A Short Overview of

Integrated Pest Management in Wheat

Production

By
Mahsa Motlagh
ARTS – SS 2009

Submitted to
Prof. Dr. R. Sikora
Assignment part of B XII Module
 Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

Introduction
Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) defines integrated pest
management as:
‘’Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an ecosystem approach to crop
production and protection that combines different management
strategies and practices to grow healthy crops and minimize the use of
pesticides.’’

IPM is an effective and environmentally sensitive approach to a

most economical means of pest management in crop production
combining status quo knowledge on pest lifecycles and their
interaction with the environment, and the organic and inorganic pest
control methods. Although the concept is simple to understand it is a
complex and lengthy process when put into practice, mainly due to the
steps involved, the integration of pest management starts even before
seeding literally it begins with soil preparation.

IPM is practiced and required in of the following steps

Soil preparation
The soil needs to be fumigated and well tiled if the site was
severely infected in previous year/harvest. Soil preparation needs to
include fallow periods for healthy soil conditions.

Planting
Planting seeds need to be done with proper spacing and depth; it
reduces the difficulty in weed control and gives the plants the best
possible start.

Weather forecasting
Weather forecasting quiet important not only for natural
precipitation but also to evaluate the risk of pest outbreaks, most of
the insects, virus and fungus need certain ecological conditions to
proliferate and the weather plays a major role. Understanding the local
pest population and their habitual behaviour, we can determine when
and how the outbreaks may occur based on weather patterns, thus
weather forecasting gives the farmer a head start in the battle against
pests.

Pest trapping
There are several methods (using pheromones) and tools (light
boxes and oil films) available to trap insects on the farm, to analyse the
stage of lifecycle and population density, this is crucial because most
of the insects are extremely devastating in certain stages of their life
cycle.

Monitoring
Regular field excursions to spot damaged crops, irregularity in
growth, and any abnormality in friendly insect population should be
carried out. Insects per square meter need to be counted and recorded
similarly spotting for virus and fungus needs to be meticulously carried

2
 Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

out.

Thresholds
This refers to the population of pests that can exist on the field
with out causing a economical damage, we need to into consideration
that total eradication of pest is not possible and is not healthy for the
environment so, there will always be pests and the threshold limit is
the point till which no action is required.

Culture controls
Basic control methods such as using certified healthy seeds
could produce healthy crops that will have reduced infestation by
pests; similarly using genetically resistant and tolerant species will also
reduce the need for pest control.

Biological controls
Antagonistic insects, organic chemicals and natural resources
are used to control or destroy the pest population, e.g. ladybird beetles
to control aphides, flooding to control nematodes, neem oil to control
caterpillars.

Chemical controls
Using strong chemical agents to control the population this
method is only recommend if the biological methods fail and the
threshold limit has been surpassed.

Record keeping
Records need to be maintained with regards to insects spotted
on the field, pest outbreaks, production data, control methods
employed and etc, these data when analysed will provide correlative
patterns between all the environmental and ecological factors involved
in pest behaviour. In-depth knowledge of this enables farmers to
predict future needs, and take action accordingly so as to maximize
profit.

Evaluation and decision making for the upcoming production

year
The analysed data is used to predict forthcoming year and
possible hindrances in production, thus appropriate decision with
regards to crop to be planted and the required scale of investment and
manpower can be made.

3
 Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

Intervention

Figure 1 - Graphic illustration of IPM

Prevention

Wheat (Tiriticum Spp)

Wheat has been an important crop since antiquity, as cultivation of
domesticated wheat has been traced back to 9000BC in Turkey, most
probably wheat as a source of nutrition must have existed for much
longer. Wheat is a species of grass with some unique properties such as
its genetics; wheat can be diploid with two sets of chromosomes
(T.monococcum), polypoids, tetrapoids with four sets of chromosomes (T.
dicoccoides) and hexaploids with six sets of chromosomes (Aegilops
cylindrica), the reasons for such enormous genetic variety (nearly thirty
thousand species of wheat exist stemming from the six basic classes i.e.
Hard Red Winter, Hard Red Spring, Soft Red Winter, Durum, Hard White
and Soft White) is hybridization, wheat species cross pollinate easily and
hybrids occur naturally as well as by human intervention.

Today wheat is the third largest crop in the world and the yearly
average production of wheat worldwide is approximately around
600million metric tons (Reuters report estimation of 606million metric tons
for 2008/2009). Wheat is generally produced in large areas in certain parts
of the world with favourable conditions e.g. north-eastern part of china
and in the Himalayan foothills of India, these two countries being the
biggest producers of wheat consistently, followed closely by united states
and Russia and European union.

