGS
 BUISNESS BUILDINGS
 MERCANTILE BUILDINGS
 INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS
 STORAGE BUILDINGS
 HAZARDOUS BUILDINGS

 Residential buildings: - The building in which sleeping accommodation is provided

for normal residential purposes are called residential buildings.

 Educational / institutional buildings: - The building used for school, college or day
care purposes are called education / institutional building.

 Assembly Buildings : - The buildings which are constructed for the purposes to
gathering of the people for their respective purposes i.e. social, religious, civil, political is
called assembly buildings.

 Business Buildings: - The buildings used for transaction of business, for the keeping
of accounts and records and other similar purposes called business buildings.

 Mercantile Buildings: - The buildings used for display of merchandise, either

wholesale or retail are called Mercantile Buildings.

 Industrial buildings: - The buildings in which products or materials of all kinds and
properties are fabricated, assembled or processed are called industrial buildings.

 Storage buildings: - The buildings used primary for the storage, handling or
shattering of goods and wares or merchandise, vehicles and animals are called storage
buildings.

8
 Hazardous buildings: -The buildings used for storage, handling manufacturing or
processing of highly combustible or explosive material are called Hazardous buildings.

2.2 PARTS OF A BUILDING :-

A BUILDING CAN BE DIVIDED INTO TWO PARTS: -

 Sub structure or Foundation

 Super structure

Sub structure Or Foundation:-

It is the lower portion of the building, usually located below the ground level, which
transmits the loads of the super-structure to the supporting soil. A foundation is therefore that
part of the structure which is in direct contact with the ground to which the loads are
transmitted.

Super structure: -

Super-structure is that part of the structure which is above ground level, and which serves the
purpose of its intended use. A part of the super-structure, located between the ground level
and (he floor level is known as plinth.

Figure 1(PARTS OF BUIDING)

9
2.3COMPONENTS OF A BUILDING:

1. FOUNDATION: -
It is the lowest part of a structure below the ground level which is direct contact with ground
and transmitted all the dead, live and other loads to the soil on which the structure rests.

2. PLINTH: -
The portion of a building and the top of the floor immediately above the ground is known as
plinth. The level of the surrounding ground is known as formation level of the ground floor of
the building is known as plinth level.

3. WALLS: -

Walls are provided to enclose or divide the floor space n desired pattern in addition wall
provided privacy security and give protection against sun, rain, cold and other undesired
effect of the weather.

4. COLUMN: -

A column may be defined as an isolated load bearing member, the width of which is neither
less than its thickness. It carries the axially compressive load.

5. FLOORS: -

Floors are flat supporting elements of a building. They divided a building into different
levels. There by creating more accommodation on a given plot of land. The basic purpose of
a floor is to provide a firm and other items like stores, furniture, equipment etc.

6. ROOF: -

It is the uppermost component of a building and its function is to cover the space below it of
a room and protect it from rain, snow, sun, wind etc.

7. BUILDING FINISHES: -

A building is considered incomplete till such time the surface of its components is given
appropriate treatment.

Building finishes include items like plastering, painting, pointing, white / colour washing,
varnishes and distempering etc.
10
 Figure 2(COMPONENTS OF BUILDING)

8. STAIRS:-
A series of steps that go from one level or floor to another. A stair, or a stair step is one step
in a flight of stairs. In buildings, stairs is a term applied to a complete flight of steps between
two floors.

2.4 BUILDING SPECIFICATIONS

Design mix :
 Beams M-25
 Columns M-30
 Footings M-25
 Slab M-25
 Staircase M-25
 Lintels M-25

Clear Cover :
 Beams 30 mm
 Columns 40 mm
 Footings 50 mm
 Slab 20 mm
 Staircase 25 mm
11
 CHAPTER 3

FOUNDATION AND FOOTING

Foundation
Foundation is structural part of a building on which a building stands. Foundation is always
constructed below the ground level. All engineering structure are provided with foundation to
distribute the load of structure over a large bearing area. We use various types of footing as a
foundation;-

