Week 1

Rationale for Water and Wastewater Analysis

content

1. Sources of water pollution

2. Impact of water pollution

3. Chemical contaminants

4. Pathogenic contaminants

5. Description and rationale for monitoring water quality

6. Introduction to Australian water quality guidelines

1. Sources of water pollution
1.1. The main sources of pollution associated with land use
in both rural and urban environments

natural vegetation
sediment load
mine drainage
agricultural pollution: animal wastes, fertilisers, pestcides,
irrigation return
urban pollution: domestic sewage/effluent, industrial wastewater
/effluent, sewage overflows, stormwater runoff, sanitary landfill
leachate
1.2. Sources of water pollution
(1) point sources: wastewaters discharge from outfall
sewers or drainage channels
(2) non-point / diffuse sources: pollutants dispersed on the
land by human activities are conveyed to rivers, lakes or
estuaries in runoff from rainfall or snowmelt
2. impacts of water pollution
2.1. Pollution will disrupt the balance of plant and animal life
resulting in （1） reduction of the number of species；
（2） dominance of the surviving organisms

potential impacts on aquatic animals (invertebrates无脊椎)

2.2. Impacts of pollution on species diversity
Pollution will affect the complete aquatic food chain because of
eutrophication富营养化.

 Eutrophication 富营养化
High concentrations of nutrients, such as nitrogen and
phosphorus, will lead to the excessive growth of specific
organisms, especially algae水藻.
 Floating masses of algae: appearance, reduced
dissolved oxygen, odors
2.3. Impacts of pollution on lake processes
 Eutrophication 富营养化 （overfertilisation 过度施肥）
 Water quality problem
In a thermal stratified water, pollution will change the
chemistry of redox active elements
热分层水中,污染造会改变元素的化学氧化还原性质
e.g. sulfate ions 硫酸盐离子 may be reduced to odorous sulphide
species气态硫化物；
e.g. iron and manganese锰 may be reduced from oxidized forms to
solube forms， which will cause the color in water.

DO: Surface: high DO (contact with air);

Mixed epilimnion混合湖上层 and Stagnant dark hypolimnion
停滞深水层: DO逐渐下降（algae died and drop down to stragnant

dark hypolimnion，at that layer bacteria will consume algae and

oxygen）；
Bottom: 0（highly organic muds result in anaerobic厌氧）
Temperature: top warm，下层水温低
2.4. Impacts of pollution on groundwater contamination
 Contaminants from wastewater pond will percolate渗透
to unconfined aquifers.无压含水层

2.5. Other factors will also impact environment

 Physical conditions (such as heat)
由于污水温度较高，且高温水会往上浮。为了使排入海中的污水
与海水混合均匀，所以sewage一般建在海底。
 Some special substances
e.g. sea-salt as a pollutant to sea
Discharge of concentrated seawater, which contains high
concentration of salt, will impact on benthic水底的marine habitats.
(salt会下沉)

3. Chemical contaminants/hazards
3.1. Heavy metals
 Industrial discharge

 Some (cadmium 镉 , chromium 铬 , mercury) have been

associated with human health concerns.

3.2. Inorganic chemicals

 Arsenic 砷

 Most common and serious chemical agent of waterborne

disease

 High groundwater concentrations (>10 g/L) in some

countries （Argentina, Bangladesh, Canada, Chile, China,
India, Mexico, Thailand, USA）

 Various cancers, particularly skin cancer from high chronic

exposure

 Fluoride 氟

 High groundwater concentrations (>5 mg/L) in some

countries （Africa, Middle East, India, China, and parts of
the USA）

 Chronic exposure >5 mg/L causes dental fluorosis 牙釉质

 Higher exposures may cause skeletal fluorosis骨骼慢性中

毒 (stiffness僵硬, joint pain关节痛)

 Selenium 硒
  Not widespread in water, but chronic high level exposure
reported in Keshan region of China and Venezuela委内瑞
拉

 Toxic effects manifest in nails指甲, hair and liver

 Lead

 Adverse health effects, mostly in children.

 Exposure in drinking water is relatively small

 Nitrate (and nitrite)

 Can cause Methaemoglobinaemia 高铁血红蛋白症

– decreased ability of blood to carry oxygen to bodily

organs

 Water with <50 mg/L poses no risk of the disease

3.3. Cyanobacterial toxins 蓝藻毒素

 Cyanobacteria may grow in untreated or partially-treated

water, producing toxins. (warm climates, nutrient-rich water)

 Are hepatotoxic肝毒素 and some are neurotoxic神经毒素.

3.4. Disinfection byproducts 消毒副产物

 Formed by reaction of natural organic matter (NOM) during

disinfection (e.g. chlorination, ozonation臭氧) processes

 Some have been associated with adverse health effects

such as stomach cancer and miscarriage流产.

3.5. Pesticides
  Agricultural use of pesticides may lead to run-off to
waterways and drinking water supplies.

 They may enter wastewater system by stormwater influx or

illegal direct disposal.

 Many are very persistent in the environment.

