INTER-CITY BUS TERMINAL LOCATION CRITERIA

by
EDMOND REINIER CUYLITS
B.A., University of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1 9 6 6

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ARTS

i n the Faculty
of

GRADUATE STUDIES,
SCHOOL OF COMMUNITY AND REGIONAL PLANNING

We accept- this thesis as conforming to the

required standard.

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

MAY, 1 9 7 2
In presenting this thesis i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the
requirements for an advanced degree at the University of
B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree that the Library s h a l l make i t
f r e e l y available for reference and study. I farther agree
that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for
scholarly purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department
or by his representatives. I t i s understood that copying or
publication of this thesis for f i n a n c i a l gain s h a l l not be
allowed without my written permission.

Edmond R. C u y l i t s , B.A.

SCHOOL OF COMMUNITY AND REGIONAL PLANNING

FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

The University of B r i t i s h Columbia

Vancouver 8, Canada
 (i)

ABSTRACT

S i n c e the i n i t i a l development o f i n t e r - c i t y t r a n s p o r t ,

f i x e d s t o p p i n g p l a c e s s e r v i n g i n t e r - c i t y common c a r r i e r modes

have become e s t a b l i s h e d . Such s t o p p i n g p l a c e s i n c l u d e l o c a t i o n s

w i t h s p e c i a l i z e d s t r u c t u r e s or t e r m i n a l s that f a c i l i t a t e the
i n t e r c h a n g e process and l i n k the access o r egress j o u r n e y t o
the l i n e h a u l mode. T r a d i t i o n a l l y i n t e r - c i t y bus t e r m i n a l s

have been s i t u a t e d i n the c e n t r a l b u s i n e s s d i s t r i c t o f

metropolitan areas. However, the e x p a n s i o n of urban areas
and the d i s p e r s i o n of urban a c t i v i t i e s i n t o these areas would
suggest t h a t the t r a d i t i o n a l l o c a t i o n o f the bus t e r m i n a l s
i s no l o n g e r o p t i m a l . T h i s t h e s i s poses t h i s q u e s t i o n i n the

hypothesis which s t a t e s :

The o p t i m a l l o c a t i o n f o r an i n t e r - c i t y bus t e r m i n a l
. i n an urban m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a i s one a t o r near t h a t
m e t r o p o l i t a n area's c e n t r a l b u s i n e s s d i s t r i c t .

I n o r d e r t o develop a d e f i n i t i o n f o r o p t i m a l l o c a t i o n

an e x a m i n a t i o n i s f i r s t made o f i n t e r - m o d e l c o m p e t i t i o n and

f a c t o r s t h a t a f f e c t demand. Time and c o s t a r e i n d i c a t e d i n

the l i t e r a t u r e t o be of prime importance and t h e i r m i n i m i z a t i o n

encourages t r a v e l . As access and e g r e s s journeys form s i g n i f i c a n t

elements o f the i n t e r - c i t y j o u r n e y , the time and c o s t of these

j o u r n e y segments r e c e i v e most.of the a t t e n t i o n i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e

surveyed. Measurements o f these f a c t o r s i s d i s c u s s e d a t

length.

As the i n t e r - c i t y t e r m i n a l i s the i n t e r c h a n g e p o i n t

w h i c h l i n k s t h e access o r egress j o u r n e y t o the l i n e h a u l mode,

 (ii)
a v a r i a t i o n i n the t e r m i n a l s ' l o c a t i o n w i l l a f f e c t these

j o u r n e y segments. The o p t i m a l l o c a t i o n i s d e f i n e d i n terms

of m i n i m i z i n g the a c c e s s / e g r e s s j o u r n e y times and cost i n

o r d e r t o s t i m u l a t e demand.

However, demand o r i e n t e d l o c a t i o n s may have h i g h

l a n d a c q u i s i t i o n and operating c o s t s t h a t would negate the
b e n e f i t of such l o c a t i o n s and f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h i s a s p e c t
must be c o n s i d e r e d i n the l o c a t i o n e v a l u a t i o n . Finally,
c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s g i v e n t o the consequences of such l o c a t i o n
on the p r e s e n t and f u t u r e urban environment. These t h r e e
c r i t e r i a - demand, c o s t and urban impacts must be included
i n the e v a l u a t i o n of t e r m i n a l l o c a t i o n .

I t i s concluded t h a t a c e n t r a l l o c a t i o n near the hub of

the urban t r a n s i t system i s most d e s i r a b l e f o r main bus

terminals. I n the f u t u r e , the importance of the c e n t r a l

l o c a t i o n w i l l d e c l i n e and a l o c a t i o n on the t r a n s i t system

w i l l become the most d e s i r a b l e . However, w i t h the dispersion

of urban p a t t e r n s , i t may be necessary, t o add .suburban t e r m i n a l s

w h i c h can b e s t be l o c a t e d near major a r t e r i a l s and -at p o i n t s

where suburban town c e n t e r s should be encouraged.

 (iii)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE; INTRODUCTION Page 1

The Stopping Place i n Inter-City Travel 1
1.2 Inter-City Travel - A D e f i n i t i o n 3
1.3 Terminal Location and Impact. 6
l.H- The Balance i n Inter-City Transportation:
A. Perspective. 7
1.5 The Hypothesis 17
1.6 The Study Approach 18

CHAPTER TWO; THE BASIS OF ANALYSIS 23

2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Early Bus Terminals 23
2.3 Location Optimization - The Gravity
Principle 28
2,h Passenger C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 36
2.5 Passenger Origins and Destinations 39
2.6 Future D i s t r i b u t i o n of Trip Origins and
Destinations ht

2.7 Line Haul Times k-

2.8 Supply of Transport Services - An
Economic Consideration *+6
2.9 Community Planning Considerations ^-9
2.10 The Ottawa Terminal Relocation - An
Example. 51
2.11 I n t e r - c i t y Terminal Location, A Summary 53

CHAPTER THREE; BUS TERMINAL LOCATION 58

3.1 Introduction 58
3.2 The Terminal i n the I n t e r - c i t y Bus System 5 8
3.3 Bus Terminal Use and Location 59
3.H- Access and Egress Journeys - Modal Choice 5 9
3.5 Implications of Future Demand on Terminal
Location 63
3.6 The Line Haul Journey and the Bus Terminal6"+
3.7 I n t e r - c i t y Bus Costs 65
3.8 Community Planning and Bus Terminals 66
3.9 Summary 67

CHAPTER FOUR: DISCUSSION AND- CONCLUSION 70

 (iv)

L I S T OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Annual I n t e r - c i t y Passenger Miles

Logged i n Canada 16

Table 1,2 R e l a t i v e Role o f Common C a r r i e r

Modes. 16

Table 2.1 Comparison of Business Trips Between

New Y o r k C i t y a n d W a s h i n g t o n D.C. 33
Table 2.2 Usage o f I n t e r - C i t y Modes Between
P h i l a d e l p h i a and Washington by
Income Croups i n C o m p a r i s o n w i t h
S.A.R.C. D a t a . 38
Table 2.3 Travel Purpose - % f o r C i t y P a i r 38
Table 2,h L o c a l T r a v e l Modes f o r I n t e r - C i t y
Travellers i n the Northeast Corridor hi
Table 2,5 Average Local Travel Times kl
 (v)

LIST OF DIAGRAMS

Figure 1.1 The I n t e r - c i t y Journey Pa

Figure 2.1 . Cumilitive D i s t r i b u t i o n of
Passenger Income on I n t e r - c i t y
Modes
 (vi)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank a l l those who assisted me i n the

preparation of this thesis. In p a r t i c u l a r I wish to indicate
my appreciation to Mr. P. Roer and Mr. Wm. Rees for their
advice concerning the organization, of this paper. I would also
wish to thank my employer,• my parents, and my wife, f o r their
patience and cooperation while this study was being prepared.
F i n a l l y I wish to thank my-typist, Mrs. Andrea Howell, f o r
her willingness to work at a l l hours to complete the f i n a l
document.

E. R. Cuylits
 C H A P T E R ONE: INTRODUCTION.

1.1 The S t o p p i n g P l a c e i n Inter-city Travel.

With the development of i n t e r - c i t y public transport,

fixed stopping places became e s t a b l i s h e d , where passengers

could gather and board the i n t e r - c i t y vehicle. Early stopping'

places f o r such i n t e r - c i t y modes a s t h e s t a g e coach required

no particular structures, as p a s s e n g e r ' p i c k up a l o n g the roadway

was p o s s i b l e . I n urbanized areas these points were well

advertised and o f t e n located at cafes, taverns, or at the " ;

carrier's offices. The r a i l w a y , with i t s more sophisticated

technology required elaborate stopping places and frequently

specific structures - terminals or stations - were built to

permit access to the transport

1
vehicles. Similarly, airports

were developed. Thus, the s i n g l e stopping place became a

specialized structure housing t h e many a n d v a r i e d activities

required f o r each transport technology.

For inter-city ground transport, the stopping points

In the larger North American cities have traditionally been

at a central l o c a t i o n a n d many s t i l l have these central t

terminals f o rrail and bus modes. . These central locations

were considered central locations forrail terminals frequently

resulted from the growth of c i t i e s around and a way from

these facilities. These central locations were considered

 2

o p t i m a l as urban p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t , w h i c h p r o v i d e d t h e main mode

of t r a n s p o r t i n c i t i e s , f r e q u e n t l y converged on the c i t y center.
However, i n c r e a s i n g a u t o m o b i l e ownership has d i m i n i s h e d the Si
dependency on l o c a l p u b l i c modes and has p e r m i t t e d greater
individual choice i n r e s i d e n t i a l l o c a t i o n away from t h e t r a n s i t
routes. The r e s u l t a n t d i s p e r s a l of u r b a n i z e d areas i n t o t h e
c o u n t r y s i d e , w h i l e i n t e r - c i t y bus and r a i l t e r m i n a l s have tended
t o remain i n the c i t y c e n t e r s , r a i s e s the q u e s t i o n whether o r
not t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l l o c a t i o n i s s t i l l optimal. This paper
f o c u s e s i t s a t t e n t i o n on t h i s i s s u e and' w i l l make s p e c i f i c
reference t o t h e t e r m i n a l s e r v i n g the i n t e r - c i t y bus system.

The q u e s t i o n r a i s e d w i l l be o p e r a t i o n a l i z e d i n t h i s
chapter. I t i s intended t h a t the a n a l y s i s made w i l l suggest
c r i t e r i a f o r i n t e r - c i t y bus t e r m i n a l l o c a t i o n w h i c h can be o f
a s s i s t a n c e t o bus o p e r a t o r s , planners, and o f b e n e f i t t o
travellers.

F o r the p l a n n e r , these c r i t e r i a can be o f a s s i s t a n c e

i n planning f o r new t r a n s p o r t a t i o n t e r m i n a l s , urban development,

and the l o c a t i o n of new highways. F o r example, T o r o n t o , Canada,

i s c o n t e m p l a t i n g a major downtown redevelopment p r o j e c t called

"Metro C e n t e r " w h i c h would i n c l u d e a comprehensive transpor-

t a t i o n terminal a t i t s core. The p r o j e c t would i n c l u d e inter-

c i t y and commuter r a i l , l o c a l and i n t e r - c i t y bus, subway, and

a i r l i n e limousine terminals. 1
The c r i t e r i a e s t a b l i s h e d can a i d

i n the assessment o f t h i s p r o j e c t .
 3

1.2. I n t e r - c i t y Travel - A D e f i n i t i o n .

I n i t s p r i m i t i v e s t a g e s , i n t e r - c i t y t r a v e l can be
more a c c u r a t e l y d e f i n e d as i n t e r - c o m m u n i t y t r a v e l t h a t takes
p l a c e between communities s e p a r a t e d by s p a r s e l y s e t t l e d o r
r u r a l areas. T h i s d e f i n i t i o n , however, i s not a p p l i c a b l e i n
modern N o r t h America where many r e g i o n s have become e x t e n s i v e l y
u r b a n i z e d and i n d i v i d u a l communities have p h y s i c a l l y , ( b u t n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y p o l i t i c a l l y ) merged t o f o r m l a r g e urban conglomer-
ations. A more a c c u r a t e d e f i n i t i o n of modern i n t e r - c i t y travel
i s one w h i c h r e f e r s t o i n t e r - m e t r o p o l i t a n t r a v e l o n l y and does
not i n c l u d e t r a v e l between v a r i o u s communities w i t h i n the
metropolitan area. T h i s would exclude commuter t r a f f i c which
has i t s o r i g i n s and d e s t i n a t i o n s w i t h i n the same m e t r o p o l i t a n
area.

Once h a v i n g e s t a b l i s h e d i n t e r - c i t y t r a v e l as the

movement between m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a s , the i n t e r - c i t y journey

i t s e l f can be a n a l y z e d as one h a v i n g t h r e e b a s i c segments? the

access j o u r n e y from the p o i n t of o r i g i n t o the main i n t e r - c i t y

mode; the l i n e h a u l j o u r n e y on the i n t e r - c i t y mode; and the

egress j o u r n e y from t h i s mode t o the u l t i m a t e d e s t i n a t i o n .

F r e q u e n t l y , the f i r s t and l a s t segments of the j o u r n e y occur

w i t h i n metropolitan areas. The p o i n t s where these various

j o u r n e y segments>;meethand where t r a n s f e r i s made, can be

considered the i n t e r c h a n g e or t r a n s f e r p o i n t . F i g u r e one

s c h e m a t i c a l l y p o r t r a y s the t y p i c a l i n t e r - c i t y journey.
FIGURE ONE: THE INTER-CITY JOURNEY.

1| origin

ORIGIN ACCESS
URBAN
AREA

^ inter-
Y change
point

LINE

HAUL
DIRECTION

OF

TRAVEL

DESTINATION
inter-
URBAN
^ change
i
AREA
Y point

EGRESS
!

1•™ destin-
ation
 5
The l o c a t i o n of the i n t e r c h a n g e p o i n t and the l e n g t h

of the access or egress j o u r n e y can v a r y w i d e l y , depending on

the type of mode used and t h e l o c a t i o n of the u l t i m a t e o r i g i n

or d e s t i n a t i o n . When the automobile i s the l i n e h a u l mode, the

access o r e g r e s s p o r t i o n o f the j o u r n e y i s f r e q u e n t l y v e r y s h o r t

as an automobile can u s u a l l y be "parked" c l o s e t o the o r i g i n o r

destination. F r e q u e n t l y , the access o r e g r e s s j o u r n e y i s made

by the most p e r s o n a l mode a v a i l a b l e , one's own f e e t . The p o i n t

where the c a r i s parked—can t e c h n i c a l l y be c o n s i d e r e d as the

interchange p o i n t .

W i t h common c a r r i e r s , however, the i n t e r c h a n g e p o i n t

i s o f t e n a t a p a r t i c u l a r s e t l o c a t i o n and t h e access o r e g r e s s
j o u r n e y w i l l v a r y i n l e n g t h , depending on the l o c a t i o n of the
ultimate o r i g i n or d e s t i n a t i o n . These j o u r n e y segments c a n ,
t h e r e f o r e , be o f c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s t a n c e and may i n v o l v e the use
of l o c a l t r a n s p o r t modes o t h e r than w a l k i n g . I f r e q u i r e d , these
j o u r n e y segments c o u l d be. separated i n t o s u b s e c t i o n s w i t h
secondary- i n t e r c h a n g e points.

The l o c a t i o n of the i n t e r c h a n g e p o i n t f o r some i n t e r -

c i t y modes can be v a r i a b l e ( e . g . r o a d s i d e s t o p p i n g p l a c e s f o r

buses) w i t h i n the urban s e t t i n g . A l s o , s e v e r a l p o i n t s may e x i s t

w i t h i n the one u r b a n i z e d a r e a s e r v i n g t h e same mode ( e . g . a

mode h a v i n g b o t h c e n t r a l and suburban s t a t i o n s ) . 1

Usually at

l e a s t one of the p o i n t s has a s p e c i a l i z e d s t r u c t u r e or t e r m i n a l

capable of h a n d l i n g l a r g e volumes of passengers and f a c i l i t a t e

interchange.
 6
1.3. T e r m i n a l L o c a t i o n and Impact.

As was i n d i c a t e d above, the p o i n t o f interchange

f o r common c a r r i e r s i s u s u a l l y a t a s e t l o c a t i o n and t h i s
l o c a t i o n can have an impact on the i n t e r - c i t y j o u r n e y segments.
F o r example, i f o r i g i n s and d e s t i n a t i o n s remain c o n s t a n t and the
interchange p o i n t i s r e l o c a t e d , l i n e h a u l and a c c e s s / e g r e s s
j o u r n e y segments may be lenghthened or s h o r t e n e d , c a u s i n g t r a v e l
times and/or c o s t s t o a l t e r . U s i n g the concepts o f comparative
time and c o s t performance of each mode, these s h i f t s can r e s u l t
i n t h e r e a l i g n m e n t of the use of each mode. T h i s concept w i l l
be d i s c u s s e d more f u l l y i n c h a p t e r two, but i t can be s t a t e d a t
t h i s p o i n t t h a t i f o v e r a l l c o s t s and t r a v e l times f o r t r a v e l l e r s
are reduced by the change i n p a r t i c u l a r mode's t e r m i n a l l o c a t i o n ,
increased patronage on t h a t mode can be e x p e c t e d . Many o f the
s t u d i e s of the B o s t o n t o Washington t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o r r i d o r
(the N o r t h e a s t C o r r i d o r ) have a p p l i e d themselves t o t h i s concept
and w i l l , be r e f e r r e d t o i n the f o l l o w i n g chapter.

A s i m i l a r e f f e c t c o u l d be a n t i c i p a t e d i f urban
patterns ( i n c l u d i n g the l o c a t i o n o f o r i g i n s / d e s t i n a t i o n s ) s h i f t

xtfhile the t e r m i n a l l o c a t i o n remains c o n s t a n t . F o r example, the

spread o f c i t i e s hkas; l e n g t h e n e d the average d i s t a n c e t o the

c i t y c e n t e r and have f r e q u e n t l y r e s u l t e d i n s i g n i f i c a n t increases

i n the a c c e s s and e g r e s s p o r t i o n s of the i n t e r - c i t y j o u r n e y v i a

common c a r r i e r ; ? Thus i t c o u l d be argued t h a t t h e r e i s a p o i n t

where the a c c e s s and e g r e s s p o r t i o n s become so l a r g e i n terms

of time and c o s t , t h a t t r a v e l l e r s w i l l s h i f t t h e i r c h o i c e to a

mode whose performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s have become more d e s i r a b l e .