3.1Types Of Foundation

a) Shallow foundation
b) Deep foundation

3.2 Shallow Foundation

Foundations provided immediately beneath the lowest part of the structure , near to the
ground level are known as shallow foundation.
Various types of shallow foundations;-
 Column footing
 Strap footing
 Mat or Raft footing

3.2.1 Types Of Shallow Foundation

Column footing
This type of footing can be of two types
1) Isolated footing 2) combined footing

1) Isolated footing
Isolated footings are most commonly used footings for R.C.C. Columnbecause it is simple
and economical. Isolated footings can have different shapes in plan depending upon the shape
of column. Some of the popular shapes in plan of the footings are :-
1. Square
2. Rectangular
3. Circular

12
 Figure 3 (ISOLATED FOOTING)

2) Strap footing
A strap footing is a component of a building’s foundation. It is a type of combined
footing,consisting of two or more column footings connected by a concrete beam.

Figure 4(STRAP FOOTING)

13
3)Mat or raft footing
Raft foundations (sometimes known as Mat Foundations) are a large concrete slab which can
support a number of columns and walls. The slab is spread out under the entire building or at
least a large part of it which lowers the contact pressure compared to the traditionally used
strip or trench footings.

Figure 5(MAT OR RAFT FOUNDATION)

3.3 Deep foundation :-

Deep foundations are those founding too deeply below the earing capacity to be affected by
surface conditions this is usually at depth of 3 meters below finished ground level these
foundations can be used to transfer the load to a deeper if unsuitable soil is present near the
surface

14
3.3.1 Common type of deep foundations are

Pile Foundation

These are relatively long, long cylindrical in shape which transfers the load through soil
strata having low bearing capacity to deeper soil or rock strata having high bearing capacity
Thick slabs are used to tie the a group of piles together to support and transmit column loads
to the pile

Figure 6(PILE FOUNDATION)

Pier Foundation

A Pier foundation consisis of a cylindrical column of large diameter to support and transfer
large super-imposed loads to the firm strata below.

15
 CHAPTER 4

COLUMNS

A column can be defined as a vertical structural member designed to transmit a compressive

load. A Column transmits the load from ceiling/roof slab and beam, including its own weight
to the foundation. Hence it should be realized that the failure of a column results in the
collapse of the entire structure. The design of a column should therefore receive importance.
In the modern construction industry, Columns are mostly constructed by concrete; apart from
that materials such as Wood, Steel, Fibre-reinforced polymer, Cellular PVC, and Aluminium
too are been used. The type of material is been decided on the scale, coast and application of
the construction.

Figure 7 (Columns)

4.1 Classification of Columns :-

1. Shape,
2. Slenderness ratio,
3. Type of loading
4. Pattern of lateral reinforcement.

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4.1.1 Based on shape :-

 Rectangle
 Square
 Circular

Figure 8( different types of column)

4.1.2 Based on slenderness ratio :-

 Long Column or Slender [The length is greater than the critical buckling length and it
fails by buckling.]

 Short Column [The length is less than the critical buckling length and it fails by
shearing.]

17
4.1.3 Based on type of loading :-

 Axially loaded column :-

The columns which are subjected to loads acting along the longitudinal axis or centriod of the
columns section are called as axially loaded columns. Axially loaded column is subjected to
direct compressive stress and no bending stress develops anywhere in the column section.

 Eccentrically loaded columns

These are those columns in which the load does not act on longitudinal axis of column. They
are subjected to direct compressive and bending stress both. Eccentrically loaded columns
may be subjected to unaxial bending

Figure 9(Column Supporting Axial Load) (Column Supporting Eccentric Load)

18
4.1.4 Based on pattern of lateral reinforcement

Tied column
Tied columns have closed lateral ties spaced approximately uniformly across the column. The
spacing of the ties is limited in that they must be close enough to prevent barreling failure
between them, and far enough apart that they do not interfere with the setting of the concrete.

Spiral column

Columns, the longitudinal bars and the core concrete are enclosed with a closely spaced wire
or bar helix called spiral.

