AN ASSESSMENT OF CONCRETE

BRIDGE DECK EVAPORATION

RATES AND CURING REQUIREMENT
CATEGORIES FOR ALABAMA

HRC Research Project

2-13746
Final Report

Prepared by

George E. Ramey
Ashley C. Carden

February 1998
 An Assessment of Concrete Bridge Deck

Evaporation Rates and Curing Requirement

Categories for Alabama

HRC Research Project

2-13746

Final Report

Prepared by

George E. Ramey

Ashley C. Carden

Department of Civil Engineering

Auburn University

Prepared for

Highway Research Center

Auburn University

February 1998
 ABSTRACT

Early cracking due to plastic shrinkage, drying shrinkage, and thermal shrinkage in concrete

bridge decks can result in lower durability and, eventually, reduced structural integrity. This research

investigated the effect of weather parameters in the state of Alabama on shrinkage and identifies curing

requirement categories for bridge deck concrete based on evaporation rates calculate using the

evaporation nomograph from ACI Committee 305. Also presented are relationships between concrete

and ambient temperature, and results of an evaporation rate parameter sensitivity analysis.

Curing categories are presented for different times of the year and describe the methods needed

to ensure proper curing. The state was considered as one region and two distinct seasonal categories

were developed. From the research performed it was determined that evaporation rates are generally not

severe in Alabama if proper precautions are undertaken, but adverse conditions can occur, particularly

during summer months and/or windy periods. The results of this research should be helpful in

preforming testing of actual bridge decks, or in developing accurate models to properly determine the

effects of weather parameters on shrinkage cracking and, therefore, identify proper curing methods for

concrete bridge decks in Alabama.

1
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to thank the Highway Research Center for funding of this project. Great

appreciation is also extended to the Alabama Department of Transportation, Southeast Regional Climate

Center, National Climate Data Center, and Blue Circle Cement Company for the information provided by

each, which was instrumental in executing the research and preparing this report.

11
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ......................................................................... i

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ii

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1
1.1 Statement of Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1
1.2 Objectives ........................................................... , 2
1.3 Work Plan ............................................................ 2
1.4 Scope ................................................................ 3

2. LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................... 5

2.1 General ............................................... ": ............... 5
2.2 Plastic Shrinkage Cracking ............................................... 5
" 2.3 Drying Shrinkage Cracking ................................ " . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14
2.4 Early Thermal Shrinkage Cracking ...................................... " 22
2.5 Measures for Prevention of Early Cracking ................................. 25
2.6 Curing Concrete by Moisture Retention .................................... 28
2.7 Concrete Properties Relevant to Early Deck Cracking ......................... 31

3. ALABAMA CONCRETE CURING RELATED WEATHER DATA AND

EXPOSURE CONDITIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 54
3.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 54
3.2 Mean and Extreme Weather Data ......................................... 62
3.3 Seasonal Weather Variations ........................................... " 62
3.4 Geographical Weather Variations. ; ....................................... 78
3.5 Diurnal Weather Variations .............................................. 82
3.6 Closure .............................................................. 90

4. CONCRETE TEMPERATURE AND AMBIENT TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIPS . . . . . . .. 92

4.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 92
4.2 Temperature Rise in Fresh Concrete ..................................... " 92
4.3 Calculation of Concrete Temperature ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 94
4.4 Empirical Concrete Temperature Relationships .............................. 96
4.5 Control of Concrete Temperature ........................................ 101

5. EVAPORATION RATE PARAMETER SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS

104
5.1 General ............................................................ . 104
5.2 Limiting Values of Evaporation Rate ........................... : ........ . 104
5.3 Evaporation Rate Parameter Sensitivity .................................. . 106
5.4 Monthly Evaporation Rate Curves for Alabama ............................ . 112
5.5 "Planning" Evaporation Rate Curves for Alabama .......................... . 113
5.6. Closure ............................................................ . 140

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6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................... 143
6.1 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 143
6.2 Recommendations .................................................... 144

REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 149

APPENDIX A. Weather Data Curves and Tables ......................................... 152

APPENDIX B. Concrete Temperature vs. Ambient Temperature Data ........................ 175

IV
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 2.1. Effect of Aggregate on Plastic Shrinkage [26] ..................................... 8

Fig. 2.2. ACI 305 Surface Evaporation Chart [7,25] ........................................ 8
Fig. 2.3. Shrinkage - Time Relationship [33] ............................................ 11
Fig. 2.4. Evaporation-Time Relationship for Different Climatic conditions [33] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11
Fig. 2.5. Effect of FWA on Loss of Water on Test Specimens [36] ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13
Fig. 2.6. Bleeding Rate Curves for Various Water-Cement Ratios [31] ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15
Fig. 2.7. Drying Shrinkage of Concretes Made with: a) Type I Portland Cement;
b) Expansive Cement [26] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16
Fig. 2.8. Relation between Shrinkage and Loss of Water from Cement Specimens [28] ........... 17
Fig. 2.9. Relation between Shrinkage and Time for Concretes at Different
Relative Humidities [28] ..................................................... 18
Fig. 2.10. Relationship of Total Water Content and Drying Shrinkage [22] ..... '. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18
Fig.2.11. Results of Long-Term Drying Shrinkage Tests [22] .............................. 20
Fig. 2.12. Schematic Illusion of Moisture Movements in Concrete [22] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20
Fig. 2.13. Typical Behavior of Concrete on Drying and Rewetting [26] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 21
Fig. 2.14. Effect of Relative Humidity and Temperature on Concrete Shrinkage [26] ............ 21
Fig. 2.15. Effect of Volume-to-Surface Ratio on the Shrinkage of Concrete [26] ................ 23
Fig. 2.16. Progress of Shrinkage with Time as a Function of Distance from Drying Surface [28] ... 23
Fig. 2.17. illustration of Moisture Movements in Concrete [22] ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 33
Fig. 2.18. Shrinkage vs. Time for Concretes Stored at Different Relative Humidities [28] ........ 33
Fig. 2.19. Interrelation of Shrinkage, Cement Content, and Water Content [Unknown Source] . . . .. 34
Fig. 2.20. Water Content vs. Drying Shrinkage [22] ...................................... 34
Fig.2.21. Effect of Some Mixture Parameters on Concrete Drying Shrinkage [15] .............. 36
Fig.2.21. Effect of Some Mixture Parameters on Concrete Drying Shrinkage [15] (cont.) ........ 37
Fig. 2.22. Approximate Drying Curves for Laboratory Test Prism Specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 39
Fig. 2.23. Weight Loss and Drying Shrinkage Curves for Concrete Cylinders [22] .............. 39
Fig. 2.24. Typical Concrete Rate of Heat Evolution Time History (Adapted from Ref. [26]) ...... 42
Fig. 2.25. Estimated Heat of Hydration vs. Time Curves for Typical Concrete Mixtures .......... 42
Fig. 2.26. Effect of Some Mixture Parameters on Concrete Heat of Hydration [15] .............. 43
Fig. 2.26. Effect of Some Mixture Parameters on Concrete Heat of Hydration [15] (cont.) . . . . . . .. 44
Fig. 2.27. Relative Gain of Strength with Time in Concretes with Different Water-
Cement Ratios made with Ordinary Portland Cement [26] ......................... 46
Fig. 2.28. General Gain in Compressive Strength with Time Curve for
Ordinary Portland Cement [40] .............................................. 46
Fig. 2.29. Early Age f'_c for 4000 psi Concrete ........................................... 47
Fig. 2.30. Early Age f' c as a Fraction of f c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Fig. 2.31. Relationships of Compressive to Flexural and Tensile Strengths of Concrete [26] ...... 49
Fig. 2.32. Early Age for 4000 psi Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 49
Fig. 2.33. Typical Concrete Stress-Strain Curves [40] ..................................... 50
Fig. 2.34. Early Age Ee for 4000 psi Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 50
Fig. 2.35. Long-Term Creep Stress vs. Time Curve [27] ................................... 53
Fig. 2.36. Creep Recovery vs. Time [27] .............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53
Fig. 3.1. Typical Diurnal Variation in Temperature, Relative Humidity, and Wind
Velocity in Clear Summer Weather ............................................. 55

v
Fig. 3.2. Geographical Locations of 4-Major Cities in Alabama ............................. 56
Fig.3.3a. Mean Temperatures for Mobile, AL .......................................... 63
Fig.3.3b. Mean Temperatures for Montgomery, AL ...................................... 63
Fig.3.3c. Mean Temperatures for Birmingham, AL ...................................... 64
Fig. 3.3d. Mean Temperatures for Huntsville, AL ...................................... " 64
Fig. 3.4. Annual Cycle of Mean Maximum Temperatures .................................. 65
Fig. 3.5a. Mean Relative humidity for Mobile, AL ..................................... " 67
Fig.3.5b. Mean Relative Humidity for Montgomery, AL .................................. 67
Fig. 3.5c. Mean Relative Humidity for Birmingham, AL .................................. 68
Fig. 3.5d. Mean Relative Humidity for Huntsville, AL .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 68
Fig.3.6a. MeanWind Speed for Mobile, AL .......................................... " 69
Fig.3.6b. Mean Wind Speed for Montgomery, AL ..................................... " 69
Fig.3.6c. Mean Wind Speed for Birmingham, AL ....................................... 70
Fig. 3.6d. Mean Wind Speed for Huntsville, AL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 70
Fig. 3.7. Wind Speed Cycle for Day in march 1985 - Mobile ................. : ............ " 71
Fig. 3.8. Wind Speed Cycles for March 1985 - Mobile ..................................... 71
Fig. 3.9a. Monthly Frequency of Occurrence vs. Wind Speed for Mobile, AL
for Period 1965-1974 (1 knot = 1.15 mph) ..................................... 74
Fig.3.9b. Monthly Frequency of Occurrence vs. Wind Speed for Montgomery, AL
for Period 1965-1974 (1 knot = 1.5 mph) ...................................... 75
Fig. 3.9c. Monthly Frequency of Occurrence vs. Wind Speed for Birmingham, AL
for Period 1965-1974 (1 knot =1.15 mph) ..................................... 76
Fig. 3.9d. Monthly Frequency of Occurrence vs. Wind Speed for Huntsville, AL
for Period 1959-1964 (l knot = 1.15 mph) ..................................... 77
Fig. 3.10. Annual Mean Daily Temperatures for Four Major Cities .......................... 79
Fig. 3.11. Annual Mean High and Low Relative Humidities for Four Major Cities .... . . . . . . . . .. 79
Fig. 3.12. Mean Annual Relative Humidity for Continental United States in Percent [18] ......... 80
Fig. 3.13. Mean Wind Speeds for Four Major Cities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 80
Fig. 3.14. Annual Frequency of Occurrence vs. Wind Speed (1 knot = 1.15 mph) ..... . . . . . . . . .. 81
Fig. 3.15. Mean Annual Maximum Temperatures; Values and Distributions for Alabama ........ 83
Fig. 3.16. Mean Annual Relative Humidity; Values and Distributors for Alabama .............. 83
Fig. 3.17. Mean Annual Wind Speed; Values and Distributions for Alabama .................. 84
Fig. 3.18. Mean Daily Temperature Cycle - January ...................................... 84
Fig. 3.19. Mean Daily Relative Humidity Cycle - January .................... , ............ 85
Fig. 3.20. Mean Daily Wind Speed Cycle - January ...................................... 85
Fig.4.1. Heat of Hydration vs. Time Curves for Laboratory Specimens [15] ................... 93
Fig. 4.2. Nomograph for Determining Approximate Temperature of Fresh Concrete [19] ......... 97
Fig. 4.3. Temperature of Freshly Mixed Concrete as Affected by Ingredient Temperature [22] ..... 97
Fig. 4.4. ALDOT Concrete - Ambient Temperature Data (r = 0.767) ......................... 98
Fig. 4.5. Approximate Concrete - Ambient Temperature Relationship
Developed from ALDOT Data ................................................ 98
Fig. 4.6. Blue Circle Cement Concrete - Ambient Temperature Data Set #1 (r = 0.918) .......... 99
Fig. 4.7. Blue Circle Cement Concrete - Ambient Temperature Date Set #2 (r = 0.576) .......... 99
Fig. 4.8. Plot of Linear Regression Curves Developed from
Concrete - Ambient Temperature Data Sets ..................................... 100
Fig. 4.9. Reducing Concrete Temperature for Hot Weather Concreting [7] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 102
Fig. 5.1. ACI 305 Surface Evaporation Chart [7] ........................................ 105

VI
Fig. 5.2. Sensitivity to Er to Temperature and Weather Conditions [28] ...................... 110
Fig.S.3a. Daily Er Curve for January - Mobile ......................................... 114
Fig.S.3b. Daily Er Curve for February - Mobile ........................................ 114
Fig.S.3c. Daily Er Curve for March - Mobile .......................................... 115
Fig.S.3d. Daily Er Curve for April- Mobile ........................................... 115
Fig.S.3e. Daily Er Curve for May - Mobile ........................................... , 116
Fig.S.3f. Daily Er Curve for June - Mobile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 116
Fig. S.3g. Daily Er Curve for July - Mobile ............................................ 117
Fig. S.3h. Daily Er Curve for August - Mobile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 117
Fig.S.3i. Daily Er Curve for September - Mobile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 118
Fig.S.3j. Daily Er Curve for October - Mobile ................................. . . . . . . .. 118
Fig. S.3k. Daily Er Curve for November - Mobile ............................ ,.......... 119
Fig. 5.31. Daily Er Curve for December - Mobile ............................ '.......... 119
Fig.S.4a. Daily Er Curve for January - Montgomery ...................... " .. , ......... , 120
Fig.S.4b. Daily Er Curve for February - Montgomery ...................... '... , . . . . . . . . .. 120
Fig.S.4c. Daily Er Curve for March - Montgomery ........................... , . . . . . . . . .. 121
Fig.S.4d. Daily Er Curve for April- Montgomery ...................................... , 121
Fig.S.4e. Daily Er Curve for May - Montgomery ....................................... 122
Fig.S.4f. Daily Er Curve forJune - Montgomery ....................................... 122
Fig.S.4g. Daily Er Curve for July - Montgomery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 123
Fig.S.4h. Daily Er Curve for August - Montgomery ..................................... 123
Fig.S.4.L Daily Er Curve for September - Montgomery .................................. 124
Fig.S.4j. Daily Er Curve for October - Montgomery .................................... 124
Fig.S.4k. Daily Er Curve for November - Montgomery .................................. , 125
Fig. 5.41. Daily Er Curve for December - Montgomery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 125
Fig.S.Sa. Daily Er Curve forJanuary - Birmingham. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 126
Fig. S.Sb. Daily Er Curve for February - Birmingham ................................... , 126
Fig.S.Sc. Daily Er Curve for March - Birmingham ..................................... , 127
Fig.S.Sd. Daily Er Curve for April- Birmingham. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 127
Fig. S.Se. Daily Er Curve for May - Birmingham. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 128
Fig. S.Sf. Daily Er Curve for June - Birmingham ............................ , .......... , 128
Fig. S.Sg. Daily Er Curve for July - Birmingham ............................ , .......... , 129
Fig. S.Sh. Daily Er Curve for August - Birmingham .......................... , .......... , 129
Fig. S.Si. Daily Er Curve for September - Birmingham ....................... , . . . . . . . . . .. 130
Fig.S.Sj. Daily Er Curve for October - Birmingham. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 130
Fig.S.Sk. Daily Er Curve for November - Birmingham .................................. , 131
Fig. 5.51. Daily Er Curve for December - Birmingham ................................... 131
Fig.S.6a. Daily Er Curve forJanuary - Huntsville. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 132
Fig.S.6b. Daily Er Curve for January - Huntsville ...................................... , 132
Fig. S.6c. Daily Er Curve for March - Huntsville. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 133
Fig.S.6d. Daily Er Curve for April- Huntsville ........................................ , 133
Fig. S.6e. Daily Er Curve for May - Huntsville ......................................... 134
Fig.S.6f. Daily Er Curve for June - Huntsville ......................................... 134
Fig.S.6g. Daily Er Curve for July - Huntsville. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 135
Fig.S.6h. Daily Er Curve for August - Huntsville ....................................... 135
Fig.S.6i. Daily Er Curve for September - Huntsville .................................... 136
Fig.S,6j. Daily Er Curve for October - Huntsville. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 136

vii
 Fig. 5.6k. Daily Er Curve for November - Huntsville. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 137
Fig. 5.61. Daily Er Curve for December - Huntsville. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 137
Fig. 5.7. Peak Evaporation Rates at 20 mph ............................................ 139
Fig. 5.8. Mean Peak Evaporation Rates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 139
Fig. 5.9. Annual "Planning"/Best Estimate Evaporation Curve for Alabama ................... 141
Fig. AI. Mean Daily Temperature Cycle - January. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 157
Fig. A2. Mean Daily Temperature Cycle - February. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 157
Fig. A3. Mean Daily Temperature Cycle - March. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 158
Fig. A4. Mean Daily Temperature Cycle - April. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 158
Fig. AS. Mean Daily Temperature Cycle - May ......................................... 159
Fig. A6. Mean Daily Temperature Cycle - June ......................................... 159
Fig. A7. Mean Daily Temperature Cycle - July ......................................... 160
Fig. A8. Mean Daily Temperature Cycle - August. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 160
Fig. A9. Mean Daily Temperature Cycle - September .................................... 161
Fig. A 10. Mean Daily Temperature Cycle - October ....................... : ............. 161
Fig. All. Mean Daily Temperature Cycle - November. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 162
Fig. A12. Mean Daily Temperature Cycle - December . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 162
Fig. A13. Mean Daily Relative Humidity Cycle - January ................................ 163
Fig. A14. Mean Daily Relative Humidity Cycle - February ............................... 163
Fig. A15. Mean Daily Relative Humidity Cycle - March ................................. 164
Fig. A16. Mean Daily Relative Humidity Cycle - April .................................. 164
Fig. A17. Mean Daily Relative Humidity Cycle - May ................................... 165
Fig. A18. Mean Daily Relative Humidity Cycle - June ................................... 165
Fig. A19. Mean Daily Relative Humidity Cycle - July ................................... 166
Fig. A20. Mean Daily Relative Humidity Cycle - August. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 166
Fig. A2l. Mean Daily Relative Humidity Cycle - September. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 167
Fig. A22. Mean Daily Relative Humidity Cycle - October ................................ 167
Fig. A23. Mean Daily Relative Humidity Cycle - November .............................. 168
Fig. A.24. Mean Daily Relative Humidity Cycle - December .............................. 168
Fig. A25. Mean Daily Wind Speed Cycle - January ..................................... 169
Fig. A.26. Mean Daily Wind Speed Cycle - February .................................... 169
Fig. A.27. Mean Daily Wind Speed Cycle - March ...................................... 170
Fig. A.28. Mean Daily Wind Speed Cycle - April ....................................... 170
Fig. A.29. Mean Daily Wind Speed Cycle - May ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 171
Fig. A.30. Mean Daily Wind Speed Cycle - June . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 171
Fig. A.3I. Mean Daily Wind Speed Cycle - July ........................................ 172
Fig. A.32. Mean Daily Wind Speed Cycle - August . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 172
Fig. A.33. Mean Daily Wind Speed Cycle - September ................................... 173
Fig. A.34. Mean Daily Wind Speed Cycle - October ..................................... 173
Fig. A.35. Mean Daily Wind Speed Cycle - November ................................... 174
Fig. A36. Mean Daily Wind Speed Cycle - December ................................... 174

Vlll
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1. Weather Conditions and Evaporation Rates During LMC Overlay Placement [38] ...... 13
Table 2.2. Water-Cement Ratio and Concrete Bleeding Rates [31] ........................... 17
Table 2.3. Variation of from Eqn 2.3 with Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 38
Table 2.4. Effect of Aggregate Type on Thermal Coefficient of Expansion of Concrete [22] ..... " 41
Table 2.5. Increase of Creep with Time ................................................ 51
Table 3.1 Mean and Extreme Weather Conditions for Four Major Cities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 58
Table 3.2 Weather Conditions Mean Number of Days of Occurrence ........................ 59
Table 3.3 Wind Speed - Frequency of Occurrence ....................................... 60
Table 3.4 Wind Speed - Mean Number of Days (by hour of Day) ........................... 61
Table 4.1. Empirical Relations Between Tc and Ta ....................................... 102
Table 5.1. Some Temperature and Evaporation Rate Limitations for Bridge Deck Concrete ..... , 107
Table 5.2. Effect of Variations in Evaporation Rate Parameters [25] ........... :............. 108
Table 5.3. Evaporation Rate Parameter Sensitivity in Hot Weather. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 111
Table 6.1. Curing Categories ........................................................ 146
Table 6.2. Tentative Curing Requirements ............................................ , 147
Table A.1a. Normals, Means, and.Extremes for Mobile, AL. .............................. 153
Table A.1b. Normals, Means, and Extremes for Montgomery, AL........................... 154
Table A. Ie. Normals, Means, and Extremes for Birmingham, AL. ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 155
Table A.1d. Normals, Means, and Extremes for Huntsville, AL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 156
Table B 1. ALDOT and Blue Circle Cement Company
Ambient Temperature - Concrete Temperature Data ............................ , 176

ix
 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Statement of Problem

The durability/longevity of concrete bridge decks is closely related to the quality of the top 1"

or 2" of deck concrete. The quality of curing greatly affects the properties of this top layer of deck

concrete and, therefore, has a definite impact on durability of the deck. The proper procedures required

for concrete deck curing are affected by many parameters with two dominant factors being (1) weather

exposure conditions at the time of and immediately after placement, and (2) the type of cement, cement

replacement materials, and admixtures used in the concrete. The Alabama Department of Transportation

(ALDOT) requires that a standard mixture design be used for all concrete bridge decks. It is not clear

what curing procedures should be required for different conditions throughout the year, and for different

regions across the state.

The American Concrete Institute (ACI) has published a water evaporation chart which aids in

deciding if weather conditions will cause plastic shrinkage at the time of concrete placement. The chart

could be used in conjunction with relative humidity, temperature, and wind velocity data for different

times during a day, times of the year, and locations in Alabama to provide a more sophisticated and

improved guideline for indicating appropriate weather related pseudo evaporation rates and, in turn,

curing requirements for bridge decks in Alabama. A study of this potential improvement in recognition of

weather and its effects on curing is the purpose of this research.

1
1.2 Objectives

The primary objective of this research is to develop a design/construction tool to reduce early

cracking in concrete bridge decks and, hence, improve durability of concrete bridge decks in Alabama. In

order to fulfill this objective, the following three sub-objectives were established:

• Use weather data from regional weather data collection centers to generate temperature,

relative humidity, and wind curves which are appropriate for specifying curing requirement

categories for bridge decks in Alabama.

• Perform analysis of parameters pertaining to evaporation rate, strength ·gain, shrinkage

characteristics, and temperature variations to determine the effect of each on plastic and early

drying and thermal shrinkage cracking in ALDOT bridge decks.

• Using the results from the two previous sub-objectives, develop weather exposure condition

categories, and related curing requirement categories for bridge deck placements in Alabama.

1.3 Work Plan

A brief summary of the work plan used to achieve the research objective/sub-objectives cited

above is as follows:

1. Secure weather data for Alabama from the Southeast Regional Climate Center in

Columbia, SC, and the National Climate Data Center in Asheville, NC. Data will include such

information as median temperatures (T), relative humidities (RR), and surface winds (W) for

each month of the year for South, Central, and North Alabama. Typical 24-hour cycles for T,

RR, and W will also be acquired.

2. Analyze weather data to identify breakdowns in Alabama for locations, for time of year, and

for times of day with similar expected evaporation rates and curing requirements. It is

anticipated that the breakdown of data will allow combining months into

2
 • cold weather conditions

• moderate weather conditions

• hot weather conditions.

It is also a goal to combine location within the state into regions, e.g.,

• northern region

• central region

• coastal region.

3. Secure field data of ambient and concrete temperatures in order to establish a correlation

between concrete temperature (Tc) and ambient temperature (TJ.

4. Perform parameter sensitivity analyses and develop evaporation rate (Er) curves

based on Alabama weather data and the ACI 305 Surface Evaporation Chart.

Refine the weather data breakdowns based on the results of these analyses.

5. Based on steps 2-4 above, identify curing requirement categories for concrete

bridge deck placement in Alabama.

6. Use results of 1-5 above to develop weather and evaporation maps for Alabama, and guidelines

on weather related curing requirements for concrete bridge decks in Alabama for various

seasons of the year.

1.4 Scope

This study identifies typical temperature, relative humidity, and wind weather exposure

conditions in Alabama for various months/seasons of the year and times of day; and evaluates, via the

ACI 305 Surface Evaporation Chart, concrete surface evaporation rates for these typical Alabama

weather exposure conditions. Based on these data and results of parameter analyses, bridge deck curing

requirement categories appropriate for Alabama are identified.

3
 It is anticipated that the results from this study will determine the necessity of actual testing of

green concrete exposed to different weather conditions. If the findings of this study reflect significant

effects of weather conditions on cracking of decks, then, a more detailed study involving testing of

actual ALDOT bridge decks in the field or testing of simulated laboratory specimens should be

undertaken. This follow-up study should refine and quantify the effects of the weather parameters and

move the results on to in-field implementation.

4
 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 General

An abundance of research has been performed concerning early cracking of concrete bridge

decks. Early cracking can be defined as cracking of the concrete while it is still in the plastic state or the

"green" hardened state in which the concrete has not developed adequate strength to resist shrinkage

stresses. The cracking occurs due to stresses which develop from shrinkage of the cement paste due to

loss of mixing water or contraction of the concrete due to temperature changes. Water leaves the concrete

due to bleeding and subsequent evaporation of the bleedwater. Weather conditions and concrete

temperature affect the evaporation rate and, therefore, the rate of water loss from the concrete. The

information in this chapter provides the necessary background to understand what causes plastic and

early drying shrinkage cracking, the factors relating to evaporation rate which may cause shrinkage, and

construction and curing methods which can mitigate shrinkage cracking.

2.2 Plastic Shrinkage Cracking

According to Lerch [25], plastic shrinkage is the shrinkage that occurs in the surface of fresh

concrete within the first few hours after placement, while the concrete is still plastic and before it has

attained any significant strength. He states that plastic shrinkage cracks do not appear to have a definite

pattern but an occasional crow foot pattern has been observed. When cracking starts, it proceeds rapidly.

The cracks are not usually progressive and do not immediately affect the structural performance of

pavements or structures. Powers [31] states that the pattern of plastic shrinkage cracks is determined by

the nature of restraint against contraction. If the concrete contains fixed objects such as a rectangular grid

5
of reinforcement, the restraint of the movement by the steel bars may be reflected in the crack pattern.

The pattern of cracking may also be influenced by the flaws developed during settlement. Raina [32]

writes that plastic shrinkage cracking can occur in a variety of patterns: at 45 0 to the edges of the slab

with the cracks 0.7-6.6 ft apart; normal to the wind direction since shrinkage would manifest in the

direction of the wind, and following the pattern of reinforcement. These cracks usually pass through the

full depth of the slab except in minor cases. Plastic shrinkage cracks which follow the pattern of

reinfo,rcing steel can be distinguished from plastic settlement cracks because the shrinkage cracks pass

through the full depth of the slab and settlement cracks do not. However, it is important to note that other

sources do not agree that plastic shrinkage cracks always pass through the entire depth of the slab.

The consensus thought is that plastic shrinkage cracking is caused by excessive evaporation of

water from the concrete surface. Shaeles and Hover [37] point out that the study of plastic shrinkage

cracking is complicated because the material properties which determine whether such cracks will form

are time dependent and change rapidly during the first few hours in the life of the concrete. Such

properties include: rate at which water is lost from the concrete in response to evaporative conditions; the

degree to which the loss of water results in volume reduction; the consistency or stiffness of the mixture;

and the development of tensile stresses and strain capacity of the material.

In 1957, William Lerch [25] published findings from an extensive study of plastic shrinkage

cracking of concrete. Field investigations presented in his study indicated that evaporation rate is the

principle cause of plastic shrinkage cracking. With the same mixture and construction methods, plastic

shrinkage cracks can occur at different times due to changes in weather conditions which increase the

evaporation rate. At the time when evaporation rate exceeds bleeding rate, cracks can propagate due to

characteristics of the concrete. At this stage, the concrete has attained some rigidity and cannot

accommodate the rapid volume change due to the plastic shrinkage by plastic flow. The concrete has not

developed sufficient strength to withstand the tensile stresses which accompany the situation, therefore,

6
plastic shrinkage cracks may develop. Very high rates of evaporation which occur on some projects

greatly exceed the bleeding rate providing further evidence that bleeding characteristics cannot reduce

the effect of weather parameters on plastic shrinkage cracking.

Mindess and Young [26] conclude that the loss of water from the fresh concrete, if not

prevented, can cause cracking. The most common situation is surface cracking due to evaporation of

water from the concrete surface. When water is removed from the paste by exterior influences, such as

evaporation at the surface, a complex series of menisci are formed. These, in tum, generate negative

capillary pressures which will cause the volume of the paste to contract. Shrinkage occurs in the paste

and is mitigated by aggregate as shown in Fig. 2. 1. Plastic shrinkage cracking is most common on

horizontal surface pavements and slabs where rapid evaporation is possible and its occurrence will

destroy the integrity of the surface and reduce its durability.

Lerch developed a nomograph, Fig. 2.2, to predict evaporation rate on the exposed concrete

surface. The nomograph requires input of air temperature, relative humidity, concrete temperature, and

wind velocity. Increase in temperature differential, concrete vs. ambient, decrease in relative humidity,

and increase in wind velocity increase the evaporation rates. ACI 305 [7) specifies the nomograph

developed by Lerch as the method to predict evaporation rate for placement of concrete. This nomograph

will, hereafter, be referred to as the ACI 305 Surface Evaporation Chart. Kosmatka and Panarese [22)

provide the following statements which summarize typical effects of weather conditions on concrete

evaporation rates during and after finishing: a) If air temperature and humidity remain the same and wind

speed increases from 5 to 20 mph, evaporation rate will increase by 300 percent; b) If humidity and wind

remain the same and the air temperature changes from 60 to 90°F, evaporation rate will increase by 300

percent; c) If air temperature and wind remain the same and the humidity decreases from 90 to 70

percent, evaporation rate will increase by 300 percent; d) If all of the previous increases occur, the

evaporation rate will increase by 900 percent.

7
 Paste

Mortar
M
,
0 4
x
Q)
0>
ro
oX
C
.;:
.c Concrete
(J)
2

0.25 0.5 1.0 2 4 8 24

Time (h)

Fig. 2.1. Effect of Aggregate on Plastic Shrinkage [26]

Air kmperalutt,deq F

0.' '.0
To 1M ItIrs ctuJrl:
I ("'et wfthOlt k:mp' ~a.1
Iralllff,IftCI¥t!!2 10
rtloli'f( tlllfThclll, ~06 30

2. Woott !.!9.!!.! loconer,'e ~ O~ N!

W/JlOtt01Ufl ;" •
?
l "'0'1'1 downto_n:S 1°<1 20
~OCdr
: 0 l
o(~k:fI:rt04~l
talt Or~pofahon 10

Fig. 2.2. ACI 305 Surface Evaporation Chart [7,25)

8
 The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) [ 18] provides an equation in Sl units to calculate

evaporation rate in accordance with the ACI 305 Surface Evaporation Chart:

2
Er == 1+0.2374W *[(C 2 -4.762C+220.8-RH( T3+ 127.8 +665.6T +34283)] (2.1)
2906 20415

Er = Evaporation Rate (kglm2!hr); C = Concrete Temperature CC);

RH = Relative Humidity (%); T= Ambient Temperature CC)
W =Wind Speed (km/hr).

What should be the limiting value for evaporation rate for concrete bridge deck placement is in

dispute. ACI305 [7] stipulates that when the evaporation rate exceeds 0.2 Ibs/ft2lhr, "precautions to

inhibit plastic shrinkage cracking by reducing evaporation rate are necessary." FHWA [18] specifies

"when placing concrete in bridge decks or other exposed slabs, limit expected evaporation rate to less

than 0.5 kglm2/hr (0. 11bs/fe !hr)." PCA sets the limit at 0.25lbs/ft2 !hr. Mindess and Young [26] caution

that if evaporation rate exceeds o. Ilbs/felhr, loss of moisture from the concrete may exceed the rate at

which bleedwater reaches the surface, creating the negative capillary pressures which cause plastic

shrinkage. Precautionary measures should always be used if the evaporation rate exceeds 0.2 lbs/ft2 !hr.

Chapter 5 covers in more detail how variations in the four input parameters for the ACI 305 Surface

Evaporation Chart affect evaporation rate.

Many studies have been conducted to determine at what time plastic shrinkage cracks will

develop with respect to the time of placement and to the evaporation rate. Laboratory research cited by

ACI 305 [7] shows the highest rate of water loss due to evaporation occurred in the first 4 hours for

concretes with low water content, but more water was lost from concretes with high water content over a

24 hour period. Raina [32] says plastic shrinkage cracks develop within about one hour of placing

concrete (longer with addition of retarders) but may not be noticed until much later. In field experiments

conducted by Ravina and Shalon [33], plastic shrinkage cracks were observed a few hours after casting,

9
following the disappearance of bleed water. Plastic settlement cracks developed within one-half hour or

so after casting while the concrete was still covered with bleedwater. These cracks tended to close unless

exposed to rapid drying. In a lab study, cracks appeared 0.5-2 hours after evaporation of all visible water

from the surface. No correlation between bleeding and cracking was found. Fig. 2.3 plots shrinkage of

the test mixtures vs. time. Each mixture is identified according to its environmental exposure conditions.

The subscript of each mixture identifier represents the wind speed in kmlhr. The superscript represents

the air temperature in'C. Mixtures with the "rad" were exposed to infrared irradiation. Each mixture was

exposed to relative humidity of 35% except for Eig which was exposed to 45% relative humidity. One
can see that most of the shrinkage occurs in the first few hours after placement. A plot of water loss due

to evaporation over time is given in Fig. 2.4. It can be seen that following initial evaporation of the

bleedwater, the rate remained constant for 2.5 to 4 hours and subsequently slowed down. In this study,

the effect of mixture proportions was found to be practically negligible on the evaporation rate. It can be

observed from Figs. 2.4 and 2.5 that more shrinkage and evaporation occurred in mixtures SUbjected to

lower relative humidity, higher temperature, and irradiation. The appearance of the first plastic shrinkage

crack was observed to coincide consistently with the transition from rapid shrinkage to the slow rate of

shrinkage, approaching the order of magnitude of length change characteristic for hardened mortar.