4
 Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

The fact that major quantities of wheat are produced only in certain
regions coupled with the genetic variety is a potential risk as any severe
pest problems can cause worldwide famine and economic chaos. Thus
integrated pest management in wheat has been extensively explored and
is well in tune with needs of future production. Before we move to looking
at examples of IPM in wheat, we must understand the crop properties,
description and growth.

Figure 2 - Nutritional chart and pictures of wheat kernel

Figure 3 - Total worldwide Wheat production from 1960 to 2008

5
 Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

The per capita consumption of wheat is approximately around

67kgs and at that rate consistent and constant supply and production is
eminent, any failure could lead to devastation. Wheat requires normally
around 3-4months from planting to reaching maturity depending upon
species and climatic conditions; height, health and production also vary
with species, soil, fertilizers, management, pest control and climate.

Although there have been adequate advancement in genetically

modified and/or breed varieties tolerant and resistant to diseases and
natural resource shortcomings, there are still a large number of fungal and
viral diseases in wheat crop that can completely destroy the harvest.

IPM in Wheat
As mentioned, wheat genetic variety and long history of
domestication has resulted in it being a primary source of food for rather a
large number of insect pests and hosts for virus and funguses (refer to
index for a complete list of pests and diseases (bacterial, fungus and
viral)).

The IPM practices depend on the type of wheat grown and the local
ecology, as always for each species of wheat and the pest in question
needs to be scrutinized well before making decisions on how to deal with
the problem. Pests include large birds to minute insects above ground and
below but usually external in nature, and diseases are caused by bacteria,
fungus and viruses in addition wheat also harbours phytplasmal disease
known as aster yellow. Below are examples of best IPM practices of insect
pests, virus and fungal diseases.

6
 Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

Army worm (Spodoptera frugiperda)

The worm is a caterpillar in the life cycle of a moth; it belongs to the
Lepidoptera order, the name is derived from its feeding habit as all the
caterpillars become active in the cool of the night and feed in large
numbers, causing utter havoc if the numbers are large.

Figure 4 - Armyworm catapillar (larvae) and moth (adult)

Physical description
• Larvae: greenish-brown to black, long, pale white, orange, and dark
brown stripes along the length of the abdomen
• Approx 1 ½ inches long (mature larvae & moths)
• Head capsule is yellowish brown with a brown network of veins
• Pupa nests in a brown earthen shell in subsoil
• Winged adults: tan to light brown, with a tiny white spot centered
on each forewing.
• Eggs resembling small white globules are laid in rows or groups and
then moth rolls the leaf blade of the plant around each egg mass.

Life cycle
Infestation occurs are the moths fly from one area to the next, they lay
eggs at night in folded leaves or under the leaf sheaths of small grain
plants, they prefer to lay eggs in moist shady areas of lodged, hail or wind
damaged grasses and grains. Armyworm eggs look like small white beads
laid in masses or rows resembling miniature pearls.

In 1 -2 weeks the eggs hatch into larvae

and this is the stage where is it most
damaging as the larvae continuously
feed for three to four weeks, once the
feeding is complete it borrows into the
top soil (2 -3 inches deep) or hides under
leaf litter for (after completion of six
instars) pupation. Because they feed
during nighttime and hide in daytime, it
is extremely difficult to stop and usually
considerable damage is caused before
being discovered. The importance of this
pest cannot be over emphasized as it
Figure 5 - Lifecycle of armyworm can quickly cause severe and
irreparable damage e.g. armyworm
infestation in Tanzania in 2009 destroyed approximately 1400acres of
grain in two of the main grain producing areas, this despite the farmers
being trained and well equipped to deal with armyworm plague.

7
 Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

Figure 6 - Table showing economic loss caused by armyworm

Management
• Field scouting for armyworms should be done in field margins, low
areas with rank plant growth, and areas where plants have lodged
• Leaf damage, worm frass (droppings) around the base of plants,
and severed leaf material that has fallen to the ground
• Look for larvae beneath plant debris around the base of plants and
in heads of wheat and barley
• Examine three linear feet of row in five or more areas of a field.
Shake the plants vigorously and then look for armyworms on the
ground and under debris.
• Estimate the size of the larvae and percentage of plants damaged.
• Also note the stage of development of plants