 All are biologically active and many are toxic to people

3.6. Synthetic industrial chemicals

 Examples include plasticisers增塑剂，heat stabilisers热稳

定剂， bleaching chemicals and byproducts漂白剂及副产物,
solvents 溶剂 ， surfactants 表面活性剂 ， pigments 染料 ，
resins树脂，petrochemicals石油化工原料 etc.

 Be toxic to diverse range of organisms including humans.

3.7. Other chemical hazards

 Radionuclides放射性核素（e.g. radium镭）are cancinogenic

致癌

 Natural steroidal hormones类固醇激素 （such as oestradiol

雌甾二醇， oestrone 雌酮 and testosterone 睾酮） lead to
endocrinological abnormal内分泌失常

 Antiseptics防腐剂

 Nanomaterials or nanoparticles 纳米材料 is an emerging

group of contaminants.

4. Pathogenic病原体 contaminants/hazards
4.1. Viruses
  Smallest forms of infectious感染 agents(20-100nm)

 Composed of single /double strands of DNA/RNA

 Cannot transport actively不能主动移动

 Cannot reproduce in isolation, must infect a living host cell

4.2. Bacteria
 Bigger than viruses (300-2000nm)

 Have cells with no nucleus for genetic material

 Have flagella鞭毛 for active movements

 Reproduce very rapid by binary fission二分裂

 They always reproduce in organisms. Although they can

also reproduce in water, but they are more likely to die in
water.

4.3. Protozoa 原生动物

 Single-celled organisms contain nucleus and organelles 细
胞器

 Form cysts孢囊 to survive in environment

 Only reproduce in favourable host

4.4. Helminths／parasitic worms 寄生虫

 Live in digestive tract

 Sexual reproduction

5. Monitoring
5.1. Treatment plants monitoring (most monitoring)
  Routine analysis （understanding of process）

 How it varies due to seasonal and diurnal日照的 variations

5.2. Why monitoring

 Process control 过程控制
 Used to improve the efficiency

 Online monitoring is used to enable feed forward or

feedback

 Items that be monitored to control processes

DO: control the level of aeration in active sludge process

Turbidity of sand filtration: control backwash progarmming

pH: control acid-dosing and stabilisation

conductivity: control membrane flux

 Performance monitoring 运行监测

 Determine the efficiency and effectiveness

Most cases use indicator or surrogate替代品 to measure

(e.g. nitrate concentration during the nitrification)

Measurements allow operators to make necessary

adjustments to the operating conditions

 Compliance monitoring 特定监测

 Monitoring for a particular parameter in order to ensure that
the wastewater quality complies with 遵 守 a particular
standard
  Need to know how often the limit is exceeded and by how
much

 Can be determined by online measurements, but often

involves sample collection and retrospective 回顾 analysis
in the laboratory

Types of sampling: Spot samples

Composite samples

Continuous

5.3. Industrial water reuse

 Monitoring key water quality parameters
 Design and optimization优化 of treatment processes

 Ensuring compliance with遵守 contractual requirements

5.4. Environmental discharge

 Monitoring key water quality parameters
 Available for current and future comparison
 Background data collected
 Water quality

 Marine diversity

 Chemical concentrations in organic organisms

6. Introduction to Australian water quality guidelines

6.1. Australia and New Zealand guidelines for fresh and
marine water quality (2000)
 Guidance for setting water quality objectives required to
sustain current, or likely future, environmental values
[uses] for natural and semi-natural water resources
 Address protection of water quality for
 aquatic ecosystems,

 primary industries (irrigation and general water uses, stock

drinking water, aquaculture and human consumers of
aquatic foods)

 recreation and aesthetics 


 drinking water

 industrial water 


 management framework for applying it

 Define
 primary management aims

(including environmental values, management goals and

level of protection)

 Determine appropriate
 water quality guidelines

(tailored调整使其适应 to local environmental conditions)

 Define
 water quality objectives

(specific water quality to be achieved)


 • taking account of social, cultural, political and economic

concerns where necessary

 Establish
 monitoring and assessment program

 (focused on water quality objectives)


• after defining acceptable performance or decision criteria

 Initiate appropriate management response


 (based on attaining or maintaining water quality)

6.2. Australia drinking water guidelines (2011)

 Health related guidelines for >200 chemical substances

 μ g/L levels for most

 High ng/L levels for many

 <100 ng/L for a few

 Chemical characteristics should not be detected in

drinking water at concentrations above the relevant
health-related guideline value
 If a chemical characteristic is detected at a concentration
above the relevant health-related guideline value, follow-
up action must be taken.
 aquatic ecosystems,

 Guideline for pathogens

 Escherichia coli (E. coli) 大肠杆菌should not be detected in
a minimum 100mL sample of drinking water.

 If detected, immediate corrective action must be taken.

If E. coli is detected it is considered to indicate the

potential presence of faecal 排泄物的 contamination and
therefore other pathogens.
 BUT: E. coli now known to be a very poor indicator for
viral病毒的 and protozoan 原生动物的 pathogens!

 framework for management of drinking water quality

 12 elements to the framework

 A risk management approach

 Identification and characterization of hazards, hazardous

events and risk

Hazardous events: an incident or situation that lead to the

presence of a hazard (what can happen and how)

e.g. high rainfall event, aerial spraying of pesticides,

sewage overflow, treatment malfunction 故障， cattle in
reservoir