 7

Should a p a r t i c u l a r c a r r i e r w i s h t o r e t a i n t h i s p a t r o n a g e ,

i t may be n e c e s s a r y t o r e l o c a t e the t e r m i n a l or t o provide

a d d i t i o n a l t e r m i n a l s where i n t e r c h a n g e can take place.

T e r m i n a l s have p a r t i c u l a r impacts on urban s t r u c t u r e

t h a t are u s u a l l y not i n c l u d e d i n the e v a l u a t i o n of the trans-
p o r t a t i o n network. T h i s impact can be on l o c a l . . t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
p a t t e r n s , the d i s t r i b u t i o n of l a n d v a l u e s , and. l a n d uses w i t h i n
the c i t y . Gaekenheimer d i s c u s s e d an extreme example of such a
s e t of impacts by c o n s i d e r i n g a s i n g l e i n t e r c h a n g e point to
serve a l l common c a r r i e r i n t e r - c i t y modes. .Should•such a
s i n g l e t e r m i n a l be e s t a b l i s h e d , Gaekenheimer argued, i t would
n e c e s s i t a t e the r e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of a c c e s s systems w i t h i n the
c i t y " i n such a. manner as t o make l a n d p r i c e s , d e n s i t y of
occupancy, and the need f o r r a d i a l a c c e s s most d i f f i c u l t problems
w h i c h might w e l l be i n s o l v a b l e a t the urban level"!'^.-. One of
his conclusions i s t h a t the impacts of t e r m i n a l l o c a t i o n ( o r
l o c a t i o n s ) on the urban s t r u c t u r e should not be neglected.

To c o n c l u d e , the suggested approach t o the evaluation

of t e r m i n a l l o c a t i o n i s the e v a l u a t i o n of impact on the trans-

p o r t a t i o n system b a l a n c e r e s u l t i n g from s h i f t s i n access and

e g r e s s journeys and the impact on the urban environment i n

w h i c h the t e r m i n a l i s l o c a t e d .

l.h. The Balance i n I n t e r - C i t y T r a n s p o r t a t i o n : A Perspective.

The b a l a n c e among the v a r i o u s i n t e r - c i t y transport

modes has v a r i e d w i t h the development of new technology and the

 8
a b i l i t y of the North American public to afford, personal transport

modes. In order to indicate the nature of the present balance

and the role of terminal l o c a t i o n i n this balance of b r i e f

description of recent trends i n i n t e r - c i t y travel w i l l indicate

the changing use patterns.

After the early stage coaches yielded to the faster

and more comfortable t r a i n , the railways were the dominant mode
for t r a v e l for many decades i n the late 1 9 t h and early 2.0th
centuries. However, i t can be suggested that since the turn of
the century, the railways have f a i l e d to make the improvements
needed to permit them to continue i t s dominant position i n i n t e r -
city travel. For medium and long haul distance t r a v e l ,
railway speeds have not improved s i g n i f i c a n t l y since 1920 and
i t i s claimed that l i t t l e e f f o r t has; been made to improve the
comfort and convenience of this mode to passengers^ The major
decline of railway passenger" service i s c l e a r l y evident i n the
passenger s t a t i s t i c s (which w i l l be discussed below) and the
considerable cutbacks i n scheduled t r a i n service. The U.S.
railroads l i s t e d *+21 passenger trains i n their 1969 schedule,
a drop of over 19,000 trains since 1929.? As a l a s t resort,
the United States government introduced a network of subsidized
passenger services, called AMTRACK, which freed the railways
from part of the claimed losses incurred by unprofitable
passenger operations. The AMTRACK network has a basic i n t e r -
c i t y grid of sixteen routes. According to U.S. Transportation
Secretary, John Volpe, the system w i l l require only half the
current number of trains while reducing service by only 15%.^
 The f u t u r e of i n t e r - c i t y r a i l w a y passenger operations
using e x i s t i n g technology does not appear b r i g h t . The high
c a p i t a l investments r e q u i r e d and the c o s t squeeze e f f e c t of
r i s i n g l a b o u r demands and increasing inter-modal competition
suggest t h a t the r a i l w a y w i l l o n l y c o n t i n u e t o operate extensive
passenger networks under s u b s i d i z e d programs such as the
AMTRACK system. T h i s i s evidenced by the number of p e t i t i o n s
f i l e d f o r abandonment and the speed w i t h w h i c h the r a i l w a y s
accepted AMTRACK.' . 7

R e s e a r c h and d e m o n s t r a t i o n projects presently

underway i n the N o r t h e a s t C o r r i d o r are s u g g e s t i n g a f u t u r e f o r
i n t e r - c i t y r a i l t r a n s p o r t which i s l i m i t e d t o medium d i s t a n c e
t r a v e l (200 t o 600 milesjiv, The M e t r o l i n e r , introduced, under
such a d e m o n s t r a t i o n program, operates on the Washington t o
New York run and d i d c o s t the P e n n - C e n t r a l R a i l w a y $^5 million
and the U.S. Department of T r a n s p o r t a t i o n $11 m i l l i o n t o develop!?
A s i m i l a r demonstration program i s the T u r b o - t r a i n operation
between B o s t o n and New York. I t should be noted t h a t these
new s e r v i c e s r e q u i r e d not o n l y new r o l l i n g s t o c k but a l s o
e x t e n s i v e improvements t o the r i g h t s of way.?®-'<;>•»

Some new t e c h n o l o g i e s suggested f o r h i g h speed

ground t r a n s p o r t a t i o n are r e l a t e d t o e x i s t i n g r a i l techniques

but i n v o l v e h i g h l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d r i g h t of way technology.

Such systems would operate a t speeds i n excess of 160 miles

per hour and c o u l d u t i l i z e such motive power as the linear

i n d u c t i o n motor. Another suggested type of v e h i c l e has been

 10
the t r a c k e d hover t r a i n or a i r cushioned v e h i c l e 1, 1 Costs f o r

these new systems a r e expected t o be c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r than

for conventional techniques and w i l l be f e a s a b l e i n h i g h

density t r a v e l corridors only.

H i s t o r i c a l l y , "the f i r s t major c h a l l e n g e t o the

r a i l r o a d passenger t r a i n " occurred, i n the 1920's when the -
i n t e r u r b a n - an outgrowth o f the urban s t r e e t r a i l w a y - reached
i t s peak« -v7!
A t i t s g r e a t e s t e x t e n t , i n t h i s peak p e r i o d , the
1
i n t e r u r b a n p r o v i d e d f a s t and f r e q u e n t s e r v i c e t o many communities
a l o n g a network of 15,000 r o u t e m i l e s i n t h e U'.S.. a l o n e . In
Canada, e x t e n s i v e networks e x i s t e d around some o f the major
urban areas i n c l u d i n g T o r o n t o , W i n n i p e g , and Vancouver, In
1926, the i n t e r u r b a n accounted f o r 11.7$ of the t o t a l inter-
c i t y passenger m i l e s completed by 'common c a r r i e r s i n the U n i t e d
States\ : over 72$ was handled by the r a i l r o a d s ; w h i l e the
remainder was completed by a new mode of t r a n s p o r t , the motor
busier.

As the bus was a b l e t o share the r i g h t o f way w i t h the

automobile, the development of i n t e r - c i t y highways permitted

the e x p a n s i o n o f bus r o u t e s . I t was d u r i n g the 1920's t h a t

many of the governments began t o fund highway c o n s t r u c t i o n t o

accommodate the i n c r e a s i n g number o f p r i v a t e l y owned automobilesi^vi.

Such companies as Grey Coach L i n e s of T o r o n t o r e p o r t e d t h a t i t

took f u l l advantage of the new highways t o p r o v i d e new s e r v i c e s - ^ ?

I n the e a r l y years the bus was c o n s i d e r e d an e x c i t i n g

n o v e l t y and i t f r e q u e n t l y a t t r a c t e d much r i d e r s h i p f o r t h i s
 11
reason.-^ However, t h e value o f t h e bus w i t h i t s flexibility

was q u i c k l y recognized and t r a n s p o r t operators such as the

Toronto T r a n s i t Commission saw t h e b u s a s t h e " l o g i c a l answer

to the capital expenditure necessary f o r ther a i l services."-'-?

One o f t h e f i r s t r e g u l a r l y scheduled b u s s e r v i c e s i n C a n a d a was

established b y t h e T.T.C. o n S e p t e m b e r 20th, 1921.

Although less comfortable, than the interurbans,

the inter-city bus p r o v i d e d strong competition with its.low

fares.

" D u r i n g t h e 1920's, i n t e r - c i t y b u s f a r e s
a v e r a g e d 2.25 c e n t s p e r m i l e , ' w i t h a-'..low o f
1.8 cents, while the i n t e r u r b a n charged
b e t w e e n 2,h a n d 3.0 c e n t s p e r m i l e . The
f i x e d investment i n t r a c k and e l e c t r i c a l
f i x t u r e s p l u s a s s o c i a t e d m a i n t e n a n c e gave t h e
i n t e r u r b a n an average marginal cost s t r u c t u r e
h i g h e r than buses a t t h e l o w passenger
d e n s i t i e s they carried."1"

For this reason, t h e T.T.C. e s t a b l i s h e d G r e y C o a c h L i n e s i n

1927. The bus s y s t e m r e p l a c e d many o f t h e i n t e r u r b a n routes

and initiated long distance runs as w e l l . I n thef i r s t year

of operation, t h emain i n t e r - c i t y route t o Niagara Falls

carried approximately 280,000 p a s s e n g e r s . ^ 9 By 1929, Grey

Coach s e r v i c e s had taken advantage of.the expanding highway

network and a l a r g e f l e e t o f motor buses had been purchased.

This development i nand around T o r o n t o was t y p i c a l o f

 12
the changes i n i n t e r - c i t y surface transport throughout North

America. Bus l i n e s expanded t h e i r routes, improved the quality

of t h e i r fleeiH, and attracted passengers from the interurban.

Perhaps the greatest single improvement i n bus service occured

when the Greyhound Corporation designed i t s "Scenicruiser"

almost t h i r t y years ago. This vehicle had a smoother and. more

comfortable ride than any of i t s predecessors, and cruising

speed of sixty-eight miles per hour.^O Recently Greyhound

introduced i t s new M.C.6 and M.C.7 "Super-cruisers" which have

improved a i r conditioning, seating and twice as much luggage

and parcel s p a c e . ^ The l a t t e r r e f l e c t s the rapid growth of

the package express business.

The long run future of i n t e r - c i t y bus transport

appears to be moderately o p t i m i s t i c . Although i n t e r - c i t y bus

patronage has l e v e l l e d at the moment, the operators are

confident the bus w i l l remain a s i g n i f i c a n t element i n the

i n t e r - c i t y transport system; This' optimism i s based on such

factors as the low fixed c a p i t a l investment required where

buses operate on ready-made rights of way.

: The bus system has
90

the lowest break even point of a l l the common c a r r i e r s . ^ Such

operators as Mr. D. P. Anton of Grey Coach Lines f e e l that!

"No other passenger carrying mode i s more
f l e x i b l e i n i t s a b i l i t y to meet public
demand, than i s the i n t e r - c i t y passenger
bus i n d u s t r y . " ^ 3
Buses are able to pick up and discharge passengers at the centers

of population, and at most points along a route t r a v e l l e d . In

e f f e c t , the i n t e r - c i t y bus resembles the stage coach, mentioned

 13

in the i n t r o d u c t i o n , i n i t s f l e x i b l e r o u t i n g , low f i x e d c o s t s ,

and i t s a b i l i t y t o c a r r y b o t h passengers and e x p r e s s f r e i g h t .

To i l l u s t r a t e the f l e x i b i l i t y and economy o f the c a r r i e r ,

"one may note the promptness w i t h w h i c h bus s e r v i c e t a k e s up

the s l a c k i n areas where r a i l w a y s f i n d i t n e c e s s a r y t o d i s c o n t i n u e

passenger t r a i n s e r v i c e * ' ^ :

Bus o p e r a t o r s a r e p r e s e n t l y promoting t r a v e l on t h e i r
v e h i c l e s over i n t e r m e d i a t e distances. T h i s appears t o be the
t r i p d i s t a n c e where buses can compete e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h other
forms of t r a n s p o r t . Greyhound r e c e n t l y announced p l a n s t o
a c t i v e l y promote i t s non-stop s e r v i c e on runs o f 2 0 0 t o 3 0 0
miles. The company c l a i m s i t can p r o v i d e t r a v e l times comparable
t o r a i l i n v e h i c l e s t h a t a r e as c o m f o r t a b l e as the s t a n d a r d
r a i l w a y coach. F u r t h e r m o r e , i t f e e l s the s e r v i c e can be o f f e r e d
a t much l o w e r f a r e s than i s p o s s i b l e w i t h any o t h e r common
carriers *^ 1

'•j

The t h i r d major i n t e r - c i t y common c a r r i e r i s the a i r

mode. T h i s mode has been c i t e d as one o f ' t h e major.causes of

the d e c l i n e o f i n t e r - c i t y r a i l t r a n s p o r t . I n Canada, e a r l y a i r

passenger s e r v i c e s were operated by many s m a l l f i r m s scattered

throughout the c o u n t r y . The i n t e r e s t i n g a s p e c t of these

s e r v i c e s i s t h a t they d i d n o t grow r a p i d l y i n the h e a v i l y

populated areas. R a t h e r they i n i t i a l l y served areas n o t y e t

p e n e t r a t e d by roads and r a i l w a y s - . ^

The e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f Trans Canada A i r l i n e s by t h e

C a n a d i a n Government i n 1 9 3 7 p r o v i d e d the b e g i n n i n g o f l o n g
d i s t a n c e i n t e r - c i t y s e r v i c e i n Canada. However, the company
d i d n o t d e v e l o p i n t o a major c a r r i e r of p a s s e n g e r s , m a i l , and
f r e i g h t u n t i l the second world wari ?? 1
The growth o f T.C.A.
d u r i n g the war p a r a l l e l l e d the development o f a i r s e r v i c e s i n
many w e s t e r n c o u n t r i e s . S i n c e the second w o r l d war, passenger
t r a f f i c on a i r l i n e s has grown s h a r p l y and c o n g e s t i o n problems
i n some of the more h e a v i l y t r a v e l l e d areas have d e v e l o p e d . The
a t t r a c t i v e n e s s o f t h i s mode has been p a r t i a l l y a t t r i b u t e d t o
the f a s t s e r v i c e over l o n g d i s t a n c e s and a t r e l a t i v e l y low
fares. The l a t t e r i s p o s s i b l e by the " v e r y l a r g e number of
s e a t m i l e s t h a t the h i g h speed v e h i c l e i s a b l e t o f l y per day." °

The speed of a i r t r a n s p o r t ensures i t s r o l e i n i n t e r -

c i t y t r a v e l over l o n g e r d i s t a n c e s . However, f o r intermediate
and s h o r t e r d i s t a n c e s , the t r a d i t i o n a l f i x e d wing a i r c r a f t
w i l l experience i n c r e a s i n g c o m p e t i t i o n from advanced ground
t r a n s p o r t technology as a i r c o n g e s t i o n and ground access
problems become more a c u t e . Research i n t o new types of v e h i c l e s
such as s h o r t o r v e r t i c a l t a k e - o f f a i r c r a f t may r e s u l t i n an
e x p a n s i o n o f a i r t r a v e l f o r s h o r t e r d i s t a n c e s i f economic and
t e c h n i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s can be surmounted. The use o f super-
s o n i c a i r c r a f t f o r the l o n g e r i n t e r - c i t y d i s t a n c e s still
appears t o be remote as many e n v i r o n m e n t a l and economic problems
s t i l l have t o be s o l v e d .

By f a r the most u b i q u i t o u s mode i s the p r i v a t e

automobile. The growth o f t h i s mode has been s p e c t a c u l a r and

.well documented e l s e w h e r e . The Systems A n a l y s i s R e s e a r c h

Corporation (S.A.R.C.) suggests t h a t the automobile i s i n such

 15
great demand because i t s r e l a t i v e costs have not increased .

as r a p i d l y as the cost of l i v i n g .

"The cost of owning and d r i v i n g a car have

not, i n the aggregate, gone up as f a s t as
the general cost of l i v i n g nor have they
mounted as f a s t as r e a l family income...
Auto costs have increased at a.lower rate
than other modes since 19^8...It i s not
surprising that car usage continues to
gain." 9 2

The S.A.R.C. report indicates that as f a c i l i t i e s are further

improved with new i n t e r - c i t y highways, these costs w i l l further

decline. This would make the automobile available to an

increasing proportion of the p u b l i c .

Over shorter distances the automobile i s frequently

the f a s t e s t mode as the vehicle i s usually available when

needed'and l i t t l e time i s l o s t i n gaining access to i t . This

view i s confirmed by studies such as those completed by

National Analysts Inc. concerning t r a v e l i n the Northeast

Corridor, and by Boorer and Davey concerning demand for V/STOL

aircraft.3°?31 However, i n areas where i n t e r - c i t y freeways are

well established, travel distances by automobile can be

substantial. Beimbofin suggests that time l i m i t a t i o n s coupled'

with t r i p costs are c r i t i c a l determinants of automobile use.

The study maintains that common c a r r i e r s can only be expected

to be competitive whens

"The combination of good terminal locations

and low i n t e r - c i t y times and costs have an
advantage over the direct route, schedule
free automobile.
"32

The growing use of the automobile can best be indicated

 16

by the s t a t i s t i c s a v a i l a b l e c o n c e r n i n g i n t e r - c i t y t r a v e l i n

Canada. I n the p e r i o d between 19*+9 and 1968, the number o f

i n t e r - c i t y passenger m i l e s logged i n t h i s c o u n t r y has i n c r e a s e d

by 56 b i l l i o n passenger m i l e s - g i v i n g an a n n u a l i n c r e a s e o f

2.9 b i l l i o n m i l e s . Of t h i s t o t a l growth, the a u t o m o b i l e has

accounted f o r 86$, the remainder b e i n g a t t r i b u t a b l e .to the. •

common c a r r i e r - a i r , b u s , and r a i l . The growth i s shown i n

t a b l e Ivl;:- below.

TABLE 1.1 ANNUAL INTER-CITY PASSENGER MILES LOGGED IN CANADA

( I n - B i l l i o n s of M i l e s )

19^9 1968
AUTOMOBILES 21.^2 70.10

COMMON CARRIERS 6.97 11.12

-Air .39 ^.20
-Bus 3.39 ^.^1
-Rail 3.19 2.51

TOTAL 28.39 81.22

Sources! D r . H. L. P u r d y , U.B.C.
Dominion' Bureau o f
Statistics (Statistics
Canada)

I f the mileage completed on common c a r r i e r s can be

c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e l y , then the s p e c t a c u l a r growth o f the a i r

s e c t o r can be r e a d i l y observed. Table T^B below g i v e s t h e

comparative f i g u r e s f o r the same p e r i o d as above.