Shaeles and Hover [37] found that plastic shrinkage cracking generally began 45 to 100 minutes after

fans simulating wind were started. The fans were started 8 minutes after leveling the concrete and 30

minutes after mixing. The cracks continued to develop for up to 2.5 hours.

Sarnman et al. [35] subjected concrete test panels of four compressive strengths to indoor (ID)

conditions (25'C (7TF), 55% RH), outdoor (OD) conditions (natural variation of temperature and

humidity) with wind barriers and outdoor conditions with 15 kmIh (9.32 mph) wind (ODW). A 23 MPa

(3336 psi) mixture showed no signs of cracking in the OD conditions with a 40 MPa (5802 psi) cracking

under the same conditions. The cracks appeared about 90 minutes after placement. In the ODW

10
 Ell .0
e-
E
I
Xl
..-- E20r~.
10D --
~ .(
.~ 9.0
.t:.
'" r -- -
B.0

I .5-
7. 0 -< -
~
5.0

5D t---
'if~1
- / E~
'0

4.0
II
3. 0
U /
2.0
/11
1.0 1// I
~V 23. 5 5
Time of measu-ement, hours

Fig. 2.3. Shrinkage -Time Relationship [33]

E 5.5
ci"
/E~n<I.
~6.0
'"g II
~ 5.5
I
o
~ 5.0
/ /'0 9rad.

UJ

I !
II I
4.5

4.0 I
3.5 III ! /E~Ey
3.0
/ /
2.5 II V --fE~
III / /
2.0

1.5 1 / /
1.0
/1 ;//'
0.5 f~ ~
{/
1 2 3 4 5 5
Time of meaSU"emef'\t. holrs

Fig. 2.4. Evaporation-Time Relationship for Different Climatic Conditions [33]

11
 conditions, both mixtures exhibited cracking around 45 minutes after placement. More cracks were

observed in the ODW conditions for the 40 MPa mixture than for OD conditions. No cracks were

observed in either mixture in indoor conditions.

Although plastic shrinkage is most common in hot weather, it can occur in cold weather if

temperature of the concrete is significantly higher than the ambient temperature. Gebler [20] indicates

that evaporation can occur from concrete even when there is 100% humidity. If the concrete temperature

is greater than the ambient temperature, vapor pressure in the concrete is greater than vapor pressure of

the air so water moves out of the concrete towards equilibrium. Senbetta and Bury [36] performed a

study on the effectiveness of a Freezing Weather Admixture (FWA) to mitigate plastic shrinkage

cracking in cold weather. The results of the study revealed that an increase in the difference between

ambient temperature and that of the concrete can result in a greater evaporation rate and increased plastic

shrinkage cracking. Most of the cracks occurred within the first 4 to 5 hours after placing mortar

specimens into forms. The test panels were placed in an environment of 30'F. Panels with a mixture

temperature of 65'F showed a larger cracking area than panels with a mixture temperature of 40'F. Plastic

shrinkage cracking in the 65'F panels most likely occurred because the rate of evaporation facilitated by

the large temperature difference between the warm mortar and cool environment exceeded the bleeding

rate. A subsequent experiment proved that mortar specimens at 65'F lost more moisture than specimens

at 40'F. The results are plotted in Fig. 2.5. Data of the testing showed a strong correlation between total

moisture loss and evaporation rates on the resulting test panels.

Sprinkel [38] writes about the effect of evaporation rate on plastic shrinkage cracking in Latex

Modified Concrete (LMC) overlays placed on bridge decks in 1985 in Virginia. Table 2.1 shows weather

data at the time of placement and the evaporation rate calculated from ACI 305. Plastic cracking for the

June placements were so bad they had to be replaced in September and October. No cracking occurred in

the other placements shown with the lower evaporation rates. His study recommends a limit of 0.1 lbs/fe

12
 ~,-------------------------------------------.

° Plain
o Plain
C, 40 a FW A 20 oz. ___ 0---°

~ JO : ~:~ ~~ ~~: //0

i
A -

o
20

/ °
/ <.:,;:~;,~,::,:~:::
6..-:.::.... ._.o~' ...
... - -)I(-.'--~
~ 40
0

~ 10 - /0 . . ...-:~=~:=~~::~:~::::.-...--
b-~.:;>::.:. . . . -_. .
O.. ~~ __ ~ __ ~ __ ~ __ ~ __ ~ __- J_ _ -J~~~ _ _~_ _L-~

o 1 2 J 456 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time (Hours)

Fig. 2.5. Effect of FW A on Loss of Water on Test Specimens [36]

Table 2.1 Weather Conditions and Evaporation Rates

During LMC Overlay Placement [38]
Extent of Relative Humidity Wind Speed Air Temperature Concrete Temp. E,
Cracking (%) (mph) cor) (oF) (Ib/ft'/hr)

Bad Cracking 41 10 78 84 0.21

(June Placement)
59 10 64 76 0.15

79 6 68 81 0.10

No Cracking 56 9 80 76 0.08
(Aug. Placement)
70 6 70 77 0.08

80 9 75 79 0.08

89 4 71 75 0.04

79 8 76 80 0.08

Redone No 83 II 70 74 0.07
Cracking
(Sept.-Oct. 56 8 75 75 0.08
Placement)
56 9 80 81 0.11

81 II 69 71 0.08

83 5 75 77 0.05
13
Ihr on evaporation rate when placing LMC overlays. LMC concrete has a lower concrete bleeding rate

than normal portland cement concrete making it more susceptible to plastic shrinkage cracking, but the

results from such a study show the detrimental effects caused by excessive evaporation.

Powers [31] presented curves of bleeding rate shown in Fig. 2.6. From investigation of the

curves, the initial bleeding rates are greater than the critical evaporation rate of 0.2 Ib/ft2lhr set forth by

ACI. The initial bleeding rates are given in comparable units to evaporation rate in Table 2.2. The initial

bleeding rate continues for only 20-30 minutes before decreasing. At one hour the rate has slowed

considerably and is most likely below the critical ACI evaporation rate of 0.2 lb/fe Ihr.

2.3 Drying Shrinkage Cracking

Another type of shrinkage that can lead to early cracking is drying shrinkage. The effects of

drying shrinkage are graphically illustrated in Fig. 2.7. Raina [32] defines drying shrinkage as the

reduction in volume of concrete caused by the chemical and physical loss of water from the concrete

during the hardening process and exposure to unsaturated air. The drying shrinkage cracks result only in

a restrained condition due to tensile stresses which develop from the drying shrinkage. Raina states that

loss of water by evaporation is the primary cause of the drying shrinkage and, hence, the relative

humidity of the air surrounding the concrete greatly influences drying shrinkage. Decrease of relative

humidity and windy conditions increase evaporation rate and, therefore, increase drying shrinkage. As

relative humidity increases, the mechanism of drying shrinkage is reduced until relative humidity equals

95% and moisture movement ceases.

Fig. 2.8 from Neville [28] shows the relationship between shrinkage and moisture loss, by

plotting the shrinkage of the solid mixture of varying cement content against weight of water lost. It is

quite apparent that shrinkage increases with the loss of water. Since relative humidity affects water loss,

the effect of relative humidity on drying shrinkage is important. Fig. 2.9 provides such a plot. Although

14
 0.02
0.04 ,
0.06 "-
"-
0.08 "- "-
"- \.
0.10 "- ,, "-
"- ,
0.12
Q = 35 x 10 -6 em/sec
"- \. ,
0.14 Calculated rate = 32 x 10- 6 Q = 36 x 10 -6 em/sec'"
0.16 (a) = Calculated rate (b)'

O.1~ ~~~=:::::=~~::::=~~
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10 ""-
"-
§ 0.12 "- ,
~ 0.14 Q = 34 x 1O- 6 cm/sec
'
Calculated rate = 35 x 10-6' ,
~ 0.16
~ 0.18
~ 020
c
~ 0.22 (e)

~024~~~~~~~~~=;~
J; O~
0.02
0.04
0.06
\
0.08 \
0.10 \
\
0.12 \
0.14 \
\
0.16 Q = 113 x 10 -6 em/sec \
= Calculated rate \
\ -6
0.18 H= 23.7 em \ Q = 73 x 10 em/sec
020 \ Calculated rale = 77
\ .
022 \

024
026 (()
028~~~~~~~~~~~~
o 10 2030 40 SO 60 70 80 90 100 110 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Time, min

E
~ 0.1

t
a
0
.02
~
~
oil
0.3

0.4
0 100
rcme elapse:! .tter tiUint: rontainer, min

Fig. 2.6. Bleeding Rate Curves for Various Water-Cement Ratios [31]
15
 Original length

0.05%
IShrinkage on drying
'"
'"c Time (days)
'" O·~~~-----L----~----~____L-__~____

1f----~----1-i==------vi
~
-5
'"
c
If not free to shrink' '"
..J

tensile stress develops

I ,; " , ,{I, ,~, I i,

greater than tensile
strength. concrete cracks
Moist
cure
Drying

(a)

f---------j +
I Original length I
0.05%

t--~~c~~--3 '"c
'"
'"
.s:::.
Expansion puts steel in u

Itension and c~ncrete in

compression
-5
",.
c
'"
..J

t--~~c~~-j
Stress loss due to
shrinkage and creep
Residual expansion -+-j cure
r, could be small contraction
in shrinkage-compensating
concrete

(b)

Fig. 2.7. Drying Shrinkage of Concretes Made with: a) Type I Portland Cement;
b) Expansive Cement [26]
16
 Table 2.2. Water-Cement Ratio and Concrete Bleeding Rates
[31]

w/c Bleeding Rate (lb/ft2/hr)

0.40 0.245

0.41 0.742

0.49 0.547

3.200 r-----y----.,..----y----.,..----r-~
Cement ~ontent In
miX ture of SOlid
• matenals:
:<.800 . . ........ --~-.,{".. ·85% 1-·· I·
2,400 r---+---+
70.,1 I
"''s? 2,000
III
01
ta 1,6001----+-

1,2001---+-I-J.-.,4----------1-,'---1-d--I--I--

8001--++~~+-~-+-~4---A-~

10 20 30 40 50 60
Loss of Water . grammes per specimen

Fig. 2.8. Relation between Shrinkage and Loss of Water from Cement Specimens [28]

17
 1200r---~~----~----~----~--~----------

..
'0
,
~400r---~r-~~+------4----~---+--~~--~
a
;,f
c
-C
~
Vl

-400~----~----L-----~----~--~--~----~
10 28 90 2 5 10 2030
Days Years
Time (log scale)

Fig. 2.9. Relation between Shrinkage and Time for Concretes at

Different Relative Humidities [28]

Drying shnnkoqe, millionths

1400r-----.-----~----~----~----~--~

30 35 40 45 50 55
wale r . qat. Der CU '1d

Fig_ 2.10. Relationship of Total Water Content and Drying Shrinkage [22]
18
this study does not focus on long-term shrinkage effects as shown in Fig. 2.9, the plot shows that

increased humidity reduces shrinkage in the first month.

According to Kosmatka and Panarese [22], tests of plain concrete specimens with no

reinforcement indicate drying shrinkage from about 400 to 800 millionths when exposed to air at 50%

humidity. Concrete with a unit shrinkage of 550 millionths shortens about the same amount as the

thermal contraction caused by a temperature decrease of lOO°F. The most important controllable factor

affecting drying shrinkage is the amount of water per unit volume of concrete. The results of tests

illustrating the water content-shrinkage relationship are shown in Fig. 2. 10. Shrinkage can be minimized

by keeping the water content of concrete as low as possible. This is achieved by keeping the total coarse

aggregate content of the concrete as. high as possible. Therefore, use of low slumps and placement

methods that minimize water requirements are major factors in controlling concrete shrinkage. Any

practice that increases the water requirement of the cement paste, such as the use of high slumps,

excessively high freshly mixed concrete temperatures, high fine-aggregate contents, or small-size coarse

aggregate, will increase shrinkage. Experiments performed at Massachusetts Institute of Technology

showed that for each 1% increase in mixing water, concrete shrinkage increased by about 2%.

Kosmatka and Panarese [22] also discuss a testing program to measure drying shrinkage of

concrete. The test specimens were moist-cured for 14 days at 70°F then stored at the same temperature in

an environment with 50% relative humidity. An average of 34% of the drying shrinkage occurred in the

first month. Fig. 2.11 presents these results in bar graph form. Fig. 2.12 displays the effect of alternate

wetting and drying on shrinkage.

Mindess and Young [26] present Fig. 2.13 to illustrate that some of the shrinkage that results

from initial drying is irreversible and subsequent volume changes due to rewetting and redrying are

smaller. They also provide Fig. 2.14 which plots shrinkage against percent weight loss (water loss) as it

relates to humidity and then temperature.

19
 Drying shrinkage. millionths
IOOOr--------------r------------~----------_.
Specimens: 4 x 4 x 4()-in. concrete beams
38 mo. • Cement content: 564 Ib per cu yd
28 mo. 0 Curing: 1"4 days moist at 70°F then in
800 I-- I I mo. 0 __--,=-+:=.oi::.r..::o::..t.:::5.:::0..:.%~R:.;.H::....::o.::.n.:.d..:7..:;0r_°.:..F-----~
I mo. C2l

600

400

Type of cement

Fig. 2.11. Results of Long-Term Drying Shrinkage Tests [22]

- - Stored in woter

- - - - Stored in oir

Specimen A

~Time

Fig. 2.12. Schematic illustration of Moisture Movements in Concrete [22]

20
 1000r-------------------------------------------------~
I
f - < - - - - - - - - Drying - - - - - - - - - - -...·~I...· - - - Rewetting
I
800 I
., I
I

,--~l~r::---f-
o
x 600
I shrinkage Total
; ~
: shrinkage
'" 400 1---- - - - - -
.~
I
'"0> I
Z'" 200 I Irreversible
I shrinkage
I
I

50 60 70 80
Time (days)

Fig. 2.13. Typical Behavior of Concrete on Drying and Rewetting [26]

% RH
0
95
85

0.2
75
Shrinkage
65 caused by
lowering
0.4 55
relative
45
*"...,
0>
CD 10
humidity

.:L
c 0.6
.;:
.r:.
en CD 0
- - - - - D-<lrying
105°C O-<lrying
0.8
0 Shrinkage
caused by
1.0 CD 200°C
raising
temperatu re

0 5 10 15 20 25
Weight loss (%)

Fig. 2.14. Effect of Relative Humidity and Temperature on Concrete Shrinkage [26]
21
 Mindess and Young [26] also report the effects of volume-to-surface ratio on the drying

shrinkage of concrete to be as shown in Fig. 2.15. Note that in case of bridge decks,

SAxt
Volume-to-Suiface Ratio ~ t
(2.2)
SA

For 6" deck thickness, t, = 152 mm; for 8", t = 203 mm.

Thus, the ultimate shrinkages for bridge decks are at the lower levels in Fig. 2.15; however, these

shrinkages occur more quickly than those for structures with small values of volume-to-surface ratio.

Differential shrinkage due to drying shrinkage is discussed by Neville [28]. This shrinkage refers

to the relationship of shrinkage relative to the distance from the concrete surface. Fig. 2.16 is a plot of

shrinkage vs. distance from the surface for different ages of concrete. It is evident that shrinkage is higher

at the surface than away from the surface.

Drying shrinkage is mostly a concern over the long-term life of a concrete member. Raina [32]

contends that if adequate reinforcement and sufficient movement joints are provided against other forms

of movement, the contribution of drying shrinkage to cracking is often too small to be of consequence.

Drying shrinkage is usually in the order of magnitude of 30 x 10-6 after 5 years and the tensile strain

capacity of concrete is considered to be 80-150 x 10-6 • When unacceptable long-term drying shrinkage

cracking does occur, it is usually attributable to the mixture design, properties and proportions of the

mixture constituents, and construction methods. Also, the more water available to evaporate from the

concrete, the higher tendency to shrink on drying.

2.4 Early Thermal Shrinkage Cracking

Most commonly, the subject of concrete volume changes deals with the expansion and

contraction due to temperature and moisture cycles. Thermal expansion and contraction of concrete

22
 1500
.sco
-e...
u
·E
1000

500

o 50 100 150 200 250

Volume·to·surface ratio (mm)

Fig. 2.15. Effect of Volume-to-Surface Ratio on the Sluinkage of Concrete [26]

400r--------------r------------~

to Age, days:
'Q
I
Q;
01
a i
x-
c
·c
.r:
III

30

-200~----------~L-------------~
o 250 500
Distance from Surfoce-mm

Fig. 2.16. Progress of Shrinkage with Time as a Function of Distance from

Drying Surface [28]
23
 varies with factors such as aggregate type, cement content, water cement ratio, temperature range,

concrete age, and relative humidity. Of these, aggregate type has the greatest influence. An average value

for the coefficient of thermal expansion of unreinforced and reinforced concrete is 5.5 and 6.0 millionths

per degree Fahrenheit, respectively.

According to Raina [32], early thermal contraction strains far exceed drying shrinkage strains

and are primarily responsible for early cracking in retaining walls and similar reinforced concrete bridge

deck structures. The reaction of cement with water, known as hydration, is a chemical reaction which

produces heat. If insulated and large enough, the rate of heat gain in a concrete element is likely to

exceed the rate of heat loss to the atmosphere, causing a rise in temperature. After the first day, the rate

of heat gain falls below the rate of heat loss and the concrete member begins to cool, resulting in

contraction. Cracking can result if the concrete is restrained internally or externally and adequate strength

has not developed to resist tensile stresses caused by the contraction. Internal restraint occurs due to rebar

mats and differential cooling of the member; e.g., the surface of the member cools faster than the core.

External restraint refers to restraint provided by external supports. Raina indicates that the core of the

concrete cools to ambient in 7 to 14 days. Hence, thermal movement cracks are more likely to occur

during this period. One of the most important factors which assists in differentiating between thermal

movement cracks and long-term drying shrinkage cracks is knowledge of when the crack forms. A crack

which develops in the first few weeks is unlikely to be a drying shrinkage crack unless the deck is

subjected to extreme drying conditions.

Krauss and Rogalla [23] write that the first thermal stresses develop in a deck in the first 1-2

days after placement. When concrete is still plastic or of very low strength, it can adjust to the changing

temperatures, which result from heat of hydration and subsequent cooling, without developing stresses.

However, after the concrete hardens, contractions due to temperature changes cause stress.

24
 Krauss and Rogalla also provide information concerning early thermal cracking with regard to

the type of the bridge. When a deck is cast monolithically with concrete girders, thermal stresses caused

by heat of hydration are often minimized because both the deck and the girders develop heat and cool at

close to the same rate and the temperature difference is minimized. Stresses usually develop from heat of

hydration in this bridge type because the deck cools quicker than the more massive girders. Thermal

stresses are worse in a steel girder bridge and worst in a concrete bridge when the deck is cast after the

girders. Concrete conducts heat at a slower rate than steel, and the greater mass of the girders will cause

the girders to respond slower to the changing deck temperatures. Steel girders typically conduct heat at a

faster rate than concrete girders, and upper flanges will warm and cool more with the deck, reducing the

temperature difference at the deck-girder interface. A 50 0 P temperature change in the deck relative to the

girders can cause stresses greater than 200 psi.

2.5 Measures for Prevention of Early Cracking

Lerch [25] provides several measures to prevent plastic shrinkage cracking. The measures can be

divided into two categories: concreting steps and placement methods. Concreting steps which reduce or

eliminate plastic shrinkage cracking are: 1) dampen sub grade and forms; 2) dampen aggregates if dry and

absorptive; 3) lower concrete temperatures in hot weather; 4) avoid overheating concrete in cold weather.

Placement methods for prevention of plastic shrinkage include: 1) reduce time between placement and

start of curing by improved construction procedures; 2) start curing the concrete as soon as possible after

placing and finishing; 3) protect concrete with fog spray if any appreciable delay between placing and

finishing is unavoidable; 4) erect windbreaks to reduce wind velocity; 5) provide sunshades to control

concrete surface temperature.

25
 To emphasize the importance of these steps, Lerch cites a runway project in which liquid

membrane was applied to a concrete surface 1.5-2 hours after finishing. One day, the temperature was

93-96°P, relative humidity 30-45%, and wind velocity 5-8 mph. The next day, humidity dropped to 15-

25% and wind velocity increased to 10-15 mph. On the first day, no cracks were observed, but the next

day, cracking was a problem. Construction procedures were modified so the membrane could be applied

earlier and cracking was virtually eliminated. Field investigations have also shown that application of a

fog spray or a cover of wet burlap during the initial hardening, prior to troweling or between successive

passes of the trowel, prevented cracking.

ACI305 [7] discusses the problems of hot weather concreting and states that plastic shrinkage

cracking is a potential problem, and precautions to prevent plastic shrinkage are necessary. The concrete

should be protected against moisture loss at all times. Procedures for keeping exposed surfaces from

drying must be promptly initiated and continued without interruption. Failure to do so may result in

excessive shrinkage and cracking which will impair the surface durability and strength of the concrete. A

very important factor is controlling concrete temperature, i.e., keeping it low during hot weather. A more

detailed discussion of concrete temperature is given in Chapter 4. ACI 305 also lists precautions

concerning planning and construction methods. If economic necessity forces construction in extremely

hot weather, the job should be planned to avoid adverse exposure of the concrete to environmental

conditions. Placement should also be scheduled for times of day or night when conditions are favorable.

Measuring and recording of weather reports and conditions at the jobsite at frequent intervals can be used

with knowledge of actual or projected concrete temperatures as a helpful tool to prevent shrinkage

cracking. Raina points out that night pours are only effective if they produce lower concrete temperatures

or wind velocities. The lowering of ambient temperature, relative humidity, and exposure to solar

radiation helps but is not enough to compensate for the effects of the first two.

26
 ACI 306 [8] discusses problems associated with concreting in cold weather. Plastic shrinkage

cracks occur with rapid moisture loss due to differential temperature between warm concrete and cold

air. Concrete should be placed at no more than 20°F above the minimum ambient temperature during

placement.

ACI 308 [9] provides standards of practice for curing of concrete. The specification requires that

if plastic shrinkage cracking begins, initial curing should be fog spraying, cover by presoaked burlap, or

measures to reduce wind velocity and temperature. Exposed surfaces should be kept wet or sealed until

strong enough to allow foot traffic without damage.

FIP [19] suggests that planning in hot weather conditions should account for resources at the site

and means and methods of reducing concrete temperature, temperature of transport equipment, and

temperature of placing equipment. Forms should be cooled before placement, and reinforcement should

be shaded or sprayed with water. Effective coordination between mixing, transportation, and placement

is essential. Hot weather also tends to reduce the efficiency of supervisors and work crews, and this

factor should be considered in planning.

The prevention of early drying shrinkage is promoted by implementing precautions against

plastic shrinkage. The primary method of reducing drying shrinkage cracking is proper curing. ACI 305

[7] indicates that of the different curing procedures, moist curing is the best method for developing the

strength of concrete and minimizing early drying shrinkage. Forms should be covered and kept

continuously moist during the early curing period. Curing should continue for 7 days. If a change in

curing method is implemented, it should be done only after three days and the concrete surface should

not be permitted to dry during transition. During form removal, newly exposed surfaces should promptly

receive a wet cover. After curing, covering should be left in place (4 days is suggested) so the concrete

will dry slowly and be less subject to surface shrinkage cracking. The effects of drying can also be

minimized by application of a sprayable compound at the end of moist curing. FIP [19] stipulates that it

is important to keep the moist cure covering wet at all times.

27
 According to ACI 345 [10], a guide for bridge deck construction, other methods of curing which

are acceptable are surface sealants, also known as liquid membrane curing compound, and surface

coverings such as polyethylene sheeting or waterproof paper. These types of curing are water retaining

instead of water adding, like continuous moist cure. Curing compound should meet requirements of

ASTM C309 [13] (AASHTO M148 [31]) having a water release rate of no more than 0.55 kglm2 (0.11

Ib/fe) over 72 hours. Polyethylene film should meet requirements of ASTM C171[12] (AASHTO

M171 [4]) and have the same moisture loss rate of 0.55 k glm2 (0.111b/ft2 )

To prevent thermal stresses and shrinkage, control of concrete temperature is the key. ACI 308

[9] says curing methods should be implemented which prevent or minimize large temperature

differences. ACI 306 [8] specifies to limit rapid temperature changes until the concrete has developed

adequate strength. Large temperature differences between concrete and adjacent structures should be

avoided. Failure to follow these steps may cause cracking plus loss of strength and durability at the end

of temperature protection. The surface of the concrete should be allowed to cool gradually over 24 hours.

As stated in ACI 305 [7], cracking due to thermal stresses is more severe in spring and fall due to the

larger 24-hour temperature change. Chapter 4 includes discussion of control of concrete temperature,

which will reduce thermal cracking.

2.6 Curing Concrete by Moisture Retention

In ALDOT specifications [2], the only required curing is covering of the concrete surface with

white-pigmented membrane curing compound meeting ASTM C309 as soon as possible after finishing.

Polyethylene sheeting should be placed over the concrete no later than the following day and should meet

the requirements of ASTM C 171. After reading the comments of many sources, it appears that curing by

use of liquid membrane curing compound has its advantages but is not the best form of curing.

The use of curing compounds is advantageous in many ways. It is more economical than moist

cure due to ease of application. ACI 345 [10] lists three advantages: liquid membrane is usually applied

28
sooner than moist cure; the curing extends over a larger period; and the curing procedure is not cut off

sharply. Transportation Research Circular No. 308 states that the quickest, most effective way to cure

patched areas is by spraying on heavy membrane curing compound. Curing compounds can also be quite

effective in cold weather. ACI 306 [8] claims, that except for within heated enclosures, little or no supply

of external moisture is needed in cold weather conditions. A curing compound meeting ASTM C309 with

an impervious cover (polyethylene sheeting is an example) is recommended over water curing which may

ice. A study conducted by Rhodes [34] provides, that in cold weather construction, membrane curing is

advantageous to moist curing due to less freezable water in the cement paste and the concrete is able to

withstand lower temperatures without frost damage. Also retention of 80% of original net mix water at

the end of a 7-day curing period is sufficient for continued hydration and development of required

strength. Neville L28] points out that since wet curing in practice may be intermittent, sealing

compounds may produce better results.

Despite the previously stated advantages, there are many shortcomings related with curing by use

of curing compounds. Mindess and Young [26] state that liquid membranes provide the least effective

method of curing. They do not prevent evaporation from the concrete. For concretes with water cement

ratios of 0.42, there is theoretically enough water for hydration, yet it is desirable to provide additional

moisture during curing for maximum hydration. If internal relative humidity drops below 80%, hydration

will stop and this can occur in environments of low relative humidity. Neville [28] writes that

impermeable membrane (curing compounds) effectively prevents evaporation but not self-desiccation

which can lead to plastic settlement cracking. Curing compounds produce lower strengths than water

curing because rapid evaporation of curing water is allowed when using curing compounds. Also, if

cracks due to restrained shrinkage occur at an early age and moisture has access to the cracks, as is the

case when wet curing, many of the cracks will become closed due to autogenous healing. Neville also

indicates that proper and prolonged moist curing is essential for resistance to abrasion, and some types

29
of membrane curing can be detrimental. In dry weather, wetting concrete and allowing the water to

evaporate is an effective means of cooling, but there is no cooling of this nature when utilizing curing

compound. Therefore, higher temperatures may be reached. Large areas such as roads and airfields are

particularly vulnerable to high temperatures.

Many sources claim that curing by liquid membrane curing compound can be improved and

adequate by implementing various steps. ACI 345 [10] requires that curing compound be placed as soon

as the bleedwater sheen leaves the surface with the surface still damp. Rhodes [34] indicates that curing

compound should be applied as soon as surface moisture disappears without delay to avoid excess
surface drying which may combine with temperature effects to crack the pavement. Delay of placement

may result in a discontinuous film caused by compound penetrating the concrete rather than bridging the

voids. If delay is unavoidable, the surface should be resaturated with water before application of the

membrane.

Liquid membrane curing can also be enhanced by combining with other forms of curing. Rhodes

[34] states that an initial 24-hour moist curing period can be advantageous. Blanks et al. [ 16] reports

considerable difficulty occurred on ajob with cracks appearing in concrete placed as a lining on the side

slopes of a canal. Troweling closed the cracks, but they would reappear after application of the liquid

membrane. By wet curing the concrete for a 24-hour period prior to compound placement, cracking was

eliminated. Economically, it may not be desirable to implement an initial moist curing period, but it is an

effective way to mitigate early shrinkage cracking. Transportation Research Circular [39] adds that after

set of the curing compound, it can be helpful to sprinkle the concrete surface with water. This action

should be discontinued, however, if the temperature drops at more than 3 OF per hour. Mindess and

Young [26] state that waterproof paper or plastic sheeting should be placed as soon as the surface has

hardened enough to prevent damage, and the concrete has been thoroughly wetted. Ravina and Shalon

[33] describe a field experiment in which prevention of evaporation by covering with polyethylene

30
sheeting immediately after placement precluded cracking. Several sealing compounds were not effective

in extreme climatic conditions.

Another concern is the quality of the curing compound. Blanks et al. [16] warns that

indiscriminate selection of sealing compound without testing is dangerous. Covarrubius [17] found in

studies that controlling the problem of inadequate curing compound may require a change in ASTM

C156 [11], the standard test method for liquid membrane curing compounds. The research revealed it is

important to determine which curing compounds work well on slabs when placed over bleeding concrete.

Compounds which worked well when placed on the concrete surface before bleeding had stopped,

retained more water than when placed after bleeding. ACI 302 [6] emphasizes if floors in which high

wear resistance, optimum top surface strength, and minimal cracking are required, the curing compound

should have a moisture loss of no more than 0.30 kglm2 (0.06 Ib/ft2) in a 72-hour period. This is less than

50% of the ASTM C309 requirement. Some agencies have set a more restrictive limit of 0.39 kglm2

(0.08 lb/fe) for moisture loss rate.

2.7 Concrete Properties Relevant to Early Deck Cracking

Early bridge deck cracking (but after the concrete has hardened) is primarily the results of drying

shrinkage characteristics and tensile strength properties of the concrete. The concrete thermal, stiffness,

and creep properties are also important in early cracking considerations. Temperature and humidity

exposure conditions discussed in Chapter 3 are also important, as are the curing conditions applied to the

deck concrete when it was first placed. This section examines the primary concrete material properties

and characteristics which are relevant to early bridge deck cracking. Three figures used in this section

were presented earlier, but are repeated here for convenience of the reader as the relevant topis are

discussed.

31
 2.7.1 Drying Shrinkage. Concrete expands slightly with a gain in moisture and contracts with a

loss in moisture. The effects of these moisture movements are illustrated schematically in Fig. 2.17.

Specimen A in that figure represents concrete stored continuously in water from time of casting;

Specimen B represents the same concrete exposed first to drying in air and then to alternate cycles of

wetting and drying [22]. It should be noted that the swelling that occurs during continuous wet storage

over a period of several years is usually less than 150 millionths or about one-fourth of the shrinkage of

air-dried concrete for the same period.

Tests indicate that the drying shrinkage of small, plain concrete specimens (without

reinforcement) ranges from about 400 to 800 millionths when exposed to air at 50% humidity [22].

Drying shrinkage values decrease as relative humidities increase as can be seen in Fig. 2.18. It can be

noted that concrete with a unit shrinkage of 550 millionths shortens about the same amount as the

thermal contractions caused by a decrease in temperature of lOO°F.

The shrinkage of large concrete components is less than that of small test specimens because of

movement restraints offered by other components of the structure, and by the concrete reinforcing steel.

In reinforced concrete structures with normal amounts of reinforcement, drying shrinkage is commonly

assumed to be 200 to 300 millionths. This is approximately the same strain level as for 50°F change in

temperature.

The most important controllable factor affecting the drying shrinkage of normal portland cement

concrete is the amount of water per unit volume of concrete. The results of tests illustrating the water

content-shrinkage relationship are shown in Fig. 2.19. This figure indicates that shrinkage is a direct

function of the unit water content of fresh concrete. The close grouping of these curves shows that

drying shrinkage is governed mainly by unit water content. (Note narrowness of band of water content

on shrinkage regardless of cement content or water-cement ratio.)

32
 - - Stored in wafer

- - - - Stored in air

Specimen A

-Time

Fig. 2.17. Illustration of Moisture Movements in Concrete [22].

l~r----r----.------r--'----.---r---ro
RelOl.tvc humidity:

-400~~--~2~8--~~~-----L--~2----~5---,LO--~~LJ~
Days Years
Time (log sea'el

Fig. 2.18. Shrinkage vs. Time for Concretes Stored at Different Relative Humidities [28].

33
 3
Kg/m
130 190 250
1~~~----------~--------~-----
/ 658 (390)
900 /
/

.sc 800 /
/
/

09 /
/

Os 700
/ /
/
/ 564 (337)
~ / /
«:I 600 / /
:5.E / // Ib cement per OJ yd (kglm 3)

~
o~ 400
500
; </
/ /

,) / /
470 (279)

CS //'
300~376(223)
200~----~----~----~----~--~
200 250 300 350 400 450
Water, lb per cu yd

Fig. 2.19. Interrelation of Shrinkage, Cement Content, and Water Content [Unknown Source].

1400 ,....------r-----,------,.------.-----.------..,

OL-__ ~ ____ ~ __ ~ _____ L_ _ _ _L __ _ ~

25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Water, gal. per cu yd

Fig. 2.20. Water Content vs. Drying Shrinkage [22].

34
 The curves of Fig. 2.19 along with results from other mixtures testing can be banded as shown in

Fig. 2.20, and illustrate the dramatic increases in drying shrinkage with increasing water content. Thus,

shrinkage can be minimized by keeping the water content of concrete as low as possible (and still achieve

the required workability). This is achieved by keeping the total coarse aggregate content of the concrete

as high as possible. Use of low slumps and placing methods that minimize water requirements are thus

major factors in controlling concrete shrinkage [22]. Additionally, prolonged and careful curing is

beneficial for shrinkage controL Any practice that increases the water requirement of the cement paste,

such as the use of high slumps, excessively high freshly mixed concrete temperatures, high fine-

aggregate contents, or small-size coarse aggregate, will increase shrinkage.