Figure 10(TIED COLUMN)

Figure 11(SPIRAL COLUMN)

19
 CHAPTER 5

BEAMS
Beam is the horizontal member of a structure, carrying transverse loads. Beam is rectangular
in cross-section. Beams carry the floor or roof slab. Beam transfer all the loads including its
self-weight to the Colum or wall.

Figure 12 (BEAMS)

5.1 Types of beams

• Simply supported beam

• Fixed beam

• Cantilever beam

• Continuous beam

• Overhanging beam

20
 5.1.1 Simply supported beam :-

A beam supported freely on the both ends which are free to rotate and have no moment
resistance.

Figure 13(SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM)

5.1.2Fixed beams

In this beam both ends of beam are rigidly fixed into supports also main reinforcement bars
and strips are provided

Figure 14(FIXED BEAM)

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 5.1.1 Cantilever beam

It is fixed in wall or Colum at one end and the other end is free it has tension zone at top side
and compression zone at bottom side

Figure 15 (CANTILEVER BEAM)

5.1.4 Continuous beam

It is supported on more than two supports this beam is more economical for any span of
lengths.

Figure 16 (CONTINOUS BEAM)

22
5.1.5 Overhanging beam :-

If the end portion of a beam extends beyond the support, then the beam is known as
overhanging beam. Overhanging may be on one of the supports or on both the sides.

Figure 17(OVERHANG BEAM)

23
 CHAPTER 6

BRICK MASONRY :-

Brick masonry is used for construction of buildings and other structures by using brick
stone, stone blocks, brick blocks with different types of masonry.

Figure 18 (brick masonry)

6.1 Components of brick masonry :-

 Mortar
 Brick

6.2 Mortar :-

Mortar is a mixture of sand and cements that is most often used to build brick or block walls.

24
Various Types Of Mortar used in Masonry :-

1. Cement mortar
2. Lime mortar
3. Cement-lime mortar
4. Lime surkhi mortar

6.2.1 Cement Mortar :-

It is a mixture of cement, sand and water; where cement acts as a binding material. The
proportion of cement to sand varies from 1:2 to 1:6 depending upon strength desired for a
particular work.

Figure 19(Cement Mortar)

6.3 Bricks :-

A brick is building material used to make walls, pavements and other elements in masonry
construction. Traditionally, the term brick referred to a unit composed of clay, but it is now
used to denote any rectangular units laid in mortar. A brick can be composed of clay-bearing
soil, sand, and lime, or concrete materials

25
There are various types of bricks used in masonry :-

1. Common Burnt Clay Bricks

2. Sand Lime Bricks (Calcium Silicate Bricks)
3. Engineering Bricks
4. Concrete Bricks
5. Fly ash Clay Bricks

6.3.1Common Burnt Clay Bricks :-

Common burnt clay bricks are formed by pressing in moulds. Then these bricks are dried and
fired in a kiln. Common burnt clay bricks are used in general work with no special attractive
appearances. When these bricks are used in walls, they require plastering or rendering.

The bricks used in construction works are burnt bricks and they are classified into the
following four categories:

(1) First class bricks

(2) Second class bricks

(3) Third class bricks

(1) First class bricks:

These first class bricks are table moulded and of uniform shape and they are burnt in kilns.
The surfaces and edges of the bricks are sharp, square, smooth and straight. They comply
with all the qualities of good bricks. These bricks are used for important work of permanent
nature.

(2) Second class bricks:

The second class bricks are ground moulded and they are burnt in kilns. The surface of the
second class bricks is slightly rough and shape is also slightly regular. These bricks may have
hair cracks and their edges may not be sharp and uniform. These bricks are commonly used at
places where brickwork is to be provided with a coat of plaster.

(3) Third class bricks:

These bricks are ground-moulded and they are burnt in clamps. These bricks are not very
hard and they have rough surfaces with irregular and blunt edges. These bricks give dull
sound when they are struck together. They are used for unimportant works, temporary
structures and at places where rainfall is not heavy.

26
 Figure 20(BRUNT CLAY BRICKS)

6.3.2 Fly Ash Clay Bricks

Fly ash clay bricks are manufactured with clay and fly ash, at about 1,000 degrees C. Some
studies have shown that these bricks tend to fail poor produce pop-outs, when bricks come
into contact with moisture and water, causing the bricks to expand.