TABLE 1.2 RELATIVE ROLE OF COMMON CARRIER MODES.

(% o f T o t a l Common C a r r i e r I n t e r - c i t y Passenger M i l e s . )
19^9 1968

AIR 5.6 37.7

BUS ^8.7 39.7
RAIL >+5.7 22.6

Source: D r . H. L. P u r d y , U.B.C.
 17
The two tables show that the railways have not only suffered

a .^relative decline but also an absolute one. The other ground

mode, the i n t e r - c i t y bus, experienced a r e l a t i v e decline but

increased i t s t o t a l passenger mileage logged annually by 1 . 0 2

b i l l i o n miles.

In summary, the s t a t i s t i c s show that there has been

a d e f i n i t e s h i f t i n the usage of modes available f o r i n t e r -
c i t y transport. I t appears that the performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of the automobile i n terms of time and cost and the airplane
have attracted the largest increases. I t i s the comparative
performances of a l l modes and their technological improvements
that w i l l greatly a f f e c t the future balance of t r a f f i c among
various modes, including the private automobile and the
i n t e r - c i t y bus.

1.5 The Hypothesis

Despite the dominance of the automobile and the

airplane, the s t a t i s t i c s indicate the i n t e r - c i t y bus i s an

important transporter of i n t e r - c i t y passengers, and as i t has

been described as one of the more f l e x i b l e modes, a study of

bus terminal l o c a t i o n can provide a useful example f o r a l l

i n t e r - c i t y transport. Relocation can occur with comparative

ease and the fact that a s i g n i f i c a n t sector of the t r a v e l l i n g

public w i l l be affected, makes the bus terminal an i n t e r e s t i n g

element of the terminal system f o r study.

 18

I t can be shown t h a t the t r a d i t i o n a l l o c a t i o n of the

bus t e r m i n a l i s i n o r near the c e n t r a l p o i n t of an urban a r e a .
T h i s l o c a t i o n p e r s i s t s i n most N o r t h American c i t i e s but a
r e c e n t s h i f t i n M o n t r e a l o f a major bus t e r m i n a l away f r o m the
c i t y c e n t e r would suggest t h a t t h i s l o c a t i o n c o u l d no l o n g e r be
optimal. The r e l o c a t i o n i n t h i s i n s t a n c e was l a r g e l y a p r i v a t e
d e c i s i o n by the o p e r a t o r and a case i s made f o r a non-CBD
location.

To t e s t the v a l i d i t y of the t r a d i t i o n a l location,

a hypothesis can be f o r m u l a t e d to state that this l o c a t i o n i s
s t i l l optimal. Stated briefly!

The o p t i m a l l o c a t i o n f o r an i n t e r - c i t y bus t e r m i n a l
i n an urban m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a i s one a t o r near
t h a t m e t r o p o l i t a n area's c e n t r a l b u s i n e s s d i s t r i c t .

The meaning of o p t i m a l w i l l be developed i n c h a p t e r two.

1.6 The S t u d y Approach

T h i s c h a p t e r has e s t a b l i s h e d t h e n a t u r e and c o n t e x t

of the problem t o be e x p l o r e d . I t has d e f i n e d the r o l e of the

i n t e r - c i t y passenger t e r m i n a l i n terms o f i t s e f f e c t s on the

i n t e r - c i t y j o u r n e y and t h e balance among the v a r i o u s modes

s e r v i n g the same l i n k a g e s . The d a t a p r e s e n t e d concerning the

growth of i n t e r - c i t y t r a v e l and t h e development of v a r i o u s

modes p l a c e s the i n t e r - c i t y bus (the mode t o be s t u d i e d ) i n i t s

c o n t e x t o f the t o t a l system. The concept of 'balance' among

the v a r i o u s modes and t h e c o m p e t i t i o n f o r passengers has

.suggested t h e importance o f time and c o s t i n the a b i l i t y of a

mode t o a t t r a c t a p o r t i o n o f the t o t a l t r a v e l market and can be

 19
used t o a n a l y z e the e f f e c t s o f - v a r i o u s t e r m i n a l l o c a t i o n s .

T h i s c h a p t e r has i n d i c a t e d t h a t e x t e r n a l i t i e s o f urban impacts

s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d and t h a t an e v a l u a t i o n of t e r m i n a l l o c a t i o n

should a l s o be made i n terms o f urban p l a n n i n g p o l i c i e s . For

purposes o f e v a l u a t i o n , the example o f the bus t e r m i n a l i s used.

I n the second c h a p t e r , an a n a l y s i s of some of the

l i t e r a t u r e on the s u b j e c t w i l l be made. The l i t e r a t u r e regarding
e a r l y t e r m i n a l s suggests the c r i t e r i a c o n s i d e r e d for. t h e i r
l o c a t i o n w h i c h can p r o v i d e the b a s i s f o r a t h e o r e t i c a l exam-
ination. This examination i s based on more r e c e n t research.
T h i s c h a p t e r w i l l conclude w i t h a summary of urban impacts on
l o c a t i o n and the l o c a t i o n impacts o f t h e environment o f e a r l i e r
terminals.

The i n f o r m a t i o n presented i n chapter two w i l l be

developed i n t o a n a l y s i s c r i t e r i a and a t e s t o f the h y p o t h e s i s .

w i l l be made on d a t a e x i s t i n g f o r some e a s t e r n Canadian cities.

A c o n c l u s i o n w i l l be presented i n the l a s t c h a p t e r , chapter

four.
 20

FOOTNOTES - CHAPTER I

1. S . M. A n d r e w s , " M e t r o C e n t r e " , U r b a n R e n e w a l a n d L o w
I n c o m e H o u s i n g , V o l u m e 5*2, 1969, p.2,

2. L . K. S i l l c o x , " R a i l w a y ' s R o l e i n S p e e d , S e r v i c e , a n d
S a f e t y " , H i g h Speed Ground T r a n s p o r t a t i o n J o u r n a l , V o l . I I ,
No. 1, January, 1968', p. 206. ' "~

3. R. A . G a e k e n h e i m e r , " H i g h S p e e d T r a n s i t i n U r b a n A r e a s " ,
H i g h . S p e e d G r o u n d T r a n s p o r t a t i o n J o u r n a l , V o l . I , N o . 1,
January, 1967,. P»30. "
h. " R a i l p a x P a s s e n g e r T r a i n s W i l l be i n S e r v i c e i n Six
M o n t h s " , R a i l w a y A g e , O c t . 26, 1970, p.lh.

5. "U. S. P l a n s S i x t e e n Route G r i d " , Vancouver Sun, Dec.

1, 1970, p.63.
6. Loc. c i t .

7. A Canadian example i s t h e p e t i t i o n t o t h e Canadian Transport

C o m m i s s i o n i n 1970 f o r t h e abandonment o f p a s s e n g e r
s e r v i c e s o n G.P.R. r o u t e s .

8. G. D. F r i e d l a n d e r , " R a i l w a y v s . Highway", I.E.E.E. Spectrum,

S e p t e m b e r , 1967, p.69.

9. Loc. c i t .

10. A C a n a d i a n p r o j e c t was t h e s h o r t - l i v e d " T u r b o - t r a i n " •

experiment between Toronto and M o n t r e a l .

11. P . J . D e t m o l d , T. E . P a r k i n s o n , G. A . C l a r k , A s p e c t s o f
I n t e r c i t y Passenger Transport, Paper presented t o Canadian
Good: R o a d s A s s o c i a t i o n , M o n t r e a l , 1970.

12. G. W. H i l t o n a n d J . F . D u e , T h e E l e c t r i c Interurban
.'.Railways i n A m e r i c a , S t a n f o r d , C a l i f o r n i a , Stanford
U n i v e r s i t y Press,. i960, p.^1.
13. D. N. D e w e e s , " T h e D e c l i n e o f A m e r i c a n S t r e e t Railways",
T r a f f i c Q u a r t e r l y , V o l . 2h, N o . p.569.
 21

1*+. Wabco, A S t u d y o f E v o l u t i o n a r y Urban T r a n s p o r t a t i o n ,

V o l . I I , C l e a r i n g h o u s e , PB178-268. ' . ' .
1 5 . T o r o n t o T r a n s p o r t a t i o n Commission, T r a n s i t i o n T o r o n t o ,
T o r o n t o , 1969, p.19.
16. T o r o n t o T r a n s p o r t a t i o n Commission, Wheels of P r o g r e s s ,
T o r o n t o , 1944, p. 70.
17. T.T.C., Wheels o f P r o g r e s s , p . 3 6 .

1 8 . D. H. Dewees, op. c i t . , p. 5 6 8 .

1 9 . T.T.C. T r a n s i t i n T o r o n t o , p . l 8 .

20. B. W. F i r t h , E v o l u t i o n a r y Development of the P u b l i c

T r a n s p o r t System, S o c i e t y of A u t o m o t i v e E n g i n e e r s ,
Paper No. 696124, J a n u a r y , 1 9 6 9 .
21. Greyhound I n c . , Greyhound A n n u a l R e p o r t , 1 9 6 9 .

2 2 . D. S c r a f t o n and S. v a n S t e i n b u r g h , The I n t e r - C i t y Motor

Coach I n d u s t r y i n Canada, M i n i s t r y o f T r a n s p o r t , Canada,
A p r i l 1 9 7 0 , p.114.
23. I b i d . , p. 1 1 3 .
24. I b i d . , p. 114.

25. " F i g h t i n g a Doggy Image", Time M a g a z i n e , No. 2 , 1970,

p. 5 9 .
2 6 . A. E. W. S a l t , I m p e r i a l A i r R o u t e s , London, John M u r r a y ,
1 9 3 0 , p. 1 9 3 .

2 7 . C. A. A s h l e y , The F i r s t Twenty-Five Y e a r s : A S t u d y of
Trans-Canada A i r l i n e s , T o r o n t o , M a c M i l l a n , 1 9 6 3 .

2 8 . M. M i l l e r , "High Speed Ground T r a n s p o r t a t i o n R e s e a r c h

and Development," H i g h Speed. Ground T r a n s p o r t a t i o n
J o u r n a l , V o l . I , No. 1 , J a n u a r y , 1 9 6 7 , p. 16.
2 9 . Systems A n a l y s i s R e s e a r c h C o r p o r a t i o n (S.A.R.C.), Demand
f o r I n t e r C i t y P a s s e n g e r T r a v e l i n the Washington -
B o s t o n C o r r i d o r , C l e a r i n g h o u s e , PB 166-884, p. I I I - 4 .

3 0 . N a t i o n a l A n a l y s t s I n c o r p o r a t e d , The Needs and D e s i r e s of

T r a v e l l e r s i n the N o r t h e a s t C o r r i d o r , P h i l a d e l p h i a , P a . ,
1970.
 22

3 1 . N . W. Boorer and B. J . Davey, '•'Characteristics and Problems

Associated -with V/STOL Operations", A i r c r a f t Engineering
(London), V o l . ^ 1 , No. 3, March 1 9 6 9 , p. 1 9 .
3 2 . E. A. Beimborn, "Terminal Access and the Choice of Intercity-
Modes", Transportation Engineering Journal, August, 1 9 6 9
p.
 23

CHAPTER TWO; THE BASIS OF ANALYSIS.

2.1 Introduction.

T h i s c h a p t e r r e v i e w s some o f the i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e
c o n c e r n i n g t e r m i n a l l o c a t i o n and d i s c u s s i o n of e a r l i e r bus
t e r m i n a l s and the reasons f o r t h e i r l o c a t i o n . This i s
f o l l o w e d by a l o o k a t t h e l i t e r a t u r e c o n c e r n i n g the balance of
demand i n i n t e r - c i t y t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and the impact of t h e urban
environment i n w h i c h i t o r i g i n a t e s o r t e r m i n a t e s . The c h a p t e r
concludes w i t h an e v a l u a t i o n of the e a r l i e r t e r m i n a l s u s i n g t h e
c r i t e r i a developed out o f t h i s r e v i e w o f the l i t e r a t u r e .

2.2 E a r l y Bus Terminals.

As was p r e v i o u s l y i n d i c a t e d , e a r l y bus t e r m i n a l s were

f r e q u e n t l y found i n o r near c i t y c e n t e r s . I t i s suggested

below t h a t t h i s l o c a t i o n r e s u l t e d from a r e c o g n i t i o n by most

t e r m i n a l d e v e l o p e r s of the importance o f passenger o r i g i n s and

destinations. I f the bus was t o b e . c o m p e t i t i v e t o the i n t e r -

urban r a i l w a y i t was f e l t the a c c e s s / e g r e s s segments o f the

j o u r n e y was r e q u i r e d t o be m i n i m a l .
 2h
As mentioned i n the introductory chapter, the early bus

systems were s i m i l a r to the interurbans i n that they b a s i c a l l y

connected rural areas to some c e n t r a l c i t y . I t was shown at

the 1917 Ninth Annual Conference on C i t y Planning held at Kansas

City that most of the passengers using t h e s e modes had destin-

ations i n the concentrated central business districts which

were c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of early North American cities. A speaker

at that conference discussed a d e s t i n a t i o n survey conducted on

interurban lines entering Kansas C i t y . This early survey asked

the basic questions: " W h e r e do p a s s e n g e r s want t o go?" and

"Why'are they travelling?" and revealed that over 80% of the

passengers had destinations close to the retail business

district of Kansas City. 1

The questions asked in this survey indicate the close

correlation between trip purpose and the choice of destination.

This was indicated in a c o m m e n t made b y . F . L . M o g e n of Greyhound

Lines of Canada.' He states:

" B e f o r e t h e d a y s o f s o many p r i v a t e c a r s ,
p e o p l e f r o m r u r a l a r e a s came t o t o w n t o
s h o p , see t h e i r d o c t o r s , e t c . , and a l l
the main s h o p p i n g areas were i n the core
of the c i t y . " 2

This concentration of activities i n the core which is described

by such urban geographers as Charles Colby, permitted most of the

activities to be within walking distance of each other.3 For

this reason, a central terminal serving inter-city bus travellers

permitted most of the final destinations to be reached on

foot. Where d e s t i n a t i o n s were not i n the city center, the

local transit network, which focussed on the city core,

provided ready access t o most p a r t s of the city. Even though

central bus terminal locations lengthened line haul travel times

 25
as buses had t o n e g o t i a t e c i t y s t r e e t s i n t o the c o r e , i t i s

e s t i m a t e d t h a t t o t a l t r a v e l times were m i n i m a l , as l e n g t h y

access j o u r n e y s c o u l d be avoided by passengers h a v i n g central

destinations. Thus, "bus depots were c o n s i d e r e d n e c e s s a r i l y

l o c a t e d i n the h e a r t of the downtown a r e a f o r the convenience

of those coming i n from r u r a l areas." * 1

Once h a v i n g accepted the need f o r a downtown l o c a t i o n ,

the l i t e r a t u r e concerns i t s e l f w i t h the m i c r o s c a l e of•location,

i n c l u d i n g f a c t o r s r e l a t i n g t o l a n d economics, c o n g e s t i o n , and

t e r m i n a l o p e r a t i n g revenues. The concern f o r c o n g e s t i o n has

been suggested as the i n i t i a l r e a s o n f o r the establishment

of bus t e r m i n a l s and o r i g i n a t e s from e a r l y l o a d i n g p r a c t i c e .

The e a r l i e s t t e r m i n a l s were, i n e f f e c t , s t r e e t l o a d i n g

facilities a t d e s i g n a t e d drug s t o r e s , h o t e l s , c a f e s , or carrier

o f f i c e s where passengers c o u l d g a t h e r b e f o r e l o a d i n g / y
Parked

buses a t these p o i n t s added t o the c o n g e s t i o n and c i t y ordinances

were d e v i s e d i n many c i t i e s t o p r o h i b i t t h i s p r a c t i c e i n

downtown a r e a s . As the bus o p e r a t o r s r e c o g n i z e d a need f o r a

downtown t e r m i n a l l o c a t i o n , o f f s t r e e t f a c i l i t i e s quickly

developed. F o r example, the bus t e r m i n a l a t K n o x v i l l e Tennessee,

c o n s t r u c t e d d u r i n g the 1 9 2 0 ' s i s c l a i m e d t o be a d i r e c t

consequence of such an ordinance.^"

The importance a t t r i b u t e d t o c o n g e s t i o n caused by

parked buses i s r e f l e c t e d i n a s u b m i s s i o n t o B o s t o n C i t y C o u n c i l

i n 1925 which requested a p e r m i t - t o o p e r a t e buses i n and out

of t h a t c i t y . The v i c e - p r e s i d e n t of the B o s t o n and Maine

R a i l r o a d t o l d the council:
 26

" I f we engage i n the bus b u s i n e s s t o and

from B o s t o n , we s h a l l n o t ask f o r the
p r i v i l e g e of occupying c i t y s t r e e t s ,
adding t o the a l r e a d y s e r i o u s c o n g e s t i o n .
I n s t e a d , we s h a l l p l a n t o p r o v i d e an
adequate t e r m i n a l o f f the s t r e e t . " ' '

Parked buses on p u b l i c s t r e e t s was a c o n d i t i o n t h a t c o u l d n o t

be tolerated.^

The p r e v i o u s l y mentioned c i t y p l a n n i n g conference

approached the problem of c o n g e s t i o n from a g e n e r a l urban q u a l i t y

v i e w p o i n t and suggested:
"The way t o determine where an i n t e r - u r b a n s t a t i o n
s h o u l d be l o c a t e d s h o u l d be based on i t s e f f e c t
on the c o n g e s t i o n o f t r a f f i c w i t h i n the c i t y
i t s e l f , and i f i t s l o c a t i o n a t a c e r t a i n p l a c e
would cause c o n g e s t i o n i n our s t r e e t s , then we
do n o t want i t a t t h a t p a r t i c u l a r p l a c e . " 9

In t h i s case, congestion i s a f a c t o r i n determining location.

The r o l e of l a n d economics was o f g r e a t concern t o

t e r m i n a l d e v e l o p e r s and o p e r a t o r s . As the core was u s u a l l y

compact, any l o c a t i o n f o r . a t e r m i n a l t h a t was w i t h i n w a l k i n g

d i s t a n c e o f a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f t h a t core was c o n s i d e r e d satis-

f a c t o r y t o the m a j o r i t y of p a s s e n g e r s . As "main s t r e e t "

l o c a t i o n s were e x p e n s i v e , a near main s t r e e t l o c a t i o n h a v i n g

the j u s t mentioned r e q u i r e m e n t s was o f t e n c o n s i d e r e d desirable.