Any workable concrete mixture contains more water than is needed for hydration. If the concrete

is exposed to air, the larger part of this free water evaporates in time, with the rate and completeness of

drying dependent on ambient temperature and humidity conditions. As the concrete dries, it shrinks in

volume as indicated above. If this volume reduction is unrestrained then no shrinkage stresses, and

cracks, are produced. However, if the concrete is restrained by other structure components or by

embedded reinforcing steel, then the drying shrinkage results in shrinkage tensile stresses which in tum

may result in concrete cracking. Also, as drying takes place, concrete near the surface dries and shrinks

faster than the inner concrete, causing surface tensile stresses and possible cracking. Thus the effects of

drying shrinkage are the same as those of thermal shrinkage, Le., stresses are developed only when

movement is restrained.

Unfortunately, the water content of the concrete is not the only mixture component which

significantly affects drying shrinkage. Wilbur Smith Associates [15] conducted limited laboratory testing

to assess the effects of aggregate type/source, mixture proportions, cement type/source, and fly ash on

drying shrinkage. The results of their testing are shown in Fig. 2.21 and indicate a large variability in

drying shrinkage for all of the mixture parameters shown. This points to the desirability of evaluating the

35
 500 H.:n~:r,:.l-:. ':: ;;

--9-- r I.,.·.·.. Er,t.HI:-rl·;":- ; .::: L

/~.
., '\
o -'>;'\,,- ----, ----, ---------'' -----
\ ~ '--
. \\ "'----
\ . ~.:<~+._ ..--.......·<3----__e _____.,
,t- '--~
----_>~
,..."'--., .-.o,,~

-1000
--.. -......-."?------:==~

"!~-E:

a) Effect of Aggregate Source

;s~.;. #5::". (6 .... :::. ·S'::.P01.lR

. .\';~:" .#34. I'C., I: ....2-:-.i=·OI)r.

~
(f)
I
2
u
'i -500

b) Effect of Mixture Design

Fig.2.2L Effect of Some Mixture Parameters on Concrete Drying Shrinkage [15]

36
 .A.GE:

c) Effect of Cement Type/Source

~
(,1)
I
2
~ -500

- 10(.0 tlihlliililliill,illl llii,I"llLIlllllllllIlll.1I ,1111]111111 illllllillilidllllilllli 1111111 illiu,lIit1l1lliilli

-".C-E:

d) Effect of Flyash

Fig.2.2L(cont.) Effect of Some Mixture Parameters on Concrete Drying Shrinkage [15]

37
characteristics of each concrete mixture/material source for concrete components, such as bridge decks,

where drying shrinkage is important. Note in Fig. 2.21 that most of the drying shrinkage took place

during the first 2 months. For larger concrete "specimens," such as bridge decks, the time period of

significant shrinkage would probably be extended to approximately I-year.

Typical concrete initial swelling and following drying shrinkage curves fall within the range of

the curves shown in Fig. 2.22. Typically early age behavior is that of swelling during wet curing of 7

days as indicated in Fig. 2.22. This is followed by drying shrinkage to ultimate shrinkage strain levels of

600 to 800 u in. per in. Weight loss and drying shrinkage time history curves for some concrete cylinders

are shown in Fig. 2.23. An equation sometimes used in estimating shrinkage values at different times in

concrete components in the field is

(2.3)

where, T = total time in days after placement of concrete

t = time in days after wet cure period

For a 7-day cure period, this equation yields a E;h = 0.50 E~hat 42 days as can be seen in Table 2.3

Table 2.3. Variation of E;,/E:h from Eqn 2.3 with Time*

Time
TI U
T t Esh Esh
7 days 0 0
35 days 28 days 0.44
42 days 35 days 0.50
3 mos. 0.72
6 mos. 0.84
1 yr. 0.91
2 yrs. 0.95
5 yrs. 0.98
10 yrs. 0.99
20 yrs. 1.00
*For 7 -days of wet curing

38
 Expansion

200

o"'""'
\0

.-<
><
'--'
..c::
en
W
c::-
'@
b
Cf.)
Q.)

J
Cf.)
b.O
400 ...
400 "-
"-
"-
"- .......
400 28 u
~ csh :::75%csh (Using Wilbur Smith Data)

.5
§ 600 .......
600 ..... ' ......
............ ----
800

Fig. 2.22. Approximate Drying Curves for Laboratory Test Prism Specimens.

600
400 :
V
Shrinkage, millionths in. per in.
800r---~==========~~~~----~
Normal-weight concrete

200
o I I I I

Weight loss, Ib

::~~
o.sr, I

o~~~----~--------~----------------~
Normal-weight concrete

o 28 90 180 days 1 year 2 years

Time of drying

Fig. 2.23. Weight Loss and Drying Shrinkage Curves for Concrete Cylinders [22].
39
 Concrete mixtures can be classified based on drying shrinkage as follows:

No Shrinkage: <0.004 % shrinkage (Shrinkage Compensating Concrete)

Low Shrinkage: 0.004 - 0.04% shrinkage

Moderate Shrinkage: 0.04% - 0.08% shrinkage

High Shrinkage: >0.08% shrinkage

Note, for comparative purposes,

Ethermal = 0.00055%
Thermal Shrinkage = 0.0055% per 10'F

Thus, normal concrete temperature changes and movements are analogous to those of low

drying shrinkage concrete.

2.7.2 Temperature Shrinkage. Like most materials, concrete expands with increasing

temperature and contracts with decreasing temperature. The effects of such volume changes are similar to

those caused by shrinkage. That is, temperature contraction can lead to cracking, particularly when

superposed on shrinkage [40].

Thermal expansion and contraction of concrete varies with factors such as aggregate type,

cement content, water-cement ratio, temperature range, concrete age, and relative humidity. Of these,

aggregate type has the greatest influence [22]. Table 2.4 shows some experimental values of the thermal

coefficient of expansion of concretes made with aggregates of various types.

The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete is generally in the range of 4.5-6.5 x 10-6 in. per

in. per 'F. A value of 5.5 x 10'6 is the generally accepted value used in calculating thermal deformations

and stresses in plain concrete, and a value of 6.0 x 10-6'6 is typically used for reinforced concrete

(average of 5.5 for concrete and 6.5 for steel rebar).

40
 Table 2.4 Effect of Aggregate Type on Thermal Coefficient of Expansion of Concrete [22]

Aggregate type Coefficient of expansion

(from one source) millionths per 'F

Quartz 6.6

Sandstone 6.5

Gravel 6.0

Granite 5.3

Basalt 4.8

Limestone 3.8

The rate of cement hydration in concrete is directly proportional to the heat evolution, which can

be measured. Fig. 2.24 shows a typical time history curve of rate of heat evolution for concrete. Thus,

temperature increases in concrete are caused very early in fresh and "green" concrete by hydration of the

cement. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.25 which indicates a 1O-20'F rise in temperature due to hydration, and

that the heat of hydration peaks about 12 hours after mixing (for Type I cement) and is close to initial

ambient temperature after about 24 hours (for Type I cement). To further illustrate the heat of hydration

build-up and subsidence in fresh concrete, the temperature vs. time curves for some common Penn DOT

concrete mixtures [15], demonstrating the effects of aggregate type/source, cement type/source, and

mixture design, are shown along with the effect of fly ash in Fig. 2.26

After about 2-days, changes in concrete temperature normally result only from change in

environmental/weather conditions. Ambient temperatures vary daily and through the annual seasonal

cycle, as does radiant heating from the sun. For bridge decks, temperature changes on the top and bottom

of the deck are normally substantially different. This causes temperature gradients through the deck, and

these in conjunction with deck constraints from the supporting girders result in significant deck thermal

stresses and possible cracking. It should be noted that prolonged and careful wet curing can be utilized to

41
 PERIOD OF INTI1AL
RAPID EVOLUTION OF
HEAT (LASTING UP
TO ABOUT 15 MIN.)

PERIOD OF PERIOD OF PERIOD OF PERIOD OF

DORMANT INITIAL AND EARLY STEADY-STATE
PLASTIC CONCRETE FINAL SET HARDENING COl\'TlNUING HARDENING

• 6
~
~

.-o
C
.......
:::l
.......
4
FINAL SET
(ABOUT TIME
OF PEAK
o HYDRATION
> HEAT RATE)
U.l

2 INITIAL SET
BEGINS (IN
ABOUT 2·3
HRS.)

0.1 1 10 100
Time (h)

Fig. 2.24. Typical Concrete Rate of Heat Evolution Time History (Adapted from Ref. [26]).

20
...-...
(.L

X
0
'---'
Q) ....... .......
I-<
::l
.......
e<j TYPE II
I-<
Q) 10 ....... "-
0.. ....... ",.;
8 "-
~ "-~

0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
Time (hrs)

Fig. 2.25. Estimated Heat of Hydration vs. Time Curves for Typical Concrete Mixtures.
42
 ---- -----~ - - ---~--- - _._-------

Temperature Measurments
6~ -t- Honeytlole
-e- New EnterprIse

-x- Drovo B05ic

61.2

':'-
w 78.~
a::
::>

~
w 75.6
Q
::;:
W
t--
72.6

o o
N
.,
N

TIME:(hours)

a) Effect of Aggregate

67 -+- WSA 13.;

--e- WSA I~O

--x- WSA 153

63.6 - - WSA ;57

':'-
w 60.2
a::
::>

~w 76.8
Q
::;:
W
t--
73.'

o o N
N
'"
TIME:(hours)

b) Effect of Mixture Design

Fig. 2.26. Effect of Some Mixture Parameters on Concrete Heat of Hydration [15]
43
 ~ Lonestor I
87
-e- tndependel

---x- Lehigh I
83.6 --Q--- Loncslor II

.,...
w 80.2
0::
=>
~
w 76.8
CL
::E
w
t-
7.3.4

o
'"'"
o <Xl <Xl
N
'"
TlME:(hours)

c) Effect of Cement Type/Source

82 -+- Cemonl/ny Ash

-e- Cement

79.6

.,...
77.2
w
0::
=>
t-
«:
5 74.8
CL
::;:
W
t-
72.4

70
0 8 12 16 20 24 28
T1ME:(hours)

d) Effect of Flyash

Fig. 2.26. (cont.) Effect of Some Mixture Parameters on Concrete Heat of Hydration [15]
44
 -- - - ----- - - -- - ~ - ~---~- - ----- ---.----------

minimize thermal gradients and temperature changes, and these minimize early thermal strains, stresses,

and cracks.

2.7.3. Compressive Strength. Concrete gains compressive strength rapidly with time early on,

and then slows down as indicated in Figs. 2.27 and 2.28. In design, the strength gain after 28 days is

ignored or assumed to be zero. The following expression for moist-cured concrete using Type I cement
,
can be used to calculate concrete compressive strength Ie,!' at any time, t, in days [28]:

, t '
Ie,! -4.-0-+0-.-85-/e (2.4)
,
Where Ie is the 28 day compressive strength of the concrete.

Using Fig. 2.27 and linear interpolation, the compressive strength gain curve for a wlc = 0.44 (that used

by the Alabama Department of Transportation (ALDOT) for bridge deck concrete) would be as shown in
,
Fig. 2.29. For Ie = 4000 psi (that used by ALDOT), Fig. 2.29 yields Fig. 2.30.
2.7.4 Tensile Strength. The tensile strength of concrete is much lower than the compressive

strength. Although tensile strengths are usually not considered directly in design (being assumed to equal

zero), they are quite important in concrete cracking considerations. In general, concrete tensile strength

increases with compressive strength; however, the relationship is not linear and is not simple but varies

with a number of parameters.

In general, as the age (or the strength level) increases, the ratio of tensile to compressive strength

(f/fe) decreases, as can be seen in Fig. 2.31. Also, since crushed coarse aggregate seems to improve the

tensile strength more than it does the compressive strength, the f /fe ratio also depends on the type of

aggregate. It has been found that, compared to moist curing, air curing reduces the tensile strength more

than it does the compressive strength, probably because of the effect of drying shrinkage microcracking.

Therefore, the f t Ifc' ratio is less for air-cured than it is for moist-cured concretes [26].

45
 Waler I Ce<nent
ROllO 04 06 08

100 ,-- ,-- r- -

80 r- r-

c.
;, ,--
c. ..-
v
'-
J, 60 t--
>-
a r-
a
CD
rv
r-
"6
v
40 r- r-
0>
9
c
v
v
'-
v
Q
20 ~r-

o
1 J 7 28
I 1 J 728
I
, ) 7 28

Age· OOyS

Fig. 2.27. Relative Gain of Strength with Time in Concretes with Different Water-
Cement Ratios made with Ordinary Portland Cement [26]

1.6

--
1,4

1.2
~
_ 1.0
-
"G ~
co 0.8
V
L
V
-~
-....~
1- 0.6

0.4

0.2

14 28 3 6 2 5
Day, Monlr.s Yeors

Fig.2.28 General Gain in Compressive Strength with Time Curve for

Ordinary Portland Cement [40]
46
 1.0 100% at 28-Days ===::k---{

~
c
0.8
~
......
CI)
>.
«l 0.6
Q, l:i
00 U) 20
N >.
"-< os 17% at I·Day
0 0.4 o 135%
til cO
<'l 10 10%
C
.g 7%
t) 3.5%
~ 0.2
u...

7 14 21 28
Age (Days)
4 Hrs.
(Assume)

Fig. 2.29. Early Age f c as a Fraction of f c.

4000

3000 -- 3040 psi at 7 -Days

.....
........
til
__ 2000 psi at 3-Days
-S 2000
o
It:......
800
680 psi at I-Day
540 psi
400 psi
I.>
,0:.... 280 psi
1000 140 psi

-
Fig. 2.30. Early Age f c for 4000 psi Concrete.
47
The ACI reports and recommends using the value of tensile strength of concrete as

(2.5)

where fr = modulus of rupture.

Split-cylinder tests/results are felt to be a better measure of concrete tensile strength in uniform

axial tension. For shrinkage tension stresses, a uniform stress state is probably more representative than the

bending stress distribution of the modulus of rupture testing. Winter and Nilson [40] report split-cylinder
, ,
tensile strengths of 6 to 7 times the square root of fc . Thus, a reasonable estimate of fc would be,

,
f t =f st 6.5{t: (2.6)

Assuming the concrete tensile strength varies with compressive strength at all age and strength

levels, as indicated in Eqn. 2.6 yields an early age tensile strength vs. time curve for 4000 psi concrete as

indicated in Fig. 2.32.

2.7.5 Modulus of Elasticity. The modulus of elasticity of concrete (Ee), that is, the slope of the

initial portion of the stress-strain curve, increases with concrete strength as is evident in Fig. 2.33. Recall

that concrete strength increases with time, thus Ee also increases with time. The ACI recommends the

following empirical equation for estimating Ee

(2.7a)
E
c
= 33w1.5
yJ!7
f 'c
where w is the unit weight of the hardened concrete in pcf, and f'e is the cylinder strength in psi. For

normal weight concrete, w = 145 pef and,

(2.7b)
Ec = 57 I oooJ"i:
Using Eqn. 2.7b for Ee for all concrete strength levels (as they increase with time), and the f'e curve of

Fig. 2.30, yields the Ee vs. time curve of Fig. 2.34 for 4000 psi concrete.

48
 900.---~--~--~---.--~--~---.
Max. size aggregate
o
800 • tin. •
x tin.
•
700
o It in.
(0) 2t in.
Modulus of rupture
500 Third point loading
~x.
_ 0 0

400
~
...
:::l
0..
Splitting tension

2 300
/
/ /
/ /
200 / /
/

//

"
100 "
II
II

"
OL---~--~--~--~----~--~--~
o 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Compressive Strength (lb/inh

Fig.2.31. Relationships of Compressive to Flexural and Tensile

Strengths of Concrete [26].

500

400
1411 psi at
28-Days

....-.-.
.c;; 300
200
0.
'-'
14-< .........
;;;
200
s- 100
- 170 psi at I-Day ,'-
~

100 0
0 12 16 20 24 hrs
Age

7 14 21 28

4 Hrs.
Age (Days)

Fig. 2.32. Early Age f't for 4000 psi Concrete.

49
 6

....... 5
CI)
..!><:

~ 4
CI)
CI)
0
bCI) 3
0
+-'
0
H
c..> 2
c::
0
U 1000

0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004

Concrete strain, in./in.

Fig. 2.33. Typical Concrete Stress-strain Curves [40].

3.5
! 3.60 6
X 10 psi
at 28-Days
3.0

_ 260 X 106 psi at 3-Days

2.5

2.0
2.0
......
CI) _ _ 1.49 X 106 psi at I-Day
0... 1.32 x I 06
,,-:;,L...-

1.5 _ 1.49 X 106 psi '".-<

0 ~114xl06
at I-Day
1.0 ~0.95·xlif
>< /_---,,,-,-""0.67 X 106
(J

~
1.0
0 ""
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 hrs
0.5
Age

7 14 21 28
Age (Days)
4 Hrs.

Fig. 2.34. Early Age Ee for 4000 psi Concrete.

50
 In working with concrete cracking, the tension modulus would be the modulus of elasticity of

interest. It is commonly assumed to be the same as that in compression as given by Eqn. 2.7b. This is

probably a little high, as micro cracking should render Et < Ee. In tum, the assumption of E t = Ee should

be a little conservative in predicting concrete cracking. Utilizing the values obtained from Eqn. 2.7b for

modulus of elasticity and Eqn. 2.2 for tensile strength, a cracking strain of 114 microstrain (6.5/57000) is

obtained for all t'e and concrete age values.

2.7.6 Creep. Creep or lateral material flow is the increase in strain with time due to substained

load. Initial deformation due to load is the elastic strain, while the additional strain due to the same

sustained load is the creep strain. Fig. 2.35 illustrates the increase in creep strain with time, and as in the

case of shrinkage, it can be seen that the rate of creep decreases with time [27]. A popular equation used

to estimate creep with time is [5]

to. 60
- - - - Vu
1O+to.6o (2.8)

t= time in days after loading and assuming a loading age of 7 days.

Values of the vIvu ratio with time from this equation are shown in Table 2.5.

Table 2.S. Increase of Creep with Time

t v/vu
0 0
7 days 0.24
28 days 0.42
3 mos. 0.60
6 mos. 0.69
1 yr. 0.78
2 yrs. 0.84
5 yrs. 0.90
10 yrs. 0.93
20 yrs. 0.95

51
 Although shrinkage and creep are not independent phenomena, it can be assumed that

superposition of strains is valid; hence

total strain (EJ =elastic strain (Ee) + creep (EJ + shrinkage (E sh). (2.9)

As in the case of shrinkage, creep is not completely reversible. If a specimen is unloaded after a

period under a sustained load, an immediate elastic recovery is obtained which is less that the strain

precipitated on loading. The instantaneous recovery is followed by a gradual decrease in strain, called

creep recovery [27]. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.36. As in shrinkage, creep increases the deflection of

beams and decks, and causes loss of prestress in prestressed elements. Creep can and usually does relax

concrete stresses and improves the member's capability to sustain strain without cracking. An

"effective" modulus of elasticity of concrete can be used in lieu of Ec to incorporate the effect of creep.

The "effective" modulus of elasticity is determined as follows.

Ee =EJ (l+v) (2.10)

in which

Ee = Effective modulus of elasticity

v = Concrete creep factor or creep coefficient (ratio of creep strain to instantaneous strain)

'" 2 - 3

Thus Ee '" % Ec to t.4 Ec.

It should be noted that in current bridge deck construction, SIP metal forms are used in almost all

cases (at least in Alabama). Thus, there should be no deck self weight/dead load carried by the deck

concrete, and thus there should be very little creep in the bridge deck due to self-weight.

52
 Total concrete unit strain excluding shrinkage

tet (creep) = 2.35 EE

EE (elastic strain)

1 day
Time t

Fig. 2.35. Long-Term Creep Stress vs. Time Curve [27]

Specimen under a
constant load
Unloading
Ee1 = immediate elastic t.e2 = immediate
deformation ____-r-'7*"'--r-
recovery

Creep recovery

ResiduaJ strain

Time t

Fig. 2.36. Creep Recovery vs. Time [27]

53
 3. ALABAMA CONCRETE CURING RELATED WEATHER DATA AND
EXPOSURE CONDITIONS

3.1 General

In order to properly obtain evaporation rates for placement of concrete bridge decks in Alabama,

a detailed analysis of weather conditions across the state is necessary. The evaporation rates drawn from

the ACI 305 Surface Evaporation Chart are dependent upon three weather conditions: temperature;

relative humidity; wind speed. Since construction of bridge decks in Alabama takes place throughout the

year, it is important to determine how these three conditions vary with the seasons. These conditions also

change over the 24-hour cycle of the day as evident in Fig. 3. 1, therefore, the evaporation rate differs

throughout the day. This hourly variation may influence concrete placement time and early curing

requirements for bridge decks.

Before analysis of the weather data was conducted, it was anticipated that weather exposure

conditions categories could possibly be developed for the state. These categories would be geographical

and seasonal. Geographically the state could be divided into three regions: northern region; central

region; coastal region. Three seasonal categories would also be developed: cold weather conditions

(winter months); moderate weather conditions (spring and autumn months); hot weather conditions

(summer months).

The primary set of weather data analyzed for this study was obtained from the Southeast

Regional Climate Center (SRCC) in Columbia, South Carolina. The data consisted of hourly recordings

of temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed for every day from January 1, 1964, to the end of

December 1993. The data was obtained for the four major cities in Alabama: Mobile; Montgomery;

54
 TEMPERA1URE

SUNSET

0000 0600 1200 IgOO HOURS 2400

MIDNIGHT NOON MIDNIGl-IT

RELATIVE
HUMIDITY

SUNSET

0000 0600 1200 1800 HOURS 2400

MIDNIGHT NOON MIDNIGI-IT

WIND
VELOCITY

DAWN

V
MEAN
DAILY

0000 0600 1200 1800 HOURS 2400

MIDNIGHT NOON MIDNIGHT

Fig.3.1. Typical Diurnal Variation in Temperature, Relative Humidity, and Wind

Velocity in Clear Summer Weather.
55
Fig. 3.2. Geographical Locations of 4-Major Cities in Alabama.
56
Birmingham; Huntsville, and was recorded at the municipal airport for each city. It should be noted that

the four major cities are geographically located in approximately equal increments from south to north as

indicated in Fig. 3.2.

The data was originally received in the format of a text data file for each city. Each row of the

data files contained the year number (1964-1993), the month number (1 (January) - 12 (December)), the

day number (1 -28, 29, 30, or 31), the hour number (0 (12 a.m.) - 23 (11 p.m.)), temperature in 'F, relative

humidity in percent (%), and wind speed in miles per hour (mph). The data file size for each city was

between nine and ten megabytes of computer space, therefore, a statistics program was required to

provide meaningful trends from the data.

The key idea was to extract the essential information from the data files and obtain the variation

of temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed over the diurnal cycle and months of the year. A

program written in SAS, a common programming language used for statistical analysis, was used to

perform the calculations. First, the program produced the mean daily cycles for temperature, relative

humidity, and wind speed for each date. For example, the mean daily temperature cycle for January 31

from 1964 to 1993 was calculated. Next, the daily cycle from the previous step was averaged to provide a

mean daily cycle for each month. For instance, the mean daily temperature cycle for a day in January was

found by averaging the mean temperature cycle of the thirty-one dates in January. The end results of this

procedure were mean daily cycles of temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed for a typical day in

each month for each of the four major cities.

Presentation of the weather data for the four major cities in Alabama, results of the analysis of

the data, and recommended weather parameter values to use in design and construction planning are

given in the following sections of this chapter.

57
 Table 3.la
Ten-Year (1965-1974) Mean and Extreme Weather
Conditions for Mobile, AL

RELATIVE SURFACE
TEMPERATURE PRECIPITATION HUMIDITY WIND SPEED
(oF) (INCHES) (%) (KT)
MEAN EXTREME TOTAL MEAN
I
f-
Z
a DAILY LST
L ...rz i':z
0 0
:l; :l;
MAX MIN MAX MIN MEAN MAX MIN 00 06 12 18 MEAN MAX
IAN 62 43 53 79 13 42 9.4 1.0 81 83 64 72 75 8.7 30+
FEB 63 42 53 81 18 5.3 9.0 2.9 76 80 55 62 68 8.9 30+
MAR 70 50 60 89 27 5.7 11.6 .6 81 84 56 64 71 9.0 28+
APR 80 59 70 91 36 3.2 9.9 .6 84 87 54 64 72 8.9 30+
MAY 85 65 75 96 46 5.0 8.8 2.3 83 85 53 61 71 7.8 30+
IUN 91 71 81 101 56 3.6 7.7 I 2 83 86 53 0- 72 6.5 35+
IUL 92 74 83 100 62 7.0 14.1 2.2 86 89 60 71 77 5.7 28+
AUG 90 73 82 102 60 7.1 12.1 2.4 88 90 63 74 79 5.5 55+
SEP 87 70 79 97 42 6.7 12.7 2.0 86 88 61 72 77 6.3 28+
OCT 80 59 70 92 38 2.5 6.7 T 81 84 53 67 71 6.6 24+
NOV 70 49 60 87 24 2.4 5.7 .4 82 85 55 70 73 7.3 30+
DEC 65 46 55 81 24 5.8 10.7 4.0 81 84 64 74 76 8.3 28+

ANN 78 58 68 102 13 58.6 14.1 T 83 86 58 68 74 7.5 55+

Table 3.2a
Ten-Year (1965-1974) Weather Conditions Mean Number
of Days of Occurrence for Mobile, AL

PRECIPrrATION (INCHES) TEMPERATURE COF)

r
I-
z TOTALP 2 TMAX 2 T,." <
0
::;:
z
.01 .1
;;: 45 0
.5 1.0 a: 90 65 32 32

IAN II 7 2 I 14 0 15 3I 19 7 0
FEB 9 7 4 2 II 0 14 28 19 5 0
MAR 10 7 4 2 14 0 23 )I 10 I 0
APR 6 4 2 I 8 I )0 )0 2 0 0
MAY 7 5 ) 2 10 5 3I 3I 0 0 0
IUN II 7 2 I I) 19 30 )0 0 0 0
IUL 15 II 5 2 18 24 )I )I 0 0 0
AUG 16 II 5 2 19 19 31 )1 0 0 0
SEP II 7 3 2 I) II )U )0 0 0
OCT 6 4 I I 7 2 )I )I "2 0 0
NOV 8 4 2 # 10 0 22 )0 II I 0
DEC II 7 4 2 I) 0 16 31 17 4 0

ANN 121 80 )8 19 151 82 )05 )65 79 17 0

#Indlcalcs less (han 0 5 day

58
 Table 3.lb
Ten-Year (1965-1974) Mean and Extreme Weather
Conditions for Montgomery, AL

RELATIVE SURFACE
TEMPERATURE PRECIPITATION HUMIDITY WIND SPEED
("F) (INCHES) ('/0) (Kn
MEAN EXTREME TOTAL MEAN
:c
I-
z
0 DAILY LST
::;: r
I-
Z
iO
Z
0 0
:; ~
MAX MIN MAX MIN MEAN MAX MIN 00 06 12 18 MEAN MAX
JAN 58 37 48 79 5 4.1 6.4 1.9 78 83 62 66 72 6.4 32
FEB 59 37 48 81 14 4.5 8.1 1.9 72 78 54 56 65 7.1 39
MAR 68 45 57 87 25 5.7 10.8 2.0 74 82 54 55 66 7.2 40
APR 78 54 66 91 33 2.7 7.7 .9 79 86 52 56 68 6.5 33
MAY 83 60 72 94 40 3.2 5.5 1.3 83 89 55 59 72 5.5 41
JUN 89 67 78 101 50 3.7 7.8 1.6 85 89 55 61 73 52 35
JUL 91 71 81 102 61 5.3 7.9 2.6 88 90 61 67 77 5.0 33
AUG 89 70 80 100 57 3.9 10.4 1.8 89 92 62 71 79 4.4 33
SEP 86 66 76 97 39 4.2 6.5 1.1 87 91 59 70 77 4.8 28
OCT 78 54 66 91 31 2.3 6.1 .3 85 89 54 67 74 4.8 22
NOV 67 43 55 86 18 3.1 5.9 .7 82 87 54 65 72 5.5 27
DEC 61 40 50 83 20 5.3 8.5 3.6 80 84 61 68 73 6.2 37

ANN 76 54 65 102 5 47.9 10.8 .3 82 87 57 63 72 5.7 41

Table 3.2b
Ten-Year (1965-1974) Weather Conditions Mean Number
of Days of Occurrence for Montgomery, AL

PRECIPITATION (INCHES) TEMPERATURE (oF)

r
I-
z TOTALP, T~~
0
T""" '
::E
z
;(
.01 .1 .5 1.0 a:: 90 65 32 45 32 a
JAN 12 8 3 I 16 a II 3I 23 12 0
FEB 9 7 3 2 II 0 9 28 24 10 a
MAR 10 8 4 2 13 a 20 3I 16 3 a
APR 7 5 2 I 10 # 29 30 6 0 a
MAY
JUN
9
9
6
7
2
2
I
I
II
II
3
16
31
30
3I
30 0
• a
0
a
0
JUL II 8 4 I 15 21 31 31 0 a a
AUG II 7 3 I 15 17 31 31 0 0 0
SEP 7 5 2 I 9 II 30 30 • 0 0
OCT
NOV
5
8
3
5
I
2
I
I
7
II
I
0
30
19
31
30
6
19
•
4
0
0
DEC 10 8 4 2 13 a 12 31 22 9 0

ANN 108 76 33 14 142 70 282 365 116 39 0

#Indlcates less than 0.5 day

59
 ------------- --- -~- ..- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---------~-
- - -- - - - - - - - - - -

Table3.lc
Ten-Year (1965-1974) Mean and Extreme Weather Conditions
for Birmingham, AL

RELATIVE SURFACE
1tMPERATURE PRECIPITATION HUMIDITY WIND SPEED
(oF) (INCHES) (%) (KT)
MEAN EXTREME TOTAL MEAN
:c
t-
z
0 DAILY LST
::> r x
'0z""
MAX MIN
::;
MAX
~ MEAN MAX
MIN MEAN MAX MIN 00 06 12 18

JAN 53 34 44 77 ·4 5.3 9.3 25 77 81 63 67 72 6.5 33

FEB 55 33 44 79 10 4.5 9.3 1.2 71 77 55 57 65 7.1 39
MAR 65 42 53 87 19 5.8 11.4 1.8 72 79 53 53 64 73 36
APR 75 SO 63 89 26 4.7 8.4 1.4 76 82 52 52 66 66 43
MAY 81 57 69 95 36 5.1 11.1 1.4 83 86 55 57 70 5.2 SO
JUN 87 64 76 98 42 3.8 8.2 7 84 86 57 61 72 46 39
JUL 89 69 79 102 51 5.8 9.4 2.9 86 88 61 66 73 a2 36
AUG 88 68 78 98 55 5.1 10.9 1.8 88 90 62 68 77 4 I 32
SEP 83 63 73 95 37 4.1 8.1 1.1 87 89 61 72 77 4.8 36
OCT 75 5I 63 88 28 2.6 7.0 7 84 87 56 7l 75 5a 28
NOV 63 40 52 83 13 3.6 6.4 1.8 80 84 57 68 72 57 33
DEC 57 37 47 78 15 5.8 11.5 2.1 78 81 62 70 i3 65 32

ANN 73 5I 62 102 ·4 56.2 11.5 .7 81 84 58 64 72 5.6 SO

Table 3.2c
Ten-Year (1965-1974) Weather Conditions Mean Number
of Days of Occurrence for Birmingham, AL

PRECIPITATION (INCHES) TEMPERATURE (oF)

r
'Z"" TOTALP> T""" > TM1 ,.: :;

0
::E
z
.01 .1 .5
;;:
1.0 a: 90 65 32 45 32 0
JAN 12 8 4 2 16 0 6 30 26 16 #
FEB 10 7 3 I 12 0 6 28 25 16 0
MAR II 8 4 2 IS 0 17 31 20 7 0
APR 9 7 3 2 12 0 27 30 10 I 0
MAY 10 7 3 2 13 2 30 3I .1 0 0
fUN 10 6 2 I 13 9 30 30 # 0 a
fUL 14 9 4 2 18 14 31 31 a 0 0
AUG II 8 3 2 16 10 3I 3I () 0 0
SEP 9 7 3 I 13 5 30 30 I a 0
OCT 6 4 2 I 10 a 28 3I II I a
NOV 9 7 2 I 12 a 15 30 22 8 0
DEC II 8 4 2 14 a 8 3I !.l 11 0

ANN 120 85 37 18 162 39 259 364 101 62 #

#Indlcates less than 0.5 day

60
 --~----.------- ----~---------------. -~---.-------

Table 3.ld
Ten-Year (1958-1967) Mean Weather
Conditions for Huntsville. AL

PRECIPITA TlON

MEAN MEAN PERCENT DA YS

MEAN RELATIVE SURFACE WlTIl
TEMPERATURE HUMIDITY WIND SPEED MEASURABLE MEAN MAX MIN
MONTIl ("F) (%) (KD (%1 (IN) 111"1 (IN)

IAN 39 71.6 7.2 33.0 4 )9 S5) 1.76

FEB 44 692 8.3 36.6 491 q 1J 1.88
MAR 51 64.2 8.6 31.9 6.61 1075 1.63
APR 62 61.5 7.7 ll.) 5 II 1255 2.09
MAY 71 65.4 5.8 280 402 6 'S 1.55
IUN 76 69.4 5.3 llO 442 65' 2.90
lUI. 79 71.2 4.8 36.2 5.22 [JS[ 2.16
AUG 79 72.0 4.9 31 9 386 6 )0 72
SEP H 69.5 6.3 25.0 J 27 4;} .49
OCT 62 68.8 5.6 184 2SS J 6l) TRACE
NOV 51 70.6 6.6 )07 ) )5 H) 64
DEC 41 70.9 7.5 32.9 5.Q.l 1111 76

ANN 60 68.8 6.5 307 5ns

Table 3.2d
Ten-Year (1958-1967) Mean Number of Days of
Precipitation Occurrence for Huntsville. AL

PRECIPITATIONS (INOlES)
I
f--
z TOTAL p,
0
:;;
z
.01 .1 .5 1.0 ;:;:
a:
JAN 10 7 4 1 12
FEB 10 8 3 1 13
MAR 10 7 5 2 13
APR 10 6 4 1 13
MAY 9 6 3 1 12
JUN 10 7 3 1 13
JUL 11 7 3 1 16
AUG 10 6 2 I 13
SEP 8 5 2 I 10
OCT 6 4 2 I 9
NOV 9 6 2 1 12
DEC 10 6 3 2 13

ANN 112 74 35 15 148

61
3.2 Mean and Extreme Weather Data

The first weather data secured for the four major cities was for mean and extreme conditions as

indicated in Tables 3.1a-3.1d and Tables 3.2a-3.2d. The data in these tables was obtained from the

National Climate Data Center (NCDC) in Asheville, North Carolina. These tables give ten-year means

and extremes for temperature, relative humidity, surface wind speed, and precipitation. It can be noted in

Tables 3.1d and 3.2d that the data for Huntsville was somewhat different and less comprehensive than for

the other cities. It should be noted that throughout this chapter, table and figure number designations will

include the letters a-d. In each case, (a) will represent Mobile (b) Montgomery, (c) Birmingham, and (d)

for Huntsville, i.e., they will be lettered and presented sequentially from south to north in the state.