Figure 21( Fly Ash Bricks wall)

27
 CHAPTER 7
STAIRS

A stair is a set of steps leading from one floor of a building to another, typically inside the
building. The room or enclosure of the building, in which the stair is located is known as
staircase. The opening or space occupied by the stair is known as a stairway.

Figure 22(Dimensions of stairs)

7.1 Types of Stairs

Stairs can be broadly classified into three types:

1. Straight stairs

2. Turning stairs

3. Continuous stairs
28
7.1.1 TURNING STAIRS :-

 Dog-legged stairs

Because of its appearance in sectional elevation this name is given. It comes under the
category of newel stairs in which newel posts are provided at the beginning and end of each
flight.

Figure 23(Rcc Stairs)

29
 CHAPTER 8

SLAB
A Slab is the one of the most important component in a building. It is a structural element of
modern buildings. Slabs are supported on Columns and Beams. In at many construction
RCC slabs are used. So here we study about the RCC slabs.
 RCC Slabs whose thickness ranges from 10 to 50 centimeters are most often used for
the construction of floors and ceilings.

 Thin concrete slabs are also used for exterior paving purpose.

 In many domestic and industrial buildings a thick concrete slab, supported on

foundations or directly on the sub soil, is used to construct the ground floor of a
building.

 In high rises buildings and skyscrapers, thinner, pre-cast concrete slabs are slung
between the steel frames to form the floors and ceilings on each level.

 While making structural drawings of the reinforced concrete slab, the slabs are
abbreviated to “r.c.slab” or simply “r.c.”.

Fig.24 (SLAB)

30
8.1 Types of Solid RCC Slab:-

RCC slabs are three types depending on design criteria.

One-way slab

Two-way slab

Cantilever slab

8.1.1 One way Slab :-

One way slab are provided when the ratio of length of a room to its width is greater than
or equal to 2.In this case, the bending takes place only in one direction i.e. along shorter
span. The main reinforcement is provided in the direction of the shorter span. The mild
steel bars are hooked at the end while tor steel is not provided with hooks. Alternate bars
are bent-up L/7 distance from centre of supports. The distribution steel is provided in the
direction of longer span at right angles to the main steel. The distribution bars are
normally not provided with hooks. The distribution steel should be tied above the main
steel, otherwise the lever arm which is measured up to the centre of the main steel shall be
reduced resulting in the reduction of moment of resistance.

Purpose of Distribution Steel

1) The main purpose of distribution steel is to distribute the concentrated loads on the
slab.

2) To guard against shrinkage and temperature stresses.

3) It also keeps the main reinforcement in position.

8.1.2 Two way Slabs :-

Two way slabs are provided when the ratio of length of a room to its width is less than
2.The bending takes place in both directions.So,in this case distribution steel may not
provided.

In two way slab, total load sub-divided into two parts i.e. parts across two spans
instead of one span as in case of one way slab.Thus bending shear force and deflection is
reduced considerably.Here,small thickness of slab and less quantity of steel is required for
two way slab as compared to one way slab and hence economical.

8.1.3 Cantilever Slab :-

It is also one way slab but it has only one support at fixed end.The span is taken equal to
the projecting length of slab.The maximum bending moment and shear force occur at
fixed end and at free end.The depth at free end is kept 1/3 to 1/2 of depth at fixed end.The
reinforcement is provided at top and is curtailed towards free end as the bending moment
reduces. The other specification regarding reinforcement etc.
31
 CHAPTER 9

Quality Control Tests

9.1 Tests on cement :-

 Strength test
 Setting test

9.1.1 Strength test :-

A block of cement 25 mm ×25 mm and 200 mm long is prepared and it is immersed for 7
days in water. It is then placed on supports 15cm apart and it is loaded with a weight of about
34 kg. The block should not show signs of failure. If cement is of sound quality such block
will not be broken easily.

9.1.2 Setting test :-

A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of glass plate and it is kept under water
for 24 hours. It should set and not crack.