"A s i t e c o n v e n i e n t t o , but n o t on, a main

s t r e e t has d e f i n i t e advantages. F i r s t costs
and taxes can be reduced. There s h o u l d be
no decrease i n b u s i n e s s ; l o c a t i o n s ' j u s t
around the c o r n e r ' s h o u l d make l i t t l e
difference to c i t y patrons."! 0

Examples of such 'just around the c o r n e r ' l o c a t i o n s can s t i l l

be found i n most s m a l l e r communities ( e . g . Hope and Vernon.

B.C.), and i n many l a r g e r c i t i e s . F o r example, the bus t e r m i n a l

c o n s t r u c t e d i n 1931 i n T o r o n t o , a t Bay and Dundas s t r e e t s ,

 27
was c l o s e t o the main s t r e e t (Yonge S t . ) but not on i t . H

A more r e c e n t example i s Chicago's Greyhound t e r m i n a l b u i l t

i n the e a r l y 1950's a t the edge of the l o o p .

The r e n t a b i l i t y of t e r m i n a l space was an additional

economic f a c t o r i n t e r m i n a l l o c a t i o n . This i s e s p e c i a l l y

t r u e f o r s m a l l e r t e r m i n a l s where bus t i c k e t revenues and bus

r e l a t e d income c o u l d not support the t e r m i n a l and additional

r e n t a l space had t o be p r o v i d e d . Most t e r m i n a l d e s i g n s

p r e d a t i n g the second w o r l d war provide evidence of t h i s fact

and i n c l u d e r e s t a u r a n t s / c o f f e e b a r s , shoe s h i n e s , book s t a l l s ,

etc. A post war example i s the Greyhound t e r m i n a l i n C h i c a g o

w h i c h has l o a d i n g areas below s t r e e t l e v e l , "thus clearing

the way f o r maximum e x p l o i t a t i o n of the v a l u a b l e areas at

street l e v e l . " ! 2
A l o c a t i o n on a major through s t r e e t or as

c l o s e t o the c e n t e r as e c o n o m i c a l l y p o s s i b l e would r e s u l t i n

h i g h e r r e n t a l income from t h i s space i n t e r m i n a l s .

I n summary, e a r l y bus t e r m i n a l l o c a t i o n was usually

determined by i n d i v i d u a l o p e r a t o r s who r e c o g n i z e d the importance

of passenger d e s t i n a t i o n s . As most of these d e s t i n a t i o n s

were i n the c i t y c o r e , c e n t r a l or n e a r c e n t r a l l o c a t i o n f o r

t e r m i n a l s were common. The n e a r c e n t r a l l o c a t i o n was preferred

as h i g h l a n d c o s t and c o n g e s t i o n problems could, be overcome

w i t h o u t a p p r e c i a b l y l e n g t h e n i n g the a c c e s s / e g r e s s journey

times, while permitting reductions i n l i n e haul t r a v e l times.

 28

2.3 L o c a t i o n O p t i m i z a t i o n - The G r a v i t y P r i n c i p l e .

The i n f e r e n c e from the e a r l y l i t e r a t u r e t h a t bus

t e r m i n a l l o c a t i o n s should be as near as p o s s i b l e t o passenger
o r i g i n s and d e s t i n a t i o n s , i s one w h i c h i s s t r o n g l y supported
by more r e c e n t l i t e r a t u r e on the s u b j e c t . Many o f these
s t u d i e s use the measure of time and c o s t t o e s t a b l i s h e v a l u a t i o n
of t e r m i n a l l o c a t i o n and suggest t h a t t h e o p t i m a l l o c a t i o n
for a t e r m i n a l i s one where the aggregate times and c o s t s
are m i n i m a l f o r a l l journeys t o and from the t e r m i n a l .

B a s i c a l l y t h i s approach i s based on t h e use of the

g r a v i t y p r i n c i p l e which suggests t h a t the number of t r i p s
between two p o i n t s w i l l v a r y d i r e c t l y w i t h the t o t a l population
of those two p o i n t s and i n v e r s e l y w i t h the d i s t a n c e between
those two p o i n t s , e i t h e r w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o a p a r t i c u l a r mode
or t o a l l modes. Thus, i f the c r i t e r i a a r e t o promote t r a v e l
between two p o i n t s , e i t h e r w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o a p a r t i c u l a r
mode o r t o a l l modes, and i f p o p u l a t i o n s a r e c o n s t a n t , the
g r a v i t y p r i n c i p l e suggests t h a t t h e r e d u c t i o n of d i s t a n c e
between the two p o i n t s w i l l a c c o m p l i s h t h i s d e s i r e d e f f e c t of
promoting t r a v e l . As was i n d i c a t e d i n the i n t r o d u c t o r y chapter,
time and c o s t s a r e good measures of t h e d i s t a n c e as s h i f t s i n
demands can be l a r g e l y r e l a t e d t o s h i f t s of these f a c t o r s . 1 3
S t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f data a v a i l a b l e made by such study
groups as M.I.T., S.A.R.C., and Gonsad R e s e a r c h Corporation
tend t o c o n f i r m t h i s view.1^> 15» 1^

The importance of the a c c e s s and egress journeys on

 29

the demand f a c t o r can be p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t when t h e y

f o r m a major segment of the t o t a l t r a v e l t i m e , as i s the case
i n the N o r t h e a s t C o r r i d o r i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s (Boston-
Washington). Therefore, i f demand f o r i n t e r - c i t y t r a v e l v i a
common c a r r i e r s i s t o be encouraged, these access or e g r e s s
j o u r n e y s need t o be m i n i m i z e d . One method of m i n i m i z a t i o n is
the l o c a t i o n of a t e r m i n a l a c c o r d i n g t o the g r a v i t y p r i n c i p l e
which s t a t e s t h a t the l o c a t i o n s h o u l d be a t the g r a v i t a t i o n a l
c e n t r e - the p o i n t where the measures used f o r d i s t a n c e s are
m i n i m a l - of a l l the o r i g i n s and destinations. Although t h i s
statement suggests the e v a l u a t i o n of l o c a t i o n t o be a r e l a t i v e l y
simple process, i t i s the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of o r i g i n s and destin-
a t i o n s t h a t have c r e a t e d the s t u m b l i n g b l o c k f o r adequate
determination of the g r a v i t a t i o n a l c e n t e r . In t r y i n g to
estimate the l o c a t i o n of o r i g i n s and d e s t i n a t i o n s , an a n a l y s i s
by Cramer suggests t h a t the number of o r i g i n s and destinations
a t a l o c a t i o n i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o the number of
people l i v i n g a t t h a t p o i n t . ^ 1
T h i s method of r e l a t i n g o r i g i n s
and d e s t i n a t i o n s to populations, a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a measure of
the access c o s t s f o r each i n d i v i d u a l l o c a t i o n t o any other
l o c a t i o n , w i l l i d e n t i f y the most a c c e s s i b l e p o i n t i n the
community s t u d i e d . The model used t o i d e n t i f y t h i s point,
however, does not r e c o g n i z e the f a c t t h a t the per capita
t r i p generation can v a r y and that i n urbanized areas t h i s
generation w i l l v a r y from p o i n t t o p o i n t . Further, this
approach does not take i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n those p o i n t s h a v i n g
low p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t i e s but h i g h t r i p g e n e r a t i o n r a t e s such
as the c e n t r a l b u s i n e s s district.
 30

S.A.R.C. suggests the l o c a t i o n of o r i g i n s and

d e s t i n a t i o n s can be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h a l o c a t i o n a t t r a c t i v e n e s s
f a c t o r w h i c h i s a "measure of t h e a p p e a l of s p e c i f i c l o c a t i o n s
as d e s t i n a t i o n p o i n t s , e s t i m a t e d from employment i n i n d u s t r i e s
supplying t r a v e l l e r accommodations and services"."^-' Other
factors related t o t r i p generation were found t o be p e r
c a p i t a income and t o t a l employment l e v e l s . With reference t o
income, the s t u d y found a c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e s o c i o -
economic f a c t o r s o f f a m i l y income and the f r e q u e n c y of
travel.19 r'•

The a t t r a c t i v e n e s s of p a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n s o f o r i g i n
or d e s t i n a t i o n s was r e f l e c t e d i n the t e r m i n a l l o c a t i o n s t u d y
of the B u f f a l o a r e a made by S c o t t and McC$p.lough w i t h the use
of a m o d i f i e d g r a v i t y model. The s t u d y r e v e a l e d that a i r
t r a v e l l e r s n o t r e s i d i n g i n the c i t y had d i f f e r i n g destinations
from r e s i d e n t s . The GBD has a l o c a t i o n a l a t t r a c t i v e n e s s
f o r n o n - r e s i d e n t t r a v e l l e r s t h a t does n o t appear f o r r e s i d e n t s .
T h i s p a t t e r n became e v i d e n t once t h e d e s t i n a t i o n m a t r i x had
been s p l i t a c c o r d i n g t o r e s i d e n t and n o n r e s i d e n t passengers

Further, with respect t o the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f o r i g i n s

and d e s t i n a t i o n s i n urban a r e a s , the t r i p purpose of t r a v e l l e r s

u s i n g a p a r t i c u l a r mode can be o f i n f l u e n c e . I t i s suggested

t h a t passengers h a v i n g non-business purposes w i l l have a w i d e r

d i s t r i b u t i o n of o r i g i n s and d e s t i n a t i o n s than those on b u s i n e s s

trips. B u s i n e s s t r a v e l l e r s tend t o have o r i g i n s o r d e s t i n a t i o n s

c e n t e r e d i n areas o f h i g h employment o r t r a v e l l e r accommodation

and services (location attractiveness). Those on n o n - b u s i n e s s

 31

t r a v e l , r e p o r t e d i n one s u r v e y , t h a t the major purpose of

t h e i r t r i p was t o see f r i e n d s and r e l a t i v e s . " As modern N o r t h

American c i t i e s have s c a t t e r e d r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s , non-business ,

d e s t i n a t i o n s can be expected t o be more s c a t t e r e d t h a n those

f o r business t r i p s .

M e a s u r i n g the d i s t a n c e s t o the v a r i o u s o r i g i n s and

d e s t i n a t i o n s i n terms of time and c o s t from the t e r m i n a l can

be q u i t e complex, a s , f o r example, i t has been found that

t r i p purpose and income l e v e l s of passengers w i l l a f f e c t the

e v a l u a t i o n of those f a c t o r s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , most of the work

i n t h i s f i e l d i s based on urban t r a n s p o r t and commuter f l o w s

but the f i n d i n g s can be a p p l i e d t o i n t e r - c i t y t r a v e l as well.

B e e s l e y , i n h i s a n a l y s i s of the v a l u e of time spent t r a v e l l i n g ,

shows t h a t workers who are e a r n i n g about the average wage

v a l u e time spent t r a v e l l i n g i n the j o u r n e y t o work a t about

one t h i r d of t h e i r wages (31 - 37$). ^ 2

S i m i l a r l y , QUarmby

found t h a t commuters tend t o v a l u e t r a v e l time a t 20 - 2 5 $

of t h e i r income and t h a t the p r o p o r t i o n i s r o u g h l y c o n s t a n t

over a wide range of i n c o m e s . $ 2

D e s p i t e the d i s c r e p a n c y i n

p e r c e n t a g e s , i t i s shown t h a t the v a l u e of time does r i s e

w i t h income. T h e r e f o r e the w i l l i n g n e s s t o pay f o r the time

saving a p a r t i c u l a r mode o f f e r s , w i l l be dependent upon the

passengers* e v a l u a t i o n of t i m e . T h i s i n d i c a t e s the s e n s i t i v i t y

of model c o m p e t i t i o n t o the type of t r a v e l l e r and the performance

characteristics of each i n t e r - c i t y mode.

The " M e t r o l i n e r " experiment between Washington D.C.

and New York was based on t h i s concept of the w i l l i n g n e s s of
 32

passengers t o pay f o r time saved. I t was assumed f o r h i g h

income t r a v e l l e r s h a v i n g o r i g i n s and d e s t i n a t i o n s i n the c e n t r a l
b u s i n e s s d i s t r i c t t h e i n c r e a s e i n f a r e would be o f f s e t by the
time s a v i n g s . F o r t h i s experiment i t was noted the volume 1

of b u s i n e s s t r a f f i c h a v i n g c e n t r a l o r i g i n s and d e s t i n a t i o n s
was s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e t o w a r r a n t e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n w i t h new
modes t h a t c o u l d s e r v e c i t y c e n t e r s . As c e n t r a l r a i l t e r m i n a l s
e x i s t e d i n each c i t y , f a s t r a i l s e r v i c e was c o n s i d e r e d t o be '
a viable travel alternative to air, as the l o n g and e x p e n s i v e
access t r i p s t o and from a i r p o r t s c o u l d be e l i m i n a t e d . In
New Y o r k a l o n e , the average access time from l o w e r Manhattan
to t h e a i r t e r m i n a l s was e s t i m a t e d by S.A.R.C. t o be f i f t y -
two minutes and c o s t an average o f $2.75. I n comparison, t h e
a c c e s s t r i p t o the P e n n - C e n t r a l T e r m i n a l was e s t i m a t e d t o be
1 8 minutes w i t h an average c o s t o f 7 9 c e n t s .

A comparison o f the t r a v e l times b e f o r e and a f t e r

the ' M e t r o l i n e r ' i s g i v e n i n t a b l e 2.1 below. This table i s

to be used o n l y as a rough measure, o f comparison as S.A.R.C.

a c c e s s times a r e used; and l i n e h a u l times a r e from c u r r e n t

schedules.

As the t a b l e i n d i c a t e s , a c e n t r a l l o c a t i o n i s v e r y

advantageous t o those t r a v e l l e r s h a v i n g o r i g i n s and d e s t i n a t i o n s

i n the c e n t r a l c i t y . I t i s o f i n t e r e s t t o .note; t h a t the

i n t e r - c i t y bus which has c e n t r a l . t e r m i n a l s in' b o t h o f these

c i t i e s has s i m i l a r low access and e g r e s s times f o r t h i s traffic

and t h a t i t s low f a r e s c o u l d make i t a v i a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e t o

the " M e t r o l i n e r " as w e l l . Recent r e s e a r c h has suggested that

t r a v e l times c o u l d be f u r t h e r reduced by the use o f V/STOL

a i r c r a f t with close i n terminals . *"J ^

2L 2

TABLE 2.1 COMPARISON OF BUSINESS TRIPS BETWEEN NEW YORK

CITY AND WASHINGTON, D.C. ( t o and from downtown).
MODE AIR BUS RAIL
(airbus) (express) (Gonven- (Metro-
tional) liner)

A. Time: i n minutes
Average l o c a l a c c e s s
and e g r e s s t i m e , ( a ) 74 33 32 32(d)

Average t e r m i n a l time ( b ) 31 26 31 3Kd)

L i n e h a u l time ( c ) 60 240 240 180

TOTAL TRAVEL TIME 185 299 303 243

or or or or
3h.5m 4h.59m 5h.3m 4h.3m
B. C o s t s : i n dollars
Average l o c a l f a r e s ( e ) 4.55 .84 1.4l 1.41(g)

Line haul fares ( f ) 24.00 10.65 13.00 17.00

TOTAL FARES 28.55 11.49 l4.4l 18.4l

Notes:
(a) D e r i v e d from S.A.R.C. d a t a and combines access and
e g r e s s times f o r both c i t i e s .
(b) D e r i v e d from S.A.R.C.
'(c) From c u r r e n t t i m e - t a b l e s .
(d) M e t r o l i n e r o u t o f v e h i c l e times a r e t a k e n from
the r e g u l a r r a i l a c c e s s t i m e s . I t may be t h a t
the M e t r o l i n e r passenger needs l e s s t e r m i n a l
time i n t h a t he has l e s s luggage and has a p r e -
paid t i c k e t .
(e) D e r i v e d from S.A.R.C. d a t a .
( f ) D e r i v e d from c u r r e n t t i m e - t a b l e s .
(g) D e r i v e d from S.A.R.C. d a t a and may be s l i g h t l y
higher f o r M e t r o l i n e r passengers.

A s h o r t l i v e d experiment s i m i l a r i n purpose t o t h e

" M e t r o l i n e r " was i n t r o d u c e d i n Canada by the Canadian N a t i o n a l

R a i l w a y s between T o r o n t o and M o n t r e a l . The C.N.R. a n t i c i p a t e d

t h a t the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f the " T u r b o - t r a i n " on t h i s r o u t e would

 3>+
reduce r a i l l i n e h a u l times between the two c i t i e s from f i v e

to t h r e e and one h a l f h o u r s . T h i s would have made the t o t a l

t r a v e l times by r a i l c o m p e t i t i v e t o t o t a l t r a v e l times by.

air* Due t o t e c h n i c a l problems t h i s experiment was- abandonned.

To the non-business t r a v e l l e r , the development o f such

f a s t e r modes i s o f l e s s importance t h a n the i n c r e a s e d travel
cost. F o r t h i s r e a s o n , i t has been suggested t h a t the medium
and l o w e r income passengers w i l l n o t choose a f a s t e r but more
e x p e n s i v e mode as r e a d i l y as w i l l h i g h income t r a v e l l e r s .
For s i m i l a r reasons the l o c a t i o n o f a t e r m i n a l i n terms of .
the g r a v i t y p r i n c i p l e i s n o t as c r i t i c a l f o r the non-business
traveller.

Cramer, i n h i s s t u d y , c o n s i d e r e d the e f f e c t of

m u l t i p l e t e r m i n a l s on aggregate a c c e s s t i m e s . He proposed a

h y p o t h e s i s i n w h i c h i t would be p o s s i b l e t o " l o c a t e V. s t a t i o n s

i n such a way t h a t we r e a l i z e the minimum average t r a v e l time

from a l l p o i n t s ( i n the urban a r e a ) t o the n e a r e s t s t a t i o n . " ' 2 7

M u l t i p l e t e r m i n a l s , p r o p e r l y spaced w o u l d , he argued, reduce

t o t a l - a c c e s s times but would i n c r e a s e t o t a l t r a v e l . t i m e s f o r

those passengers a l r e a d y on the v e h i c l e . As V u c h i c argues i n

his a r t i c l e on s t a t i o n s p a c i n g f o r t r a n s i t , the more passengers

a l r e a d y on the v e h i c l e , the l e s s d e s i r a b l e i t becomes t o have

an e x t r a s t o p . The i n c r e a s e of aggregate i n - v e h i c l e time can

be g r e a t e r than the g a i n i n a c c e s s time f o r those b o a r d i n g the

vehicle.