Tables 3.1 a-3.1 d and Tables 3.2a-3.2d provide an excellent summary of means and extreme

weather for the four major cities. They reflect significant variations over the seasons/months of the year,

and as will be seen later, there are significant diurnal variations. However, the variations between the

cities, i.e., the geographical variations, are minimal and rather insignificant. Additional normals, means,

and extremes data is provided for each of the four major cities in Tables A.la-A.Id in Appendix A.

Seasonal, geographical, and diurnal values and variations of the temperature, relative humidity, and

surface wind speed are presented and examined in the following sections.

3.3 Seasonal Weather Variations

Seasonally, temperature for Alabama varies significantly, as evident in Figs. 3.3a-3.3d. January is

the coldest month, with December and February slightly milder. March and November are a little warmer

on average. October and April are significantly warmer and are really quite mild. September and May are

quite warm but mild weather on occasions reduces the mean temperature. June, July, and August are the

hottest months with not much difference in mean temperature.

Mean maximum temperatures for each month for each of the four cities are shown plotted in Fig.

3.4. (Data for this figure was supplied by SRCC and was not generated from the primary data set). Due to

its proximity to the Gulf of Mexico, Mobile experiences moderations of both summer and winter

62
 100

90
MEAN MAX
80 FOR YEAR
.--.. ------~-- MEAN MAX
u... MEAN
DAILYT
0
'-' 70 F~R_~R~

~ 60 MEAN
DAILYT

~
U.l
50
- ",I MEAN MIN
FOR YEAR MEAN MIN
~ 40
DAILYT

~
30

20

MONTH OF YEAR

Fig.3.3a. Mean Temperatures for Mobile, AL.

100

90
MEAN MAX
80 FOR YEAR
.--.. ------~--
u... MEAN MEAN MAX
0
70
'-'
U.l F~R_~_R~ DAlLYT

§3 60 MEAN

~
DAlLYT
50
U.l MEAN MIN
~ 40
DAlLYT

~
30

20

U
r..t.l
Q

MONTH OF YEAR

Fig.3.3b. Mean Temperatures for Montgomery, AL.

63
 100

90

80 MEAN MAX DAlLY

FOR YEAR
G:' 70 -------~-
o MEAN DAILY
'-'
FOR YEAR
------ ---- -i MEAN MAX
DAlLYT

- - - - - ~ MEAN MIN DAlLY MEAN

DAILYT
FOR YEAR
MEAN MIN
DAILYT
30

20

MONTH OF YEAR

Fig. 3.3c. Mean Temperatures for Binningham, AL.

100

90

80 MEAN MAX
........ FOR YEAR
u.. 70
0
------~--
'-' MEAN
U.1 FOR YEAR
~ 60 -----~ MEAN MAX
DAILYT
~U.1 50
~
~ MEAN MIN MEAN
DAILYT
40 FOR YEAR
t:: MEAN MIN
DAILYT
30

20

u z 0- f- > z
~
~ ...l ~
~
CIl Z 0
u.J
u.J -<
-. ~
0- ::>
-.
::>
-. ::> U 0 <
Q < <
C/)
0 z '"' -.

MONTH OF YEAR

Fig. 3.3d. Mean Temperatures for Huntsville, AL.

64
 95.0

- - MOBILE ......... -
,., ,...-:.--- ---.
,; ............
------ .. MONTGOMERY ..-
,,.- /,,;:... ..... ...- - ...:~.'
BIRMINGHAM ,.-' / '."

~
85.0
- - - HUNTS VILLE
,.
.'- /,/
,.- . I
'
~." ,,\
, ,/ I
~, ".

~\ ...
'-"
// I ...
~ ../ /

~
,', / '
,";/ / \\ \,
75.0 /.'I / / .....
\\
~ ... I I
......II 'I
\'\'.
\' .....
~ ,... 1'1 ,\' '.'
0\ ::E
\.Jl ~ ,./ / I \ \ \.
.. ' I \' ..
~ 65.0 ./ /1 \\ . .
~ ,/ I I \ '\ ...
::E ,/• I I,II \ \ ' ...
, / \ , ...
~ / I \ \ '.
~ ,
/
/ / \ \
\ \' '
55.0
/ \

45.0 L I_ _ _ _ - L_ _ _ _- L_ _ _ _- L_ _ _ _- L_ _ _ _- L_ _ _ _ ~ ____ ~ _ _ _ _J __ _ _ _ ~ _ _ _ _J __ _ ~

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOY DEC

MONTH OF YEAR

Fig. 3.4. Annual Cycle of Mean Maximum Temperatures.

temperatures. Huntsville, being the most northern city has a slightly cooler climate. Fig. 3.4 indicates a

very small temperature difference between Mobile and Huntsville during the summer months

(approximately 2°F) but a much larger difference (approximately 100F) during the winter months.

Mean maximum and minimum relative humidities for each month for each of the four cities are

plotted in Figs. 3.5a-3.5d. Shown superimposed on these plots are the mean annual relative humidity

values. Mean monthly wind speeds for each month along with the mean annual value are shown for each

of the four cities in Figs. 3.6a-3.6d.

Of the three weather parameters being studied and considered, wind speed is much more random,

variable, and unpredictable as evident in Fig. 3. 1, Fig. 3.7, and Fig. 3.8. Because of its wide variability,

mean wind speed values are of limited value in assessing the effect of this parameter on the deck surface

evaporation rate and curing requirements.

Due to the random nature of wind, a different type of data was needed. Recall that for rainfall,

which is also a random event, frequency charts are used to predict the number of rainy days during the

course of a project. Thus, frequency data for wind speeds can provide the number of days wind speed can

be expected to exceed a certain value. Wind speed frequency data was obtained from NCDC. Tables

3.3a-3.3d contain wind speed frequency of occurrence data for each month for the four major cities of

Alabama. Numbers given in the tables are percentage of time for the occurrence of wind speed in each

range. The numbers were generated using recordings between 1965-1974. Data for Huntsville was

recorded during a different period (1959-1964) but the information is ofthe same nature. Graphical

representations of the data shown in Tables 3.3a-3.3d are given in Figs. 3.9a-3.9d.

Presentation of the data in the form of Tables 3.3a-3.3d and Figs. 3.9a-3.9d makes it easy to

detect seasonal trends in wind speeds and wind speed activity. From an analysis of the wind data, March

is the windiest month of the year for all cities. A higher frequency of occurrence of winds above 11 knots

(l knot = 1. 15 mph) occurs in March, but February and April are close behind. May and October show a

66
 100
NiEAN HIGH RH (0600 HRS)
90
--------- - ---7----
~
......, 80
ANNUALNiEAN
HIGH RH (=87)
>-<
b 70
8 NiEAN LOW RI-! (1200 fIRS)

~ 60
----7-
g; 50 ANNUALNiEAN
~
.....l
LOWRH (=57)

40
~
30

MONTH OF YEAR

Fig. 3.Sa. Mean Relative Humidity for Mobile, AL.

100
NiEAN HIGH RH (0600 HRS)

90
- - - - - - - - - - - -,,-~~-- - /' - - - - - - - --
ANNUALNiEAN
HIGH RH (=87)

NiEAN LOW RH (1200 HRS)

30

MONTH OF YEAR

Fig. 3.Sb. Mean Relative Humidity for Montgomery, AL.

67
 100
MEAN IIlGII RII (0600 HRS)
90

~ 80
'-'
---- ----/------
ANNUAL MEAN
i:: 70
HIGH RH (~84)
§ MEAN LOW RI! (1200 HRS)
~
~ 60
(..L)
>
-/
50 ANNUAL MEAN
~
.....l
LOWRH (~57)
40
~
30

U
t.tJ
Ci

MONTH OF YEAR

Fig. 3.Sc. Mean Relative Humidity for Birmingham, AL.

100
MEAN HIGH RH (0600 HRS)

90
--------7----
~ 80 ANNUAL MEAN
>- HIGH RH (~86)
t:: 70
8 MEAN LOWRH (1200 HRS)
~
~ 60

g: 50 ANNUAL MEAN
~
LOW RH (",58)

~ 40

30

U
t.tJ
Ci

MONTH OF YEAR

Fig. 3.Sd. Mean Relative Humidity for Huntsville, AL.

68
11

10

----------7---
ANNUAL MEAN . /
(8.9 MPH)

MONTH OF YEAR

Fig. 3.6a. Mean Wind Speed for Mobile, AL.

10

7
---------~-

ANNUAL MEAN
6 (6.6 MPH)

MONTH OF YEAR

Fig. 3.6b. Mean Wind Speed for Montgomery, AL.

69
10

- - - - - - - - - 7- - -
ANNUAL MEAN
(7.1 MPH)

MONTH OF YEAR

Fig. 3.6c. Mean Wind Speed for Birmingham, AL.

11

10

8
- - - - - - - - - 7- - -
ANNUAL MEAN
(S.2MPH)
7

MONTH OF YEAR

Fig. 3.6d. Mean Wind Speed for Huntsville, AL.

70
 10.0

8.0

?
0. 6.0
.§.
13
~
"0
= 4.0
~

2.0

0.0
0 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. 3.7. Wind Speed Cycle for Day in March 1985 - Mobile

30.0

25.0 Mrmum Daily Wind Speed

?0.
20.0
i\ j\ t\.
l
.§.
..,
"0
\5.0
l \
\
. , 1\ /\
~ \/ \.i ,./ \j \ \ /r-",
-g " \/" I "
"
j,'
\
\" ,/ ,,\ >/
~
/ \
.. :.... .... ./ ... .... '~ .. .
I / . \ ......
\ I /..~, ., •.••••,I \ ••••••..••.• \ •.• ; . ; • \1

1
10.0
" , " \/ "

., Mean Monthly Wind Speed

..~ Mean Daily
5.0 " Wind Speed

0.0
3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31
Day of Month

Fig. 3.8. Wind Speed Cycles for March 1985 - Mobile

71
 Table 3.3a
Ten-Year (1965-1974) Wind Speed - Frequency of Occurrence
for Mobile , AL
Wind Speed (Knot,)
Month
0-3 4-6 7-10 11-16 17-21 Over 21 Avg. Speed

JAN 6.0 26.1 38.6 25.2 3.8 .4 8.8

FEB 7.3 24.0 37.5 25.7 4.9 .6 8.9

. MAR 7.2 22.1 37.2 28.0 5.0 .5 9.0

APR 6.5 24.0 36.3 28.2 4.4 .6 9.0

MAY 8.8 31.8 36.4 20.6 2.3 .1 7.8

JUN 12.3 39.6 36.8 11.1 .1 6.6

JUL 17.8 45.8 29.2 6.9 .2 5.7

AUG 19.5 45.7 29.0 5.2 .3 .1 5.6

SEP 16.5 39.7 31.7 11.1 .9 .1 6.4

ocr 14.0 37.9 34.5 13.2 .4 6.6

NOV 11.4 33.3 36.1 17.3 1.8 .1 7.4

DEC 7.8 28.3 36.5 24.4 2.9 .2 8.4

ANN 11.3 33.2 35.0 18.0 2.2 .2 7.5

* 1 knot = 1. 15 mph
Table 3.3b
Ten-Year (1965-1974) Wind Speed - Frequency of Occurrence
f or Mon!&omery, AL
Wind Speed (Knots)
Month
0-3 4-6 7-10 11-16 17-21 Over 21 Avg. Speed

JAN 22.4 31.4 31.0 14.2 .8 .1 6.5

FEB 18.0 30.2 33.2 16.0 2.3 .4 7.1

MAR 17.4 30.6 31.9 17.9 2.0 .2 7.2

APR 23.0 30.4 30.3 14.6 1.6 .2 6.6

MAY 28.7 33.8 28.2 8.8 .6 5.6

JUN 30.1 37.7 25.4 6.0 .7 .1 5.2

JUL 29.2 42.0 24.3 4.1 .4 5.1

AUG 34.8 43.5 19.0 2.6 4.5

SEP 32.6 39.6 22.7 4.9 .3 4.9

ocr 35.4 35.8 21.9 6.9 4.9

NOV 32.0 31.2 25.7 10.5 .6 5.5

DEC 25.6 31.2 27.7 14.6 .8 6.2

ANN 27.5 34.8 26.7 10.0 .8 .1 5.8

* 1 knot = I. 15 mph
72
 Table 3.3c
Ten-Year (1965-1974) Wind Speed - Frequency of Occurrence
f or B'mrunglham, AL
Wind Speed (Knots)
Month
0-3 4-6 7-10 11-16 17-21 Over 21 Avg. Speed

JAN 23.2 28.7 30.7 16.5 .9 6.6

FEB 21.4 . 24.6 32.3 19.0 2.5 .3 7.2

MAR 20.4 23.6 31.7 22.1 2.1 .1 7.4

APR 25.9 23.8 30.8 17.7 1.5 .4 6.7

MAY 35.4 28.5 25.6 9.9 .5 5.2

JUN 37.5 33.7 23.9 4.8 .1 .1 4.7

JUL 43.3 32.4 20.6 3.5 .1 .1 4.2

AUG 43.0 34.6 18.7 3.5 .1 4.2

SEP 37.5 31.9 24.7 5.8 .1 4.8

ocr 36.9 28.9 25.9 8.1 .2 5.0

NOV 34.5 25.7 25.2 13.2 l.l .3 5.8

DEC 26.0 27.3 28.0 17.0 1.5 .2 6.5

ANN 32.2 28.7 26.5 11.7 .9 .1 5.7

* 1 knot = 1.15 mph

Table 33d
Six-Year (1959-1964) Wind Speed - Frequency of Occurrence
for Huntsville , AL
Wind Speed (Knots)
Month
0-3 4-6 7-10 11-16 17-21 Over 21 Avg. Speed

JAN 20.9 26.2 28.2 21.7 2.8 .2 7.2

FEB 15.0 22.6 31.8 24.7 4.9 .9 8.3

MAR 14.5 19.9 32.3 26.8 5.3 1.2 8.6

APR 17.2 23.8 32.3 23.6 2.8 .3 7.7

MAY 26.9 30.2 29.5 12.6 .8 5.8

JUN 26.6 36.6 28.1 8.4 .3 5.3

JUL 30.5 39.0 25.0 5.0 .4 4.8

AUG 31.6 36.1 25.7 6.3 .3 4.9

SEP 23.8 29.3 31.9 13.4 1.5 .1 6.3

ocr 31.7 26.2 28.5 12.1 1.3 .1 5.6

NOV 26.7 25.7 26.4 18.0 2.4 .S 6.6

DEC 18.7 24.3 32.1 21.3 3.1 .6 7.5

ANN 23.8 28.2 29.3 16.1 2.1 .3 6.5

* 1 knot = 1. 15 mph
73
 .., ""' 7.,0 11." 17-.21 .. 21 .,
,.....'"
Wnd$pOed (\cNItS1

~ 7·'0 "." 17-.21 >21 17·21 .. 21

....
W~(\:n:lCSl

17.21 .. 21

--
7·10

eco.-
It·" 17-.21 .21
.., ~

--
_ _I
7·10 11·16 17-<' .. 21 .., "4
_"""",
7·10

0--
H·" .2'

Fig. 3.9a. Monthly Frequency of Occurrence vs. Wind Speed for Mobile, AL
for Period 1965-1974 (1 knot = 1.15 mph)
74
 7·10 11·16
_""""',
.........,

l
!
II
I

I
_"""",, 1.10 I,
..... _""""',

..."'iI .••.SfCT

O.J 7·10 11-'6 17·21

_"""",
(....C

.........

c.c
--
--
7·'0 u-" 17~1

Fig.3.9b. Monthly Frequency of Occurrence VS. Wind Speed for Montgomery, AL

for Period 1965-1974 (1 knot = 1.15 mph)
75
 ."
-""""
.. ~ 7-10 11·1, 17.,21 ~ 21 .21

......'"

7-10 11-1' noll ~ 21

.(.fii 7·10 l1·H; 17.,21 11·21 ~ 21

....
W~(ItnoCsl

.,.
-""""
.........

--"
7-10

"'*"-
17~1 ~ %1
."

Fig.3.9c. Monthly Frequency of Occurrence VS. Wind Speed for Birmingham, AL

for Period 1965-1974 (1 knot = 1.15 mph)
76
 ."

7.10 U·14i tr·ll ."

.....
_~I

." ," ."

"""

--
7·to

o.-w
n·" 170<1 .. 21

--
-
""" 7.10
_~I

0--
11·" 11-.21

Fig. 3.9d. Monthly Frequency of Occurrence vs. Wind Speed for Huntsville, AL
for Period 1959-1964 (1 knot = 1.15 mph)
77
great decrease in wind from the early spring and winter months. Winds are lowest during the summer

months of June to September. Throughout the year, the occurrence of winds above 17 knots is rare.

However, during winter and early spring, winds in the 16-21 knot range can occur quite often, depending

upon the location in the state.

There are discernable differences in wind speeds among the four cities. Huntsville and Mobile

data are very similar as are Montgomery and Birmingham. Huntsville and Mobile tend to show a

significantly greater frequency of wind speeds in the 11-16 knot range than Montgomery and

Birmingham. In February, March, and April, wind speeds from 11-16 knots have a frequency of

occurrence of 25-30% for Mobile and Huntsville. For the same months and wind speed range in

Montgomery and Birmingham, the frequency of occurrence is less than 20% except for 22.1 % for

Birmingham in March. All four cities show a significant decrease in wind speeds from May to October

except for Mobile in May. July and August are significantly the calmest months for all four cities.

3.4 Geographical Weather Variations

As indicated earlier, the weather variations geographically across Alabama are rather minimal.

For example, Fig. 3.10 is a graph depicting the annual mean daily temperatures shown in Tables 3.1a-

3.1d, and reflects a temperature decrease of only approximately 7-8°F from Mobile to Huntsville.

The mean annual relative humidity values for Alabama's four major cities shown in Figs. 3.5a-

3.5d are shown in bar graph form in Fig. 3.11. As evident in that figure, both the high and low annual

mean relative humidity values do not vary geographically in the state. It can be noted that a mean of the

relative humidities shown in Fig. 3.11 is 72% which is in good agreement with the map of Fig. 3.12.

Annual mean, mean maximum, and mean minimum monthly wind speeds (rounded to the nearest mph)

were taken from Figs. 3.6a-3.6d, and are shown in bar graph form in Fig. 3.13. This figure indicates the

greatest wind speeds at Mobile, following by Huntsville, with Montgomery and Birmingham showing the

same, smaller wind speeds. However, the difference across the state is small (9 to 11 mph). Fig. 3.14

78
 ANNUAL MEAN DAILY MAX.

HUNTSVILLE

BIRMINGHAM

MONTGOMERY

MOBILE

o 20 40 60 80 100
TEMPERATURE (oF)

Fig. 3.10. Annual Mean Daily Temperatures for Four Major Cities.

ANNUAL MEAN 0600 HR RH H·UGH)

HUNTSVILLE
I[utIffIf~~!~![!Itt[[[t- ANNUAL MEAN 1200 HR RH (~LOW)

MOBILE I

--I '\-,-,----,---,-----r---,-------,
o 50 60 70 80 90 100
RELATIVE HUMIDITY (%)

Fig. 3.11. Annual Mean High and Low Relative Humiditites for Four Major Cities.
79
 Fig. 3.12. Mean Annual Relative Humidity for Continental United States
in Percent [18].

HUNTSVITLE

BIRMINGHAM

MONTGOMERY

MOBILE

o 2 4 6 8 10 12

WIND SPEED (MPH)

Fig. 3.13. Mean Wind Speeds for Four Major Cities.

80
 ,--------------------------------, I
!

40 35
32.2

Wlnd'peed (knots) Winds peed (knots)

Windspeed vs. Frequency of Occurrence Windspeed vs. Frequency of Occurrence

(Birmingham. Alabama. 1965-1974) (Huntsville. Alabama. 1959·1964)

40 40
35 34.8
Avg. = 7.5 KT
~30
>-
u
~20
:>
CT

"
~ 10

0-3 4-6 7-10 11-16 17-21 > 21 0-3 4-6 > 21

Winds peed (knots) Windspeed (knots)

Windspeed vs. Frequency 01 Occurrence Windspeed vs. Frequency 01 Occurrence

(Mobile. Alabama. 1965-1974) (Montgomery. Alabama. 1965-1974)

Fig. 3.14. Annual Frequency of Occurrence vs. Wind Speed (1 knot = 1.15 mph)
81
shows annual frequency of occurrence curves for the four major cities and indicates that Mobile is the

windiest city, followed by Huntsville with Montgomery and Birmingham exhibiting very similar wind

activity.

Mean annual values of the weather parameters considered in this investigation for the four major

cities in Alabama are shown in Figs. 3.15-3.17. Also, shown in the figures are estimated contour lines

depicting the variation of the parameters across the state.

3.5 Diurnal Weather Variations

As indicated in Fig. 3.1, the diurnal variations in the weather parameters are substantial, and

quantifying the variations shown in Fig. 3.1 was needed for the four major cities in Alabama. Fig. 3.18 is

a plot of the mean daily temperature cycle, Fig 3.19 is a plot of the mean daily relative humidity cycle,

and Fig. 3.20 is a plot of the mean daily wind speed cycle for January for the four major cities. Plots for

all twelve months are presented in Appendix A.

A daily temperature cycle for any month in any city indicates that temperature is lowest at 5-6

a.m. The peak temperature occurs between 12-3 p.m. with 2 p.m. as the most common hour for peak

temperature. The temperature tends to rise faster from the low in the morning to the afternoon peak than

it descends from the afternoon peak to the morning low. For inland cities, Montgomery, Birmingham,

and Huntsville, the peak in the winter months (December-March) and April tends to be at 3 p.m. with 2

p.m. as the peak for the remaining months. For Mobile, the most common peak temperature is at 2 p.m.

for the fall, winter, and spring months (September-May). During the hot summer months (June-August),

the peak is at 12 p.m. or 1 p.m. This earlier peak is due to Mobile's close proximity to the Gulf of

Mexico. Around noon, during the summer, a cooling sea breeze curbs temperature rise and also brings

rainstorms into the area which also create a cooling effect.

Note in Figs. 3.18 and 3.19 that relative humidity varies inversely with the cycle of temperature.

The high value for relative humidity occurs in the morning around dawn and the low value is

82
 HUNTSVILLE
- - - - - - • (71.0) - - - -

Blru.nNGHAM
- - - - - - - .(73.0)------

- -75'F
MONTGOMERY
• (75.8)

----------------- --77'F

Fig. 3.15. Mean Annual Maximum Temperatures; Values and Distributions for Alabama.

HUNTSVILLE
.(69'%)

BIru.fINGHAM
-------·.(72%)------ (72%)

MONTGOMERY
----------.(72%)---- --(72%)

MOBILE
- - - - - - - - - - - - (74%)

Fig. 3.16. Mean Annual Relative Humidity; Values and Distributions for Alabama.
83
 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - ~--- -----

HUNTSVILLE
• (7.S MPH)

------(7MPH) - - - -

BrRMINGHAM
• (6.4 MPH)

MONTGOMERY
• (6.6 MPH)

- - - - - - - (7MPH)-------

- -------(SMPH)------

MOBILE
.(8.7 MPH)
- ~--(9MPH)--------

Fig. 3.17. Mean Annual Wind Speed; Values and Distributions for Alabama.

60.0
- Mobile
......... Monl.
- -- Sham.
55.0 - - Hunl.'.

50.0 .-- ......

c;:-
oo ...
~" ...
~ / /
/

45.0 "-
~ / ... '" "- ...............
8. /
/
... "-
"-
E "-
~ ./ /
/
"-
40.0 I I ""
•
/ I
/

. - -...... / I /
• J

35.0 ----_/ ...

30.0
12a.m. 3 6 9 12 p.m. 3 6 9 12a.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. 3.18. Mean Daily Temperature Cycle - January

84
 90.0 Ir---_r~-~_,_---~--_r---_,_---,._--- ,----,

f - tvh·hlll!
MI.ne
Bh:un
HunlS

80.0

~
>-
'0
"e:E 70.0

"
.~
~
60.0

50.0 '--_ _..L-_ _- ' -_ _- - - " ' __ _ ~ _ ___'__ _ ~'_ __ ~ __ ~

12a.m. 6 9 12 p.m. 3 6 <) 12 a.m.

Time of Day (hours)

Fig. 3.19. Mean Daily Relative Humidity Cycle - January

11.0
-Mt-hik
Mllnt.
Sham.
10.0 - .- Hunts.

r - . - - - - .....

9.0
/
/
'" \
\
/
.2
0-
/ \
/ \
.§.
1] 8.0
/
/ ....
.:- ~ ....... . .... ;:.:..;,.. ,.. " \

0- /

'"-g i/
\

~ \
,
.j
7.0 ...

..... ,
6.0 .. ,
5.0 t·:·:::;·,··_·:·,,,· ,.. - .~". /.,.
12a.m. 3 6 9 12 p.m. 6 9 12n.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. 3.20. Mean Daily Wind Speed Cycle - January

85
simultaneous with the temperature peak in early to mid-afternoon. Humidity decreases more rapidly in

the morning than it increases in the evening hours due to its inverse relation to temperature.

Mean midday humidity values show little change throughout the year, usually falling in the

upper-50% range to the low-60% range, with the exception being March, April, October, and November.

During these four months, mean relative humidity drops into the mid-40% range for the low value.

During hot and warm months (May to October) the mean relative humidity in early morning (high value)

is around 90%. This indicates that during these warm months, as temperature increases with the rise of

the sun. humidity drops rapidly. Fig. 3.19 reflects that across the state there is little variation in relative

humidity. This is consistent with seasonal variations across the state discussed in the previous section.

Due to the close relationship between the daily cycles of relative humidity and temperature, it is

helpful to consider their contribution to evaporation rate together. During the daily cycle, low value of

relative humidity occurs simultaneously with the high temperature, and, likewise, high relative humidity

is coupled with low temperature. The combination of low relative humidity and high temperature

produces high evaporation rates. Therefore, evaporation rate will "peak" with the afternoon combination

of low relative humidity and high temperature. From this point on, "peak" conditions will refer to this

critical time for evaporation rate.

Analysis of the mean daily wind speed cycle for January, shown in Fig. 3.20, reveals that the

wind speed is relatively constant and low between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m. Wind speed increases from 6 a.m. or

near dawn until the early to mid-afternoon time of peak evaporation rate conditions. As evident in Fig.

3.20 wind speed is greatest around midday (12-1 p.m.). The mean wind speed then decreases until 6 p.m.

or around sundown. Geographically, Mobile has the highest mean wind speeds with Huntsville a close

second. Montgomery and Birmingham show little difference in mean wind speed curves and are

approximately 2 mph below Huntsville.

86
 Table 3.4a. Ten - Year (1965 - 1974) Wind Speed - Mean Number of Days (by hour of day) for Mobile, AL

Wind Speed Hour or Day Wind Speed Hour of Day

Mon,h Monlh
(Knots) 0000 0)00 0600 0900 1200 1500 1800 2100 (KnolS) 0000 0)00 0600 0900 1200 1500 1800 2100
Calm 2.1 2.) 1.6 .5 .7 .) 5 2.6 Calm 6.6 7.6 5.6 15 .8 .5 9 5.3
1·6 10.0 9.9 9.8 6.1 5.8 5.7 11.2 10.) 1·6 21.5 197 205 1)3 122 85 117 21.6
7·10 12.0 11.9 12.3 12.9 10.9 12.3 11.8 II.~ 7,10 29 )7 4.8 141 III 14.2 154 4.0
JAN JUI.
11·16 5.6 6.0 6.6 10.3 'I.l 9.8 6.9 5.9 11·16 I 20 47 74 2.9 I
17·21 1.2 .8 .l 1.0 2.1 2.8 .4 6 17·21 I 4 I
liver 21 I .1 I 2 .2 .1 2 .1 oyer 21
Calm 2.7 2.6 2.0 .9 .5 .2 .4 1.5 Calm 7.7 7.4 5.4 12 4 .4 14 52
1·6 8.8 9.6 10.8 4.9 4.4 4.5 7.5 9.3 1·6 19.0 20.) 19.8 15.1 12.8 9.8 15.5 203
7·10 9.7 11.4 9.3 11.5 8.8 9.1 13.7 11.1 7·10 4.1 3.1 5.6 129 14.1 14,4 12.6 52
FEB AUG
11·16 5.6 ).6 5.2 9.6 11.6 11.7 5.9 4.8 11·16 I .1 J.7 3.4 6.1 1.4 2
17.21 I.l .8 .8 1.2 2.7 2.5 .4 I.l 11·21 3 .3
over 21 .1 .2 .1 .1 .2 .2 .3 .2 over 21 .1 I I .1 I
Calm 2.4 2.7 ).5 4 .5 3 .2 2.3 Calm 7.2 5.9 39 10 8 6 II 57
1·6 10.7 11.6 10.0 4.4 5.3 3.4 ~.3 9.6 1·6 15.6 168 173 10J 7.4 78 176 15.9
7·10 11.1 10.7 12.0 12.0 9.7 9.6 ID 119 7·10 59 56 74 137 14.0 1:\1 9 I 6.6
MAR SEPT
11·16 5.9 5.1 5.1 122 12.1 14.3 8.8 5.9 11·16 12 1.4 12 47 70 75 19 17
17·21 9 9 4 2.0 3.0 2.8 1.1 1.2 17·21 ) 2 ) 8 4 I I
over 21 .4 .6 .3 I ove.21 I 2
Calm 2.4 26 II 7 4 I ) 9 Calm 62 49 )7 6 5 6 16 47

00 API(
'·6
7·10
115
10.4
135
'17
1.11
9.5 11.7
". <1.0
K'1
l.t}
8.6
)2
153
II '2
11.g
UeT
1·6
J·IU
151
76
157
87
I~ 7
9.4
RI
149
K .1
127
R.O
140
187
96
I. I
87
4.8 ).7 41 11.1 12.8 107 4.6 11·16 2.1 1.6
"'-J
11·1t>
11·21 5 4 5 23 Jl
15.4
27 4 4 )7·21 I
" 6.9
5
91
I
8.2
2
II 15

"vc=r21 .) I ) 5 .2 oyer 21 I
C .. hu 3.4 2.8 2M 4 7 .4 I 22 Cohn 4.6 39 29 12 ) ) 15 39
, ·6 167 '8.2 159 67 53 41 5.5 155 1·6 12K 13.0 14.0 63 78 70 15) 124
7·JO 9 I 81 '12 139 124 109 16.2 1U5 7·10 8.9 10 I 98 14.4 110 127 98 100
MAY NOV
11·16
17·21
17
I ,
'K )0
, KR
II
'06
'2 ()
1)7
1'1
S8
4
2b
2
J '·16
17·21
) 4
)
27
)
2'1
4
74
7
95
I)
92
7
)1
.1
34
J
uver 21 I ovel21 I .1
Cairn 3.8 5.2 J3 .5 .6 .) 3 ).2 Calm 19 21 1.6 4 3 8 14 23
1·6 19.4 18.3 17.7 10.1 8.4 6.4 8.1 19.0 1·6 12.0 12.2 122 6.5 59 62 129 10.7
7·10 6.3 5.9 8.3 14.9 15.3 14.0 16.7 7.0 7·10 11.0 100 10.9 14.1 123 105 100 117
JUN DEC
11·1(1 .5 .6 7 4) 5.6 '11 4.8 K 11-16 5) 58 lR 95 110 12U 58 54
17·21 I I 17-21 7 8 5 5 15 15 8 8
over 21 I .1 over 21 I ___ --' I I
--

Hour of 0 .. ,.
:viomh
Wind Spc:cd
(Knots) 0000 0300 0600 0900 1200 1500 1800 2100

Calm 51.0 50.0 J8.8 9.3 6.5 4K 97 39.8

1·6 1731 178.8 1768 95.4 87.8 14.3 1)2.5 1719
7·10 99.0 98.9 108.5 161.0 143.4 144.0 155.5 111.0
ANNUAL 36.1 ll.4 )7.0 88.9 108.7 124.4 62 I 36.9
11·16
17·21 5.0 4.5 J.) 9.8 17.2 16.3 4.0 4.9
over 21 8 ..I .5 .7' 15 I) 13 6
 Table 3.4b. Ten - Year (1965 - 1974) Wind Speed - Mean Number of Days (by hour of day) for Montgomery, AL