9.2 Tests on bricks :-

 Absorption test
 Crushing strength test
 Hardness test
 Shape and size test
 Soundness test

9.2.1 Absorption test :-

Absorption test is conducted on brick to find out the amount of moisture content absorbed by
brick under extreme conditions. In this test, sample dry bricks are taken and weighed. After
weighing these bricks are placed in water with full immersing for a period of 24 hours. Then
weigh the wet brick and note down its value. The difference between dry and wet brick
weights will give the amount of water absorption. For a good quality brick the amount of
water absorption should not exceed 20% of weight of dry brick.

32
9.2.2 Crushing strength test :-

Crushing strength of bricks is determined by placing brick in compression testing machine.

After placing the brick in compression testing machine, apply load on it until brick breaks.
Note down the value of failure load and find out the crushing strength value of brick.
Minimum crushing strength of brick is 3.50N/mm2.if it is less than 3.50 N/mm2, then it is not
useful for construction purpose.

9.2.3 Hardness test :-

A good brick should resist scratches against sharp things. So, for this test a sharp tool or
finger nail is used to make scratch on brick. If there is no scratch impression on brick then it
is said to be hard brick.

9.2.4 Shape and size test :-

Shape and size of bricks are very important consideration. All bricks used for construction
should be of same size. The shape of bricks should be purely rectangular with sharp edges.
Standard brick size consists length x breadth x height as 19cm x 9cm x 9cm. to perform this
test, select 20 bricks randomly from brick group and stack them along its length , breadth and
height and compare. So, if all bricks similar size then they are qualified for construction
work.

9.2.5 Soundness test :-

Soundness test of bricks shows the nature of bricks against sudden impact. In this test, 2
bricks are chosen randomly and struck with one another. Then sound produced should be
clear bell ringing sound and brick should not break. Then it is said to be good brick.

33
9.3 Tests on aggregates :-

 Silt content test for aggregate

 Sieve analysis
 Fineness modulus

9.3.1 Silt Content For Aggregate :-

The permissible silt content in sand (fine aggregate) must not exceed the values as specified
in the standards. However, this method can only be used for natural sand, it should not be
used for crushed rock sand.

The apparatus required for this test is only 250 ml glass measuring cylinder.

The silt content determination by volume is done in the following manner:

 The glass cylinder is filled with salt-water solution (concentration of the solution will
teaspoon full of common salt for every 570 ml) upto 50 ml mark.
 Add sand until the level of the sand is upto 100 ml mark.
 Add further salt-water solution till 150 ml mark is reached.
 Place the palm on the mouth of the glass cylinder and shake it vigorously.
 Place the cylinder on hard levelled surface and tap it all round so that sand is leveled.
 Wait for three hours for silt to settle on top of sand.
 Measure the thickness of the silt layer and the height of the sand. The silt content can
be calculated as follows:

Silt (%) by volume = [(Thickness of silt layer/ Height of sand + Silt) x 100 %]

9.3.2 Sieve Analysis :-

Sieve analysis is done to check the gradation of aggregate.

 The test is done as follow.

 Take required amount of aggregate sample (for coarse aggregate take apprx. 2.5 kg
and for fine aggregate take 0.5 kg)
 Arrange the required no of sieves as per the contract or job requirement in an
descending manner. (i.e. keep the sieve having largest size opening at the top and the
smallest size opening at the bottom)
 Shake vigorously the sieve set for at least 2 minute.
 Then measure the weight of aggregate on each sieve and express it as the percentage
of passing.

34
Now compare these values with the recommended values to know whether it falls within the
range or not. If not falling within the desired gradation then take necessary action.

9.3.3 Fineness Modulus :-

Fineness modulus is generally used to get an idea of how coarse or fine the aggregate is.
More fineness modulus value indicates that the aggregate is coarser and small value of
fineness modulus indicates that the aggregate is finer.

 Sieve the aggregate using the appropriate sieves (80 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm,
4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 micron, 300 micron & 150 micron).
 Record the weight of aggregate retained on each sieve.
 Calculate the cumulative weight of aggregate retained on each sieve.
 Calculate the cumulative percentage of aggregate retained.
 Add the cumulative weight of aggregate retained and divide the sum by 100. This
value is termed as fineness modulus.