"1. F o r the maximum number o f passengers u s i n g

the system, the i n t e r s t a t i o n s p a c i n g of
s t a t i o n s s h o u l d be i n c r e a s i n g i n the d i r e c t i o n
of ( p a s s e n g e r ) a c c u m u l a t i o n (on board the v e h i c l e )
at a d e c r e a s i n g r a t e . . .
 35

2. R e d a c t i o n o f the number of s t a t i o n s below

o p t i m a l i n c r e a s e s a c c e s s t i m e s , but a l s o _
i n c r e a s e s t h e average t r a i n t r a v e l s p e e d . . . " 2 °

For i n t e r - c i t y t r a n s p o r t , the number o f suburban terminals

s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e be l i m i t e d i n order t o minimize t o t a l travel

time. N e v e r t h e l e s s , suburban s t a t i o n s can have a profound

impact on the mode c h o i c e of passengers i f t o t a l a c c e s s time

reductions are great.

I t i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t a new suburban bus t e r m i n a l

p r o v i d i n g s e r v i c e from a suburb of Washington, S i l v e r S p r i n g s

Md., t o P h i l a d e l p h i a , P a . , w i l l draw up t o 20% o f the t o t a l

W a s h i n g t o n - P h i l a d e l p h i a passenger t r a f f i c w i t h significant

s h i f t s from a u t o m o b i l e and r a i l w a y modes.29 For similar

r e a s o n s , the CNR e s t a b l i s h e d a suburban t e r m i n a l a t Guildwood

east of Toronto.

I n the CNR c a s e , the p o s s i b l e g a i n s i n passenger

t r a f f i c bet\\?een T o r o n t o and M o n t r e a l i s c o n s i d e r e d by the

r a i l w a y w o r t h the c o s t of t h e f i v e minute d e l a y a t t h e

station. I n terms of t o t a l t r a v e l time l o s s e s f o r those

passengers on board the v e h i c l e v e r s u s the g a i n f o r those

b o a r d i n g a t Guildwood, a n e t l o s s i s l i k e l y . However, the

l o s s w i l l most l i k e l y n o t induce a s i g n i f i c a n t s h i f t t o an

a l t e r n a t e mode s i n c e the i n t e r - c i t y bus l o s s i s l e s s t h a n the

travel time o f the n e x t l e s s r a p i d mode. A l s o , i n terms of

total travel time the f i v e minutes ( o u t o f f i v e h o u r s ) i s

insignificant. Nevertheless, without further data, i t i s

d i f f i c u l t t o a s s e s s the a d d i t i o n of t h i s t e r m i n a l i n terms of

r e d u c t i o n s i n aggregate t r a v e l t i m e s .
 36
In summary, the g r a v i t y p r i n c i p l e can be a p p l i e d t o

the l o c a t i o n of t e r m i n a l s when the c r i t e r i u m i s the r e d u c t i o n

of a c c e s s and e g r e s s t r a v e l times and c o s t s . As the a c c e s s

and e g r e s s j o u r n e y i s f r e q u e n t l y a s i g n i f i c a n t element i n the

:

t o t a l i n t e r - c i t y t r i p , the m i n i m i z a t i o n of t h e i r time and c o s t

can enhance the demand f o r a s p e c i f i c mode and s h i f t the demand

b a l a n c e among the v a r i o u s modes. Thus i f the o b j e c t i v e i s

to i n c r e a s e the demand f o r a p a r t i c u l a r mode, a t e r m i n a l s h o u l d

be l o c a t e d i n terms of t h i s g r a v i t y principle.

2,k Passenger Characteristics.

S t a t i s t i c s f o r i n t e r - c i t y t r a v e l r e v e a l that each
common c a r r i e r mode has a t t r a c t e d s p e c i f i c types o f passengers
i n terms o f income l e v e l s and t r i p purpose. A stratification
i s suggested which appears t o r e f l e c t each.mode's performance
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and passenger e v a l u a t i o n o f time and c o s t .
Data,generated f o r the N o r t h e a s t C o r r i d o r and the Canadian
C o r r i d o r (Windsor t o Quebec C i t y ) have shown such stratification
i n terms o f passenger income l e v e l s and t r i p purpose.

F o r example, i n T o r o n t o - M o n t r e a l t r a v e l , l i n e h a u l

times f o r bus and r a i l d i f f e r by one hour- r a i l f i v e hours and

bus s i x h o u r s . B o t h modes, a t the time o f the s u r v e y , had

c e n t r a l t e r m i n a l s i n both c i t i e s . The l i n e h a u l j o u r n e y by

air i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y s h o r t e r i n terms 'of time t h a n the two

ground modes. T o t a l t r a v e l time by a i r from downtown t o down-

town ( i n c l u d i n g t e r m i n a l t i m e s ) i s about t h r e e h o u r s . I t was

found t h a t the median income o f r a i l u s e r s was i n the $ 9 , 0 0 0

 36a

FIGURE 2.1 CUMULATIVE DISTRIBUTION OF PASSENGER INCOME

ON INTER-CITY MODES (TORONTO RESIDENTS).
 37

to $11,000 range, w h i l e income of bus passengers was i n the

$7,000 to $9,000 grouping. Only 13.5$ o f bus passengers had

an income e x c e e d i n g $15,000 w h i l e f o r r a i l t h i s amount was

19.6$. A i r passengers had a median income of over $13,000

i n 1969. A i r f a r e s a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h r e e times t h a t of the

two ground modes. The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f incomes of users of

these t h r e e modes a r e shown i n f i g u r e 2.1.30

The graph i n f i g u r e 2.1 i s r e v e a l i n g i n t h a t the two

ground modes, r a i l and bus, have comparable c l i e n t e l l e types
i n terms of income d i s t r i b u t i o n . S i m i l a r t r a v e l times and
comparable f a r e s ( r a i l $11.90; bus $12.15) h e l p account f o r
this distribution similarity.

S t a t i s t i c s f o r the N o r t h e a s t C o r r i d o r tend t o agree w i t h

the Canadian d a t a . I n summary, the P h i l a d e l p h i a - W a s h i n g t o n

d a t a amassed by Beimborn r e v e a l e d t h a t "the low income

t r a v e l l e r p r e f e r s the bus (69.1$), f o l l o w e d by the automobile

(24.1$);..the h i g h income t r a v e l l e r p r e f e r s the automobile

(44$), f o l l o w e d by a i r (34.8$) and r a i l (l8.5$)."31 The s t u d y

i n d i c a t e d t h a t the d i f f e r e n c e s i n usage a r i s e s from the v a l u e

p l a c e d on time by the d i f f e r e n t groups. Bus t r a v e l times i n

the example used were much l o n g e r than r a i l . Central terminal

l o c a t i o n s e x i s t e d f o r b o t h bus and r a i l . These income d a t a

are reproduced i n table 2.2.

 38

TABLE 2.2 USAGE OF INTER-CITY MODES BETWEEN PHILADELPHIA

AND WASHINGTON BY INCOME GROUPS IN COMPARISON
. WITH SARC DATA

MODE LOW * MEDIUM HIGH TOTAL SARC

INCOME INCOME INCOME TOTAL

AUTOMOBILE 24.i 57.7 44.0 50.2 59.0

AIR 0.0 0.0 34.8 6.9 5.1
RAIL 6.7 23.5 18.5 20.1 21.3
BUS 69.1 18.8 2.6 22.8 14.6
TOTAL 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

*L0W INCOME - Under $ 3 , 0 0 0 / y r .

MEDIUM INCOME - $3,000 - $10,000/yr.
HIGH INCOME - $0ver $10,000/yr.
- Source: Beimborn

The Canadian T r a n s p o r t Commission s t u d y on I n t e r - c i t y

t r a v e l i n d i c a t e s t h a t an overwhelming p r o p o r t i o n o f bus

t r a v e l l e r s have l o w e r incomes and a r e t r a v e l l i n g f o r p l e a s u r e

r a t h e r than f o r b u s i n e s s . The g r e a t e s t p r o p o r t i o n of a i r

t r a v e l l e r s a r e on b u s i n e s s t r i p s . 3 2
( i t s h o u l d be noted t h a t

the d a t a were based on t r a v e l i n peak summer months and a r e

t h e r e f o r e weighted towards pleasure t r a v e l ) . An example of the

d i s t r i b u t i o n of b u s i n e s s v e r s u s p l e a s u r e t r a v e l i s shown i n

t a b l e 2.3 which summarizes some of the GTC d a t a .

T a b l e 2.3 TRAVEL PURPOSE - % FOR CITY PAIR.

MONTREAL--TORONTO MONTREAL - OTTAWA

MODE BUSINESS PLEASURE BUSINESS PLEASURE

AIR 81.85 18.15 79.13 20.87

RAIL 26.61 73.39 35.33 64.67
BUS 21.13 78.87 • 23.8O 76.20

| Source: CTC

I n terms o f the g r a v i t y model, p a r t of t h e observed

p a t t e r n of b u s i n e s s v e r s u s p l e a s u r e and income l e v e l s can

be e x p l a i n e d by t h e l o n g e r t r a v e l times by bus (as compared

 39

t o a i r ) and the a s s o c i a t e d l o w e r f a r e s . As r a i l and bus times

and f a r e s are somewhat comparable, r a i l t r a n s p o r t s passengers
h a v i n g s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as bus passengers. I n the U.S.
l o w e r f a r e s g e n e r a l l y p r e v a i l f o r bus s e r v i c e and some
d i f f e r e n c e s appear t o e x i s t i n the passenger c o m p o s i t i o n
between r a i l and bus. U s i n g these o b s e r v a t i o n s as a reference
point,t-the improved times a v a i l a b l e on the " M e t r o l i n e r " i n
the U.S. experiment should r e s u l t i n higher passenger income
l e v e l s and increased b u s i n e s s t r i p patronage than r e g u l a r rail
service.

2.5 Passenger O r i g i n s and Destinations.

The " M e t r o l i n e r " and " T u r b o - t r a i n experiments were

j u s t i f i e d by the f a c t t h a t the c i t y c e n t e r i s s t i l l a major

g e n e r a t o r of o r i g i n s and d e s t i n a t i o n s of b u s i n e s s t r i p s and

r a i l t e r m i n a l s are l o c a t e d i n those c e n t e r s . This i s despite

the s u b s t a n t i a l s p a t i a l growth of a l l m e t r o p o l i t a n areas.

Los A n g e l e s , which i s one of the prime examples of dispersed

patterns, s t i l l generates 20$ of a l l i t s a i r passenger o r i g i n s

and d e s t i n a t i o n s i n the c e n t r a l c i t y . 3 3 Nevertheless, the

c e n t r a l a r e a of any p a r t i c u l a r c i t y may generate a higher

p r o p o r t i o n of a i r p o r t t r i p s (than any o t h e r comparable a r e a i n

the c i t y ) . R e s u l t s from numerous s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t o r i g i n s

and destinations outside of the c e n t r a l a r e a are geographically

dispersed throughout the urban m e t r o p o l i t a n area.3^

Data generated by L a n s i n g concerning Northeast C o r r i d o r

c i t i e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t 40$ of a l l a i r t r a v e l l e r s do have
 ko

d e s t i n a t i o n s w i t h i n the c e n t r a l a r e a s and an a d d i t i o n a l 31%

are s c a t t e r e d up t o 15 m i l e s from t h e c o r e . A similar pattern
e x i s t s f o r bus and r a i l p a s s e n g e r s . The d a t a g i v e n a r e i n
l i n e a r form i n terms o f d i s t a n c e from the t e r m i n a l and do
i n d i c a t e the e x t e n t of s c a t t e r w i t h i n t h i s f i f t e e n m i l e
radius.35

The S.A.R.C. s t u d y approached the problem i n a

s i m i l a r f a s h i o n u s i n g t r a v e l times as the d i s t a n c e measure from
the c e n t r a l t e r m i n a l . As a base f o r f u r t h e r c o m p u t a t i o n , auto
t r a v e l times w e r e ^ c a l c u l a t e d f o r the t r i p between the home and
the t e r m i n a l ; and t a x i t r a v e l times were used between downtown
b u s i n e s s areas and the t e r m i n a l . F o r home based t r i p s , access
t r a v e l times by auto t o r a i l , bus and a i r t e r m i n a l s were
almost e q u a l f o r most of the N o r t h e a s t C o r r i d o r c i t i e s . This
r e f l e c t s t h e l o c a t i o n o f the t e r m i n a l i n the urban c e n t e r and
suggests t h a t home based o r i g i n s a r e l o c a t e d between t h e
downtown r a i l and bus t e r m i n a l s and t h e urban f r i n g e a i r
terminals.36

These base t i m e s , however, r e q u i r e adjustment as n o t

a l l passengers t r a v e l by c a r o r t a x i . I n f a c t the s t u d y noted

a remarkable v a r i a t i o n i n access mode c h o i c e f o r the d i f f e r e n t

i n t e r - c i t y modes. The v a r y i n g speeds and w a i t i n g times f o r the

a c c e s s modes r e q u i r e d an adjustment of the base d a t a t h a t

i n d i c a t e d h i g h e r average home based access times t o r a i l and

bus t e r m i n a l s than t o a i r t e r m i n a l s . F o r downtown based trips

t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p was r e v e r s e d . The d a t a p r e s e n t e d by S.A.R.C.

p r o v i d e s a u s e f u l i n s i g h t i n t o t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p and i s

summarized i n t a b l e s 2 . 4 and 2 . 5 f o l l o w i n g .
 41
TABLE 2.4 LOCAL TRAVEL MODES FOR INTER-CITY TRAVELLERS IN
NORTHEAST CORRIDOR. ($).

HOME ORIGIN DOWNTOWN ORIGIN

LOCAL MODE
AIR RAIL BUS AIR RAIL BUS

AUTO/DRIVER/PASS 3 9 40 45 5
TAXI
LIMOUSINE
39
22
37
0
12
0
P
40
50
- 25
-
LOCAL TRANSIT — 23 43 — 35 45
WALK — — 15 30

TOTAL 100$ 100$ 100$ 100$ 100$ 100$

S o u r c e : S.A.R.C.

TABLE 2.5 AVERAGE LOCAL TRAVEL TIMES (IN MINUTES)

SMSA HOME ORIGIN DOWNTOWN ORIGIN

AIR RAIL BUS AIR RAIL BUS

NEW YORK 51 60 70 52 18 18
PHILADELPHIA 55 65 76 27 14 15
BALTIMORE 39 45 53 32 14 15
WASHINGTON D.C. 4 l 48 56 22 14 15

S o u r c e : S.A.R.C.
With respect t o bus s t a t i o n s , a summary o f access t r i p s t o bus
t e r m i n a l s i n Washington, New York and B u f f a l o show the l a r g e s t
p r o p o r t i o n o f t r i p s v i a l o c a l t r a n s i t y modes.

The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f o r i g i n s and d e s t i n a t i o n s included

i n t h e Canadian C o r r i d o r s t u d y appears t o be c o n s i s t e n t with

t h i s U.S. p a t t e r n . I n Toronto and M o n t r e a l the h i g h e s t density

of o r i g i n s and d e s t i n a t i o n s occured i n the c i t y centers.

However, the M o n t r e a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a i r t r a v e l l e r s does have

a sub-peak o f r e s i d e n t passengers t o the west o f the c i t y

c e n t e r which suggests a s u b s t a n t i a l percentage o f a i r passengers

l i v e i n the w e s t e r n p a r t o f the m e t r o p o l i t a n area.

37 The
h i g h e s t d e n s i t y o f bus and r a i l passengers l i e s w i t h i n t h e
 42

c e n t r a l c i t y area. With regard t o l o c a l mode c h o i c e , the

C.T.C. study noted a v a r i a t i o n of l o c a l mode c h o i c e w i t h the

change i n d i s t a n c e from the t e r m i n a l of the o r i g i n or d e s t i n a t i o n .

A l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of the j o u r n e y s t o downtown t e r m i n a l s are by

f o o t , t a x i , and p u b l i c transport with f o o t being preferred f o r

the s h o r t e r j o u r n e y ( l e s s than two m i l e s ) . The greatest

p r o p o r t i o n of a i r p o r t access t r i p s i n Toronto' and M o n t r e a l was

completed by a u t o m o b i l e .

Unfortunately the d a t a a v a i l a b l e do not show the

d i s t r i b u t i o n of t r i p s i n terms of t r i p purpose t o i n d i c a t e
whether or not there i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r each
type of t r i p . T h i s i s i m p o r t a n t as the v a r i o u s modes do reveal
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n as shown e a r l i e r . The C.T.C. d a t a do support
the view t h a t t r i p o r i g i n s and d e s t i n a t i o n s are not homogeneous
and are n o t , as Cramer s u g g e s t e d , p r o p o r t i o n a l t o the number
of people l i v i n g at t h a t point.

I n summary, the .various s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t the

c e n t r a l areas of most N o r t h American c i t i e s are s t i l l the most
concentrated g e n e r a t o r s of i n t e r - c i t y t r a f f i c . However, once
outside these a r e a s , there i s a wide s c a t t e r of o r i g i n s and
destinations. T h i s d i s p e r s a l p a t t e r n i s dependent upon the
d i s t r i b u t i o n of p o p u l a t i o n and t h e i r socio-economic character-
i s t i c s as w e l l as upon the d i s t a n c e from v a r i o u s terminals. It
i s apparent t h a t h i g h income areas.". will produce more t r i p s
: and
those t r i p s are u s u a l l y d i r e c t e d towards the f a s t e s t modes.
F i n a l l y , f o r c e n t r a l t e r m i n a l s , where l o c a l p u b l i c transport
i s a v a i l a b l e , t h e r e i s a heavy use of those modes f o r access
j o u r n e y of l e s s t h a n t e n m i l e s .
 ^3
2.6 F u t u r e D i s t r i b u t i o n of T r i p O r i g i n s and D e s t i n a t i o n s ,

D e s p i t e t h e massive d i s p e r s a l of a c t i v i t y from t h e
c e n t r a l core i n N o r t h American c i t i e s , some commercial concen-
t r a t i o n has p e r s i s t e d i n t h e c e n t r a l b u s i n e s s d i s t r i c t . But
as E. N. H a l l a s k s :
"Our p r e s e n t c i t i e s do encompass massive
i n s t i t u t i o n s i n v o l v i n g insurance, banking,
f i n a n c e , commerce, e n t e r t a i n m e n t and e d u c a t i o n .
While these c o n s t i t u t e a s u b s t a n t i a l percen-
tage of a l l t r a v e l d e s t i n a t i o n s today,^can
we expect t h i s s t r u c t u r e t o - p e r s i s t ? " 3 o

H a l l answers t h i s q u e s t i o n i n the n e g a t i v e , c i t i n g as reasons

-improved communications, i n c r e a s i n g a f f l u e n c e , i n c r e a s e d value
placed on l a b o u r t i m e , and s p i r a l i n g r e a l e s t a t e c o s t s . This
would i m p l y a f u r t h e r d i s p e r s i o n o f t h e o r i g i n and d e s t i n a t i o n
patterns r e s u l t i n g i n a lower proportion of a l l o r i g i n s and
d e s t i n a t i o n s i n the G.B.D.