Wind Speed Hour of D.y Wind Speed Hour or OilY

Month Month
(KnOl') ()()()() 0300 0600 0900 1200 1500 1800 2100 (Knou) 0000 0300 0600 0900 1200 1500 1800 2100
Calm 5.5 5.9 5.6 2.3 .8 .6 3.1 D Calm 6.7 91 6.9 1.3 4 .3 8 5.3
1·6 13.7 13.3 14.0 11.8 11.2 10.5 156 14.3 1·6 21.0 19.7 209 197 156 118 16.) 207
7·10 8.0 8.3 87 12.0 11.4 11.7 8.7 8.0
JUI.
7·10 J.l 22 32 8.6 119 151 114 47
JAN 46
11-16 3.6 3.3 2.4 6.9 77 3.4 33 11·16 2 14 JO 31 22 J
17·21 .1 I 3 3 .6 4 2 I 17·21 I 7 )
(lverll .1 .1 I over 21
C;'Ilm 4.7 5.7 51 8 .3 I 1.8 3.1 Cnlm 7.9 9.6 87 20 ) J 18 77
1·6 IU 122 12 J 9.6 U 8.1 13.9 12.0 1·6 21 2 19K 20.5 19 K 17K IlK 21 ) 198
7·10 8.J U 8.1 11.8 11.3 10 I 8.5 1).3 7·\0 1.9 1.(1 17 8J 116 125 6.3 3.2
FEU AUG
11·16 3.4 2.5 2.0 5.4 7.9 7.8 3.8 3.2 11·16 I 9 13 24 15 3
17·21 .2 J 7 .6 .9 \.7 2 .5 17·21 I
over 21 .1 .3 .4 .1 over 21
Calm 4.1 5.7 4.9 .8 .1 .4 1.4 3.2 Calm 8.8 10.3 8.9 1.4 5 .6 3.1 8.1
1·6 14.3 15.6 15.5 10.0 8.0 8.0 14.:\ 127 1·6 17.1 15.5 16.7 165 14.5 I).) 203 17.6
7-10 8.9 6.4 8.0 12.8 11.2 11.9 9.7 10.3 7·10 3.5 4.0 3.9 9.8 12.0 12.5 5.5 3.3
MAR SEP
11·16 3.3 3.1 2.4 6.2 10.1 9.5 SA 4.J 11·16 5 2 5 2.1 29 3.5 10 10
17·21 .4 I .1 1.2 1.5 1.0 .2 .4 17·21 I 2 I I I
over 21 .1 .1 .1 .2 .1 OV(121

Calm 5.3 6.4 7.0 .7 .4 .3 1.4 5.7 Calm III 108 10.1 21 I 6 63 93
1·6 15.1 15.5 15.0 9.7 8.5 8.6 14.9 \J5 1·6 15.7 168 16 ) 142 129 129 207 166
7·10 8.0 6.3 6.5 115 10.9 12.3 10.1 72 7·10 ).6 )1 3.6 108 124 I) 0 3.5 43
00 APR OCT
11·16 1.4 1.6 1.5 7.2 9.0 7.8 2.9 3.6 11.16 5 ) 1.0 lY 55 45 5 8
00 17·21 .1 .2 8 1.2 9 6 17·21 I
over 21 .1 I I .1 over 21 I
Calm 8.7 10.5 8.9 .5 .3 2 17 8.6 Calm 9.1 8.5 8.8 2.3 7 .3 5.9 8.0
1·6 15.4 16.2 16.9 117 9.6 9.6 17.8 16.3 1·6 13.6 14.9 13.9 13.4 11.9 10.5 161 13.9
7·10 6.0 3.5 4.5 13.4 14.1 14.2 9.5 47 7·10 5.4 5.0 54 10.1 114 12.7 62 55
MAY NOV
11·16 .9 7 6 31 6.9 6.4 1.9 1.2 11·16 18 \.4 17 4.1 5.6 6.2 17 26
17·21 .1 I 3 .1 .6 I 2 17.21 I .2 2 I 4 3 .1
uver 21 over 21

Calm 9.1 10.9 74 .9 .4 .3 1.3 7.5 Calm 7.5 6.4 6.0 1.4 4 1.0 4.9 64
1·6 16.4 16.2 17.8 174 13.3 11.6 15.3 17.0 1·6 13.6 14.0 14.4 149 113 105 15.2 12.8
7·10 4.0 2.6 4.2 8.1 12.0 13.5 11.7 4.8 7·10 6.1 71 7.1 9.7 10.7 12.) 77 8 I
JUN DEC
11·llI .5 .J 6 lJ 3.7 3.7 16 (, 11·16 3.6 J4 J ~ .j) 80 64 )1 35
17·21 3 5 7 I I 17·21 2 I ) (, 6 I 1
over 21 .1 .2 over 21 1
- ----

Wind Speed
Hour or Day
Month ()()()()
(KnOll) 0300 0600 0900 1200 1500 1800 2100
Calm 885 998 KK 3 165 47 50 3:15 7e2
1·6 IKH'I 1897 IIH2 11{J 7 1<121 IJ I ') 21J17 1871
7·10 668 57.fl MI) 12() 9 14U,I) 151 K IJK II 1)4
ANNUAl. 11·16 197 16.8 16.3 46 t) 708 690 29.0 247
17·21 12 II 14 41 61 70 2.1 15
over 21 3 2 .1 I 6 12 2
 Table 3Ac. Ten - Year (1965 - 1974) Wind Speed - Mean Number of Days (by hour of day) for Birmingham, AL

Wind Sp(:ed Hour or Day Wind Speed Hour of Do)'

Month Monlh
(KnolS) 0000 0300 0600 0900 1200 1100 1800 2100 (Knot!') 0000 0)00 0600 0900 1200 1500 1800 2100
Cairn 1.9 6.) 7) ) 4 .4 1.0 3.0 64 C,,1111 142 154 15.9 ).) II I) )0 108
\·6 12.9 117 10 :2 1f}.1 10.0 I).~ \6. 1) IJJ 1·6 144 1:\5 131 17) I~ M 1.:\7 17."1 173
7,10 8.2 9.2 8~ 11.\ 121} 11.2 7.6 b.K J·I() 21 20 19 95 \1 h 12 89
JAN JUL oJ 27
11·16
17·21
).7
.3
3.7
I
44
2 ,
~ ~ 7.1
.6
9.0
3
3.4
I
4.2
)
11-16
11·21
) I I 9
"2 ).
I
15 2

ovc=r 21 ove.21 I I I
Calm 5.8 6.9 69 19 8 7 15 , 2 Calm 12 (1 147 140 lJ 9 II 14 10 I
1·6 9.5 1).4 10.3 80 7.1 6.5 12.7 114 1·6 16.7 1.. ,"1 1:').\ 187 1."1.6 147 21 I 177
7·10 8.5 8.5 72 11.6 10.5 9.9 8.8 7.9 7·10 1.4 16 14 91 12) 12.2 57 17
FEB 3.7 ).0 II 1.8 8.6 9.9 4.6 4.1
AUG
11·16
11·16 .) .2 I 8 22 28 18 5
17·21 .5 .J 7 8 1.2 1.2 .6 4 17·21 I 2
over 21 .2 .1 I 2 over 21
Calm 6.1 6.'1 6.4 19 .9 5 1.4 :') J Calm 11.6 10.8 11.0 2.3 8 9 30 97
1·6 12.1 12.4 12 ) "8 5.7 6.4 11.4 13 '2 ,.(, 141 149 137 1).(1 II I) 123 209 152
7·10 7.4 7.8 7.8 13.1 11.5 11.1 11.9 8.1 1·10 ).) ):') 4.5 122 113 131 53 40
MAR SEll
11-16 5.1 4.3 4.1 91 II.) 11.2 57 3.9 11·16 1.0 8 7 18 40 .10 S II
4 .4 11·21
17·21
over 21
) .1 I 1.6 1.7
.1 " I ovc=r 21
Cohn
I I I

Cal III 7.9 9.0 94 .6 10 12 II 6.9 10.6 128 117 32 5 7 5.0 87

.
1·6 11.0 9.9 10 I I} ~ 7.9 77 12.3 137 I·b IJH 116 12) 120 114 122 212 154
ex:> API{
7·10 7.3 7.2 71 120 11.4 III II) 6' OCT
1-10 51 .12 57 112 141 12.9 4.) 58
I.D 11.(6 ).5 3.7 :U 71 84 9.0 49 27 11,16 15 I) 13 4.6 4', 51 II
17·21 .2 2 I 7 II 9 2 2 17·21 I I I I
,,'lee 21 I .1 I .2 .1 2 I oyer 21

C::.hn 13.6 1).4 12.9 2 I .8 .8 2.0 11.2 Calm 10.0 10.0 100 3.2 8 9 4.0 7.7
'·6 IlJ 12.0 119 122 10.4 10.8 11.6 147 1·6 12.2 121 125 HJ4 90 102 169 137
7·10 3.4 44 45 116 13.6 12 I) 9) ) K 7·10 45 ~(J 48 107 II K Jill 65 56
M,\'!' NOV
11·16
17·21
1.7 II
.1
17 49
2
5.7
5
6.0
5
21 I) 11·16
17·21
28
2
22
)
23
3
54
3
71
7
67
, ", 29
I
over 21 over 21 3 I 2
C::.lm 12.9 15.) 1).6 17 5 1.0 1.6 10.0 Calm HJ 74 8.1 25 0 6 '.6 59
I·b 14.3 12.) 12.7 11.4 1).3 11.0 18.8 16.4 1·6 lOA 11.6 114 III 110 115 147 125
7·10 2.2 2.1 3.4 I L4 12.4 14.2 S.2 ).4 7·10 6.5 7) 71 108 II) 110 18 76
JUN DEC 11·16
11·16 6 ) ) 15 3.6 ).5 14 2 51 40 4.2 63 7) 71 37 44
17·21 .1 2 17·21 J 6 2 ) J 6 2 5
ovcI21 I I liver 21 I I 2 I
-

Houf or Do)'
~Ionlh
Wmd Speed
(KnOIS) 0000 0300 0600 0900 1200 ISOO 1800 2100
C;,hn II') ~ 1211, 1\ 127 2 284 91 107 )26 961)
I·b 153 1 1t\6.1 11\(,0 1451\ 121)7 l2(d 202{J 17015
7·10 59.9 638 643 1)45 14b.7 14) 6 95.6 M.8
ANNUAL 11·16 29.3 241 U5 ~J7 72.4 77) 266
.12 ."
17·21 n 18 20 ).0 68 6) 22 1.9
uver 21 2 H S
 - - - ------------

Tables 3.4a-3.4c provide the mean number of days in each month, for each city, where wind

speed readings fall into a wind speed range at a particular hour of the day. This data was not available for

Huntsville, but it could be expected that Huntsville would be similar to Mobile. According to data from

Tables 3.4a-3.4c, the windiest period of the day is 12-3 p.m. In every month of the year, a higher mean

number of days for the 11-16 knot and 17-21 knot ranges are found in the 1200 or 1500 time slot. In other

words, if higher wind speeds occur, they are most likely to occur between 12-3 p.m. Tables 3.3a-3.3c also

provide the mean number of days in a month that high wind speeds can be expected, a helpful tool for

construction planning. Data in these tables clearly exhibit the same geographical and seasonal trends

found in Tables 3.1 a-3.1d. A higher number of mean days fall in the plus 11 knot ranges from February

to April, and Mobile has more days in these wind speed ranges than Birmingham and Montgomery.

3.6 Closure

Mean values of the weather parameters are good for long range and general planning. However,

they are not adequate for making decisions regarding curing requirements for a concrete deck placement

at a given time of the year, time of day, and location in Alabama. For this case, more accurate values of

parameters are needed along with there daily cycle variation "signatures". This information is readily

available in the figures given In Appendix A. These figures will be later used in Chapter 5 in conjunction

with the ACI 305 Surface Evaporation Chart to develop evaporation rate vs. time of day curves for

different seasons of the year and locations in Alabama.

For a concrete deck placement at a given location, on a given day, at a given time of day, the

construction contractor and inspector should secure the corresponding temperature, relative humidity,

and wind speed predictions along with the rainfall forecasts. It is important to know if the values

provided are the maximum values or values at a particular time. Knowing this along with the 24-hour

cycle signature in Appendix A will allow accurate estimation of the values at any time during the day if

needed. The temperature and relative humidity parameters are "well-behaved" and fairly predictable. The

wind speed and precipitation parameters are highly variable and are not as predictable. Wind speed

90
conditions should be handled in a somewhat similar manner as precipitation, i.e., as when rain is

predicted and concrete placement is rescheduled, placement of concrete in bridge decks should be

rescheduled when predicted wind speeds are excessive (20 mph or higher).

Values and variations of temperature, relative humidity, and surface wind speed for various

regions of the state, times of year, and time of day have been gathered and presented in this chapter.

However, the concern of this investigation is not weather itself, but rather its relation to evaporation rate

of concrete water and the associated curing requirements. Thus, before concrete exposure conditions and

curing requirements for various exposures can be determined properly, other parameters such as concrete

temperatures and water evaporation rates should be considered. These will be examined in the ensuing

chapters.

91
 4. CONCRETE TEMPERATURE AND AMBIENT TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIPS

4.1 General

In order to accurately predict evaporative conditions, ambient conditions and concrete

temperature must be known or accurately estimated. The value of concrete temperature depends upon the

temperature of the mixture ingredients and the heat produced by the chemical reaction between cement

and water. It would be helpful if concrete temperature could be estimated using simplified expressions

instead of calculating temperature through use of complex equations. The control of concrete

temperature is very important. In all weather conditions, a concrete temperature significantly higher than

the ambient temperature can produce detrimental evaporation rates. Furthermore, Neville [28] writes that

high concrete temperatures cause increase in water demand, accelerated slump loss which means less

workability, more rapid hydration which tends to lower long-term compressive strengths, rapid

evaporation causing great risk of plastic shrinkage cracking, and introduction of higher tensile stresses

upon cooling.

4.2 Temperature Rise in Fresh Concrete

The chemical reaction between cement and water, hydration, is an exothermic reaction, i.e., a

reaction which releases heat. If the mass of the concrete placement is large, a significant rise in the

concrete temperature can occur. Although this is of greater concern when dealing with massive

placements with a high volume-to- surface ratio such as concrete dams, the core of a bridge deck can

experience a significant rise in temperature, especially with the use of stay-in-place forms. Fig. 4.1a-c

illustrates the rise of temperature in concrete lab specimens due to heat of hydration. The data from these

plots was produced in a study for the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation (Penn DOT) conducted

92
 ---+- Honeyhole

~ Ne ... ("t~rprlsC'

- - Drovo Bo",
- Glo6ol/Stcte ~:;

L...
w 78.~

'"::>
~
w 75.6
Cl.
:::E
""'>-
72.8

TlME:(hours)

(a) Effect of Aggregates

67 --+- Loneslor :

-e- It"ldepet"ldC"

- Lehigh I
63.6
- Loncslor Ii

L...
,,",60.2

'"::>
~
w 76.8
Cl.
:::E
....""'
7),4

TlME:(hourS)

b) Effect of Cement Type/Source

67 - WSA IJ4
~ wSA I~O

- WSA 1~3
63.6
-0- W$A 1:7

80.2

'"""'::>
~
w 76.8
Cl.
::;;
....""'
1J,4

o
"
N ...'"
TIME:(hOUrs)

c) Effect of Mixture Design

Fig. 4.1. Heat of Hydration vs. Time Curves for Laboratory Specimens [15]
93
by Wilbur Smith and Associates [15]. In Fig. 4.1a, effect of aggregates on temperature rise due to heat of

hydration is shown. To isolate the effect of aggregates, each mixture contained the same Type I cement.

For all ofthe mixtures, the maximum temperature was reached in 8-10 hours after mixing. The

temperature began to decrease at 14-16 hours. According to this data, aggregate type has little effect on

the temperature gain due to hydration. Fig. 4. lb displays how heat gain changes with different cement

types. Two of the Type I mixtures reached their maximum temperature at 10 hours and their temperature

decreased at 12-14 hours. At 18 hours, the Lonestar Type I reached a significantly higher temperature

than the other Type I mixtures and temperature decreased at 22-24 hours. Temperature for a Type H

cement, a moderate heat cement, peaked at 22 hours and decreased soon afterward. Obviously, cement

type has a considerable impact on the magnitude of temperature rise and the initial rate of temperature

increase. Fig. 4. 1 c is a plot of temperature rise vs. time for actual in-place bridge deck mixtures on Penn

DOT projects. All of the mixtures were made with Type I cement and WSA #57 was made with Lonestar

Type 1. All of the mixtures except WSA #57 reached the maximum temperature at 8-10 hours and began

to decrease around 12 hours. The Lonestar mixture exhibited similar temperature rise and decrease as

shown in Fig. 4. 1 b, reaching a higher temperature at 18 hours.

From the data of Fig. 4. 1 a-c, it is evident that choice of cement in bridge deck construction is

very important. Lower heat of hydration cements can reduce the magnitude of temperature rise of the

concrete and slow the rate of temperature rise, two desirable factors in bridge deck construction. As the

concrete temperature rises, evaporation rate of the surface increases at the time when the concrete is most

vulnerable to plastic and early drying shrinkage. A higher magnitude of temperature increase would

induce greater tensile stresses upon cooling by creating a large temperature differential between the deck

concrete and the surrounding environment.

4.3 Calculation of Concrete Temperature

Calculation of freshly mixed concrete temperature depends mainly upon the temperature of the

mixture ingredients. An equation is provided by ACI 305 [7] for calculation of temperature of freshly

94
mixed concrete, T, and is as follows:

O.22(Ta Wa+ Tc W) + TwWw + TaWwa

T (4.1)
O.22(Wa+W)+Ww +Wwa

T,=Temperature. of Agg. W,=Dry Agg. Weight Ww,=Weight of Free and Absorbed

Tc=Temperature.ofCement Wc=Weight of Cement Moisture in Aggregate
Tw=Temperature of Water Ww=Weight of Water

The preceding equation is valid for calculation with US or Sl units. A similar equation can be used to

calculate the temperature of freshly mixed concrete when using ice as a replacement by weight for some

of the mixing water. This technique is often used in hot weather concreting to lower the temperature of

the concrete. A different equation is needed depending upon which standards system is used and uses the

same nomenclature as the preceding ACI equation and each are provided below:

O.22(Ta Wa+Tc W) TwWw i TaWwa -W (79.6-0.5T) (4.2a)

T -----------------------+----------------------- (Sf)
O.22(Wa +W)+W
c w
+w.+W
I wa
O.22(Wa +W)+W
c w
+W.+W
I wa

O.22(Ta Wa+ Tc W)TwWw + TaWwa -Wp28-0.5T)

T (US) (4.2b)
O.22(Wa +W)+W
c w
+W.+W
I wa
O.22(Wa +W)+W
c w
+W.+W
I wa

T;=Temperature of Ice W;=Weight of Ice

PIP [19] provides a simplified equation to calculate the temperature of freshly mixed concrete and is as

follows:

Tc
+ATa+5WT
w
T (4.3)
1+A+5W

Tc=Temperature of Cement T w=Temperature of Water W=Waterl Cement Ratio

T,=Temperature of Aggregate A=Aggregate ICement Ratio

95
Fig. 4.2 is a nomograph developed from the FIP equation to calculate temperature of freshly mixed

concrete. Another nomograph is provided by Kosmatka and Panarese [22] and is shown in Fig. 4.3.

All of the above methods produce the temperature of freshly mixed concrete whose value is

directly related to the temperature of the mixture constituents. Neville [28] states that temperature of the

concrete at placement will be higher due to the mechanical work of the mixer and due to heat of

hydration.

4.4 Empirical Concrete Temperature Relationships

In this study, field measurements of concrete temperature and ambient temperature were obtained

in order to determine the relationship between concrete and ambient temperature. This is a good way to

estimate concrete temperature because the mixture ingredients will be at some temperature which relates

to ambient temperature and it is very easy to measure the ambient air temperature as opposed to

accurately measuring the temperature of every mixture ingredient. Three data sets were acquired and

analyzed. One of the data sets consisted of measurements of concrete temperature and corresponding

ambient temperature extracted from actual ALDOT bridge deck construction reports on three different

projects by the authors. The other sets contained the same measurements at jobsites in the Atlanta area

for 4000 psi concrete and were extracted and provided by Blue Circle Cement Company. All three sets

included measurements from throughout the year and are presented in Appendix B.

Each data set was plotted and a linear regression performed to develop an equation to calculate

concrete temperature from ambient temperature. These plots with superimposed regression lines and

equations are shown in Fig. 4.4-4.7. Fig. 4.8 is a plot of all three equations developed from linear

regression of the data sets for comparative. purposes. Above 70°F, the equations are in fairly close

agreement. Concrete temperatures used for calculation of evaporation rates in Chapter 5 were obtained

from use of the ALDOT Eqn. 4.4 (see Table 4. 1). This equation was chosen because this study is

concerned with evaporation rates when using the present ALDOT mixture for bridge deck concrete. Also,

the close proximity of Eqn. 4.4 to the equations from the Blue Circle data provides confidence in the use

96
 --- ------- ---------_._----------- · -~------"-----.----.--'~-'---~---~---.-.---­

10

20 ~
3
~~ .... 5
.... ....
30
.... ,
p ,
.... ....
~ 40
.... ,
;;;
,
~
~ SO .... ,
,,
,
00

70

SC

90
Aggregate Conctete Waler Cerne"!

Fig. 4.2. Nomograph for Determining Approximate Temperature of Fresh Concrete [19]
~ginq-water temperoture, OF

80 110
Aqqreqate temperoture, OF

Fig. 4.3. Temperature of Freshly Mixed Concrete as Affected by

IngredientTemperature[22]
97
 wo.o I
I

I
i
90.0 ~
G:: l

~
00

"
::?
~ BO.O
"§" 1
I
"
c.
E [ '"
~ II
70.0 ~ Tc = O.(i(}4Ta + 26.2
"
E
u
c
0
l' *
u
*~ '"
0001 '" '"
*:. ! "'..
"*.

* .. .. *
50.0
'" '" ..'" '" *
** .
40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 BO.O 90.0 WO.D
Ambient Temperature (deg F)

Fig. 4.4. ALDOT Concrete - Ambient Temperature Data

([2 = 0.767)

ICXI.O I
/1
~
./
Tc =Ta
90.0 ... . . : .. ..
.:.. . y.. . . . ": .
,
·it
G::
co
"
::?
BO.D ~ Tc =Ta + 5 ..
!
~
""
. .. .. ///~Ta=TC
:= r
~E 70.0 rI ""
~ i
I
Tc = Ta + 10

.: . .. "."

. \:
~
'"
~
c
0
u
60.0 ~
I
i
. " "
'",

,- ../

50.0
r·
! "'"
"
"
""
I
40.0 Ie "
"" -----.J
I
40 () 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 l(Xl.O
Ambient Temperature (deg F)

Fig. 4.5. Approximate Concrete - Ambient Temperature

Relationship Developed from ALDOT Data

98
 100.0 , - - - - - - - , - - - - - , - - - - - r - - - - - - r - - - - - - , - - - - - - ,

90.0 *
*

60.0

50.0 L-_--~---~--~----'-----'--------'-----'
35.0 45.0 55.0 65.0 75.0 85.0 95.0
Ambient Temperature (deg F)

Fig. 4.6. Blue Circle Cement Concrete - Ambient Temperature

Data Set #1([2 = 0.918)

80.0
G::'
00
3
~
.3
e *'
8. 70.0
E
~ *
.!l
~
* *
u
c
(3 * * *
60.0
* *'
* *
50.0 '--_ _ _ _ _ _-'--_ _ __'__ _ _____'_ _ _ _. L __ _ __ '
~

35.0 45.0 55.0 65.0 75.0 85.0 95.0

Ambient Temperature (deg F)

Fig. 4.7. Blue Circle Cement Concrete - Ambient Temperature

Data Set #2 ([2 = 0.576)
99
 - ----~-----~------~----~-----~
-- -----~-~~~~~--~- -- - ~---

100.0

90.0 Blue Circle. Equation One

(4.5)