Biological control
• Tachinid flies and at least 12 different parasitic wasps lay eggs on
the body of armyworm larvae, eggs hatch and the fly larvae
consumes the armyworm from within.
• These natural predators should be used in accordance with their
lifecycle and the pest’s e.g. if armyworms found during scouting
and they are in the 2- 4 instar stage then it is best to use Meteorus
communus.
• The risk of potential armyworm infestations can be minimized by
control or elimination of grassy weeds in from fields or field borders
• Treat for armyworms when there are 6 or more non-parasitized
larvae (¾ to 1 ¼ inches long) per linear foot or row before extensive
head cutting occurs.
• Usually if the worm is more then 1inch long then control may not
bring economic return
• The Sixth instar consumes about 80% of all the foliage eaten during
larval development

The economic threshold limit is around 2-3worms per square meter, incase
of higher numbers and latter stages of growth, chemical treatment maybe
needed (refer to index for a list of chemical pesticides and dosage
recommendations)

8
 Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

Wheat Streak Mosaic Virus (WSMV)

Is a serious viral disease transmitted by its mite vector, in wheat and other
perennial grass across the globe, infection occurs either in early or late in
spring when the plant is still young, depending upon infection time the
yield and quality loss can be 30 to 100 percent. In Kansas USA, in 1959
the WSMV caused an economic damage of 80 million USD, and since then
there have been several infection outbreaks around the world causing
damages in billions and unfortunately contributing to food shortage.

Symptoms and causes

• Field planted next to natural or wild wheat or
cereal stubble that has not been ploughed
• Margins of the fields or outer edges is where
initial infection occurs
• Symptoms appear at the onset of warm
weather, though infection may have occurred
much earlier
• First symptoms in the leaves consist of
blotches and discontinuous dashes or streaks
that are light green to a faint yellow, and are
parallel to the veins
• As infection strengthens its grip plants growth
is retarded and leaves show a general yellow Figure 7 - WSMV
mottling, except for a few green streaks or infected wheat leaf
blotches
• Infected plants tend to spread out more than normal ones,
frequently developing an abnormally large number of tillers
• As the wheat plants mature, the yellow leaves tend to turn brownish
and die
• The stunting of the plants vary without reason, even tillers in the
same plant may vary considerably in height
• The symptoms of these viral diseases also vary greatly depending
on the virus or virus strain, variety of wheat, temperature, time of
infection, level of nutrition, soil moisture, and other factors.

Generally the yield and quality reduction often results from complete or
partial sterility and/or shrivelled kernels.

Disease cycle and control

• The WSMV is transmitted from plant to plant by the feeding of all
nymphal stages of the tiny (0.3 mm long), white, cigar-shaped
wheat curl mite, Aceria (Eriophyes) tulipae.
• The mite vector feeds preferentially on the upper leaf surface and
near the margin of leaves causing the leaf edges to curl tightly
inward and upward toward the upper midrib and the leaves remain
erect
• The mites develop from eggs into adults within 8 to 10 days, the
virus doesn’t pass from the adult to its progeny through eggs
• The mites acquire the virus by feeding for 15 minutes or more on
plants infected with the WSMV, the virus persists in most infective
mites for 7 to 9 days without additional acquisitions.

9
 Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

• During late summer and early fall WSMV is carried by mites from
corn and grasses to volunteer wheat plants and from there to the
winter wheat plantation as the mites migrate, strong winds can
blow the mites up to 2.5kms.
• Neither the wheat curl mites nor the WSMV can survive for more
then a day without the host plants and so the control mechanism
depends on this.

• Destroy all volunteer cereals, old cereal stubble, and weed grasses
in adjoining fields two weeks before planting, and three to four
weeks before sowing in the field to be seeded. Doing this eliminates
the mite vector as well as the mosaic-infected plants. The best
control results when all wheat farmers in a community cooperate in
destroying volunteer wheat and old stubble well ahead of planting
time.
• Sow winter wheat as late as practical to escape migrations of the
mite from corn, volunteer wheat or barley, or weed grasses. If
winter wheat is not up until October or later, it usually escapes
severe infestation, unless fall temperatures are above normal. An
infection of winter cereals by wheat streak mosaic in the spring
does relatively little damage.
• Chemical control of the wheat curl mite has not been successful.
The tightly rolled and trapped leaves provide a natural protection
for the mite, preventing contact with miticides. It is also difficult to
know exactly when to apply chemicals for control.
• If wheat fields appear to be affected in a fairly uniform and severe
manner by wheat streak mosaic in April or May, perhaps plowing
under the whole plantation and planting a different crop would be
pragmatic.