Of concern should be the d i s p e r s i o n of r e s i d e n t i a l

areas i n t o the o u t s k i r t s of c i t i e s away from the l o c a l transit
systems. T r a n s i t provides t h e a c c e s s mode f o r many r a i l and
bus travellers. I n terms of commuting (which appears t o be
the prime f u n c t i o n o f urban t r a n s i t systems^, H e r b e r t Gans
suggests t h a t the great concern f o r r e d u c i n g commuting time
i s f a r more a concern o f the p r o f e s s i o n a l group than f o r t h e
m a j o r i t y f o r whom they p l a n , as p h y s i c a l access t o t h e c e n t r a l
c i t y i s n o t i m p o r t a n t t o the urban home s e e k e r . "His d e c i s i o n
i s more o f t e n dominated by the d e s i r e f o r more l a n d a t r e a s o n a b l e
cost."39 These d i s p e r s i n g p a t t e r n s would suggest t h a t s i n g l e
c e n t r a l l o c a t i o n s f o r i n t e r - c i t y p u b l i c modes w i l l require
l o n g e r access j o u r n e y s , thus decrease t h e a t t r a c t i v e n e s s o f
 kk

t h a t mode i n f a v o u r of the a u t o m o b i l e .

Should the r e s u l t a n t i n c r e a s e d automobile use be

considered undesirable ( e . g . t o a v o i d the need f o r a d d i t i o n a l
freeways), i n t e r - c i t y common c a r r i e r s w i l l have t o a d j u s t t o
remain c o m p e t i t i v e . Most of the suggested changes, i n c l u d i n g
those p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d , require technological innovation
of l i n e h a u l modes t o p r o v i d e f a s t e r l i n e haul s e r v i c e s t o
compensate f o r i n c r e a s e d access j o u r n e y t i m e s . Suggestions
t o reduce the access times i n c l u d e the r e l o c a t i o n and/or the
a d d i t i o n o f i n t e r - c i t y t e r m i n a l s ; and the i n t r o d u c t i o n of l o c a l
t r a n s i t modes such as " d i a l - a - b u s " . P e a t , Marwick, L i v i n g s t o n e
and Co. suggest the b e s t a l t e r n a t i v e would be improved road
systems:

"Given the d i f f u s e d n a t u r e o f t r i p o r i g i n s
and d e s t i n a t i o n s and the b i a s a g a i n s t the
use. of p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t a t i o n i n most urban
areas., i t appears l o g i c a l t o a r g u e , a t l e a s t
i n the s h o r t r u n , f o r the p r o v i s i o n of
improved- highway f a c i l i t i e s l e a d i n g t o the
t e r m i n a l area..."^" 0

2.7 L i n e H a u l Times

I n a d d i t i o n t o the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f complete new

technologies, improvements can be made t o e x i s t i n g modes t o

improve l i n e h a u l t i m e s . An extreme example o f t h i s i s the

extensive improvement t o the t r a c k , c a t e n a r y , and r o l l i n g stock

that permitted the " M e t r o l i n e r " e x p e r i m e n t A s was i n d i c a t e d

i n c h a p t e r one, improved highways have p e r m i t t e d reductions

i n t r a v e l times f o r p r i v a t e a u t o m o b i l e s as w e l l as f o r i n t e r -

c i t y buses. Improved buses w i t h t u r b i n e engines and b e t t e r

 45

road t r a v e l l i n g a b i l i t i e s may result i n additional savings

Lp
in travel time.

F o r the bus system, perhaps the g r e a t e s t r e d u c t i o n i n

l i n e h a u l times can be made i n the u r b a n i z e d areas where the

terminal i s located. As was the case w i t h e a r l y t e r m i n a l s ,

the c e n t r a l c i t y a r e a i s the p o i n t of h i g h e s t c o n g e s t i o n and

f r e q u e n t l y i t i s these congested s t r e e t s t h a t a bus must t r a v e l

t o get t o i t s c e n t r a l or near c e n t r a l l o c a t i o n . Improvements

t o t e r m i n a l access or the r e l o c a t i o n of t e r m i n a l s c o u l d permit

b y p a s s i n g of these congested streets. A c l a s s i c example of

such an improvement i s the P o r t of New Y o r k A u t h o r i t y ' s Mid

Manhattan Bus T e r m i n a l w h i c h was l o c a t e d i n such a manner as

t o p e r m i t d i r e c t access t o the L i n c o l n Tunnel v i a s p e c i a l

ramps.^3 The l o c a t i o n of t h i s t e r m i n a l was based on the p u b l i c

p o l i c y t h a t a s i n g l e , t e r m i n a l s h o u l d r e p l a c e v a r i o u s terminals•»

s c a t t e r e d throughout mid-Manhattan and t h a t t h i s t e r m i n a l be

p l a c e d west of the congested Times Square a r e a . The new

t e r m i n a l w i t h i t s s p e c i a l ramps, was opened i n December 1 9 5 0

and s i g n i f i c a n t l i n e h a u l t r a v e l time s a v i n g s were a c h i e v e d

(up t o 3 0 minutes f o r some o p e r a t o r s ) . Similar special

ramps e x i s t a t the E a s t Bay T e r m i n a l i n San F r a n c i s c o , and at

the t e r m i n a l near the George Washington B r i d g e i n Upper

45
Manhattan. y

T h i s need f o r easy access i n and out of c i t i e s i s w e l l

r e c o g n i z e d by bus o p e r a t o r s and has become one of t h e i r

c r i t e r i a for locating terminals. Greyhound's C h i c a g o t e r m i n a l ,

mentioned a t the s t a r t of t h i s c h a p t e r , has d i r e c t access to

 46
46
Wacker Drive, thus bypassing the congestion of the- Loop.

The general manager of Voyageur Inc. which operates a major bus

network i n eastern Canada, states that a terminal location

must bes
"Close to super highways so that quick exit from
the congested downtown area can be made. This
i s important because i t permits a faster running
time, thereby permitting us to be competitive
with other modes of transportation." "' 4

The importance of reducing l i n e haul travel times i s indicated

by Voyageur i n i t s comparison of l i n e haul t r a v e l times
between Montreal and Quebec C i t y . This run i s two hours and -
f o r t y minutes by bus and two hours and f i f t y - n i n e minutes by
rail.

F i n a l l y , as previously indicated, l i n e haul times w i l l

be adversely affected by additional stations i n the metropolitan

areas. Bus operators have introduced such terminals i n Toronto,

Montreal, and several other large urban areas. Suburban

terminals,.however, are costly as only those services entering

or leaving the urban area from a p a r t i c u l a r d i r e c t i o n can

e f f e c t i v e l y use the f a c i l i t y . In terms of time, an upper l i m i t

to the number of such suburban terminals should be determined

by a formula derived from the Vuchic model regarding time

losses f o r those on board the v e h i c l e .

2.8 Supply of Transport Services - An Economic Consideration.

To this point, the discussion has centered on factors

r e l a t i n g to the demand and to the d i s t r i b u t i o n of that demand

for i n t e r - c i t y transport services. The emphasis has been on

time and d i r e c t c o s t s t o the passenger. However, the c o s t s of

p o s s i b l e improvements t o be j u s t i f i e d by a n t i c i p a t e d increased

revenues - d i r e c t l y or I n d i r e c t l y - from i n c r e a s e s i n p a t r o n a g e .

A l t h o u g h i t i s n o t w i t h i n the scope o f t h i s s t u d y t o d e v e l o p a

c o s t - b e n e f i t a n a l y s i s a few comments r a i s e d i n the l i t e r a t u r e

need t o be n o t e d . ?,?

When t e r m i n a l s a r e s e p a r a t e o p e r a t i o n s from the t r a n s p o r t

s e r v i c e , revenues from t i c k e t s a l e s and o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s such
as c o n c e s s i o n r e n t a l s must be s u f f i c i e n t t o cover expenses.
However, as many t e r m i n a l s a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o be p a r t . o f t h e
t r a n s p o r t s e r v i c e (as i n the view of the w r i t e r t h e y s h o u l d
be c o n s i d e r e d ) t h e i r j u s t i f i c a t i o n l i e s i n t h e a b i l i t y t o
a t t r a c t a d d i t i o n a l passengers t o the s e r v i c e and t o improve
the t o t a l n e t revenue o f the system. C o s t s i n c u r r e d by t h e
c a r r i e r t o improve s e r v i c e s a r e u s u a l l y passed on t o the u s e r s
of the s e r v i c e , and i f improvements do n o t a t t r a c t new patronage
s u f f i c i e n t t o cover c o s t s , h i g h e r f a r e s may r e s u l t , thus
d i s c o u r a g i n g the use o f the mode.

W i t h r e f e r e n c e t o the i n c i d e n c e of c o s t s , c o n s i d e r a t i o n
needs to-be g i v e n t o the m a t t e r o f p u b l i c s u b s i d i e s w h i c h
form p a r t o f a n a t i o n a l t r a n s p o r t a t i o n p o l i c y promoting the
use o f p a r t i c u l a r modes and d i s c o u r a g i n g the use o f o t h e r s by
cross s u b s i d i z a t i o n . The move i n the U.S.A. t o use F e d e r a l
Highway Funds t o s u b s i d i z e r a p i d t r a n s i t can be c i t e d as an
example. I n such c a s e s , improvements t o a p a r t i c u l a r mode need
t o be c o n s i d e r e d i n terms of reduced per passenger c o s t s f o r
the t o t a l i n t e r - c i t y t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system ( i n c l u d i n g a l l
modes).
 48

One approach from the c o s t s i d e o f the demand

equation has been made by M c D o n n e l l A i r c r a f t i n e v a l u a t i n g

48
V/STOL t e r m i n a l s . u
I n determining optimal terminal capacity

and l o c a t i o n , the s t u d y r e l a t e d access c o s t s and t e r m i n a l

c o s t s p e r passenger t o a f u n c t i o n o f d e p a r t u r e volume. The

optimum l o c a t i o n i s the p o i n t where a c c e s s c o s t s per passenger

(an i n c r e a s i n g f u n c t i o n ) p l u s t e r m i n a l r e l a t e d c o s t s per

passenger ( a d e c r e a s i n g function) i s minimal.

A t e r m i n a l c o s t t h a t played a-dominant r o l e i n the

recent r e l o c a t i o n of a Montreal bus t e r m i n a l was l a n d cost.
I n 1 9 7 0 , Voyageur ( 1 9 6 9 ) I n c . c l o s e d i t s D o r c h e s t e r s t r e e t
t e r m i n a l and developed an e x i s t i n g f a c i l i t y a t B e r r i - de
M o n t i g n y i n t o i t s major f a c i l i t y . The D o r c h e s t e r s t r e e t
t e r m i n a l was 3 / 1 0 o f a m i l e west o f the h e a r t o f M o n t r e a l -
a t i s P l a c e V i l l e M a r i e - w h i l e the new t e r m i n a l i s 1-g- m i l e s
east of t h i s p o i n t . The s h i f t i n l o c a t i o n was made d e s p i t e
the operator's o p i n i o n t h a t a downtown t e r m i n a l i s most
desirable. The company admits t h a t t h e d e c i s i o n was p r i m a r i l y
based on l a n d economics and i n d i c a t e s the l a n d v a l u e a t
D o r c h e s t e r s t r e e t was $ 6 0 . 0 0 p e r square f o o t i n comparison
t o $ 2 5 . 0 0 per square f o o t a t the more remote t e r m i n a l . In
t h i s c a s e , the s a v i n g s i n l a n d c o s t s (and the p o s s i b l e
increased revenue from a l t e r n a t e l a n d use) o f f s e t any
a n t i c i p a t e d l o s s e s of passenger volume due t o the l e s s c e n t r a l
location. The company d i d f e e l , however, t h a t the new
l o c a t i o n x^as a v i a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e as ready access i s a v a i l a b l e
to Montreal's m e t r o . ^
 49

Although this treatment of economic aspects i s cursory,

the comments demonstrate that the cost' of terminal construction

can affect l o c a t i o n decisions and may result i n locations

which do not minimize a l l travel times. In e f f e c t , the decision-

making process f o r operators may involve economic factors not

related to the transportation system as such when transportation

forms only a part of the t o t a l enterprise.

2.9 Community Planning Considerations.

As Scott and McCullough pointed out i n t h e i r study

of Buffalo, once an optimal terminal l o c a t i o n has been found
with respect to minimal t r a v e l times, certain modifications
i n l o c a t i o n choice may be necessary for urban planning
reasons, such as t r a f f i c planning, urban land use, the impact
of l o c a t i o n on l o c a l t r a f f i c patterns, noise and other forms
of p o l l u t i o n , and the compatibility of the a c t i v i t y with
adjoining land uses.

With reference to t r a f f i c patterns, congestion levels

i n mid-Manhattan resulted i n the c i t y government policy to

remove the bus terminals from the Times Square area. In this,

case the volume of buses on public streets created additional

and undesirable congestion levels which could have been

avoided by relocation of terminals. Gaekenheimer s discussion

1

p?es'eo|ed%in^theM*ia^r^u-Q&©ry chapter considered the problem

of congestion caused by the concentration of a l l access and.

egress journeys. He suggested a single terminal to serve

a l l i n t e r - c i t y modes i s undesirable. This statement does

 50

i n d i c a t e t h a t the M e t r o c e n t e r p r o j e c t i n Toronto may need

r e - e v a l u a t i o n as c o n g e s t i o n problems c o u l d occur on the

access systems.

Environmental questions have f r e q u e n t l y been r a i s e d

concerning the n o i s e and a i r p o l l u t i o n created, by inter-city

vehicles. F o r example, t h e r e i s much concern over the

l o c a t i o n of V/STOL t e r m i n a l s i n c e n t r a l c i t i e s as the noise

problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i s v e h i c l e have not y e t been

overcome. This environmental f a c t o r of n o i s e c o u l d p r e v e n t

the l o c a t i o n of these t e r m i n a l s a t the most d e s i r a b l e l o c a t i o n

i n terms of o r i g i n s and d e s t i n a t i o n s .

Using the example of the T o r o n t o subway, i t was

suggested by Heenan t h a t the l o c a t i o n of t e r m i n a l s can have

profound impact on urban development p a t t e r n s . F o r example,

the i n t e n s i t y of new development and the volume of retail

s a l e s n e a r t e r m i n a l s i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o the passenger

t r a f f i c t o and from the c l o s e s t s u b w a y ' s t a t i o n . 5 ° i n effect,

a t e r m i n a l can spur urban r e n e w a l . I t i s hoped t h a t the

T o r o n t o M e t r o c e n t e r scheme w i l l s t i m u l a t e redevelopment I n

the l o w e r downtown a r e a i n a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n . According to

the developers:

"The h e a l t h of the c i t y , e s p e c i a l l y I t s downtown

core depends h e a v i l y on the e f f i c i e n c y of i t s
transportation.

The o r g a n i z a t i o n of r o a d , r a i l and p e d e s t r i a n
f a c i l i t i e s into logical inter-relationships is
a t once a f o u n d a t i o n and a motive f o r c e of the
' p r o j e c t s ' master p l a n . " 5 1

The t e r m i n a l s are c o n s i d e r e d t o be an e s s e n t i a l - f e a t u r e f o r
the success of the p r o j e c t .
 51
Therefore, the l o n g range p l a n s and development
concepts f o r an urban a r e a can be s t r e n g t h e n e d by t h e l o c a t i o n
of t e r m i n a l s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h such p l a n s . On the o t h e r hand,
the e x i s t e n c e o f l o n g range urban development plans can a s s i s t
the p l a n n i n g o f f u t u r e i n t e r - c i t y t r a f f i c by p e r m i t t i n g
operators t o s e l e c t a p p r o p r i a t e t e r m i n a l s i t e s which i n t e r f a c e
w i t h l o c a l modes - e.g. w i t h subways. Knowledge of plans f o r
f u t u r e highways can a s s i s t bus o p e r a t o r s greatly i n selecting
the l o c a t i o n of s i t e s t h a t w i l l reduce l i n e h a u l times i n t h e
future.

2.10 The Ottawa T e r m i n a l R e l o c a t i o n - An Example.

A r e c e n t s h i f t i n t r a f f i c demand from r a i l t o bus f o r

t r a v e l between Ottawa and M o n t r e a l demonstrates t h e importance
of a c e n t r a l l o c a t i o n near the t r a n s i t system. On t h i s route
t h e r e i s b o t h r e g u l a r bus and r a i l s e r v i c e w i t h the same t r a v e l
times o f 2% t o 2% h o u r s . B o t h modes charged i n 1969 approximately
the same f a r e , $4.00, f o r the 120 mile journey. As was observed
i n t h e C.T.C. d a t a , both modes c a r r y passengers o f s i m i l a r
income l e v e l s .

Prior to 1967? b o t h c a r r i e r s had downtown t e r m i n a l s

i n Montreal and Ottawa. I n Ottawa, the t e r m i n a l s were s i t u a t e d
c l o s e t o the F e d e r a l P a r l i a m e n t B u i l d i n g s and the accompanying
c o n c e n t r a t i o n of f e d e r a l o f f i c e s . T h i s a r e a i s a l s o the c e n t r a l
business district. B o t h t e r m i n a l s were near a l l major t r a n s i t
r o u t e s and downtown a r t e r i a l s .
 52
I n 1967, the C.N.R.-C.P.R. r a i l t e r m i n a l was moved
1.5 m i l e s t o the s o u t h - e a s t o f the downtown a r e a . The new
s t a t i o n i s l o c a t e d a l o n g Ottawa's major e a s t - w e s t f r e e w a y ,
the Queensway which has d i r e c t access t o the f a c i l i t y . The
l o c a t i o n , however, does n o t l e n d i t s e l f t o t h e l o c a l transit
network c o n f i g u r a t i o n and the Ottawa T r a n s i t Commission does
not serve the s t a t i o n . An e x p e r i m e n t a l s e r v i c e was operated,
i n 1967 hut was soon abandonned. The r e l o c a t i o n o f the
t e r m i n a l was part, o f the b e a u t i f i c a t i o n p r o j e c t of the R i d e a u
C a n a l and removal o f the s t a t i o n from the. bank of t h e waterway
permitted the r e l o c a t i o n of yards as w e l l .