[L
O!)
<U
::s L
....<U
:J
80.0
~~~~
~x . ",' Blue Circle Equation Two
~
....
<U
- ",' '" (4.6)
P-
E
<U
E-
~ 70.0
....
<U
U
. ",' "'~ALDOT Equation (4.4)
c:
o '"
U

60.0

50.0
40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 100.0
Ambient Temperature (deg F)

Fig. 4.8. Plot of Linear Regression Curves Developed from

Concrete - Ambient Temperature Data Sets

100
of the equation. Table 4.1 summarizes the above empirical equations along with some other approximate

relationships between concrete and ambient temperature obtained from Nawy [27] and from discussions

with personnel of the ALDOT.

4.5 Control of Concrete Temperature

There are many opportunities in concrete batching and placement to minimize the increase of

concrete temperature above ambient temperature. ACI 305 [7] lists several factors which are helpful in

controlling concrete temperature. One problem is the high temperature of cement for the mixture. Cement

may be delivered from the plant hot or stored in a way to produce much higher temperatures than ambient

conditions. Although only 10-15% of the mixture weight is cement, a significant increase in concrete

temperature can occur, a 1°F increase in concrete temperature for an 8 of increase in cement temperature.

It is prudent to place a limit of 170 OF on the temperature of the cement as it enters the mixer. Also, the

use of chilled mixing water or ice as a replacement of mixing water can be an effective means of

reducing concrete temperature. Fig. 4.9 illustrates the reduction in temperature of freshly mixed concrete

by using chilled water or ice. Another productive measure is to reduce the temperature of the aggregates,

because the aggregate makes up the largest portion of the concrete mixture. Simple, efficient ways to

cool aggregates are shading of coarse and fine aggregates and sprinkling or fog spraying of coarse

aggregates. ACt reminds that setting up the means for cooling sizeable amounts of concrete production

requires planning well in advance of placement and may require specialized equipment.

Neville [29] states that cooling the mixing water with ice is a highly efficient way to reduce

concrete temperature because 2.2 lb of ice absorbs 317 Btu when melting at 32 OF. This is a quantity of

heat four times greater than cooling mixing water by 36 OF. It is important, however, that all of the ice has

melted at the end of mixing. Also, cooling of aggregate can be achieved by spraying coarse aggregate

with chilled water or blowing air, preferably chilled, over coarse and fine aggregates.

Krauss and Rogalla [23] provide some recommendations to control concrete temperature. These

steps include: use low heat of hydration portland cement and pozzolans; specify bridge deck concrete

101
 Table 4. 1. Empirical Relations Between Tc and Ta *

Eqn.No. Relationship Source/Comments

4.4 Relationships estimated from
ALDOT data set

4.4a Tc=Ta+ 1O°F(400~Ta<55°) Alternate approximate

Tc=Ta+5°F(55°~ Ta<85°) relationships from ALDOT
0
Tc = Ta (85°~ Ta~ 95 ) data set. See Fig. 4.4.

4.5 Relationships estimated from

first Blue Circle data set.

4.6 Relationship estimated from

second Blue Circle data set.

4.7 Approximate relationship used

by Nawy [27]

4.8 Approximate relationship

expressed by ALDOT
Materials and Tests Bureau
personnel.

*Tc = Concrete Temperature

Ta = Ambient Temperature

o 20
lIO t----r-t--,--r---,->--~-r--,.-...,
••
2BO t-----i=±.;:;-±:-:::-±-=~+--I-_1
.,0 I/O

f60 00

~ ICO

00 i---+---h~~-+
;;

f .o~~--+--+--t-~--t-.~~ '0

10 I~ ,. 16

'I:,d",(I,oll ot\ (011(,.11 'l"'Ot'OI,,'I. dt, F'

to 15 20 250 10 1$ •0
Artd ..a ....... [~C'''t , ...... '.,..... k~ r

Fig. 4.9. Reducing Concrete Temperature for Hot Weather Concreting [7].

102
based upon 56- or 90-day compressive strengths to allow cementitious concrete systems with

pozzolans to be used; avoid placement over 80°F; use ice to cool mixing water; minimize solar

radiation effects on bridge deck concrete when cooling; and avoid castings in the morning and early

afternoon and use late afternoon or evening castings. When a bridge deck is placed between morning

and late afternoon, warm air temperatures and solar radiation typically heat the concrete at setting,

adding to the temperature increase of the concrete.

103
I-
I

5. EVAPORATION RATE PARAMETER SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS

5.1 General

Plastic shrinkage cracking of concrete bridge decks occurs when the water evaporation rate

(E,) at the surface exceeds the bleeding rate of the freshly placed concrete. Also, the rate of drying

shrinkage after the concrete hardens is related to water evaporation rate due to environmental

conditions over a prolonged period of time (3-12 months). Thus, evaporation rate values are of great

interest when placing bridge decks.

The mean ambient weather conditions of air temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed

for Alabama presented in Chapter 3, along with concrete temperature prediction equations discussed in

Chapter 4, and the ACI 305 Surface Evaporation Chart shown in Fig. 5. 1, allows the development of

daily E, curves for any time of the day, season of the year, or geographical location in Alabama. These

curves were developed by the authors and are presented in this chapter. The daily E, curves were

synthesized into one "best estimate" E, versus month of the year curve for Alabama. All of these

curves can be used in conjunction with limiting values of evaporation rate as a construction QAJQC

tool by bridge contractors and inspectors to help mitigate plastic shrinkage cracking and early drying

shrinkage cracking.

5.2 Limiting Values of Evaporation Rate

In order to make use of predicted values of E, for a bridge deck condition, limit values of E,

must be known or established. However, this rate, which must exceed the concrete bleeding rate for

plastic cracking, is strongly dependent on the concrete ingredients and the mixture design. In general,

104
 deg C
5 15 25 35

40 80 90
Air lemperature, deg F

0.8 4.0
To use this chart:

I. Enter with air temp-

.c Q.7
.......
erature, move ~ to
:'0.6 3.0
relative humidity V>
....... .c
.......
2 Move ~ to concrete ~_ 05 N
c E
temperature ~ .......
"§ 0.4 2.0 ~
3. Move down to Wind 0
a.
velocit-y- 0
~ 0.3
4. Move !ff.!; read oppro~. 0
rate of evaporation ~ 02 1.0
0:

Fig. 5.1. ACI 305 Surface Evaporation Chart [7]

105
the higher the water content of the mixture, the higher the bleeding rate, and, thus, the higher the

allowable evaporation rate. Also, as indicated earlier. when ambient conditions are such that Er is

large, the early (6 hrs-60 days) drying conditions are favorable for cracking and extra care in deck

curing may be warranted.

Various agencies use maximum acceptable values of Er from O. 10 Ib/ft2 !hr to 0.25 Ib/ft2 Ihr as

indicated in Table 5. 1. It should be noted that the value of O. 10 lb/fe Ihr used by the Ohio Turnpike

Commission is for bridge decks made of shrinkage-compensating concrete (SCC) which is a very

cohesive concrete which exhibits a low bleeding rate. The high value of Er of 0.25 Ib/ft2 !hr in Table

5.1 recommended by the Portland Cement Association (PCA) is for a typical concrete mixture with an

assumed generous water content. The ALDOT deck concrete has a maximum w/c =0.44 and could
probably tolerate an Er = 0.20 Ib/ft2 !hr. However, to allow for adverse changes in ambient conditions

and less than desirable early curing application habits of contractors, a limiting value of O. 15 lb/fe Ihr

is recommended for bridge deck placement in Alabama. This is shown in Table 5.1 as are the

limitations on concrete and ambient temperature at the time of concrete placement. Note that the

comment column in Table 5.1 provides measures to be taken to reduce Er when it exceeds the limiting

value.

5.3 Evaporation Rate Parameter Sensitivity

Lerch [25] performed a parameter sensitivity analysis via use of the ACI 305 Surface

Evaporation Chart to determine the sensitivity of evaporation rate to the various weather parameters.

The results of his analysis are presented in Table 5.:i which contains eight groups of parameter

variations, with each group showing how evaporation rate changes with change of one parameter.

Group 1 displays the effects of wind velocity. With air temperature and concrete temperature at 70 0 P

and relative humidity at 70%, the wind is increased by 5 mph increments. E" increases linearly with

each incremental increase of wind velocity. In Group 2, concrete and air temperature are held again at

106
 Table 5.1. Some Temperature and Evaporation Rate Limitations for Bridge Deck
Concrete

Limitations at Placement

Agency Temperature Ambient Evaporation Comments

of Concrete (Tc) Temperature (T.) Rate (E,)
("F) (OF) (lb/fr2/hr)

ALDOT 50" ::; Tc ::; 90° 35° s; Ta ::; none none given Current Specs
given

ALDOT/AU 50° ::; Tc s; 90° 40° ::; Ta s; 90" E,::; 0.10 If E, > 0.10 reduce E, by
QAlQC Project
· Windbreakers
Recommendations
· Fog Spray to increase
RH
· Ice to reduce Tc
· Ponding of water

PCA 55" ::; Tc ::; (75"-100°) none given 0.25

ACI 55" s; Tc ::; (75°-100°)* none given 0.20 Recommendations of ACI

Committee 305.

OTC 60° s; Tc s; 90° 45° s; T. ::; 80" 0.10 For SCC decks

NYTA** - s; Tc ::; 90° - s; Ta ::; 80" none given For SCC decks

Ohio DOT** - - s; Ta s; 80" 0.20 For SCC decks

FLDOT none gi ven s; Tc ::; 85° 40° s; T. s; none none given Current Specs
given
85" < Tc < 100° Allowed under special
conditions

This Thesis 50" ::; Tc ::; 90° 40° ::; T. ::; 90° E,::; 0.15 If E, > 0.15 reduce E, by
Recommendations
· Early application of
evaporation reducer
· Wi nd breakers
· Fog spray to increase
RH
· Add ice to reduce Tc

"ACI recommends TcMAX =90"F for SCC.

· Ponding of water

**Have stopped using SCC decks.

107
 Table 5.2 Effect of Variations in Evaporation Rate Parameters [25]
Group Concrete Air Relative Wind E,
Temperature Temperature Humidity Velocity
('F) (oF) (%) (mph) (lb/ft'/hr)

Group 1 . Increa.-.e In 711 711 711 (} 0.015

Wind Vel{)city
711 711 70 5 0.038

70 711 70 III 0.1162

70 711 711 [5 11.1)85

711 iO 711 20 0.1111

70 7U 70 15 11.135

Group 2 . Decrea.c;e in 7U 70 YO III 11.02

Relative Humidity
70 70 70 III 11.1162

70 70 50 III II.IIX)

711 70 311 III 0.135

7U 71l 10 III 0.175

Group 3 . lm.:rea.~ In ;11 ;0 70 III 11.1116

Concrete and Air
Tempenuures 61) 60 711 III 1l.c143

70 iO 711 III 1l.c161

811 80 70 III 11.077

90 90 711 III I!.IIII

100 100 70 ((I O.t80

Group 4 . Concrete at 711 8U 70 III O.IXKI

70°F: Decrease in Air
Temperature 711 70 711 III 11.062

70 5<1 70 III O.t15

70 30 70 III 0.165

Group 5 . Conc.:rete ilt 811 .1lJ IIX) III O.l1l5

High Temperature: Air at
MY·F: !(K}t.it Relative 711 .1l1 IIX) III 11.1311
Humidity
60 JU 100 10 0.075

Group 6 - Concrete al 70 .1l1 50 II 1l.ll35

High Temperdture: rur at
4O"F: Variable Wind 70 .1l1 50 III 11.161

70 JU 50 25 0.357

Group 7 . Decrea..;t In 811 '7() 511 III 11.175

Concrete Temperature:
Air at 7WF 70 -:(J 50 III O. ((XI

61) ':'q 50 III 0.1145

Group X . Concrete and 'ill 1:0":1 III II 11.070

Air at High Tem~ra(Ure:
Relative HumiditY;Ji 1Or.t: 'Ill u, III III 1l.33!>
Variable Wind
90 '>', III 25 11.7~O

108
70°F, wind velocity held constant at 10 mph, and relative humidity is incrementally decreased by 20%.

As humidity drops, evaporation rate increases and it appears that a 20% decrease in relative humidity

enhances evaporative conditions more than a 5 mph increase in wind velocity. Concrete and air

temperature are increased in Group 3 by increments of 10°F with relative humidity at 70% and wind

velocity at 10 mph. The effect of the increase in concrete and air temperature appears to be less

significant as decrease in humidity or increase in wind speed as long as the temperature is below 80°F.

Above 80 OF, the increase of 10 OF results in a large increase in evaporation rate. Group 4 illustrates the

detrimental effects of allowing concrete temperature to increase over ambient air temperature. A

differential of 20°F in air temperature and concrete temperature can double the evaporation rate.

Group 5 shows how large differential in concrete and air temperature in cold weather can create

evaporative conditions even at 100% humidity. In northern climates due to the frequency of cold

temperatures and construction schedules, concrete must often be placed in cold weather and the

concrete is heated. This would most likely not be a concern in a warm climate such as Alabama's but is

important to consider. For Group 6, concrete temperature is 70°F, air temperature is 40°F, relative

humidity held at 50%, and wind is varied. With a large concrete-air temperature differential at the low

air temperature, excessive winds result in excessive evaporation rate. The beneficial effect of reducing

concrete temperature is shown in Group 7. Finally, Group 8 combines high air and concrete

temperature, 90°F, extremely low relative humidity, 10%, and variable wind. Any significant winds,

i.e., wind speeds greater than 10 mph, produce Er well above the 0.20 Ib/ft2 Ihr limit set forth by ACI

305.

Neville [28] plotted some of the results of Table 5.2 to provide graphical displays of the

parameter sensitivities. These are shown in Fig. 5.2 and reflect approximate linear relationships within

the bounds of typical and/or acceptable parameter values. Fig. 5.2 also reflects a great sensitivity of Er

to all of the parameters shown.

109
 ---------------------

mleS/hour
o 5 10 15 20 25
1-0 1·0

0-8 0·8 ~
1--
<=
<=

1 ~

~
'0
,
'-
"

.,
on
o
-'
0·6

0'4

0'2
/
/0
/
~
L

"
01
'"
I
'-
"
~
'0
on
on
0
-'
0·6

0'4
" ~
~
y 0-2

V ~
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 o 20 40 60 80 100
Wnd VelOCity - m/s
Relative Humidity of Air-per cent

Ca) Cb)

60 65 75 80
1·2
'F
50 60 70 80 90
1'0 1-0
/
~ / 7
-S. 0·8 ..:: 0·8
01
'"<-,
!! 0'6
V --E
01
"'-
I 0'6
7
~
/
L.

"
0
/
V
..
'0 0'4 ~ 0'4

~
on
.Y '0
0 on
-' on
0 ~
0'2 0·2
-'
V-
o o
15 20 25 10 20 30
Temperawre of Concrete -'C Air and Concrete Temperature - ·C

Cc) Cd)

Fig. 5.2. Sensitivity to Es to Temperature and Weather Conditions [28].

110
 Table 5.3. Evaporation Rate Parameter Sensitivity in Hot Weather.

Air Concrete Relative Wind Speed Er

Temperature Temp. Humidity (mph) (lb/ftl/hr)
(OF) (OF) (%)

90 90 60 10 0.15
90 95 60 10 0.20
90 100 60 10 0.28
95 100 60 10 0.24
90 95 50 10 0.25
90 95 50 15 0.35
90 95 50 20 0.44

111
 An important condition not addressed by Table 5.2 and Pig. 5.2 is concrete-air temperature

differential at high air temperature. During the hot months of late spring and summer, temperatures

above 90 0 P are very common throughout Alabama. Table 5.3 contains evaporation rates for hot

weather conditions which could be expected for locations in Alabama. A relative humidity of 60%

reflects a typical value of relative humidity at peak temperature conditions for a summer day. At 90 0 P

with no temperature differential and a 10 mph wind, the evaporation rate is 0.15 Ib/ft2 /hr. If the

concrete temperature reaches 95°P at the same conditions, the evaporation rate increases to 0.2lb/ft2

/hr. Concrete which reaches 100 0 P will cause an extremely high evaporation rate of 0.28 lb/ftz/hr.

With air temperature at 95°P and concrete temperature at 100 o P, the evaporation rate is a critical 0.24

Ib/ft2 Ihr. The remaining data display the effects of decreased relative humidity and higher wind speed.

With high air temperature and 5°P higher concrete temperature, the combined effects of reduced

relative humidity and increased wind speed produce extremely high evaporation rates.

Observation of Tables 5.2 and 5.3 and Pig. 5.2 demonstrate the importance of controlling

concrete temperature. The data of Table 5.3 supports the fact that it is imperative to keep concrete

temperatures low in extreme hot weather conditions. The 5-10 0p temperature differentials given in

Table 5.3 could be expected as the concrete was delivered. After placement in forms on a hot sunny

day, heat of hydration and solar radiation could cause the concrete temperature to increase further,

therefore, increasing evaporation rate while the concrete is still plastic. On hot days (temperature

greater than 90 0 P), it would be advisable to use one or more of the methods described in Chapter 4 to

reduce concrete temperature which would in turn reduce evaporation rate and, hence, the possibility of

plastic shrinkage cracking.

5.4 Monthly Evaporation Rate Curves for Alabama

A first step toward developing geographical and seasonal "planning" evaporation rate curves

for Alabama was to plot daily evaporation rate cycles for the four major cities for each month of the

112
year. Thus, Er curves were developed using temperature and relative humidity from the mean weather

curves of Appendix A, and concrete temperature was calculated from Eqn. 4.4. At every six hours and

the peak hour of the day, relative humidity and temperature were read from the mean weather curves.

Using these readings and the calculated concrete temperature, daily Er curves were developed from use

of the ACI 305 Surface Evaporation Chart for every 5 mph increment of wind speed from 0-20

mph. These curves were developed for each month of the year for each major city, and are shown in

Figs. 5.3-5.6.

From observation of the daily Er curves of Figs. 5.3-5.6, the nature of variation of evaporation

rate over the course of a day is evident. No matter which month or city, the evaporation rate is lowest

around 6 a.m. and/or 12 a.m. (midnight) and peaks in early to mid-afternoon. The magnitudes of the

curves increase with increase in wind speed, and for a higher wind speed, the change in evaporation

rate from morning to afternoon is greater. It appears that in order to expose fresh or green hardened

concrete to the lowest amount of evaporation, placement of bridge deck concrete should occur after 6

p.rn. In doing so, the fresh concrete would experience low and decreasing evaporation rate, and the

concrete would not be exposed to higher evaporation rates until it was over 12 hours old and had

probably gained adequate strength to resist early cracking with proper curing in place.

5.5 ''Planning'' Evaporation Rate Curves for Alabama

The daily Er curves for each month of the year and the four locations in Alabama were

analyzed in an effort to develop appropriate "planning" Er curves for Alabama. Appropriate

"planning" curves would allow bridge construction planners, i.e., State DOT managers, construction

inspectors, and contractors, to estimate evaporation rate for any time of day, time of year, and location

in Alabama. This, in tum, would allow them to finalize their deck placement and curing plans. It

should be understood that the use of these curves is for planning only. On the day of deck placement,

the actual Er value(s) should be determined, and the appropriate procedures for deck placement and

curing followed.

113
- - - - - - - - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _ . _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .__ . -- - .. _--------_.-._._- --------~ - .. ----

D.3D

D.2S

} . D.2D
g""
.!,! 20
~ D.IS
.~
8.
.E D.1O
1---------

D.DS

D.OO L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~ __________ ~ __________ ~ _________ ~

I2a.m. 6 I2p.m. 6 12 a.m.

Time of Day

Fig. S.3a. Daily E, Curve for January - Mobile

0.30

..<:
.;:: 0.20 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
~ 20
.!,!
~
c
.~
8.
.E 0.10
1----------------

0.00 ~ __________ ~ __________ ~ __________ ~L- _________ ~

12 a.m. 6 12p.m. 6 12 a.m.

Time of Day

Fig. S.3b. Daily E, Curve for February - Mobile

114
 t

I
(UO

.~~ ::: ~f _______________ _ 2()

15
----.----- --1 1

" 1
I
~ O.IS
.~ 10
1;
Co

£ n.1O r-----_./

O.OS 1-_ _ _ _ ______

0.00 L -_ _ _ _ _--'--_ _ _ _ _- ' -_ _ ~ _ _ _'___ _ _ _ ___l

12 a.m. 6 12 p.m. 6 12 a.m.

Time of Day

Fig. S.3c. Daily Er Curve for March - Mobile

(UO f l
O.2S ~, 20

[
.f.
~
0.20 1--------------
"
"O.IS
'" ~
---------------- ---- -------- -10---- ------ ------~
E
~
UJ 0.10

~.-.----- / / ~
o.os !-~_-_ _ _ _ _~ ~
(lex)
l
t~ ---------------------------- --_JI ()

I2a.m. 6 I2p.m. 6 I2a.m.

Time of Day

Fig. S.3d. Daily Er Curve for April - Mobile

ll5
· .---------~~---------~------------

0.30

0.25
20

:~ 0.20
!!!
~ 0.15
.~
~
.£ (UO
f--------'"

n.05
1------------
o.no L-_ _ _ _ _-'-_ _ _ _ _ _-'-_ _ _ _ _ ~ _ _ _ _ _ ___.J
12a.m. 6 12p.m. 6 12a.m.
Time of Day

Fig.S.3e. Daily Er Curve for May - Mobile

0.30

n.25
20

,of. 0.20 ----~--------

~
15

"
~ {LIS ------------
10
-------- ---
.2
[ I
.£ 0.10 l----_-J

o.on L-_ _ ~ __ ~ ______ ~ _____ ~~ _ _ _ _ __

12 a.m. 6 12 p.m. 6 12 a.m.
Time of Day

Fig.5.3f. Daily Er Curve for June - Mobile

116
 0.30 ·l
11
0.25
20 I
1

.~ 0.20 --------- --iI

~
" Ij
~ (US
~l
l()
.~
~ '~
.E
,-----/ --~
0.10

0.05 C - - - - - _ J ~

0.00 '----~----'----------'--------~-------!
12a.m. 6 12p.m. 6 12a.m.
Time of Day

Fig. S.3g. Daily Er Curve for July - Mobile

0.30

0.25
20

M-.::::~ 0.20
~
¥
""
<=
0.15
.~
:s
~
UJ
0.10

0.05

(1.00 I
12 a.m. 6 12p.m. 6 1 ~ a.m.
Time of Day

Fig. S.3h. Daily Er Curve for August - Mobile

117
 0.)0

O.Z5 20

} 0.20
~ -------------------1
15

"
~ 0.15 -------------- ---------
.g
g
III
I
c..
£ 0.10

0.05
f-----------

0.00 L -_ _ _ _ _ ~ _ _ _ _ __'__ _ _ _ _ ~ _____ ~

IZa.m. 6 12 p.m. 6 12a.m.

Time of Day

Fig. 5.3i. Daily E, Curve for September - Mobile

0.30

0.25 20

}~
~
0.20
----------1I
~
':; 0.15
ID
.~
15Co
£ 0.10

0.05
f------
~---------....Q._-----~
0.00 L-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __'__ _ _ _ _ _
~ ~ _ _ _ _ ___'
12 a.m. 6 12 p.m. 6 12 a.m.
Time of Day

Fig.5.3j. Daily E, Curve for October - Mobile

118
 (UO

0.25

i 0.20
~
20

"
~ 0.15 _____ I~ - - - -

.~
5Co
.E (1.I0

0.05
~--------------

O.llO L-____ ~ ____~______________'_____________~_________ _ l

12a.m. 6 12p.m. 6 12a.m.
Time of Day

Fig. 5.3k. Daily Er Curve for November - Mobile

0.30

0.25
r
~
l
I
~
r

}i. 0.20 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -1
~~ w
I
c2<= 015
•
.~ 15

~
UJO.
10
~~-
0.o5L--~ _ _ - . -
~ 0 . __ j
(J.(X) L! ----~------~----------~----------~--------~
12a.m. 6 12p.m. 6 12a.m.
Time of Day

Fig. 5.3l. Daily Er Curve for December - Mobile

119
 (UO
-1
0.25

~~ 0.20
~
~

61c 0 . 15
.~
o
Co

£ 0.10

O.DS C - - - -______

0.00 '--_ _ _ _ _ _____ ~ _ L _ _ _ _ _ ____''__ _ _ _ _ ___'

12a.m. 6 12p.m. 6 12 a.m.

Time of Day

Fig.5.4a. Daily Er Curve for January - Montgomery

0.30 f 1

,~ f I
:!". D.20 ~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 20 ___ - - - - - - - - - j
~ f I
~ 0.15 - - -- - - - - - - - - - -- - -- -- - -- - - - - - - - - IL - - - - - - - - - - - - - -J
.~ ~
~ j
£ 0.10 f-----------

0.05
~
~--------~ ~
O.DO IL-_____~_____~______'___________'
12 a.m. 6 12 p.m. 6 12 a.m.
Time of Day

Fig.5.4b. Daily Er Curve for February - Montgomery

120
 (UO J
j
0.25

i
.~
,:=
g
"
0.20 -------
5 ---------1
~ 0.15 - - - - - - -10 - - - -------- ---~
.~
5c.
~ (UO

(l.05
}------

0.00 ~----------~----------~------------~----------~
12a.m. 6 12 p.m. 6 12a.m.
Time of Day

Fig S.4c. Daily Er Curve for March - Montgomery

0.30

0.25
20 j
-.~
.,:=

~
0.20
---------------
/~\----------1. ~
~ ~- - - ~
!,!

~ - - - .- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
~
0.15
.~ / \0 '--

~ I
~ 0.10

0.05
}----------
r--------------- ---------------(~)-----------------~
o.!X) '-----------~------------'-------------'-------------'
12 a.m. 6 12 p.m. 6 12 a.m.
Time of Day

Fig. S.4d. Daily Er Curve for April - Montgomery

121
 n.30

0.25 2()

,~n.20 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -----
15

~
.~
n.ls f ---------------- _ _ 1(1
.. ~
2-
J3 n.lo f - - - - - - . . . /

n.05
1-------./

o.no L -_ _ ~ _ _- ' -_ _ ~ __ ~ _____ ~ ___ ~ _ ___.J

12 a.m. 6 12 p.m. '6 12 a.m.

Time of Day

Fig.5.4e. Daily Er Curve for May - Montgomery

(1.30 t
0.25 ~
1
,;E O.2n
.:::
fri _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
-------~
~ r I
~c 0.15 L_ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
.~
2-
J3 O. IO

f
r--
r
n.os
r--._-./
I
n.oolL _ _ _ _ _~_ _ _ _ _ _~_ _ _ _ _ __'__ _ _ _ ~
12a.m. 6 12p.m. 6 12i.l.m.
Timeof Day

Fig.5.4f. Daily Er Curve for June - Montgomery

122
 ------ --------~----- - -~~~~-
--~--.----

(UO f ii
O.2S j
~ ___________________ L ____ ~----- _j
":;, 0.20
@.
.., 7-7 '" !
~
.~
O.IS
--------/--;=- "-~
8.
~
J3 (l.IO r-----_..J
~
O.OS

(l.OO
f _~~~====::
f- __ ----------~~~()~~~-----~
L-~~_~~~~~~~~____'__~~ _ _ _ _ ~_ _ _ _ _
1

12 a.m. 6 12 p.m. 6 12 a.m.

Time of Day

Fig. S.4g. Daily E, Curve for July - Montgomery

0.30

(l.2S

..2
..:- 0.20

~
" IQ ___ _
ci2 O.IS
.~
:s
9-
t.ii (l.IO
L-----
O.OS L---------- -~
~====::::-------"----------.
O,CX) L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _____'___ _ _ _ _ _ ~
--
_ _ _ _ _ _ __

12 a.m. 6 12 p.m. 6 12 a.m.

TimeofDay

Fig. S.4h. Daily E, CU[\'c for August - Montgomery

123
 0.30 f

".ll f
:~
.:=
0.20
g
"
~ O.IS
.~
5Co
Jl 0.10

(LOS

0.00 L -_ _ _ _ _ ~ _____ ~ __ ~ _ ___'_ _ _ ~ _ __'

12a.m. 6 12 p.m. 6 12 a.m.

Time of Day

Fig.S.4i. Daily E, Curve for September - Montgomery

0.30

0.25

..E
~ 0.2D

!,!
" D.IS
';;
.~
5Co
Jl D.IO

D.OS

o.(X) L -_ _ ~ __ ~ _____ ~ _ _ _ _ ___''--_ _ _ _ _-'

12 a.m. 6 12 p.m. 6 I~ a.m.
Time of Day

Fig. S.4j. Daily E, Curve for October - Montgomery

124
 0.30

0.25

. 1
o~ 0.20
___________ -J.
~ 15 1
"
~
.~
(US ----~
5
Q.

.E !l.IO

!l.ll5 C-----_ _""'

0.00 L-_ _ _ _ _ ~ _ _ _ _ __'__ _ _ _ _ _ ~ _ _ _ _ __'

12a.m. 6 12p.m. 6 12a.m.

Timeof Day

Fig.5.4k. Daily Er Curve for November - Montgomery

0.30

0.25

_e:. 0.20

~
"
~ 0.15
- - - - - - - - -c:. _ _ _ ______ . _____ -1
.~

~
~
.E 0.10

(1.05 5 ___ .~
! -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _--"C!....I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~

O.(XI '---------"-------'-------~---------.I
12 a.m. 6 12 p.m. 6 ,2 a.m.
Time of Day

Fig. 5.41. Daily Er Curve for December - Montgomery

125
 0.30 ~

0.25
l
f

N~
~
2s
~
n.20 1----------------------------------i
r

'0
I

I
I
~ I

! "" r---------/~~-~-
! n.1O ~ _____ ~ ___________ !

0.05
I ~-:::-- 5
____
~
---~
0.00
I
:
LI --~--~--~--~--~---'---~-----'
12 a.m. 6 12p.m. 6 12 a.m.
Time afDay

Fig. S.Sa. Daily Er Curve for January - Birmingham

0.30 f
0.25 ~
[ I
,f3.
~
020
.
L----------------------------------l
t 0 I

.!l f I
~ 0.15 ~---------------------- -------.--.~
.~ ~ ,
g. r
Gi __----~10 1

----~
r------------------------ ;
6 12p.m. 6 l~ a.m.
Time afDay

Fig S.Sb. Daily Er Curve for February - Birmingham

126
---------------------------~~- --------

0.30
i
0.25 1
20

_:E
~
0.20
15
----------1
~
.g
~

0.15
10
-------- ---- ~
e
8-
£ 0.10 l - - - - - _ - - "

0.05
1----------

OJX) ' - - - - - - - - - ' - - - - - - - - ' - - - - - - - - ' - - - - - - - - '

12 a.m. 6 12 p.m. 6 12 a.m.
Time of Day

Fig. S.Sc. Daily Er Curve for March - Birmingham

0.30

20
0.25

-.::- 15
. .:=: 0.20
~
¥
';; 0.15
.~
5Q.
£ 0.10

0.05

0.00 '---------'-------~-----~---~----'
12 a.m. 6 12 p.m. 6 12 a.m.
Time of Day

Fig. S.Sd. Daily Er Curve for April - Birmingham

127
 - ------------------

(1.30 r

,,;12
.:=
~
"
(1.25

(1.20

';;" o. I 5
[
f
r--------------
[ -- - - - -- - -- - - --- --
20

-------1l
----l
j

.~ I
8. r
£ (l.IO L - - - -J

0.05
1----------

(1.00
~------------------~---------~
L -_ _ _ _ _ ~ _ _ _ _ __'__ _ _ _ ___'_ _ _ _ __ _ 'I

12 a.m. 6 12 p.m. 6 12 a.m.

Time of Day

Fig. 5.5e. Daily Er Curve for May - Birmingham

0.30 r
20

0.25 r

-~
" (1.20
~- - - - - - - - - - - -
~
~ [
';; 0.15
.~

! 0.10

(1.05
f---------../

I
(l.(X) IL-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __'__ _ _ _ _- - ' ' - -_ _

12 a.m. 6 12p.m. 6
-----~

12 a.m.
Time of Day

Fig. 5.5f. Daily Er Curve for June - Birmingham

128
-----------~-----~----------- ------------------------~---- -----------------------

(UO ~
I
20
O.2S f
t
.! 0.20 ~- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
g i
~ f
~ O.IS ~----------------- ---------
10
----- ----

~
til (l.IO
r---_J
f
O.OS F--

~fL-f=============================-----ll
12 a.m.
(l.OO
6 12p.m.
Time of Day
6 12a.m.

Fig. S.Sg. Daily Er Curve for July - Birmingham

0.30 r
I

~
20

O.2S
~
r
.f 0.20 r- -- --- ------- -
~ ~
~ [
".; O.IS r----------------
.~
5
g-
Jj 0.10 ~

i
O.OS 1-1- - - - - - - '
;

o.(X) L -_ _ _ _ _ ~ _ _ _ _ _- ' -_ _ _ _ _ ~~ _ _ _ _---:-'

12 a.m. 6 12p.m. 6 12a.m.

TimeofDay

Fig.S.Sh. Daily Er Curve for August - Birmingham

129
 "'" t 1
0.25 JI
20

I
,!g 0.20 ----------j
"
~
.~
0.15 -- - - j
8. 1
,
Jl 0.10

~ -----
l----_~

0.05
f--------

o.m L--_ _ _ _ _' - -_ _ _ _ _' - -_ _ ~ __ ~ __ ~ _ ____'

12 a.m. 6 12 p.m. 6 12 a.m.
Time of Day

Fig.S.Si. Daily Er Curve for September - Birmingham

0.30 ~ j
I
20
f
,~ 0.20 ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - J
~ I 1
" .

L_.____ ~
~t ~
. ~----.,,~
(UX); .-~
12 a.m. 6 12 p.m. 6 12 a.m.
Time of Day

Fig. S.Sj. Daily Er Curve for October - Birmingham

130
~~~~------~----- - ~--~~----~--------.-

(>,)0

(L25

.:E.::: 0.20 -0-----------

g
.!l
~
5
0.15 ---~---------------- ----- ---- ----- --------
.2
~Co
£ 0.10

0.05 ~~~~~~------

(LOO '-----~~~~~---'---~~~~~--'-~~-~~---'~~~-~---'
12a.m. 6 12 p.m. 6 12a.m.
Timeof Day

Fig. 5.5k. Daily Er Curve for November - Birmingham

(>.)0 r 1
0.25 i
.f- 0.20 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -~,
~.!l
~ 0.15
.~ 15

tiJ~ 0.10

0.05 ~
-j
_~~____ ~
~[------------------~---------~
~I ~
12a.m. 6 12p.m. 6 12a.m.
Time of Day

Fig 5.51. Daily Er Curve for December - Birmingham

131
 0.30 j
j

0.25

i
J.::: 0.20 ----------------------------------~
~
~ 1
C;; 0.15 ---------------.-------------- ------------------ -~
.~
~
.E O.iO f----.---~

0.05 f---------

(l.OO '--------~------'--------'--------'
12a.m. 6 12p.m. 6 I.:! a,m.
Time of Day

Fig. S.6a. Daily Er Curve for January - Huntsville

0.30

0.25

li"
-:; 0.20
~
"
C;;'" 0.15 ------------ ---l
.~ i
a
Q.
j
.E o. iO r-------/
0.05 C------__ _
- - - - - " - _ _ _ _ ---.i

(UX) '--------~------'--------~-------
12 a.m. 6 12 p.m. 6 12 a.m.
Time of Day

Fig. S.6b. Daily Er Curve for February - Huntsville

132
 ""t
0.25 1
:~
~-"l
0.20
---------------------w------------JI
~ 0.15
i
-~
.~
a
Co j
.E 0.10 r----__./
I
0.05
f--------
o
0.00 L -_ _ _ _ _--'-_ _ _ _ _ ~ _ _ _ _ ___'_ _ _ _ ____.J

12 a.m. 6 12 p.m. 6 12 a.m.

Time ofOay

Fig. S.6c. Daily Er Curve for March - Huntsville

0.30

0.25 20

~
.:::: 0.20 --------------- ----------
15
-------
~
-"l
~ IUS
.>! 10
~Co
.E 0.10

0.051-______ --J
~---------------..'!.------ ..----JI
(UX) L -_ _ _ _ _- ' -_ _ _ _ _--'-_ _ _ _ _ _ _' - -_ _ _ _ _ ~
12a.m. 6 12p.m. 6 12a.m.
Time ofOay

Fig. S.6d. Daily Er Curve for April - Huntsville

133
 D.3D

D.2S
20

-.~
. D.20

~
~

~
.~
(l.IS - - -- ~
a
Co I
.E o. to f-------~

O.OS
1----------

0.00 l-._ _ _ _ _ ~ ___ ~ _ __'__ _ _ _ _ _ ~ _ _ _ _ ____l

12a.m. 6 12p.m. 6 12 a.m.
Time of Day

Fig. 5.6e. Daily Er Curve for May - Huntsville

0.30

20
O.2S

~~
.:::
@.
~
0.20
------1
'=":; O.IS ----~
~
.~
a
Co
.E 0.10

O.OS
f------/'
~_ _ _ _-----~-----.--l
~
(UX) L-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _- ' -_ _ _ _._ _ _ _ _ _ ~
12 a.m. 6 12p.m. 6 12 a.m.
Time of Day

Fig.5.6f. Daily Er Curve for June - Huntsville

134
---------------------- ---_._---------------------- -~------,--.--~------.--------------.-------

0.30 ~
20 1
,
O.2S i
i
j
:~
.:=
0.20 -----·--i
~
:=,

"
'" O.IS
';; - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
-~
J
Ii I

.E (l.1O
~
r----_J i
I
~
O.OS

O.~)
~--------------------~-----------i
L -__________ ~ ____________ ~ __________ ~ ____________ ~

12 a.m. 6 12 p.m. 6 12 a.m.

Time of Day

Fig. S.6g. Daily Er Curve for July - Huntsville

0.30

2()

O.2S

r~ 0.20
g
!l
~
" O.IS - -- - ,,
.'"ot:
~>~
tJ.l D.lO
l---_J

(LOS
l~f _ _ _ _ _ _- - - - - - - - - " - - - - - - -
---~;
I
(UX) '------------~------------~------------~-----
12 a.m. 6 12 p.m. 6 12 ~.m.

Time of Day

Fig. S.6h. Daily Er Curve for August - Huntsville

135
--- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ----------~------------------------- - -~--------.--.-~-.--.--------------------.-.----

,---------~----------~---------~---------
0.30

~
0.25
-() ~
~~ 0.20 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---- ---~----------~
~ 15 I
~

~ ----------------/ -------------- -----~

J/
0.15 --------
.~
oQ. Itt

.£ O.HI r----_~/

(l.OS
I--------~

o.a)
~-------------------------~-----------
L -_ _ _ _ _ ~ _______ ~ _____ ~ _______ ~

12 a.m. 6 12p.m. 6 12 a.m.

Time OfOllY

Fig. 5.6i. Daily Er Curve for September - Huntsville

{UO

0.25

20
l:
-- 0.20 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
~ 15
~
';:; 0.15
-~
8.
.£ 0.10
l---_--""

0.05
(I -----~
----------------------~I
O.{X) ' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ' - - - - - - - - - - ' - - - - - - - - '
12ll.m. 6 12 p.m. 6 12 :l.m.
Time OfOllY

Fig. 5.6j. Daily Er Curve for October - Huntsville

136
---- --------- ----------------~----------.------.-

(Ull

1l.25

.~ 0.20
g
~

~ 0.15
o
'e15.
£ 0.10 C--------'"

o.os L - - - -_____

(l.oo '---------'------~--------'--------'
12a.m. 6 12p.m. 6 I"a.m.
Time of Day

Fig. 5.6k. Daily Er Curve for November - Huntsville

0.30 ~

-' : l_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
~
J
1

,~- ---- --- j

~

~ 0.15
.~
~
£ 0.10 1-_ _ _ _ ____ 10

0.05 I

(UX)
f-Lt========================~__~__~=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=.~==~lI
12 a.m. 6 12 p.m. 6 I" a.m.
Time of Day

Fig. 5.61. Daily Er Curve for December - Huntsville

137
 In studying the curves of Figs. 5.3-5.6, the daily trends are evident as discussed in the previous

section. Because of these strong daily trends, it was viewed that "planning" curves should be of the

form of those in Figs. 5.3-5.6, i.e., they should show Er versus Hour of Day. Also, in studying the

figures, it was evident that there was little difference between the evaporation rate curves developed

for each city. Thus, evaporation rate categorizations for "planning" curves based on geographical

locations within Alabama could not be made, i.e., all of Alabama should be considered as one

geographical region.

Seasonally, the magnitudes of evaporation rate curves are lower for the winter months

December, January, and February. Even with winds at 15-20 mph, evaporation rates do not exceed the

ACI limit of 0.20 lb/felhr, and with winds below 15 mph, evaporation rate will typically not exceed

0.15 lb/felhr. March and November show a significant increase in magnitude of evaporation rate

curves over the winter months. From April to October, the curves are virtually the same with slight

increase from June to August. Figure 5.7 is a plot of the peak evaporation rate for the 20 mph curve

for each city for each month. The plot was constructed to more conveniently compare the magnitude

of Er curves for each month to see if seasonal variation of evaporation rate was evident. This figure

reflects that the peak evaporation rates are lowest for December through February, higher for March

and November, higher again for April and May which coincide with September and October, and

maximum for the three summer months of June, July, and August.

Figure 5.7 leaves out an important factor, i.e., from analysis of the weather data in Chapter 3,

higher wind speeds are more common in certain months which, in turn, could affect the typical value

of evaporation rate. Fig. 5.8 is a plot of typical peak evaporation rates for each month for each city.

The evaporation rates were again calculated using the ACI 305 Surface Evaporation Chart with peak

temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed obtained from the mean weather curves of Appendix

A. The evaporation rate obtained can be considered a mean maximum evaporation rate for a day in

each month for each city. From Fig. 5.8. the lowest evaporation rates are again in December and

138
 0.30
0.29
0.28
0.27
0.26

~! 0.25

~ 0.24 i
"
~
0.23
* i)
0.22
"
0
./ ) I
1
.~ 0.21
~
"
.i I
I I
1
> 0.20
UJ
0/'«
. I I I
~
0.19 I

0.18 l,,/ ..
0.17 .*
0.16
'1
0.15
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP ocr NOV DEC
Time of Year

Fig. 5.7. Peak. Evaporation Rates at 20 mph

0.20

0.18

0.16

-;:- 0.14

'i 0.12

~ 0.10

"g(;" 0.08
~
>
UJ 0.06

:: f
0.00 __ __ ____ __- L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ __ ~ __ ~ __ ~

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP ocr NOV DEC
Time of Year

Fig. 5.8. Mean Peak Evaporation Rates

l39
January with February and November next. There is little difference in the months from March to

October except for spring in Mobile, which is higher. Evidently, the windy conditions closer to the

coast increase the possibility of higher evaporative conditions. This is also the only time and place the

mean maximum evaporation rate is equal to or grater than 0.15 Ib/ft2/hr.

From analysis of the evaporation rate data, it is difficult to develop distinct seasonal categories

for evaporation rate. The only distinct category is that November through February is a period for

which low evaporation rate can be expected. Also, the period of March through October reflects very

little difference in evaporation rate. Since Fig. 5.8 integrates mean wind conditions into evaluating the

mean maximum evaporation rate for each month, the curves of that figure should provide the expected

or most probable maximum daily (around 1-2 p.m.) evaporation rate value for each month. Thus a

recommended "planning" Er curve for Alabama would be as indicated in Fig. 5.8. This "planning"

curve is shown alone in Fig. 5.9 along with a modification factor (MF) to be employed if concrete

placement is in the early evening (around 6 p.m.) or at night. As an alternative to using Fig. 5.9, the

evaporation rate curves for the month of placement and the city closest to the jobsite can be used with

the time of day of placement to provide a good estimate of the Er value.

5.6. Closure

There are some important recommendations which can be drawn from the data presented in this

chapter. It is evident that concrete should not be placed in hot or cold weather conditions when the

wind speed is 20 mph or greater. From March to November, concrete should not be placed when the

wind speed is greater than 15 mph. If the construction schedule makes placement imperative,

windbreaks should be erected to slow the wind velocity, or fogging should be conducted to keep the

surface humidity as high as possible. These preventative measures should also be taken if wind speed

is above 10 mph with temperature and humidity typical for months between March and November.

140
 0.15

0 0 0 0

I
G--

0.13 \
//
\
~

~
'-
.J::
!"';"--

--
..0
......-
0
0.11 I
\ \

ca
~
c:
0
ca'- 0.09
0
a..
C<l
>
lI..l
Night or Evening Placement

0.07 Modification Factor

MF= 0.75

0.05
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Time of Year

Fig. 5.9. Annual ''Planning''lBest Estimate Evaporation Curve for Alabama.