Compare the test value with the values given in the following table and you can get an idea
about how coarse or fine the sand is.

Only sand between FM 2.6 to 2.9 is considered suitable for nominal mix proportion.

Type of Sand Fineness Modulus Value

Very fine sand Below 2.2

Fine sand 2.2 to 2.6

Medium sand 2.6 to 2.9

Coarse sand 2.9 to 3.2

Very coarse sand Above 3.2

35
9.4 Tests on concrete :-

 Compressive strength of concrete

 Workability Tests of concrete

9.4.1 Compressive strength of concrete :-

The compression test shows the compressive strength of hardened concrete. The compression
test shows the best possible strength concrete can reach in perfect conditions. The
compression test measures concrete strength in the hardened state. Testing should always be
done carefully. Wrong test results can be costly.

The testing is done in a laboratory off-site. The only work done on-site is to make a concrete
cubes for the compression test. The strength is measured in Megapascals (MPa) and is
commonly specified as a characteristic strength of concrete measured at 28 days after mixing.
The compressive strength is a measure of the concrete’s ability to resist loads which tend to
crush it.

Procedure for compression test of concrete

1. Clean the mould and coat the inside lightly with form oil, then place on a clean, level
and firm surface, i.e. the steel plate. Collect a sample.
2. Fill 1/2 the volume of the mould with concrete then compact by rodding 25 times.
Cube moulds may also be compacted by vibrating using a vibrating table.
3. Fill the cone to overflowing and rod 25 times into the top of the first layer, then top up
the mould till overflowing.
4. Level off the top with the steel float and clean any concrete from around the mould.
5. Cap, clearly tag the concrete cube and put it in a cool dry place to set for at least 24
hours.
6. After the mould is removed the concrete cube is sent to the laboratory where it is
cured and crushed to test compressive strength

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 Figure 24(Cube Test)

9.4.2 Workability Tests of concrete :-

This test is performed to check the consistency of freshly made concrete. The slump test is
done to make sure a concrete mix is workable. The measured slump must be within a set
range, or tolerance, from the target slump.

Workability of concrete is mainly affected by consistency i.e. wetter mixes will be more
workable than drier mixes, but concrete of the same consistency may vary in workability. It
can also be defined as the relative plasticity of freshly mixed concrete as indicative of its
workability.

Procedure of slump test for concrete:

 Clean the cone. Dampen with water and place on the slump plate. The slump plate
should be clean, firm, level and non-absorbent. Collect a sample of concrete to perform the
slum test.
 Stand firmly on the footpieces and fill 1/3 the volume of the cone with the sample.
Compact the concrete by 'rodding' 25 times. Rodding means to push a steel rod in and out of
the concrete to compact it into the cylinder, or slump cone. Always rod in a definite pattern,
working from outside into the middle.
 Now fill to 2/3 and again rod 25 times, just into the top of the first layer.
 Fill to overflowing, rodding again this time just into the top of the second layer. Top up
the cone till it overflows.
 Level off the surface with the steel rod using a rolling action. Clean any concrete from
around the base and top of the cone, push down on the handles and step off the footpieces.
 Carefully lift the cone straight up making sure not to move the sample.
 Turn the cone upside down and place the rod across the up-turned cone.

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Take several measurements and report the average distance to the top of the sample.If the
sample fails by being outside the tolerance (ie the slump is too high or too low), another must
be taken. If this also fails the remainder of the batch should be rejected.

Figure 25(Slump Test)

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 CHAPTER 10

CONCLUSION
It was a wonderful learning experience at GOVT. COLLEGE ALEWA, JIND site of
UNIVERSAL CONSTRUCTION CO. project for 45 Days in Jind. I gained a lot of insight
regarding almost every aspect of site. I was given exposure in almost all the departments at the
site. The friendly welcome from all the employees is appreciating, sharing their experience and
giving their peace of wisdom which they have gained in long journey of work. I am very much
thankful for the wonderful accommodation facility from UNIVERSAL CONSTRUCTION CO.
I hope this experience will surely help me in my future and also in shaping my career.

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