S h o r t l y a f t e r the r e l o c a t i o n o f the t e r m i n a l , the

i n t e r - c i t y bus o p e r a t o r e x p e r i e n c e d a s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e I n
patronage. A l t h o u g h a c t u a l s t a t i s t i c s a r e .not a v a i l a b l e , t h e
operator claims the growth was s u b s t a n t i a l l y g r e a t e r than was
expected f r o m t h e "Expo 67" t r a f f i c g e n e r a t i o n and h i g h e r
l e v e l s of patronage have c o n t i n u e d s i n c e t h a t t i m e . 5 2
j n

response t o t h a t growth, the bus o p e r a t o r has doubled the

f r e q u e n c y on the M o n t r e a l - O t t a w a r o u t e t o h o u r l y service.
Meanwhile the r a i l w a y s have s u f f e r e d s u b s t a n t i a l t r a f f i c
losses.

The bus o p e r a t o r a t t r i b u t e s t h i s s h i f t i n r i d e r s h i p

t o the r e l o c a t i o n o f the r a i l t e r m i n a l . The s h i f t away from,

r a i l can be p a r t i a l l y e x p l a i n e d by the decrease of a c c e s s i b i l i t y

t o the c e n t r a l b u s i n e s s a r e a and the p u b l i c t r a n s i t system.

The Ottawa CBD I s b e l i e v e d t o be t h e o r i g i n and d e s t i n a t i o n

of a l a r g e number of b u s i n e s s as w e l l a s r e c r e a t i o n a l t r i p s
 53
and the new r a i l terminal i s no longer within walking distance.

Taxi i s the only public transport available to the r a i l s t a t i o n .

The terminal i s convenient only to those who complete their

access or egress journey by automobile.

The increase of time and cost of access to the

railway station, has altered the balance of demand i n favour
of the i n t e r - c i t y bus as the downtown bus terminal, l o c a t i o n
offers lower overall t r a v e l time than does the railway, from
i t s single suburban terminal. Ottawa i s therefore an example
of the importance of central terminal l o c a t i o n . I t demonstrates
the impact of access mode a v a i l a b i l i t y . Further, this example
demonstrates the impact of urban planning decisions which did
not enhance the demand f o r i n t e r - c i t y transportation systems.

2111 I n t e r - c i t y Terminal Location, a Summary.

Much of the l i t e r a t u r e referred to i n this chapter

i s based on the t o t a l systems approach which describes the

balance of demand among the various i n t e r - c i t y modes and the

e f f e c t on that balance i f certain factors affecting'that demand

are varied. Factors r e l a t i n g to time and cost have been found

to be prime determinants of this balance and v a r i a t i o n of

these factors explains a great deal of the observed s h i f t s

in inter-city travel. Further, i t was shown that a v a r i a t i o n

i n terminal l o c a t i o n can affect these factors and f o r this

reason the optimization of terminal l o c a t i o n w i l l enhance the

'demand f o r transport as optimization w i l l result i n the

minimization of aggregate time and costs of access journeys.

 5k

Therefore, i ti s necessary t o determine the l o c a t i o n of•

origins a n d d e s t i n a t i o n s o f t h e modes w i t h g r e a t care.

Although t h e m i n i m i z a t i o n of access or egress journeys

is important, the evaluation of a p a r t i c u l a r location fora

terminal s e r v i n g a p a r t i c u l a r mode m u s t take into account

its effects on t h e u r b a n a r e a i n which i ti s situated, and

the location must be e c o n o m i c a l l y ' f e a s a b l e f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n

of that mode.
 55

FOOTNOTES - CHAPTER 2

1. P r o c e e d i n g s o f the N i n t h N a t i o n a l Conference on C i t y
P l a n n i n g / N e w Y o r k , 1917, P.257

2. F. L. Mogen, L e t t e r t o the W r i t e r , February."!,, 1971

3. C. C o l b y " C e n t r i f u g a l and C e n t r i p i t a l F o r c e s i n Urban
Geography", Readings i n Urban Geography, ed. H. M. Mayer,
C. F. Kohn, U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1959, p. 287.
4. F. L. Mogen, op. c i t .

5. J . S. W o r l e y , "Buses, T r u c k s , and A r c h i t e c t u r e " , A r c h i t e c t u r a l

R e c o r d , V o l . 90, O c t . , 1941, p. 82.

6. G. J . MacMurray, " S o l v i n g the Bus T e r m i n a l Problem", The

American C i t y Magazine, December 1925, p. 651.
7. MacMurray, op. c i t . , p. 650.

8. Ibid.
9. P r o c e e d i n g s of N i n t h N a t i o n a l Conference on C i t y P l a n n i n g ,
p. 257.
10. H. S. Pack, "Bus T e r m i n a l D e s i g n and C o n s t r u c t i o n , "
A r c h i t e c t u r a l R e c o r d , V o l . 90, October 1941, p . 83.

11. T o r o n t o T r a n s i t Commission, Wheels o f P r o g r e s s . T o r o n t o ,

1944, p. 85. .
12. "Greyhounds' New C h i c a g o T e r m i n a l " , A r c h i t e c t u r a l R e c o r d .
V o l . 115, A p r i l 1954, p. 16%.

13. Systems A n a l y s i s R e s e a r c h C o r p o r a t i o n ( S . A . R . C ) , Demand

f o r I n t e r - c i t y Passenger T r a v e l i n the Washington B o s t o n
C o r r i d o r , C l e a r i n g h o u s e , PB 166 884 p. 1-7.

14. B. E. Cramer, Optimum A l l o c a t i o n o f T r a n s p o r t a t i o n T e r m i n a l s

i n Urban A r e a s , M.I.T. Department o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g ,
C l e a r i n g h o u s e , PB 173-684.

15. Systems A n a l y s i s R e s e a r c h C o r p o r a t i o n , op. c i t .

I60 Consad Research C o r p o r a t i o n , T r a n s i t Usage F o r e c a s t i n g

T e c h n i q u e s . P i t t s b u r g h . P a . , 1968.

17. B . E. Cramer, op. c i t . , p. 4 .

18. S.A.R.C, op. c i t . , p. 1-6.

 56

1 9 . S.A.R.C, op. c i t . , p. 1-10.

2 0 . R. S. S c o t t and D. M. M c C u l l o u g h , O p t i m i z i n g Common •
C a r r i e r T e r m i n a l L o c a t i o n s , N. Y. S t a t e , ' D e p t . of P u b l i c
Works, C l e a r i n g h o u s e , P.B. 1 8 4 - 4 0 9 , p. 3 ^ .

2 1 . Canadian T r a n s p o r t Commission, R e s e a r c h B r a n c h , I n t e r c i t y
Passenger T r a n s p o r t S t u d y , Ottawa, September, 1970.p.37

2 2 . M. B e e s l e y , The V a l u e o f Time Spent i n T r a v e l l i n g : Some

lev; E v i d e n c e , H. M. S. 0., London.
2 3 . D. Quarmby, " T r a v e l Mode f o r the Journey t o Work",
J o u r n a l o f T r a n s p o r t Economics and P o l i c y , S e p t . 1967.

24. S t a t l e r and B l a y , "Role of R o t a r y Wing i n F u t u r e S h o r t

H a u l T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , "High Speed Ground T r a n s p o r t a t i o n
J o u r n a l , V o l . I I (1968), No. 2 , p. 3 6 9 .
25. " A v i a t i o n - Subway i n the Sky". Time Magazine, V o l . 9 7 5

No. 5 .
26. S.A.R.C, op. c i t . , p. . 1 - 1 0 .
27. B. E. Cramer, op. c i t . , p. 1 0 .
28. V u c h i c , "Rapid T r a n s i t I n t e r s t a t i o n S p a c i n g f o r Maximum
Number of P a s s e n g e r s " , T r a n s p o r t a t i o n S c i e n c e , V o l . 3?
No. 3 . • :
29. E. A. B e i n s b o r n , " T e r m i n a l Access and t h e C h o i c e o f
I n t e r c i t y Modes", T r a n s p o r t a t i o n E n g i n e e r i n g J o u r n a l ,
P r o c e e d i n g s o f the A.S.C.E., August, 1969, p. +7 +. 1 1

3 0 . Canadian T r a n s p o r t Commission, T r a n s p o r t a t i o n D a t a ;
Data A b s t r a c t No. One. Ottawa, 1970.

3 1 . E. A . B e i m b o r n , op. c i t . , p. 4 6 9 .

32. C . T . C , I n t e r c i t y Passenger T r a n s p o r t S t u d y , p. 3 7 .

3 3 . McDonnell A i r c r a f t C o r p o r a t i o n , T e c h n i c a l and Economic

E v a l u a t i o n of A i r c r a f t f o r I n t e r - C i t y Short Haul Trans-
p o r t a t i o n . ,• V o l . I l l , S t . L o u i s , Ms., 1966, C l e a r i n g h o u s e
AD641-508, p. I I I - 1 1 2 .

34. S. G. L a d i e r e , F. E. Jarema, "Impact o f P r o j e c t e d A i r

T r a v e l Demand on A i r p o r t A c c e s s " , Highway R e s e a r c h R e c o r d ,
No. 274, 1969, p. 21.

35* L a n s i n g , c i t e d i n McDonnell A i r c r a f t C o r p o r a t i o n , op. c i t . ,

p. I I I - l l l .

36. S.A.R.C, op. c i t . , p. V-19.

37. C T . C , op.; c i t . . p. 2 2 .
 57

3 8 . E. N. H a l l , " C e n t r a l Elements o f a N a t i o n a l T r a n s p o r t a t i o n
System", H i g h Speed Ground T r a n s p o r t a t i o n J o u r n a l , V o l .
2, No. 1, p. 88. ;

39« E. N. H a l l , c i t e d i n R. A. Gaekenheimer, "High Speed T r a n s i t

i n Urban A r e a s " H i g h Speed Ground T r a n s p o r t a t i o n J o u r n a l ,
V o l . 1, No. 1, J a n . , 1 9 6 7 , p. 3 0 .
40. P e a t , Marwick, L i v i n g s t o n e , and Co., T e r m i n a l I n t e r f a c e
System, U.S. Department o f T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , C l e a r i n g h o u s e
PB1HH209, p. 3.211.
hi. G. D. F r i e d l a n d e r , "Railway v s . Highway - the Zoom o f Things
t o Come", I.E.E.E. Spectrum, September 1 9 6 7 , p. 66.
h2. B. W. F i r t h , E v o l u t i o n a r y Development o f the. P u b l i c
T r a n s p o r t System, S o c i e t y of A u t o m o b i l e E n g i n e e r s , Paper
No. 696124, J a n . 1969, p. 7.
4 3 . A. J . T o b i n , "The Mid-Manhattan Bus T e r m i n a l o f New
Yorks P o r t A u t h o r i t y " , T r a f f i c Q u a r t e r l y , Volume 6, p. 69.

44. W. Owen, The M e t r o p o l i t a n T r a n s p o r t a t i o n P r o b l e m, Anchor

Books, 1 9 6 6 , p. 6 3 . :
' ~:
4 5 . E. J . L e s s i e u , "Bus T e r m i n a l P l a n n i n g and D e s i g n " ,
P r o c e e d i n g s o f the I n s t i t u t e o f T r a f f i c Engineers',
T h i r t y - F i f t h A n n u a l M e e t i n g , 1965, P. 147.'
46. "Greyhounds^ New C h i c a g o Terminal",- A r c h i t e c t u r a l R e c o r d ,
V o l . 1 1 5 , A p r i l 1954, p. I 6 7 .
4 7 . R. T i t t l e y , L e t t e r t o W r i t e r , J a n u a r y 12, 1971.
48. M c D o n n e l l A i r c r a f t C o r p o r a t i o n , op. c i t . .

49. R. T i t t l e y , op. c i t .

5 0 . W. G. Heenan, "The I n f l u e n c e o f Rapid T r a n s i t on R e a l

E s t a t e Values i n M e t r o p o l i t a n Toronto," I n s t i t u t e f o r
Rapid T r a n s i t .

5 1 . S. M. Andrews, "Metro C e n t e r " Urban Renewal and Low

Income H o u s i n g , V o l . 5 : 2 , 1 9 6 9 , p. 2 .

5 2 . G. G i l l , C o l o n i a l Coach L i n e s L t d . , Ottawa, I n t e r v i e w
w i t h w r i t e r i n August, 1969.
 58

CHAPTER THREE; BUS TERMINAL LOCATION

3.1 Introduction.

This chapter w i l l apply the factors determining

optimum l o c a t i o n discussed i n chapters one and two to one of
the common c a r r i e r modes - the i n t e r - c i t y bus. This v e h i c l e ,
because of i t s technology t h e o r e t i c a l l y can perform i t s function
without formalised stopping places or terminals. I t can be
as f l e x i b l e as the automobile i n route choice and does not
require the specialised structures common to r a i l and a i r
modes i n order to pick up and drop o f f passengers. The
f l e x i b i l i t y of this mode, and the fact that relocation of the
stopping places as a rule does not necessitate costly relocation
of rights of way or runways, make the bus p a r t i c u l a r l y suitable
for study of terminal l o c a t i o n s . ' N
• '

3.2 The Terminal i n the I n t e r - C i t y Bus System.

The bus stopping place with a heavy passenger

density usually has a terminal structure that i s capable of

handling batch flows between the various access/egress modes

and the l i n e haul v e h i c l e s . The terminal usually provides

 59

passenger h o l d i n g ( w a i t i n g ) areas and p r o c e s s i n g (e.g.

t i c k e t i n g ) f a c i l i t i e s which p e r m i t r e d u c t i o n o f bus l o a d i n g
time. Frequently the t e r m i n a l a l s o f u n c t i o n s as a d i s p a t c h i n g
p o i n t and a bus e x p r e s s f r e i g h t l o a d i n g s t a t i o n . ( C a r r i e r s
still c o n s i d e r f r e i g h t l o a d i n g a minor f a c t o r i n t e r m i n a l
location.) Despite the f a c t t h a t t e r m i n a l s a r e s p e c i a l i s e d
s t r u c t u r e s they do n o t d i f f e r from the simple road side stop
i n the b a s i c f u n c t i o n o f f a c i l i t a t i n g i n t e r c h a n g e and access t o
the l i n e h a u l mode. F o r t h i s r e a s o n the d i s c u s s i o n o f t e r m i n a l
l o c a t i o n must i n c l u d e these road side stops.

3.3 Bus T e r m i n a l Use and L o c a t i o n .

Before d i s c u s s i n g the t e r m i n a l i n terms o f i t s
r e l a t i o n t o o r i g i n s and d e s t i n a t i o n s , i t should be noted t h a t
s e r v i c e s w i t h m u l t i p l e t e r m i n a l s i n urban m e t r o p o l i t a n areas
f i n d an overwhelming p r o p o r t i o n o f passengers board a t the
c e n t r a l t e r m i n a l s . . Greyhound o f Canada e s t i m a t e s the use o f
the c e n t r a l t e r m i n a l t o be as h i g h as 9 5 $ of a l l passengers
u s i n g the s e r v i c e s . ^ T h i s heavy use o f c e n t r a l t e r m i n a l s
would suggest t h a t t h e y have p a r t i c u l a r a t t r i b u t e s w h i c h make
t h e i r l o c a t i o n a t t r a c t i v e t o bus passengers d e s p i t e the f a c t
t h a t a t l e a s t 50% of. the o r i g i n s and d e s t i n a t i o n s a r e o u t s i d e
the c e n t r a l b u s i n e s s district. Some of the p o s s i b l e reasons
f o r t h i s are discussed below.

3.4. Access and E g r e s s Journeys - Modal Choice.

The s t a t i s t i c s p r e v i o u s l y presented i n d i c a t e that the

m a j o r i t y of access t r i p s t o c e n t r a l i n t e r - c i t y bus t e r m i n a l s

are by l o c a l t r a n s i t " a n d by f o o t . ' T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e

 6o

f o r a c c e s s t r i p s o r i g i n a t i n g i n the c e n t r a l c i t y . Transit usage

i s h i g h e s t i n c i t i e s where r a p i d t r a n s i t systems a r e w e l l

developed and i t s r o u t e s pass near the t e r m i n a l s . F o r example,

i n New York C i t y 5 6 $ of access t r i p s use t r a n s i t . Even i n

c i t i e s w i t h bus t r a n s i t - o n l y , t h e p r o p o r t i o n .of t r a n s i t

usage i s h i g h as i n the case i n Washington D.C. ( 4 5 $ ) and

Buffalo (34$). The s t u d i e s on i n t e r - c i t y t r a v e l demand

r e v e a l some p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s heavy t r a n s i t usage

t o downtown r a i l and bus t e r m i n a l s .

Most l o c a l t r a n s i t networks have r a d i a l s e x t e n d i n g

f a r i n t o the suburbs c o n v e r g i n g towards the c e n t r a l a r e a .
At most c e n t r a l o r near c e n t r a l t e r m i n a l s , access from the
t r a n s i t mode i s e a s i l y a c h i e v e d w i t h m i n i m a l time l o s s . Given
t h i s t r a n s i t p a t t e r n and the f a c t t h a t t r a n s i t w i l l be used
f o r d i s t a n c e s up t o 10 m i l e s from the t e r m i n a l i n c i t i e s such
as T o r o n t o (as determined by the C . T . C ) , the t r a n s i t system-
i s a s r e ' a d l l y ^ a v a l l a b l e access mode from many p a r t s of the
urban a r e a . A t suburban bus t e r m i n a l s , access by t r a n s i t i s
u s u a l l y more d i f f i c u l t as the t r a n s i t network i s l e s s dense
and f r e q u e n c i e s a r e l o w e r . The absence, o r near absence of
t r a n s i t , l o g i c a l l y p r e c l u d e s the use o f this,@mode f o r access
or e g r e s s j o u r n e y s . F o r example, a t a i r p o r t s where good p u b l i c
t r a n s i t i s o f t e n n o n e x i s t e n t , t a x i s and l i m o u s i n e s a r e
i m p o r t a n t c a r r i e r s (the most n o t a b l e e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s pattern
i s C l e v e l a n d w i t h i t s r a p i d t r a n s i t s e r v i c e t o the a i r p o r t ) .