141
Also, particular care should be taken for summertime placements. Concrete-air temperature

differentials at high ambient temperature can cause high evaporation rates and any drop in humidity or

increase in wind speed can create extremely high evaporation rates. An effective solution for windy or

hot conditions· is to move placement time from midday to late in the evening. Usually the wind speed

is lower in the evening and the evaporation rate is falling.

It is important to not that all the curves of this chapter are for planning only. The curves are

based upon mean weather conditions, and weather conditions can be highly variable at any time of the

year. Thus, on the day before a bridge deck placement, the expected evaporation rate should be

calculated/verified using the ACI 305 Surface Evaporation Chart and weather data obtained from a

local forecasting center. On the day of placement, current weather data should be used with ACI 305

Evaporation Chart to determine the existing value. Concrete and curing methods as appropriate should

then be taken based upon the Er value.

142
 6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Conclusions

Although some of the steps of the work plan for this research did not provide the results

anticipated, the research presents much useful information toward developing a design/construction tool

to reduce early cracking in concrete bridge decks for the state of Alabama. The first information of note

is the geographical and seasonal breakdowns of the weather parameters affecting water evaporation rate.

Geographically, little difference was found between regions in Alabama concerning weather parameters

and, likewise, the evaporation rate curves developed using these parameters. Therefore, Alabama can be

considered as one region likely to exhibit similar evaporation rates throughout the region.

Seasonally, weather conditions and, accordingly, evaporation rates vary considerably. From the

Er curves developed in Chapter 5, November - February is typically a time of low evaporation rates due,

in most part, to low ambient temperature. Hence, this is a period in which plastic shrinkage and early

drying shrinkage cracking are less likely to occur, so rapid application of curing materials is not as

critical. March - October appear to exhibit similar mean evaporative conditions which are more extreme

than November - February. During this period, delays in implementation of curing materials must be

minimized because typical daytime peak evaporation rates are close to the recommended limit of 0.15

lb/felhr as stated in Chapter 5. Also, during this period (especially June - August), extremely high

ambient temperature is common. In times of hot weather (Ta> 90 OF), failure to keep concrete

temperature low, which can be difficult, can result in detrimental evaporation rates causing plastic

shrinkage cracking and increasing the likelihood of thermal cracking due to high stresses induced upon

cooling.

143
 The key to preventing plastic shrinkage cracking is proper planning and good construction

practices. Using the Er curves of Chapter 5, typical evaporation rates for the date and location of

placement can be closely estimated. On the day of placement, evaporation rate for the time of day for

placement can be accurately calculated using forecast information from a local weather center, and the

empirical temperature of concrete equations given in Chapter 4. Wind speed should be monitored at

regular intervals at the construction site.

The weather data in Chapter 3 provide bridge contractors and inspectors excellent summaries of

temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed weather conditions to expect during any month of the

year or time of day. Likewise, the evaporation rate vs. time of day curves for each month of the year in

Chapter 5 provide expected values for the important evaporation rate parameter. This is the main

parameter in planning very early (before hardening of the concrete) curing requirements to prevent

plastic shrinkage cracking, and after hardening (4 hr - 7 days) curing requirements to mitigate drying

shrinkage cracking.

6.2 Recommendations

From the information developed and collected in this study, several recommendations can be

made concerning construction practices. Concrete for bridge decks should not be placed if the

evaporation rate exceeds 0.15 Ib/ft 2/hr. If placement at the time is imperative, windbreaks to reduce the

wind velocity should be erected and/or fogging of the immediate area conducted to increase the relative

humidity of the concrete surface. If winds above 15 mph occur, windbreaks should be erected. The most

effective way to reduce evaporation rate, along with thermal stresses, is to reduce concrete temperature.

Mixture ingredients should be as cool as possible, forms and rebar cooled before placement, and

transportation coordinated as to avoid significant increase in concrete temperature. Another effective

measure is to move time of placement to late evening or early night. Evaporation rates are lower due to

the lower ambient temperature, higher relative humidity, and, most likely, lower wind speed. Evening

144
placement is beneficial not only for the immediate time of placement, but for the green concrete as well,

which is exposed to more favorable conditions during the first twelve hours after placement.

It is also recommended that curing of concrete bridge decks should be implemented as soon as

possible. In Alabama, typical evaporation rates are below O. 15 lb/fe/hr. Therefore, proper curing placed

immediately after finishing should prevent plastic shrinkage cracking and early drying shrinkage

cracking. The most effective form of curing is wet curing, which prevents evaporation from the concrete

surface and also reduces the temperature of the concrete surface. During periods of extreme evaporative

conditions (March - October), wet curing should be used for curing bridge deck concrete. During the

cooler months (November - February), water retention curing using liquid membrane curing compounds

and polyethylene sheeting would probably be adequate. However, wet curing should enhance the top

surface quality and durability.

Based on the weather and evaporation rate data collected and generated in this study, rational and

reasonable curing categories and requirements for Alabama conditions are shown in Tables 6.1 and 6.2

The time of year is related to the average evaporation rate and, in tum, to early drying shrinkage (4 hr - 7

days), and the evaporation rate at time of placement is related to the plastic shrinkage cracking. This is

reflected in Table 6.1. The specific curing requirements indicated in Table 6.2 are felt to be reasonable

and cost-effective. However, research should be conducted to verify and refine the curing requirements in

Table 6.2 for curing categories A, B, C, and D in Table 6.1

Actual tests of the factors discussed in this study were not conducted by the authors. A follow-

up study to this report should be conducted to experimentally evaluate the effects of evaporation rate,

drying shrinkage, and thermal stress on concrete bridge decks. The study should not be conducted on

unrestrained laboratory specimens, but on specimens which accurately model bridge decks or on actual

bridge decks. Tests in the follow-up study should accurately record evaporation rates at time of

placement, drying shrinkage strains over an extended period, i.e., one year, and temperature change

145
 Table 6.1. Curing Categories 1,2

Month/Season of Year Er (lb/ft2lhr at time of placement)3,4

0-0.10 0.10 - 0.15

JAN, FEB, NOV, DEC D C

MAR-OCT B A
lWhen Er ~ 0.20 or V > 20 mph, deck concrete cannot be placed.

2When 0.15~ Er ~ 0.20 and V ~ 20 mph, actions should be taken to reduce the wind speed to a level such

that Er ~ 0.15 in order to place deck concrete.

3Er value and curing requirements indicated (A, B, C, D) are based on ALDOT's current Type I cement

concrete mixture design.

4Er values for evening or night placements are typically 75% (MF = 0.75) of those around midday.

146
- -~------~-~-

Table 6.2. Tentative Curing Requirements

Curing Time Period Requirements

Requirement (after placement)
Category

A 0.5 hr - 4 hr Fogging or Evaporation Retarder (200 ft2/gal)

4 hr - 8 hr Double layer of wet burlap

8 hr -7 days Soaker hose on wet burlap and covered with layer of white
polyethylene

7 days Spray-on liquid curing compound (200 fe/gal)

B 0.5 hr - 4 hr none

4 hr - 8 hr Double layer of wet burlap

8 hr -7 days Soaker hose on wet burlap and covered with layer of white
polyethylene

7 days Spray-on liquid curing compound (200 ft2/gal)

C 0.5 hr - 4 hr Fogging or Evaporation Retarder (200 fe/gal)

4 hr - 8 hr Spray-on liquid curing compound (200 ft2/gal)

8 hr -7 days Cover with layer of white polyethylene

7 days none

D 0.5 hr - 4 hr none

4 hr - 8 hr Spray-on liquid curing compound (200 fe/gal)

8 hr -7 days Cover with layer of white polyethylene

7 days none

147
throughout the depth of the deck over the same period as monitoring of drying shrinkage. Incidence of

cracking should be monitored and recorded. Recording of this data on decks wet cured and water

retention cured should indicate the appropriate curing method. Such data could provide the answer to

reducing and, possibly, eliminating early deck cracking.

Another study should be performed on small laboratory specimens concerning the effectiveness

of curing compounds. If economic necessity requires their use over wet curing, only compounds

exhibiting exceptional qualities to retain moisture should be used. Also the possibility of using curing

compound in conjunction with wet curing could be considered. Application of curing compound at the

end of a wet curing period could produce the best possible curing due to longer retention of moisture in

the concrete which could reduce drying shrinkage.

148
 REFERENCES

1. Alabama Department of Transportation, "Quality Control and Quality Assurance

(QCIQA) Requirements for Portland Cement Concrete", Project No. BR-l 18(6),
Lee County Special Provision 272 L" March 7, 1997.

2. Alabama Department of Transportation, Standard Specification for Highway

Construction, Montgomery, AL, 1992.

3. AASHTO Designation: MI48-82, "Liquid Membrane Forming Compound for

Curing Concrete." Rev. 1990, pp. 159-60.

4. AASHTO Designation: MI71-87, "Standard Specification for Sheet Materials for

Curing Concrete." 1987, pp. 279-80.

5. ACI Committee 209, "Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage, and Temperature Effects in

Concrete Structures." ACI 209R-92, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI,
1992.

6. ACI Committee 302, "Floor and Slab Construction." ACI 302. 1 R-89, American
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7. ACI Committee 305, "Hot Weather Concreting." ACI305R-9 1, American

Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI, 1991.

8. ACI Committee 306, "Cold Weather Concreting." ACI 306R-88, American

Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI, 1989.

9. ACI Committee 308, "Standard Practice for Curing Concrete." ACI 308R-8 1,
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI, 1986.

10. ACI Committee 345, "Guide for Concrete Highway Bridge Deck Construction."
ACI345R-9 1, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI, 199 1.

11. ASTM Designation: C 156-93, "Standard Test Method for Water Retention by
Concrete Curing Materials." 1993, pp. 93-97.

12. ASTM Designation: C 171-92, "Standard Specification for Sheet Materials for
Curing Concrete." 1993, pp. 104-05.

13. ASTM Designation: C309-9 1, "Liquid Membrane Forming Compound for Curing
Concrete." 1993, pp. 181-83.

14. Babaei, Khossrow and Fouladgar, Amir M., "Solutions to Concrete Bridge Deck
Cracking." Concrete International, July 1997, pp. 34-37.

149
15. Babaei, Khossrow and Purvis, Ronald L., Report on Laboratory Investigations of
Concrete Shrinkage, Penn DOT Research Project No. 89-01, Wilbur Smith and
Associates, Falls Church, VA, January 1995.

16. Blanks, R.F., Meissner, H.S., and Tuthill, L.H., "Curing Concrete with Sealing
Compounds." Proceedings of the American Concrete Institute, Vol. 42, 1946,
pp.493.

17. Covarrubias, Juan Pablo, "Use of Curing Membrane in Concrete Pavements."

Transportation Research Board Paper No. 970882, presented at 76' Annual
Meeting, Washington, DC, January, 1997.

18. FHW A, Standard Specifications for Construction of Roads and Bridges on

Federal Highway Projects, Federal Highway Administration, FP-96, 1996.

19. FIP, Concrete Construction in Hot Weather, Fe' Demolished' ration Internationale demolished la
Pre'contrainte, Telford, London, England, 1986, pp. 1- 16.

20. Gebler, Steven, "Predict Evaporation Rate and Reduce Plastic Shrinkage Cracks."
Concrete International, April 1993, pp. 19-22.

21. Jackson, F.H. and Pauls, J .T., "Curing Concrete Pavements." Proceedings of the
Highway Research Board, 7: Part 1, 1927; pp. 221-28.

22. Kosmatka, S.H. and Panarese, W.e., "Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures."
PCA Engineering Bulletin, 13 Ih Edition, Skokie, IL, 1988, pp. 153-156.

23. Krauss, Paul D. and Rogalla, Ernest A., "Transverse Cracking in Newly
Constructed Bridge Decks." Transportation Research Board, Report 380, National
Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1996,

24. Lang. F.e. and Burggraf, F, "Progress Report of Special Investigation on Curing
of Concrete Pavement Slabs." Proceedings of the Highway Research Board,
9, 1929, pp. 369-90,

25. Lerch, William, "Plastic Shrinkage." Journal of the American Concrete Institute,
Vol. 28, February 1957, pp. 797-802.

26. Mindess, Sidney and Young, J. Francis, Concrete, Prentice-Hall, Englewood

Cliffs, NJ, 198 1.

27. Nawy, E.G., Fundamentals of High Strength High Performance Concrete,

Longman Group Limited, Essex, England, 1996.

28. Neville, A.M. Properties of Concrete, 3rd Edition, Longman Scientific and
Technical, London, England, 198 1.

150
29. Neville, A.M. Properties of Concrete, 4th Edition, Wiley, New York, 1996.

30. New York State Department of Transportation, "Report from the Bridge Deck
Task Force to the Chief Engineer." October 31, 1995.

31. Powers, Trevel C. The Properties of Fresh Concrete, Wiley, New York, 1968.

32. Raina, V.K. Concrete Bridges, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1996.

33. Ravina, Dan and Shalon, Rahel, "Plastic Shrinkage Cracking." Journal of the
American Concrete Institute Proceedings, Vol. 65, No.4, April, 1968, pp. 282-91.

34. Rhodes c.c., "Curing Concrete Pavements with Membrane." Journal of the
American Concrete Institute Proceedings, Vol. 47, 1950, pp. 277-95.

35. Samman, Tarnim A., Mirza, Wajahai H., and Wafa, Faisal T., "Plastic Shrinkage
Cracking of Normal and High Strength Concrete: A Comparative Study." ACI
Materials Journal, Vol. 93, No.1, Jan.-Feb. 1996, pp. 36-40.

36. Senbetta, Ephraim and Bury, Mark A., "Control of Plastic Shrinkage Cracking in
Cold Weather." Secrets of Hot or Cold Weather Concreting, ACI, Detroit, MI,
199 1, Rev. 1994, pp. 89-93.

37. Shaeles, Christos A. and Hover, Kenneth c., "Influence of Mix Proportions and
Construction Operations on Plastic Shrinkage Cracking in Thin Slabs, Title No.
85-M48." ACI Materials Journal, Nov.-Dec. 1988, pp. 495-504.

38. Sprinkel, Michael M., "Predicting Plastic Shrinkage Cracking in LMC Overlays."
Concrete Construction, 1988,24-25.

39. Transportation Research Circular, "Curing of Concrete Pavements." No. 208 June
1979, pp. 1-11.

40. Winter, G. and Nilson, H., Design of Concrete Structures, 8th Edition, McGraw
Hill, New York, 1968.

41 Wolff, Angela R, Guidelines for Enhancing the Durability/Longevity of Concrete

Bridges, MS Thesis, Auburn University, 1996.

151
 APPENDIX A

Weather Data Curves and Tables

152
 Table A.la. Normals, Means, and Extremes for Mobile, AL

LATrnJDE: lO' ". N LONGrnJDE: S8' 15" W ELEVATION: Fr. GRND 211 OARO Zl6 TIME ZONE: ceNTRAL WOAN: 1J894
(.\ JAN FEn AR N'R MAY JUN JU AUG SEr ....ocL NOV DEC YEAR
TEMPERATlJRE 'f
Norm~ls
-D.lily Muinlum 59.7 6l.6 70 9 78..\ 84.6 90.0 91.3 90 5 86.0 79.5 70.l 62.9 77.4
-DJiily Minimum 40.0 42.7 50.1 57.1 64.4 70.7 73.2 72.9 68.7 57.3 49.1 43.1 l7.4
-Montbly 49.9 Sl.2 60.5 67.8 74.5 80.4 82.3 81.8 770 &s.4 59.8 53.0 67.l
EXlremc.$
-Record Highest l) 84 82 00 94 100 102 lQ4 102 99 93 87 81 1Q4
-Yelt 1949 1989 1946 1957 1913 1952 1952 1968 1990 1Q6) IQ71 1974 JUL lol2
-Record L.owesl l) ) 11 21 J2 43 49 60 lQ 42 )0 2l 8 l
- Yc.u 1985 1951 1993 1957 1960 1984 1947 1956 1967 199) 1910 198) JAN 1981
NORMAL DEGREE DAYS:
HC21ing (bl..SC 65 . r) 492 344 177 48 a a a a a 52 106 393 1702
Cool;ng (b.se 6l 'F) 24 14 38 132 295 462 536 521 )87 157 40 21 2627
% Of POSSI BLE SllNSlIlNE
MEAN SKY COVER('u'b..1
Sunrise - SUDSCI <6 6.6 6.) 6.1 l.7 5.8 S.8 6.l 60 l 7 '.S l.4 6.3 l Q
MEAN NUMBER Of OAYS:
Sunris.c 10 5uos.c1
-Clear '6 7.8 7.6 8.8 9.2 8.7 6.9 '.1 61 8.9 14 ) 11.0 8.8 10.! do
-Pu1ly Cloudy 46 6.3 6.6 7.8 8.7 11.2 13.8 IS.0 148 10 I 7.1 7.2 6.4 IIll
-Cloudy 46 17.0 14.0 14.4 12.1 11.1 9.3 11.9 10.0 110 9.0 11.8 Il.8 1·17 4
Prccipil.llion
.01 inchc..:s or more l) 10.8 9.6 10.3 7.5 8.5 11.< 16.2 I) 8 10 2 5 7 7.8 10 I 122 I
Snow,lcc Pcllcu..Hlt!
1.0 inches or more lJ a.' 0.1 a.' 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 00 00 00 0.0 0' 02
ThundcrSlorms l) 2.0 2.) 4.9 4.9 7.2 12.0 18.0 14.) 7.5 2.1 .!.J 2.2 106
Hc.avy Fog VisibilIty
1/4 mile Of Ic.s.s l) 6.1 4.6 5.) 46 2.7 0.9 1.0 I) I9 26 U 49 402
TCmpCf<1IUrc "F
-M.JJ:imul:J1
90' J.nd above )2 0.0 0.0 00 0.) ).6 16.8 22.1 ~O 6 10 ) 00 00 0.0 iJ 6
32' 2nd belo ....· )2 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 01 al
-Minimum
32' .lind bc1ou.· )2 8.2 5.) 1.2 0.' 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.' 1.4 55 21 6
O' :and belo ..... )2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 00
AV. STATION rRES. mb 2l 1012.9 1011.6 1009.) laos.8 1007.5 1(107.9 1009.) 10(18.9 1(l(l8.s lOla.' 1011.6 101 ).0 1010 a
RELATIVE IIUMIOITY (0;;,1
Hour 00 )2 79 78 81 8) 85 86 87 88 86 5) 8) 81 5)
Hour 06 (Loc:lIlImc) )2 82 82 85 88 88 88 90 91 89 86 86 84 57
Hour 12 )2 61 56 S5 5) 54 56 60 61 19 5) 57 61 57
Hour 18 )2 69 63 6) 6) 6) 67 72 74 72 68 71 72 68
PRECIPITATION (u.sl:
W~(c:r Eql,jivalcnt
-Norm~1 4.76 5.46 6.41 4.<8 5.74 5.Q4 6.85 6.96 5.9 I 2.94 UO 5.) I 6) 96
-Muimum Monlhly 5) 16.07 11.89 15.58 17.69 15.08 13.07 19.29 15.19 14.04 !l.20 1).65 11.38 IQ 29
-Year 1991 1983 1946 1955 1980 1961 1949 1984 IQ88 1985 1948 195) JUL 1049
-Minimum Monthly 5) 0.98 1.l1 0..\9 0.<8 0.45 1.19 1.72 1..6 0.58 T 0.25 1.29 T
-Ycu 1968 19<8 1967 195' 1962 1966 198) IQ90 196) 1918 1960 1980 OCT 1978
-Maximum in 24 hrs l) 8.34 5.)7 10.57 1 ).36 8.00 7.)8 5.3. 6.62 8.5l 5.65 7.02 5.50 I l )6
-Yc.u 1965 1981 1990 1915 1981 1961 1975 IQ69 1979 1985 1075 1968 AJ'R I Q55
Scow,lcc. PcllcuJhil
-Maximum Monthly 5) )..\ ).6 2.7 T T 0.0 T 0.0 0.0 0.0 T ).0 ) 6
-Ycu 1955 1973 199) 1988 1991 1992 1966 IQ6) FEB 197)
-Maximum in 24. hn l) )..\ ).6 2.7 T T 0.0 T 0.0 0.0 0.0 T ).0 ).6
-Ycu 1955 1973 199) 1988 1991 1992 1966 196) FEB 197)
WINO,
Mo.. Spc,d (mpb) 46 10J 10.6 10.8 10.2 8.8 7.7 6.9 6.7 7.8 8.2 9.) 9.0 89
Prc'IoQi1inC Diredioll
lhroutb 196) N N N S S S S NE NE N N N N

.
Futcst Obs.. 1 Min.
-Directio!! (!!) 36 18 2) 10 01 12 22 21 14 00 )6 )6 J2 00
-Speed (mpb) 44 46 40 51 44 60 6) 6) '6 l7 )8 6)
-Ye.ar 1919 1960 1985 1964 196) 1989 1992 1969 1019 I Q64 19SQ 1959 SI:.P I Q79
Pc~k:GIlSl
-Direc1ioQ (!!) II W S SW SE SW SW SW E SE S NW NW SW
-Speed (mph) II 45 61 55 46 62 60 64 5) 60 52 48 <) 64
-Date 199) 1987 1991 199) 1985 1989 1992 1991 1985 1981 1988 1990 NL 1992

153
 Table A.I b. Normals, Means, and Extremes for Montgomery, AL

LATITUDE: 32' 18' N LONGITUDE: 86' 24' W ElEVATION: Fr. GRND 192 £)ARO 210 TIME ZONE CCWTRAL WllAN: 13895
(,\ JAN FE£) MAR APR MAY ruN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC YEAR
IT..MPERATURE 'f
Norm;als
-O.1ily M.u.imum 56.3 60.8 68.6 76.4 82.9 89 ..4 9I I 90.4 87.0 782 68.7 60.2 75.8
-D:I;ily Mioimum 35.8 38.8 '5.7 52.9 60.8 67.9 71.5 70.8 66.1 53.3 .46 38.7 53.9
-Monthly 46.1 49.8 57.2 64.7 71.9 78.7 81.3 80.6 76.5 65.8 56.6 49.5 64.9
Gxtrcmes
-Record Highest 50 83 85 89 91 98 105 105 104 101 100 87 85 105
-Ycu 1949 1962 1954 1988 1953 1954 1952 1983 1980 195' 1986 1982 ruN 1954
-Record Lowest 50 a 10 17 28 40 49 59 56 39 26 13 5 a
-Ycu 1985 195 I 1993 1987 1971 198' 19.0 1992 1967 1912 1950 1983 JAN 1985
NORMAL DEGREE DAYS:
HC2ting (b2S.c 65 oF) 594 426 263 78 6 a a a a 9I 27' '92 222'
Coolindb.se 65 . f) 8 a 21 69 220 411 505 484 3'5 116 21 II 2212
% Of POSSIBLE SUNSIiINE 44 47 53 59 65 63 62 61 63 62 6' 55 .9 59
MEAN SKY COVER('.. ""I
Sunrise - Sunsct 50 6.6 6.3 6.2 5.6 5.8 5.7 62 5.6 5.5 '.8 55 6.3 5.8
MEAN NUMBER Of DAYS,
Sunris.c to Sunset
-Oc.u 50 7.4 7.8 8.1 9.6 9.0 8.2 55 8.0 9.8 131 10 9 9.0 107. I
-Pll(lly Ooudy 50 6.3 6.1 7.8 8.5 9.9 11.6 1'1 13.9 9.' 7. 63 5.9 107.3
-Cloudy 50 17.3 1'.3 15.0 11.9 12.1 10.2 11.4 0.1 10.8 99 12.8 16.0 150.8
Prccipit21ion
.01 inches or morc 50 10.8 9.2 10.0 8.2 8.6 9.2 12.0 9.0 77 5 1 77 10 I 108.0
Sno ...... lcc PdIeLS.l12i1
1.0 inches or more 50 0.1 a." a." 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 00 00 00 0.' 0.2
Tbunderstorms 50 1.7 2.3 4.7 5.2 6.3 8.9 11.9 87 4.0 I' 20 16 58.6
H~vy Fog Visibility
1/4. mile or less 50 3.4 1.9 1.6 1.1 1.2 07 10 10 I6 20 19 3 ) 21.7
Tcmpc:r2!Urc OF
-Maximum
90" 2nd2bovc 31 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 3.3 17 a 21 5 ~O.6 124 i.l 0.0 00 76.4
32· 2ndbclow 31 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 00 00 0.0 00 00 0.1 0.6
-Minimum
32· 2nd below 31 13.3 8.7 2.5 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 '.1 9.8 38.9
O· .:lind tx:low 31 a." 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
AV. STATION PRES. ~b 22 1014.0 1012.7 1010.2 1009.6 1008.5 1008.8 1010.0 1010.0 1010.0 1011.8 1012.9 101'.2 1011.1
RElATIVE HUMIDITY (%)
Hour 00 31 77 74 74 78 83 84 88 88 86 85 82 79 82
Hour 06 (Lo<:21 Time) 3I 82 81 83 86 88 88 91 92 90 89 87 83 87
Hour 12 31 60 55 52 51 54 55 60 59 56 52 54 59 56
Hour 18 31 64 58 55 55 60 60 67 68 67 66 66 67 63
PRECIPITATION (10.):
W::atcr Equiv~len(
-NormJo( 4.68 5.48 6.26 4.49 3.92 3.90 5.19 3.69 '.09 2 '5 4.08 5.20 53.43
-Maimum Monthly 50 10.16 13.38 12.40 15.64 12.01 14.44 9.99 IOA3 10.62 9.06 21.32 11.35 21.32
-¥c"'u 1990 1961 1990 1964 1978 1989 1988 198' 1953 1959 1948 1961 NOV 1948
-Minimum Monthly 50 0.72 1.'7 1.93 0.52 1.14 O.ll 1.58 0.78 0.44 0.01 0.32 1.36 0.01
-Ycu 1954 1947 1985 1986 1962 1979 1952 1958 1954 1978 1949 1955 OCT 1978
-MHimum in 24 hrs 50 4.73 5.95 8.62 09 6.36 6.99 4.52 5.68 8.81 '.25 8.17 '.89 8.81
-Ycu 1965 1982 1990 1957 1978 1946 1970 1984 1953 1964 1948 1992 SEP 1953
Snow.lee PcllclS,Hloil
-Muimum Monthly 50 6.0 3.1 3.8 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 T T 1.0 6.0
-YCJ,( 1977 1973 1993 1987 199) 1971 1993 JAN 1977
-Muimum in 24 brs 50 3.0 3.1 3.8 0.8 T 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 T T 1.0 3.8
-¥ClIf 1977 1973 1993 1987 1990 1993 1971 1993 MAR 1993
WIND:
Me •• Speed ("'ph) 50 7.7 8.2 8.' 7.3 6.1 5.8 5.7 5.2 5.9 5.7 6.5 7.1 6.6
Prcv.1.iliag Direction
through 1963 NW S NW S S S SW ENE NE NE NW NW S
FU.lCS1' Obs. I Min.
-Direc1~a (!!) 9 2.S 26 24 32 )() 29 26 22 28 2) 23 )() 29
.. Speed ("'ph) 29 38 35 39 35 44 35 26 25 )1 30 33 44
-¥cu 1994 1990 1992 1990 1991 1985 1994 1994 199' 1990 1989 1990 !UN 1985
POlk. Gust
-DirCC1ion (!!) II S SW NW NW NW N N NE NW SW SW W SW
-Speed (mph) II 43 66 54 60 60 60 55 41 J7 56 48 66
-D::Ilc 1994 1990 1993 1985 1991 1992 1993 "
1987 1989 1990 199 I 1993 FEB 1990

154
 Table A.lc. Normals, Means, and Extremes for Birmingham, AL

LATITIJOE: 3J" 34' N LONGITUDE: 86' 45' W ELEVATION: Fr. GRND 620 DARO 622 TIME ZONE: CENTRAL WON<: 13876
(.1 JAN _fER HAR APR M"'Y JUl'I NL ",UG SEP ~ NOV DEC YEAR
TEMPERA1lJRE 'f
Norm;als
-Dlily Muimum 51.7 56.9 66.1 74.6 81.0 87.4 89.9 89.1 83.9 74.7 64.6 55.7 7) 0
-Daily Minimum )1.3 )0 42.) 49.2 57.7 65.2 69.5 68.8 62.9 50.2 41.6 34.8 50.7
-Monthly 4U 45.7 54.2 62.0 69.4 76.3 79.8 79.0 7).4 62.5 5).1 45.2 618
Extremes
-Record Higbesl II 81 8) 89 92 99 102 106 103 100 94 84 80 106
-Yc4Ir 1949 1962 1982 1987 1962 1954 1980 1990 1990 1954 1961 1951 JUl.. 1980
-Record Lowesl II -6 ) 2 26 35 42 51 51 )7 27 I I -6
-Yc.lr 1985 1958 1993 197) 1944 1966 1967 1946 1967 1956 1950 1989 JAN 1985
NORMAL DEGREE DAYS,
Hc;ating (bu.c 65 - F) 729 540 350 1)5 31 0 0 0 7 148 )64 614 2918
Cooling (b,nc 65 . F) 0 0 15 41 168 339 459 434 259 71 7 0 1797
% Of POSSIBLE SUNSHINE )4 42 50 5) 63 68 65 59 63 61 66 55 46 58
MEAN SKY COVER(Lc.Ih<}
Suntis.c: - Suns.cl )7 69 6.5 65 5.8 6.0 5.9 6.4 5.8 5.6 4.6 5.7 6.4 6.0
MEAN NUMBER Of DAYS,
Sunris.c: 10 SUOSCI
-Clc.lt )7 6.9 7.2 7.4 8.8 8.0 7.1 4.7 6.8 9.) 14.0 10.2 8.4 98.8
-Pu1ly Ooudy )7 6.2 6.4 7.9 8.0 10.9 12.6 14.4 14.5 9.) 7.6 6.5 6.6 111.2
-Cloudy )7 17.9 14.8 15.8 1).2 12.2 10.4 12.0 9.7 11.2 9.4 1).0 15.9 155 )
Prccipit::lliioa
.0 t inches oc more II 11.1 10.2 11.0 9.1 9.7 9.7 12.5 96 7.9 6.4 9.0 107 1169
Snow.lcc Pc!lcts.H.1il
1.0 inches or more 51 0.) 0.1 0.1 0.' 0.0 0.0 0.0 00 0.0 0.0 0.' 0.1 01
Thundcrs(orms 51 U 2.) 4.5 5.1 6.9 8.5 11.5 8.8 4.3 1.2 1.9 1.2 577
Heavy Fog Visibility
1/4 mile or less 51 1.3 0.6 0.6 0.) 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.5 05 0.7 1.0 1.2' 8.2
Tcmpculurc OF
-M.uimum
90' ad .Jbovc )1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 1.7 10.9 17.1 15.2 6 I 0.1 0.0 0.0 51.1
32 - ;and below II U 04 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.' 0.5 25
-Minimum
32 - 2nd below II 17.1 13.1 6.0 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 6.1 13.9 58.5
O' O1ndbclow 31 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2
AV. STATION PRES. nob 22 998.4 991.1 994.6 990 99).4 993.9 995.1 995.2 995.4 997.0 997.6 998.5 995.9
RELATIVE HUMIDITY (%)
Hour 00 11 76 73 7! 71 84 85 86 86 85 84 50 71 80
Hour 06 (l..ocal Time) )1 80 79 79 84 86 86 89 90 88 87 5' 81 84: +.-.J.
Hour J2 )1 61 56 52 51 55 56 60 59 59 5' 57 60 57~
Hour 18 II 65 57 52 52 59 61 65 66 69 71 69 69 6)
PRECIPITATION (los),
Wal(:( Equivalcnl
-Norm.ll 5.10 4.72 6.19 4.96 <.85 3.73 5.2S 3 ..59 3.93 2.81 4.3) 5.12 54.58
-r...hximum Moolhl)" 51 11.00 17.67 15.80 13.75 11.10 8.44 13.70 10.85 10.43 7.52 15.25 1 l.98 17.67
-¥cu 1949 1961 1980 1979 1969 1963 1950 1967 1977 1977 1948 1961 FE81961
-Minimum Monthly 51 1.09 1.20 1.71 0.42 1.15 0.67 0.30 0.38 T 0.07 0.·(2 0.81 T
-¥c.a.r 1981 1968 1985 1986 1951 1968 1983 1989 195.5 1991 19'9 1980 SEP 195.5
-Mu:imum in 24 hrs 45 5.81 6.57 7.05 5.08 4.63 3.85 5.<7 5.13 5.03 3.75 '.87 5.29 7.01
-Yca.t 19'9 1961 1970 1966 1969 1957 1985 1952 1977 1977 1948 1961 MAR 1970
Saow.lcc Pellets,Hail
-Maximl.lm MOQlbly 51 6.6 2.3 13.0 5.0 T T T 0.0 T T 1.4 8.0 1 l.O
-¥c;a.t 1982 1960 1993 1987 1993 1992 1994 1992 1993 1950 1963 HAR 1993
-Maximum io 24 brs '5 '.5 2.3 13.0 5.0 T T T 0.0 T T 1.4 8.4 13.0
-¥c.2.r 1948 1960 1993 1987 1993 1992 1994 1992 1993 1950 1963 HAR 1993
WIND,
MUG Speed (mph) 51 8.1 8.7 9.1 8.3 6.8 6.1 5.7 5.4 ' 6.3 6.2 7.2 7.7 7.1
Prevailing Duoc(ion
Ihrough 1963 S N S S S SSW SSW NE ENE ENE N NNW S
F:Ulest Mile
-Directioo (!!) 34 W SE SW SW NW SW SW NW SE W N 51; SW
-Speed (mph) 34 49 59 65 56 65 56 57 SO 50 43 52 41 65
-¥c:.r 1975 1960 1955 1956 1951 1957 1960 1956 1951 1955 19'4 1954 MAR 1915
Peak: GuS'
-Dircction (!!)
-Speed (Qlpb)
-Dale