The table below presents other common wheat virus diseases, their
symptoms, cause and control
Barley Yellow Wheat Streak Soil-Borne Spindle Streak
Dwarf Mosaic Mosaic Mosaic

When to expect first symptoms 6 to 8 weeks 4 to 6 weeks Early spring. 1 to Early spring. 1 to
after growth after growth 2 weeks after 2 weeks after
begins in spring - begins in spring growth begins in spring growth
yellow to reddish spring. Cold begins. Cold
flag leaves spring can spring can
extend extend
symptoms longer symptoms
longer.
Typical pattern in field Random circular Most noticeable Often circular or More widespread
areas along edges of oval areas, in field than soil-
fields or near especially in wet borne mosaic.
volunteer wheat . areas or cool
Diminishs as you soils.
go into the field.

10
 Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

Leaf symptoms Leaf tips bright Bright yellow Pale yellow Pale yellow
yellow on upper leaves with leaves with leaves with
leaves, or streaking mosaic patterns mosaic patterns
reddish flag patterns toward
leaves -- most tips. Most
distinct. prominent on
upper leaves.
Curling of upper
leaves.
Stunting Some-but hard to Severe stunting Some stunting Mild stunting
identify; fewer from fall but also some and fewer tillers
tillers infections recovery after
warm weather
Poor roots; Poor roots; Poor roots; Poor roots;
Other symptoms susceptible to wilting; prostrate winter injury winter injury
winter injury tillers
Vectors Several aphid Wheat curl mite Fungus Fungus
species Aceria tulipae --Polymyxa --Polymyxa
graminis graminis

Conditions favoring infection Long warm fall Long warm fall. Wet soil in fall. Wet soil in fall.
Early volunteer Cool Cool
wheat from hail temperatures in temperatures in
or other factors spring. spring.
at harvest.
Control Resistant or Destroy Soft red winter Resistant
tolerant varieties volunteer wheat. wheat varieties cultivars. Late
Delay planting to usually more planting.
"fly free date." tolerant than
hard red winter
wheat varieties

Fusarium Head Blight (FHB)

Fusarium is multi-species of fungus stemming from the fusrium
graminearum, it causes extensive damage in wheat crops by reducing the
yield and grade, further more it may contaminate the grains with fungal
toxins (mycotoxins).

Figure 8 - Wheat kernels and head infected by fusarium fungi

• FHB is recognized in the field by the premature bleaching of

infected spikelets and the production of orange, spore-bearing
structures called sporodochia at the base of the glumes. During wet

11
 Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

weather, there may be whitish, occasionally pinkish, fluffy fungal

growth on infected heads in the field. The fungus may eventually kill
the seeds at about soft dough stage.
• FHB prefers warm moist conditions during flowering and early
stages of kernel development to proliferate.
• Using corn in rotation with small grains increases the chance of
fusarium head blight, as the corn stubble harbours huge amounts of
fusarium fungi.
• The mycotoxin contamination can cause (depends on level and type
of toxin) several different unpleasant problems, in animals and
human if the infected wheat is consumed.
• Using tested and certified seeds is the most important step in
prevention of the fungus.
• Infected grain, plants, straw and any other part of the plant must be
either completely burned to destroy further spread to roadside
plants. Fusarium fungus is also killed in the digestive system of the
cattle so; the straw can be feed to animals but must be
quarantined.
• In crop rotation care needs to be taken to avoid host plants, in
rotation.
• Fungicides needs to be applied as soon as possible and all farmers
in the neighbourhood must take swift action to prevent and control
the fungus outbreak.

References

http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN2250743020080522
http://www.wheatfoods.org/AboutWheat-wheat-facts/Index.htm
http://pgrc.ipk-gatersleben.de/dendro/
http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/agdex92?
opendocument
http://ipm.illinois.edu/fieldcrops/wheat/diseases.html
http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/field/news/croppest/2008/04cp
o08a7.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheat

12
Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

13
 Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

Index

List of wheat diseases

Bacterial diseases
Pseudomonas syringae subsp.
Bacterial leaf blight
syringae
Clavibacter michiganensis subsp.
Bacterial mosaic
tessellarius
Bacterial sheath rot Pseudomonas fuscovaginae
Pseudomonas syringae pv.
Basal glume rot
atrofaciens
Black chaff = bacterial Xanthomonas campestris pv.
streak translucens
Pink seed Erwinia rhapontici
Rathayibacter tritici = Clavibacter
tritici
Spike blight =
= Corynebacterium michiganense
gummosis
pv. tritici
Clavibacter iranicus