The a v a i l a b i l i t y of t r a n s i t , however, does n o t

a u t o m a t i c a l l y i n f e r t h a t t h i s mode w i l l be used as f r e q u e n t l y

as i t i s n o t the f a s t e s t n o r the most c o n v e n i e n t mode and

 61

t h e r e f o r e may not be used by many p e o p l e . Many l o c a l transit

s t u d i e s show t h a t t r a n s i t use i s m a i n l y r e s t r i c t e d t o r i d e r s
who f i n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o d i s p o s e of t h e i r v e h i c l e a t t h e i r
d e s t i n a t i o n , who cannot d r i v e , who w i l l not d r i v e on congested
downtown s t r e e t s , who do n o t have a v e h i c l e a v a i l a b l e , and/or
who cannot a f f o r d t a x i s . The s t u d y of t r a n s i t h a b i t s i n
Pittsburgh i l l u s t r a t e s this point.3 P e a t , Marwick, Living-
stone and Co. suggest t h a t the problem of p a r k i n g , l o a d i n g
and u n l o a d i n g , and the g e n e r a l c o n g e s t i o n e x i s t i n g on downtown
s t r e e t s r e s t r i c t the use of the a u t o m o b i l e . ( A i r p o r t s on the
o t h e r hand, u s u a l l y p r o v i d e passenger p a r k i n g areas and "drop
o f f " l o c a t i o n s , which encourage a u t o m o b i l e use and r e s u l t i n
h i g h e r auto a c c e s s p e r c e n t a g e s ; .

As was p r e v i o u s l y i n d i c a t e d , i n t e r - c i t y bus passengers

tend t o be from l o w e r income groups (this statistic possibly

r e f l e c t s the l a r g e number of bus r i d e r s under 2 5 y e a r s of a g e ) .

Fewer a u t o m o b i l e s a r e a v a i l a b l e t o t h i s group and these

people must t h e r e f o r e r e l y on t r a n s i t t o g a i n access t o the

bus t e r m i n a l . , As t r a n s i t makes the c e n t r a l a r e a most a c c e s s i b l e

t o t h i s group, heavy use of c e n t r a l i n t e r - c i t y bus t e r m i n a l s

is' made. G e n e r a l o b s e r v a t i o n s made from the d a t a d i s c u s s e d

tends t o c o n f i r m t h i s p o i n t . For transit-oriented access

t r i p s , the t e r m i n a l should be l o c a t e d on a major transit

r o u t e , near the hub of the system,' as t h i s p o i n t m i n i m i z e s

access times and c o s t s f o r a l l o r i g i n s and d e s t i n a t i o n s .

The hub of the t r a n s i t system, a l t h o u g h f r e q u e n t l y

i n the c e n t r a l b u s i n e s s d i s t r i c t i s not always i n the C.B.D.,
as i s e x e m p l i f i e d by the subway systems i n Toronto and
Montreal. However, as the c e n t r a l area, generates a. h i g h

d e n s i t y of o r i g i n s and d e s t i n a t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y f o r b u s i n e s s

t r i p s , a t e r m i n a l l o c a t i o n o u t s i d e t h e G.B.D. a t t h e hub of

the subway system, may n o t be t h e o p t i m a l l o c a t i o n f o r G.B.D.

oriented trips.

The G.T.G. s u r v e y suggests t h a t c o n g e s t i o n , as w e l l

as t r a n s f e r and w a i t i n g times f o r t r a n s i t make w a l k i n g the
f a s t e s t access mode f o r d i s t a n c e s up t o l e s s than two m i l e s . 5
T h e r e f o r e , f o r c o n c e n t r a t e d G.B.D.'s, w i t h c e n t r a l , or near
c e n t r a l t e r m i n a l s , one can expect a. l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e
C.B.D. based access journeys to' be on f o o t . This i s p r e c i s e l y
the s i t u a t i o n ' i n M o n t r e a l and B u f f a l o . However, i n New York
where the C.B.D. i s q u i t e e x t e n s i v e and w a l k i n g unattractive,
t h i s mode accounts f o r - o n l y 4 . 5 $ o f a l l access journeys.^
In g e n e r a l , N o r t h e a s t C o r r i d o r c i t i e s have f a i r l y concentrated
C.B.D.'s and c o n s e q u e n t l y over 3 0 $ o f a l l downtown o r i e n t e d
access journeys a r e made on .foot.7 F o r t h i s type of passenger
t r a f f i c any c e n t r a l l o c a t i o n would be s a t i s f a c t o r y as l o n g as
i t would be w i t h i n w a l k i n g d i s t a n c e o f the o r i g i n s and d e s t i n -
ations.

3.5. I m p l i c a t i o n s o f F u t u r e Demand on T e r m i n a l L o c a t i o n .

Over t h e l o n g r u n , the d e s i r a b i l i t y o f c e n t r a l

l o c a t i o n s w i l l be dependent upon f u t u r e urban l a n d use

patterns of urbanized areas. The l a n d use p a t t e r n w i l l

determine the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f o r i g i n s and d e s t i n a t i o n s and

the a s s o c i a t e d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n developments w i l l affect,

modal c h o i c e . F o r example, i f urban p l a n n i n g p o l i c i e s

encourage the' d i s p e r s a l of the central business d i s t r i c t by

providing suitable land elsewhere or by allowing the t r a n s i t

systems that feed that centre to deteriorate, the concentration

of C.B.D. origins and destinations w i l l decline, and poor

t r a n s i t w i l l increase the t o t a l t r a v e l times to central terminals.

A note needs to be made regarding the increasing use

of the automobile. As the S.A.R.C. report i n d i c a t e s , the

r e l a t i v e costs of automobile ownership and operation have

declined since the second world war. The report suggests

this trend w i l l continue and w i l l result i n increased car

o
ownership. This can result i n a. greater use of this mode

for l i n e haul t r i p s when l i n e haul times between bus and auto

are comparable. In order to a t t r a c t some of this automobile

t r a f f i c , and as more access journeys w i l l be made by car,

bus systems w i l l have to provide terminals which are r e a d i l y

accessible by car and can store these' vehicles u n t i l the

passengers return. In this way, argued Beiraborn, the i n t e r -

c i t y bus can maintain i t s p o s i t i o n i n terms of lower t o t a l

travel times and cos.ts.9 Beimborn suggested that suburban

terminals with parking f a c i l i t i e s could divert passengers

away from other modes including the automobile. In p a r t i c u l a r ,

he suggests, these terminals would attract higher income

t r a v e l l e r s since a large proportion of the population

dispersion occurs i n the higher and middle income s t r a t a .

He concludes that with automobile access, suburban terminals

with l i n e haul frequencies comparable to those of the central

terminal could become more popular than terminals located i n

the central c i t y .
 6.4

The implication of dispersed urban development i s

that existing central terminals w i l l become less accessible
i n terms of t o t a l access times and w i l l probably contribute
r e l a t i v e l y fewer passengers to the i n t e r - c i t y bus system. I f
t r a d i t i o n a l public t r a n s i t prevails (thus excluding personal
public modes), a central terminal w i l l continue to provide
minimal access times and costs f o r t r a n s i t riders but more
and more 'choice' riders w i l l turn to alternate terminals or
stopping places.

3.6 The Line Haul Journey and the Bus Terminals.

The importance of minimal.line haul t r a v e l time was

underscored by the fact that the i n t e r - c i t y bus, which, i s
b a s i c a l l y an extension of the automobile, has comparable
speeds and t r a v e l times to the private mode. For this
reason, terminal locations should be such, that, the l i n e haul
i s minimized where possible to remain competitive. This was
e s s e n t i a l l y Beimborn's argument favouring suburban terminals
where the l i n e haul travel time' into and out of the central
c i t y can be overcome.

The proposed bus terminal i n the Toronto's 'Metro

Center' i s of interest to bus operators because i t w i l l have
direct access to the Gardiner Expressway (a major east-west
freeway), thus bypassing the congestion i n downtown Toronto.
The new Montreal terminal at Berri-de-Montigny was considered
by the operator to be suitable as access to i n t e r - c i t y high-
ways can r e a d i l y be achieved.
 There i s , however, a problem related to suburban

terminals. As was pointed out'.by Voyageur Inc. i n connection

with possible terminals i n the western part•of the Island of

Montreal:

"It i s becoming more and more d i f f i c u l t to

service suburban areas with express services
because of the location of controlled access
highways" 10 • .

If communities West .of Montreal are to be serviced, l i n e haul

times between the center of Montreal and Ottawa would be

increased by 10 to 15' minutes as a slower route has to be
used. Thus, using Vuchic's concept previously discussed,
the effectiveness of suburban locations to attract patronage
i f the t o t a l t r a v e l times f o r those already on board the
vehicle are s i g n i f i c a n t l y increased. A possible solution to
such a problem would be to provide separate services from
suburban points. However, existing patronage levels would
make such a service highly unprofitable.

3.7 Inter-City Bus Costs.

The provision of bus terminals can involve substantial

c a p i t a l expenditure or almost none at a l l . For example, the

New York terminals can be compared to the wayside stop with

a single "Bus Stop" sign to designate i t s l o c a t i o n . The bus

system has the advantage over other common carriers In that

extensive expenditures on rights of way are usually not

required u n t i l t r a f f i c densities j u s t i f y such expenditure.

C a p i t a l costs of a terminal are limited to the s i t e and

structure, and the related servicing areas. These can'vary

according to t r a f f i c densities as w e l l .
 6.6

The p r o v i s i o n of a d d i t i o n a l t e r m i n a l s t r u c t u r e s

need o n l y be c o n s i d e r e d when e x i s t i n g or a n t i c i p a t e d patronage

r e q u i r e s s p e c i a l i z e d f a c i l i t i e s f o r t i c k e t i n g and baggage

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n t o avoid- l i n e h a u l d e l a y s f o r equipment and

staff (drivers).

S u b s t a n t i a l e x p e n d i t u r e s , however, may be r e q u i r e d
to p r o v i d e d i r e c t access t o t r a n s i t , a u t o m o b i l e / t a x i drop o f f
p o i n t s , and automobile storage areas. I n c e n t r a l areas such
facilities c o u l d i n c u r s u b s t a n t i a l l a n d and maintenance
costs.

A l t h o u g h i n t e r - c i t y bus systems r e q u i r e r e l a t i v e l y
low c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e s , o p e r a t i n g c o s t s are h i g h as the
r a t i o of passengers t o o p e r a t i n g p e r s o n n e l i s low. Labour
c o s t s are of prime concern t o o p e r a t o r s and f u t u r e l a b o u r
c o n t r a c t s w i l l most l i k e l y r e s u l t i n h i g h e r f a r e s , thus making
the bus l e s s a t t r a c t i v e t o t r a v e l l e r s . A l t h o u g h bus f a r e s
are s t i l l the l o w e s t of the t h r e e common c a r r i e r modes, the
i n t e r - c i t y bus does have the dubious d i s t i n c t i o n of h a v i n g
the h i g h e s t i n c r e a s e i n user c o s t s i n c o n s t a n t d o l l a r terms
T r a v e l time and v e h i c l e s i z e are t h e r e f o r e e x t r e m e l y important
i n h o l d i n g down f a r e i n c r e a s e s .

3.8 Community P l a n n i n g and Bus Terminals.

W i t h the advent o f & g r e a t e r c o n t r o l s on l a n d use such

as z o n i n g bylaws, i n c r e a s i n g p u b l i c i n p u t has o c c u r r e d i n

d e t e r m i n i n g the l o c a t i o n of bus t e r m i n a l s . F o r example, the

development and l o c a t i o n of the Mid-Manhattan bus t e r m i n a l

was the r e s u l t of a p u b l i c p o l i c y t o reduce congestion i n

the Times Square a r e a . P u b l i c p l a n n i n g agencies may encourage

the l o c a t i o n of f u t u r e suburban t e r m i n a l s near e x i s t i n g or

proposed f r e e w a y s , or near f u t u r e r a p i d t r a n s i t l i n e s . This

type of p u b l i c involvement has o c c u r r e d i n Dade County,

F l o r i d a (Miami) w i t h the o b j e c t i v e t o enhance urban s t r u c t u r e .

3.,9 , Summary
D e s p i t e the wide s c a t t e r of o r i g i n s and d e s t i n a t i o n s
of i n t e r - c i t y b u s . t r i p s , a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of the trips
o r i g i n a t e from c e n t r a l a r e a t e r m i n a l s . This i s a t t r i b u t a b l e
to the h i g h use of p u b l i c t r a n s i t as the access or e g r e s s
mode, and the f o c u s of t r a n s i t systems on the c e n t r a l a r e a .
As the i n t e r - c i t y bus w i l l most l i k e l y c o n t i n u e t o be the mode
c h o i c e of middle and lower income t r a v e l l e r s h a v i n g non-
b u s i n e s s t r a v e l purposes, t r a n s i t w i l l remain an important
determinant of l o c a t i o n i n the f u t u r e .

F u t u r e urban p a t t e r n s suggest f u r t h e r d i s p e r s a l of

o r i g i n s and d e s t i n a t i o n s which w i l l encourage the use of the

p r i v a t e automobile and reduce the r o l e of l o c a l transit.

In o r d e r t o a t t r a c t " c h o i c e " r i d e r s t o the i n t e r - c i t y bus,

suburban t e r m i n a l s w i t h good automobile access and storage

facilities may be r e q u i r e d . The number of such suburban

t e r m i n a l s w i l l have t o be l i m i t e d because of d e l a y s t o those

on board the bus.

The l o c a t i o n of t e r m i n a l s w i l l have t o be such t h a t

l i n e h a u l d e l a y s caused by c o n g e s t i o n on l o c a l s t r e e t s will
be m i n i m i z e d , ^ h i s i s important i n order to m a i n t a i n a
 68

competitive position to other i n t e r - c i t y transport modes.

Reduction of l i n e haul times i s p a r t i c u l a r important to
minimize r i s i n g labour costs. The i n t e r - c i t y does have the
fortunate position that capital costs are low and can r i s e
with small increments according to passenger volumes.

As urban transport problems become more complex

i t can be expected and i t i s desirable that greater public
input w i l l occur with bus terminal l o c a t i o n decision making.
 69

FOOTNOTES - CHAPTER I I I

1. F. L. Mogeii, L e t t e r t o the W r i t e r , F e b r u a r y 16, 1971.

2. P e a t , Marwick, L i v i n g s t o n e , and Co., A n a l y s i s o f the
L o c a t i o n s and F u n c t i o n s o f the T e r m i n a l I n t e r f a c e System,
U.S. Dept. o f T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , C l e a r i n g h o u s e PB 188-209.

3. P i t t s b u r g h A r e a T r a n s p o r t a t i o n S t u d y , V o l . 1, U.S. D e p a r t -
ment o f Commerce, 1961,
4. P e a t , Marwick, L i v i n g s t o n e , and Co., qp. c i t . , p, 3»2.1.
5. Canadian T r a n s p o r t Commission, I n t e r c i t y Passenger Transport
S t u d y , Ottawa, September 197°, p. 22.
6. P e a t , Marwick, L i v i n g s t o n e and Co^ ,. Loc. cit...
7. Systems A n a l y s i s R e s e a r c h C o r p o r a t i o n , Demand f o r I n t e r -
c i t y Passenger T r a v e l i n the Washington Boston C o r r i d o r ,
C l e a r i n g h o u s e , P.B. 166-884, p. V-21.

8. S.A.R.C, op. c i t . , p. I I I - l .
9. E. A. Beimborn, " T e r m i n a l Access and the C h o i c e o f I n t e r c i t y
Modes", T r a n s p o r t a t i o n E n g i n e e r i n g J o u r n a l , P r o c e e d i n g s
of the ATS.C.E., A u g u s t , 19^9.
10. R. T i t t l e y , L e t t e r . t o the W r i t e r , J a n u a r y 12, 1971.

11. S.A.R.C op. c i t . , p. 111-10.

12. M e t r o p o l i t a n Dade County ( F l o r i d a ) P l a n n i n g Department

T e r m i n a l F a c i l i t i e s M a s t e r P l a n , Dec. 1968, Clearinghouse
P.B. 184-729 p. i x .
 CHAPTER FOUR; DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The analysis of the factors a f f e c t i n g terminal

l o c a t i o n suggests that the hypothesis presented i n chapter
one i s v a l i d f o r urban patterns observed i n eastern Canada and
United States c i t i e s . The Ottawa; example indicated the
effects of terminal relocation on the balance of demand among
i n t e r - c i t y travel modes and confirms this hypothesis. The
optimal l o c a t i o n for an i n t e r - c i t y bus terminal i s i n or near
the central business .district of a metropolitan area, near the
hub of the urban t r a n s i t network and with ready access to
major highways.

The analysis further suggests that the optimization

of terminal l o c a t i o n i n future land use patterns w i l l require

multi-terminal systems to stimulate demand f o r t r a v e l v i a

such common carriers as the i n t e r - c i t y bus. This would reduce

the need for additional i n t e r - c i t y highways and freeways

catering to the automobile. As many of the access or egress

journeys of this additional common c a r r i e r t r a f f i c w i l l be

by automobile, optimal l o c a t i o n would be near major t r a f f i c

arteries that give direct access to large areas of the metro-

politan area. Such locations can be predetermined so that

compatibility of land uses can be established and s i t e costs

for the terminal minimized. As shown by the Toronto examples,the

terminal can stimulate r e t a i l a c t i v i t y and perhaps bus

terminals should, be co-ordinated with the development of

l o c a l town centers.

To conclude, the various studies discussed and the

available data suggest three basic c r i t e r i a for the location
of i n t e r - c i t y bus terminals i n urban metropolitan areas which
have determined this optimal location i n urban metropolitan
areas. These ares

1. Maximization of demand for i n t e r - c i t y bus service

This maximization can be achieved by minimizing

access and egress times and cost as these costs
frequently form a substantial proportion of the
t o t a l t r a v e l time and cost. This study shows that a
central l o c a t i o n on or near the hub of the t r a n s i t
system s a t i s f i e s this c r i t e r i o n .

,2. Minimization of costs per passenger carried.

This minimization can be achieved by determining

a location i n such a way that c a p i t a l costs and l i n e

haul costs per passenger carried are minimized. Such

locations should be away from the area of highest

land values and should have ready access to i n t e r -

c i t y highways.

3. Compliance with urban development .policies.

This c r i t e r i o n requires the coordination of public

and private l o c a t i o n decision making so that the location

i s consistent with planning p o l i c i e s . In this way

the terminal can a s s i s t i n the r e a l i z a t i o n of these

 p o l i c i e s which are designed to improve the urban

environment.

The third c r i t e r i o n i s often neglected i n the

independent decision making processes of bus service operators.
Public input into this process i s required as was demonstrated
by the congestion problems caused by buses on Manhattan's
busy streets.; Public input into the decision making processes
w i l l most l i k e l y increase as more complex urban and i n t e r -
c i t y transportation problems require more comprehensive
solutions.

By using these c r i t e r i a f o r bus terminal l o c a t i o n

determination, i t i s possible to determine the optimal
l o c a t i o n f o r i n t e r - c i t y bus terminals.
73
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