155
 Table A"ld" Normals, Means, and Extremes for Huntsville, AL

LATITUDE: 34" 39" N LDNGITUDE: 86" '6" W ELEVATION: FT. GRND 62. [lARO 6)1 TIME ZONE: CENTRAL wtlAN: 03856
J,) J~ FEB MAR ArR MAY JUN JUL UG SEP <Xi NOV DEC YEAR
TEMPERATURE "f
Norm~ls
-D~ily M.ui"lum 48.2 5U 62.8 12.5 79.3 86.6 89.0 8811 B2.B 730 62.4 52.6 71.0
-D~ilyMinimum 29.2 32.6 40.9 .9.0 57.) 6'.9 68.9 67.9 61 6 .9 3 40.5 33.1 49.6
-Monthly 38.8 43.1 51.9 60.8 611.4 75.B 79.0 78.3 72.2 61 2 5U 42.9 60.3
Extremes
-Record Highest 27 76 79 8. 90 9) 101 la. 10) 101 90 83 77 la.
-Ycu 1972 1989 1991 1989 1986 198B 1993 1990 1990 1986 1982 1978 JUL 1993
-Record Lowcst l7 -II 6 6 26 36 45 5' 52 '0 29 15 -) -II
-Yelf 1985 1981 1980 1992 1971 1972 1972 1992 1981 IQQJ 1976 1989 JAN 19B5
NORMAL DEGRI::E VA YS,
HC.lling (base 65 . F) 812 613 .17 158 , I 0 0 0 13 I)) 411 685 332)
Cool;nz (b"" 65 "Il
% OfPOSSIRLESUNSlliNE
0 0 II J2 1.7 )2' ')' '12 229 56 6 0 1651

MEAN SKY COVER(lcolh.s1

Sunrise - Suns.cl l7 6.9 6.7 6.7 60 6.2 5.8 5.9 5.5 5, 52 6 I 6.7 6 I
MEAN NUMUER Of DAYS,
Sunrise to Sunset
-Ocu / 27 7.1 6.9 6.9 9.0 7.7 8.0 7.1 8.9 9.) 12J 9.0 76 999
-P.t"ly Ooudy l7 5.9 5.8 7.6 7.' 9.8 10.7 12.9 12.6 9.0 , 0 6.5 5.8 f-IOIO
-Cloudy l7 18.0 15.5 16.5 136 13.6 11.4 10.9 9.5 11.8 I( ) 145 17.6 164 "
rrecipillllioQ
.01 inches 0( morc l7 11.4 9.6 I( 7 9• 10.5 9.3 10.' 86 8.6 )) 9.5 10.9 1(' 5
Snow.kc Pcllcls.H:lIiI
1.0 inches or more
Thunderstorms
l7
27
0."
II
0.4
2.1
0.1
. '.3 ,,
0.0 00
7.1
0.0
8.5
0.0
10.3
0.0
82
0.0
.9
00
21
00
23
0.1
II
1.1
56.9
HClIvy Fog VtSibililY
1/4 mile or leSS 27 2.6 I.' 1.2 08 II 13 1.6 I9 21 l' 18 13 196

.,
Tcmpcnturc . F
-MuiO"lulll
90" .lnd above 27 00 0.0 0.0 01 0.7 93 16.5 I' • O· 0.0 0.0 '59
32' lind below l7 3.0 1.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 00 00 01 1.1 5.3
-Minimum
32 - .tnd bela ....· 27 18.9 14.1 6.7 0.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 05 7.7 15.5 64.2
O' .tnd below l7 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 00 0.0 0.1 0.3
AV. STATION PRES. ",b 2l 996.2 996.5 993.8 993.5 992.8 993.2 99'.3 99'.6 995.0 996 , 996.8 997.8 995.1
RELATIVE IIUMIDITY (%1
Hour 00 l7 78 75 7) 75 83 85 87 87 87 53 79 78 81
Hour 06 (t.ocal Timc) 27 82 81 81 53 87 88 90 91 9I 51 84 82 86
Hour 12 27 6' 59 56 52 56 56 59 58 59 55 58 63 58
Hour 18 27 68 61 57 52 60 61 65 66 65 65 65 69 63
PRECIPITATION (iasl:
Water Equivalent
-Norm:!.1 5.17 '.87 6.62 •. 93 5.08 '.13 '.85 3.<7 '.08 315 '.86 5.87 57.18
-Muimum Monthly l7 10.92 10.1' 17.00 10.29 11.85 1'.99 9.44 9.81 9.78 1206 11.5 3 18.68 18.68
- Ycu 1982 199' 1980 1991 1983 1989 1973 1986 1980 19)5 1977 1990 DEC 1990
-Minimum Monthly 27 1J2 0..59 2.70 0.'2 1.99 0.17 0.79 0.93 0.55 0.77 1.82 0.. 91 0.17
-Ycu 1986 1978 1982 1986 1988 198B 1983 197) 1952 19) I 1971 1980 JUN 1988
-Maximum in 2.4 hrs 27 '.90 5.55 7.70 3.85 5.90 '.81 4.47 '.89 3.99 6()J 3.33 10.22 10.22
- Yu.- 1982 199' 1973 1983 1953 1992 1975 1986 1980 19)5 1973 1990 DEC 1990
Soow,lcc. PcllclS.H.,il
-Muimum Monthly l7 9.6 4.2 7.3 T T T 0.0 T 0.0 T 0.8 1.0 9.6
-Ycu 1988 1985 1993 1993 1993 199. 1990 1993 1974 1974 JAN 1988
-Maximum iQ 24 his 27 9.6 3.6 7.3 T T T 0.0 T 0.0 T 0.8 1.0 9.6
-YClr 1988 1985 1993 1993 1993 1994 1990 \993 197. 1974 JAN 1988
WINO,
Me>Q S!'C"d (mph) 27 9.3 9.7 10.1 9.3 B.l 7.0 6.3 5.9 6.8 7.5 8.6 9.3 B.2
Prevailing Diccdion

..
F... .stc=.s:t Cbs.. I Min.
-Ditoc:t;"Q (!!) 27 26 08 12 18 2' 25 27 02 23 3) 27 30 02
-S""ed (mph) 44 4) '6 44 46 4) 63 4l J2 40 '0 63
-y= 1978 1987 1969 1970 1993 1989 1969 1990 1968 I Q71 1989 198B AUG 1990
Pul:GIJ~
-Direction (!!) II SW E W SW NW NW SW N S W W NW W
-Speed (mph) II 41! 58 70 58 69 67 62 55 '8 41 51 53 70
-£nee 1992 1987 1991 1985 1990 1994 1985 1986 1987 1990 1989 1993 MAR 1991

156
 60.0

MOIll.
- - - Sham.
55.0 - - Hunts.

G::
50.0 '---. ,
00

"
:::!. /

":> 45.0
/
.- .....
,, ,
[ /
/
/
/ , ,, ,
/
E / /
~ /
""
40.0 /
"
/
.// /

I
35.0 ---_/ .-

30.0
12a.m. 6 9 12 p.m. 6 9 12a.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.I. Mean Daily Temperature Cycle - January

65.0
- - Mllhilc
Mllrll.
- - - Sham.
60.0 - - HunL".

55.0
G::
",

"
:::!.
/
/
" , , - - - ......
~ 50.0 /
/ / ",
8.
E I
/
//
/ \
\
~ / ""
45.0 / / " ,"
/
,

1
._. _ _ l

12p.m. 6 9 12 a.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.2. Mean Daily Temperature Cycle - February

157
 70.0 r-----.--~-,-----,------,----,-~----,----,--~__,

- - Mnhilc
MOil(
_ •• Sham.
65.0 .- - HUIIL~

,/

60." / / / ...... --- ........... \

,/
,/ \
\
-
,
/
,/ \
, -\
~ 55,0 I / ,~,
/
~ I " ,',
, .
E . I I
~ . I " .... ~~
50.0 I I
;' I
,
. I
._. ./ I
...... _ - - - . - " ' / /
45.0

~.O L-____ ~ __ ~~ ____ ~L_ ____ ~ ____ ~ ____ ~ _____ ~ ____ ~

12 a.m. 6 9 12 p.m. 6 9 12 a.m.

Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.3. Mean Daily Temperature Cycle - March

80.0
- - Mobile
Monl.
_ . - Sham
75.0 ..........
- -- Hunt.s.

70.0 / / , ,
G::
00
I
,/
'
" , ,-
"
~ I II "
l!:!
65.0
I ",\ .
"
[ . . /'
/
/
,, ' .
" ..... ,
,,
E /."",I j "
~
60.0 /;'
.,/ " "",
,',

l~"'-
';"

,-,-'-',<-._ ..;//:>' J
55.0

50.0 L-_ _ _ ~ ___ ~ _ _ _ _ _ _' - -_ __'__ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~_

12 a.m. 6 9 12 p.m. 6 9 12a.m.

Time of Day (hours)

Fig. AA. Mean Daily Temperature Cycle - April

158
 85.0
-M(lhilc
...... M<Int
- ~ - Sham.
80.0 Hunt....

75.0
G:'
~o
~
e 70.0
~
~
E
~
65.0

60.0

55.0 L--~~~ __ ~ _ _-'-_ _ ~ _ _- '_ _ _'--_ _-'-_ _..J

12 a.m. 3 6 9 12 p.m. 6 9 I~ a.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.S. Mean Daily Temperature Cycle - May

95.0
-M(lbilc
. .... Mom.
90.0 - - - Sham.
- - Hunts.

85.0

G:'
00
"
~ 80.0
e
"[
E
75.0
~
70.0

65.0

60.0 L--_ _ ~ __ ~ _ _-'-_ _ ~ __ ~~ ___ ~_~ _ _...J

12 a.m. 6 9 12 p.m. 3 6 9 12 a.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.6. Mean Daily Temperature Cycle - June

159
 90.0 ,-~---,-~-_,-----,---,----,--~--,---,----,-----,------,

- M\lhilc
MOIlt.

HUll1S

85.0

li:'
~o
:::.
1:!
80.0
'["
E
~

75.0

70.0 '-----'--~-'-------~---'-----'----'-----'-----'
12 a.m. 6 9 12 p.m. 6 9 12 a.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.7. Mean Daily Temperature Cycle - July

9O.n ,-----,---,----,----,---,------,----,----r----,

.<\
. Mllllt.

i:~;;::;::- -,~,
- - - Sham.
- - Hunt ....
85.0

.... I I " .

i ·f /
... l l
~.~ ....
,
~o 80.0
:::. ,/1/ \.
~ If \
[ ~ f
If
/ I
'.
~
E 75.0 [.
':...........
~ ................. ...// ',::-~,
r <.::. ~~.~.~:.y
"'" r ---->
65.0 Li_ _ _ ~_ _~_ _ _~_ _ _~_ _ _' _ __ __ ' __ _ _~_ __ _ . J
12a.m. 6 9 12p.m. 6 9 12a.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.8. Mean Daily Temperature Cycle - August

160
 90.0

S5.0
r
L
l

---
-M"h,1c
Mom,
_ . - Bham
Hunls
l
" ,/
"
SO.O
~,~.\
/
u::- /' / /
11
~o /// \ .
\\
::0 //
. I
~ 75.0 \. 11
I I
;'1 \\
~
"~,, "--~1
. I

' - :-
E I
~ / I
70.0 . I :::. 'I

~ ~I
I
/ I
. I

65.0 ~ - ~. -
'-'
1/
/

j
60.0
12a.m. 6 9 12 p.m. 6 9 12a.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.9. Mean Daily Temperature Cycle - September

SO.O r-~--r----r---r-~--r-----r--- _ _- - - r - - - - - '

-Mllililc
M(lIlt.
- - - Bh:un.
75.0 - - HunL".

Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.lO. Mean Daily Temperature Cycle - October

161
 70.0
Mllhllc
MIIIII.
Sham.
65.0 Hunts.
r
/

.:;:- 60.0 /
,
~o
/
/
/
"\ '
/ \ "
2- / \
,,..,
~
I /
55.0 . /

~
E /
I
I
I
". '. "
'-
~ I
I '- '-
'-
.,
50.0 I '-
'- . I
......... ..-'.- .. .. / /

45.0
,-- './
_I
/

40.0
123.m. 6 9 12 p.m. 6 9 12 a.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.II. Mean Daily Temperature Cycle - November

65.0
- - Mllhilc
MllIll.
- . - Sham.
60.0 - - HunL<;.

55.0
.:;:-
00 /
........ -.
"
2- /
!:! /
50.0
~ '-
~
E /
/ ",,
/ ,,
~ /
45.0 / '- '.
I / '- ,
--' /~/
r
40.0
~~·-·-·-·-
--....... -----_/ ,/

35.0 f
123.m. 6 9 12p.m. 6 9 12 a.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.12. Mean Daily Temperature Cycle - December

162
 90.0 r-~--,-~--,----.----,---.-r---_r----.----.

-Mobile
... MoO!.
_ . - Sham.
- - HUflL'i.

SO.O

~
~
:0
'E
70.0
"
:r:
">
.~

~
60.0

50.0 L -_ _- ' -_ _- ' -_ _- - ' ' - -_ _- ' -_ _--'--_ _ ~ _ _ ___'_ _ _ __ '

12 a.m. 6 9 12 p.m. 6 9 12a.m.

Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A. 13. Mean Daily Relative Humidity Cycle - January

S5.0
- Mobile
.. Mom.

/ ~ -: ~ ,::";~:;:-: ~;:.'{>:;; -
-
- - Sham.
- Hunt....

75.0 ."/ t.,

~
~
:0
'E
65.0
:E
"
.~
OJ
<>:

55.0 f.!
./
/!
.--

45.0
12 a.m. 6 9 12p.m. 6 9
.J
12 a.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A 14. Mean Daily Relative Humidity Cycle - February

163
 -MtlOllc
85.0 Mont.
- - - Bh:uTI.
- - Hums.
/

75.0
~
~ /..-
'0 //
'E /;/
~ ~.-j'/
" 65.0 1/
.~
OJ
0:: ,....
/'/
.~..,.~, /1/
I.
....
" ' ".,
/
55.0 / ... /
'\:. /1 ....... /'
-;;.
.... .'/

45.0
12a.m. 6 9 12p.m. 3 6 9 12a.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.lS. Mean Daily Relative Humidity Cycle - March

- - Mohile
85.0 Mont.
_ .. Sham.
- - Hunts.

~ 75.0

55.0

45.0 - - - - - ' - - - - -
12 a.m. 3 6 12p.m. 3 6 9 12a.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A16. Mean Daily Relative Humidity Cycle - April

164
 -Motulc
90.0 MUn! .
. Sham.
Hunt:;.

, .....
,-
/
-.
~ S(l.O /
.. /
,.,
'i3 ,.. /
/

'§ . I

:c .'
f /
/
~ 70.0 ! ,

;,
I I
"
-;:;
or: .1

60.0 )
'":1

./
f
.. ~ #'
/..'
.~'": : :. . ,.,...~.d-.v
50.0 L -_ _ ~~~---'- _ _ _. L -_ _- - ' -_ _- ' -_ _ _ ~ _ _- - ' -_ _---.J

12 a.m. 3 6 9 12 p.m. 6 9 (2 a.m.

Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.17. Mean Daily Relative Humidity Cycle - May

- - Mntulc
90.0 . Mont.
- - - Sham.
- - Hunt$,

~ so.o
E!:-
'i3
·il
:c"
.~ 70.0 .
-;:;
or: \

60.0

6 9 12 p.m. 6 9 l.!a.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.IS. Mean Daily Relative Humidity Cycle - June

165
 / \ .. -Mtlhi\c
90.0 ....... ~ /';/. Mtlill.
..tr..,:.:-."::.,
." / - - - Bham .
- - Hunts.

g BO.O
:::-
'0
'E
~
.~ 70.0

60.0

sO.n L-_ _ ~ _ _ _ _ _ __'__ _ _L -_ __'__ _ _' -_ __'__ _---.J

12 a.m. 6 9 12 p.m. 6 9 12 a.m.

Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.19. Mean Daily Relative Humidity Cycle - July

- - - Mtlhilc
90.0 ."' Mont.
_ .. Sham.
- - Hunts.

~ BO.n f
:::-
'0
'6
"
:r:
.~ 70,C)

tl
c<:

60.0

r
f
f ___"--______L -_ _- ' -_ _ _~_ __'__ _ _~
SO.O c..
12 a.m. 6 9 12p.m. 6 9 I~ a.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.20. Mean Daily Relative Humidity Cycle - August

166
 -M(,hllc
90.0 f _. - Sham.
M(ln!.

f - - Hunts.
/.
"//
... :;..-.......
/.;"--

~ SIl.O r /1
/1
./

~
'i3
.~ I --I I
:c f /1
. '1
70.0
"
.~
/./
?
./
"
0::
;

60.0
, !
"... ~, .'/j
. j
.~ /"""-...:. ...J/
·...;;;;..,:t......... o,J

50.0 L-_ _-'-_ _ _ ~ _ _-'-_ _ _'---_ _ _'__~_~~ _ __'_________l

12 a.m. 3 6 9 12p.m. 3 6 9 12a.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.21. Mean Daily Relative Humidity Cycle - September

_._- Mobile
SS.O Mont.
- - - Sham.
- - Hums. ..... ~':':;-
.~ r
j
.y
"'/
75.0 /
~ ;, /
~
'i3 r
l
t' /
..'l
.~
I:!

I
:c .i
65.0
.~
.:/
Ii
"
0:: /
/i
I
II

""I
45.0 r
12a.m.
f
6 9
.••
. . .~~::: -/-:-:::.l
~._J~_._-'_.

12 p.m.
;'/

___ 1___ ,-_,-_.• I .• _ •. __ ....... _ ' -

6 9 12 a.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.22. Mean Daily Relative Humidity Cycle - October

167
 85.0

75.0
~
?;>
'i3
.~
:r: \'.
65.0
"
.~
-.;
0::

55.0

45.0
12a.m. 6 9 12p.m. 6 9 l~ a.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.23. Mean Daily Relative Humidity Cycle - November

_.- Mut'lilc
85.0 Mum.
_ .. Sham.
- - Hums.

~
75.0 ,.
?;>
'i3
'E
i'. ~
"
:I:
\;;" "-
"
.!:
65.0
;'.
\.
" "-
"
-.;
0::
':-..,. "
.... \. ......
....\ (,'
.......... /
.- ':'
55.0

45.0 _. ". __...... , -... --..

12 a.m. 6 9 12 p.m. 6 9 12 a.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.24. Mean Daily Relative Humidity Cycle - December

168
-------------------------------~--------------------

Il.n ,----.---.----.----.----.---~----,---~

- Muhilc
Moo'.
- _. Sham.
IO.n - - Hunt,,_

. - - - - - - .....
/ ....
/ \
9.0 I \
:2
Co
I \
g I \

"" 8.0
I
I \
,,
"
Co
U)
I
-g \.

~ .j \
7.0 .', \\
\)
:,
.:, \
6.n ,
,
'---....._ _ . /
5.0 '--~ _ __'__ __ _ L_ ~ _ __ ' _ __ ___'___ __ _ '_ _ __ ' __ _ _..J

12 a.m. 3 6 9 12 p.m. 3 6 9 12 a.m.

Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.2S. Mean Daily Wind Speed Cycle - January

Il.n , - - - - . - - - - , - - - - . - - - - . - - - - . - - - - . - - - - . - - - - - - - ,
- Mubile

/
./-
,, -
...... Mont.
- - Sham.
10.0
/
~-- , - - Hunt.. _
./ \

/
/
I \
,
9.0 / ..~.;::-;.""-.....:.."',.....-. ....\ \
:2 ,; ./' ./ ...... ' \
g
Co
/.
\
./ \, \
""& 8.0 I
/ I \\ ' ....
I \'.\ ....
U) I
....
.... ~ ....
"e
~ --- -_ .... I

I.'
i
I, '.\

\ \
7.0 \"

. "k.-.-.~.-.:-j/',
s.n - ~ -~~-~~...~~----
12 a.m. 6
- L _ _ _ _ _ --L-_ _ _ '-- •• ____ •. __ l._

9 12 p.m. 6 9 I:!a.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.26. Mean Daily Wind Speed Cycle - February

169
~~.~---~--~----------------~~~--------~---------

12.0
- - Mtlbilc
Mont.
11.0 .... .... - - - Sham .

/-" " \
- - Hums.
/
I \
10.0 /

;;:- f
f
/
.- ....... , \
\
\
Co \
5 9.0 f ---. \
"0
f
f
/
. \\
""
Co
U) f !--.
\
.'\
\
\
-g 8.0 I /:
'-.. \
~
.... \. \
7.0 .... \
....\

6.0
'.~

'.~.. :-:.: -
5.0
12a.m. 6 9 12p.m. 6 9 12:J..ffi.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.27. Mean Daily Wind Speed Cycle - March

Mobile
Mom.
- - - Sham.
r-_ - - HunL"
/-~
/
\
,
/
/ " \
\
I \
f .-.-._ \
f \
f / \
I '\ \
I ..... \
f /.i \ \
, \
/ Ii \ -,
/ \ ....
'-..._----'/ /f
!

I
i
/ \
,
.\.. /.. .........
/
I'

6 9 12p.m. 6 9 12 :.l.rn.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.28. Mean Daily Wind Speed Cycle - April

170
 11.0
- - Mohilc
Mont.
10.0 _ •. Bh<lfll.
/.
- - Hums.

9.0 /.
r-
/.
""\
/.
I \
I \
I \
:2
0-
8.0 / \
S I
/ r \
\
1] 7.0 / \
Co /
V1 \
/ / ... \
11 1 \
~ 6.0 1 \
11 ._/ \
... \
""
/-_ ,.,,--_1
5.0 .... / ""
:1

4.0

3.0 L-_~--'- _ _- ' -_ _ _ ~ _ _- ' -_ _-'--_ _- - '_ _ _- ' -_ _- '

12 a.m. 6 9 12 p.m. 6 9 12 a.m.

Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.29. Mean Daily Wind Speed Cycle - May

10.0
- - - Mobile
Mont.
9.0 Sham.
- - HunL~.

8.0
/

:2 7.0 /.
/.
/"
/"

/"--
- ....... ......
Co / .\
S /
/
""'15." 6.0 I /..:- ..
/.

V1
;' / ....
""'c: / ../
~ 5.0 1 i·
1.'/
....'
.... .....
....
4.0 - ~
1 :/
. \
~ .

.......... :'7:-.
3.0

2.0 - - _ .... _~. __ ........._l_._._

12 a.m. 6 9 12 p.m. 6 9 I::! a.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.30. Mean Daily Wind Speed Cycle - June

171
-------------------------- ~~------------- ------- ------ ---------

9.0 r----r-~-_r--_.__.--._-~_.--__,---,_--_,

- - Mohilc

B.O _ _ ...... ""' '\,. - • - Sham.

/./ " Hunt...
/ I

7.0 /,- /
'
-"'
..... ', \ \
1 . . I
/ ./ '. I I
:;;- / / <.1 I
0.
.s 6.0
'0
/1/ \ I
/ 1 .
Vl
8. I ....
I· I '.~
-g 5.0
......\
~

4.0
J;.? .. \
\
'-
,,
Ii·
. . . ---J. . .' .....:..- "
-''\
3.0 )':1
'\'

2.0
12a.m. 6 9 12p.m. 3 6 9 12 a.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.3 L Mean Daily Wind Speed Cycle - July

9.0
- - Mt)bilc
......... Mont.
8.0 - - - Sham.

/
/
...... --- _.
....... ,I
- - HunK

7.0 _/ .... I
/
II
/ . I
:2 / /'

! 6.0 //./'
I I
'11
. I
1
Vl 11/ . . .
1 1
I I
" ,
-g s.n / .... .....
~
/

/..../ ,. " "

1/"/ \ "
4.0 If ,,
1/
'- / ___ 1/
'/ ...
3.n "1
·-~~v i
2.0 L '_ _- - ' -_ _ ~ _ _ _' _ _ __ _ ~ _ __ ' __ _ ....L..._ _ ~___ J
12 a.m. 6 9 12 p.m. 6 9 12 a.m.
Time nf Day (hours)

Fig. A.32. Mean Daily Wind Speed Cycle - August

172
 - - Mohilc
Mom.
//---_.\\
8.0

/
/- -- ,
I
- - - Bham.
- Hunts.

7.0
/ /,-,/ " \
:2
.§: 6.n
/:.:. :,~.......... .. '\\
1l / ,. •I
1S. / .I
en
/ ;f \
-g 5.0 / . .,
; , ,. .-"",... - I /1
'/ ..... /
4.n ....
.-.""', -,j"'
/
/
,
..........
3.n

2.0 L-_ _ _'_~~-'--~~---'- __ ~___' __ ~'__ _ __'___ _ _ _'_~ _ _'

12 a.m. 3 6 9 12 p.m. 6 9 12 a.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.33. Mean Daily Wind Speed Cycle - September

IO.n

- - Muhilc
Mont.
9.0 _ . - Sh3nt.
---- - - Hunt....
/ ....
/ \
8.0 / \
I \
I -:..::::: .
:2
0- / ,. ............~.~\
\

g ·7.0 I l ..···
.. '

." I . \
1j I .F" '\
0-
en I . .i 1.1
." 6.0 I I I
c i/
; / '\ ~-
.... ,
s.n
/
I

i/
!"/ -- ...... ,

//
'/
4.n . / ' .
-./--'--~
3.0 L-_ _-'-_ _--'-_ _ __'___ _-'-_ _--'-_ _ _'--_ _-'-_ _--'
12 a.m. 6 9 12 p.m. 6 9 12 a.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.34. Mean Daily Wind Speed Cycle - October

173
- ---------------------_._-------

l
IU) [
-Mohik:
M(Int.
10.0 - ' . Bh:1I11.
- - HUIlI."

6.0
.\
'/

5.0 .!
,,
Ii .... _--.

4.0 '-------~="-'--,~~~~-'----
12a.m. 3 6 9 12 a.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.3S. Mean Daily Wind Speed Cycle - November

11.0 f
- - MOhilc

~
...... M(lnl.

10.0

I
.... -- .... ....
,,
-
-
- - Shain.
- HunL" .

9.0 if I
I \
I \
:2

l
/ \
r
Co
g B.O /
/ \

I~ l ~ - -:--~-~~
'"
V

/
'-\...•
",
7.0 /
6.0
i, \.....,
i /
.... ': "- - -. '-
5.0 t·,·_· . . ·'·_-_·,·,,"
4.0
f
:...f_ _ _'-------_ _- ' -_ _ _'-------_ _- ' -_ _ _'-------_ _ _ ~ _ _ _'_______ _ _ _ _ I
12 a.m. 6 9 12 p.m. 6 9 12 u.m.
Time of Day (hours)

Fig. A.36. Mean Daily Wind Speed Cycle - December

174
 APPENDIXB

Concrete Temperature vs. Ambient Temperature Data

175
 Table Bl. ALDOT and Blue Circle Cement Company
Ambient Temperature - Concrete Temperature Data*

ALDOT BLUE CIRCLE DATA BLUE CIRCLE DATA

DATASET SET NO. 1 SET NO. 2

Ta COF) Tc (OF) Ta COF) Tc COF) Ta COF) Tc (OF)

50 65 63 73 54 67
47 62 53 67 76 70
47 60 65 81 72 72

52 58 65 82 47 67
59 64 47 62 37 68
62 64 43 62 38 65
60 85 46 62 43 68
58 68 47 65 70 72
52 70 58 70 43 67
56 68 55 72 50 56
60 72 54 70 60 56
55 70 38 59 64 59
51 72 48 67 73 64
62 69 53 73 74 66
57 70 58 75 73 64
73 80 41 61 71 63
74 80 62 76 60 74
75 82 48 70 44 68
68 82 64 79 55 70
70 85 65 77 60 76
75 86 54 72 66 78
73 84 58 77 65 78
75 86 48 66 44 60
95 87 58 72 57 64
*T, = ambient temperature
Tc = concrete temperature

176
 Table Bl. ALDOT and Blue Circle Cement Company
Ambient Temperature - Concrete Temperature Data (cont.)

ALDOT BLUE CIRCLE DATA BLUE CIRCLE DATA

DATASET SET NO. 1 SET NO. 2

Ta COF) Tc (OF) Ta COF) Tc (OF) Ta (OF) Tc (OF)

80 86 72 82 54 65
86 88 59 70 50 64
82 87 70 82 58 67
81 88 55 68 74 84
85 88 71 82 65 64
81 88 82 87 84 72
81 90 80 86 82 70
88 90 89 88 70 78
94 87 82 88 78 86
55 59 86 89 74 79
47 58 86 89 68 78
49 60 78 86 72 80
72 78 76 84 85 88
64 67 82 88 84 89
58 71 93 91 76 81
66 65 80 88 77 82
80 86 88 90 82 90
78 87 85 89 85 89
77 88 88 90 80 86
78 87 95 91 82 88
81 88 93 88 85 88
82 82 94 89 86 87
92 94 84 88 86 90
60 55 84 87 60 70

177
 Table Bl. ALDOT and Blue Circle Cement Company
Ambient Temperature - Concrete Temperature Data (cont.)

ALDOT BLUE CIRCLE DATA BLUE CIRCLE DATA

DATASET SET NO. 1 SETNO.2

Ta CF) TcCF) Ta (OF) Tc (OF) Ta CF) TcCF)

62 62 93 88 68 70
60 65 94 90 79 76
51 64 89 90 81 78
51 63 83 90 82 80
43 54 85 89 60 75
51 64 86 89 60 74
50 52 85 91 60 75
64 57 79 85 70 77

47 60 87 90 72 78
60 54 88 90 82 84
54 54 89 89 68 72

63 70 71 84 78 78
68 74 71 83 67 74
52 57 86 88 67 79
64 52 84 90 68 78
60 57 89 89 68 79
74 78 84 89 67 77

79 8 80 87 67 78
79 79 84 90 70 78
81 81 84 88 82 81
80 81 78 87 80 83
79 81 85 87 80 82
76 81 82 90 64 81
84 82 84 87 66 85

178
 Table Bl. ALDOT and Blue Circle Cement Company
Ambient Temperature - Concrete Temperature Data (cont.)

ALDOT BLUE CIRCLE DATA BLUE CIRCLE DATA

DATASET SET NO. 1 SET NO. 2

Ta CF) TcCF) TaCF) Tc (OF) Ta (OF) Tc (OF)

78 82 68 83 70 81
76 84 79 88 70 80
87 84 86 90 72 80
81 81 84 87 71 80
92 88 70 83 90 89
81 88 83 88 87 84
99 87 75 85 78 85
93 84 72 80 90 85
84 85 65 79 74 80
95 82 69 78 73 80
90 80 74 82 74 80
88 86 75 83 75 83
87 80 81 87 75 80
83 80 81 84 75 82
47 54 73 82 73 84
52 59 74 82 72 80
50 62 78 83 85 82
54 60 79 84 87 83
40 68 75 80 79 86
49 56 75 81 81 86
56 56 73 78 70 85
40 57 75 82 70 84
48 59 77 83 70 84
48 58 78 86 70 80

179
 -----~---~-------

Table Bl. ALDOT and Blue Circle Cement Company

Ambient Temperature - Concrete Temperature Data (cont.)

ALDOT BLUE CIRCLE DATA BLUE CIRCLE DATA

DATASET SET NO. 1 SET NO. 2

Ta CF) Tc (OF) Ta CF) Tc (OF) TaCF) Tc (OF)

42 56 73 83 70 82
63 62 72 80 71 80
61 61 73 85 71 82
56 62 74 85 72 83
58 54 75 85 74 82
47 51 72 79 78 85
41 53 67 76 84 85
81 76 74 83 86 87
70 84 71 80 84 89
75 84 68 80 73 78
87 87 71 82 73 81
78 85 58 75 73 81
74 85 68 77 71 80
81 86 68 80 71 80
72 82 63 78 72 81
89 86 61 75 73 80
76 85 55 70 74 80
73 83 49 68 74 82
75 85 50 68 74 82
90 86 46 66 86 82
87 87 42 59 80 83
73 84 40 58 82 88
92 85 44 67 84 88
78 81 47 70 88 89

180
- -------~~~-~--~-----

Table Bl. ALDOT and Blue Circle Cement Company

Ambient Temperature - Concrete Temperature Data (cont.)

ALDOT BLUE CIRCLE DATA BLUE CIRCLE DATA

DATASET SET NO. 1 SET NO. 2
Ta (OF) TcCF) Ta CF) Tc (OF) Ta CF) TcCF)
79 82 52 72 72 81
80 84 67 82 72 80
79 81 54 70 73 80
79 81 57 71 73 81
91 85 60 72 76 87
88 85 59 70 72 81
84 83 55 69 73 82
54 69 76 84
45 68 71 80
45 62 70 80
45 67 70 80
44 68 71 81
46 70 72 81
45 69 72 81
45 70 72 82
61 77 75 86
65 77 76 85
58 73 74 80
60 74 74 80
36 56 72 80
43 68 82 84
46 68 78 84
33 56 77 83
34 55 76 79

181
 Table Bl. ALDOT and Blue Circle Cement Company
Ambient Temperature - Concrete Temperature Data (cont.)

ALDOT BLUE CIRCLE DATA BLUE CIRCLE DATA

DATASET SET NO. 1 SET NO. 2

Ta (OF) ITc CF) Ta (OF) Tc (OF) Ta CF) TcCF)

36 55 76 80
36 68 74 79
38 64 75 80
36 67 72 82
66 78 74 80
44 69 74 83
46 70 85 88
47 69 68 78
38 50 69 78
45 62 70 78
65 72 72 80
65 70 70 84
62 65 72 80
48 60 72 80
73 82
74 82
74 80
74 81
70 84
73 82
82 84
84 85
83 82
74 83

182
 Table Bl. ALDOT and Blue Circle Cement Company
Ambient Temperature - Concrete Temperature Data (cont.)

ALDOT BLUE CIRCLE DATA BLUE CIRCLE DATA

DATASET SET NO. 1 SET NO. 2

Ta CF) ITc CF) Ta CF) ITc CF) Ta (OF) TcCF)

90 88
92 89
74 83
80 87
84 89
85 88
85 87
86 87
91 87
76 86
85 87
91 88
76 81
89 89
90 88
81 84
63 78

66 78
84 86
70 78

78 82
74 80
76 82
82 80

183
)