Fungal diseases
Alternaria leaf blight Alternaria triticina
Colletotrichum graminicola
Anthracnose
Glomerella graminicola [teleomorph]
Ascochyta leaf spot Ascochyta tritici
Microdochium bolleyi
Aureobasidium decay
= Aureobasidium bolleyi
Alternaria spp.
Cladosporium spp.
Black head molds =
Epicoccum spp.
sooty molds
Sporobolomyces spp.
Stemphylium spp. and other genera
Thought to be associated with funal infection
Black point = kernel
however no clear link found, now thought to be a
smudge
result of physiological circumstances
Hymenula cerealis
Cephalosporium stripe
= Cephalosporium gramineum
Tilletia tritici
Common bunt = stinking = Tilletia caries
smut Tilletia laevis
= Tilletia foetida
Cochliobolus sativus [teleomorph]
Common root rot Bipolaris sorokiniana [anamorph]
= Helminthosporium sativum
Cottony snow mold Coprinus psychromorbidus
Crown rot = foot rot, Fusarium spp.
seedling blight, dryland Fusarium pseudograminearum
root rot Gibberella zeae
Fusarium graminearum Group II [anamorph]
Gibberella avenacea
Fusarium avenaceum [anamorph]

14
 Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

Fusarium culmorum
Dilophospora leaf spot =
Dilophospora alopecuri
twist
Downy mildew = crazy
Sclerophthora macrospora
top
Dwarf bunt Tilletia controversa
Claviceps purpurea
Ergot
Sphacelia segetum [anamorph]
Tapesia yallundae
Ramulispora herpotrichoides [anamorph]
= Pseudocercosporella herpotrichoides W-
Eyespot = foot rot, pathotype
strawbreaker Tapesia acuformis
Ramulispora acuformis [anamorph]
= Pseudocercosporella herpotrichoides var.
acuformis R-pathoytpe
False eyespot Gibellina cerealis
Flag smut Urocystis agropyri
Foot rot = dryland foot
Fusarium spp.
rot
Pseudoseptoria donacis
Halo spot
= Selenophoma donacis
Karnal bunt = partial Tilletia indica
bunt = Neovossia indica
Puccinia triticina
Leaf rust = brown rust = Puccinia recondita f.sp. tritici
Puccinia tritici-duri
Phaeosphaeria herpotrichoides
Leptosphaeria leaf spot = Leptosphaeria herpotrichoides
Stagonospora sp. [anamorph]
Ustilago tritici
= Ustilago segetum var. tritici
Loose smut
Ustilago segetum var. nuda
Ustilago segetum var. avenae
Phaeosphaeria microscopica
Microscopica leaf spot
= Leptosphaeria microscopica
Phoma spp.
Phoma glomerata
Phoma spot
Phoma sorghina
= Phoma insidiosa
Microdochium nivale
Pink snow mold =
= Fusarium nivale
Fusarium patch
Monographella nivalis [teleomorph]
Clathrospora pentamera
Platyspora leaf spot
= Platyspora pentamera
Erysiphe graminis f.sp. tritici
Blumeria graminis
Powdery mildew
= Erysiphe graminis
Oidium monilioides [anamorph]
Pythium root rot Pythium aphanidermatum
Pythium arrhenomanes

15
 Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

Pythium graminicola
Pythium myriotylum
Pythium volutum
Rhizoctonia solani
Rhizoctonia root rot
Thanatephorus cucumeris [teleomorph]
Pyrenophora seminiperda
Ring spot = Wirrega
= Drechslera campanulata
blotch
Drechslera wirreganensis
Fusarium spp.
Gibberella zeae
Fusarium graminearum Group II [anamorph]
Gibberella avenacea
Scab = head blight Fusarium avenaceum [anamorph]
Fusarium culmorum
Microdochium nivale
= Fusarium nivale
Monographella nivalis [teleomorph]
Sclerotinia snow mold = Myriosclerotinia borealis
snow scald = Sclerotinia borealis
Sclerotium wilt (see Sclerotium rolfsii
Southern blight) Athelia rolfsii [teleomorph]
Septoria tritici
Septoria blotch
Mycosphaerella graminicola [teleomorph]
Rhizoctonia cerealis
Sharp eyespot
Ceratobasidium cereale [teleomorph]
Pythium spp.
Pythium aristosporum
Snow rot
Pythium iwayamae
Pythium okanoganense
Southern blight = Sclerotium rolfsii
Sclerotium base rot Athelia rolfsii [teleomorph]
Typhula idahoensis
Speckled snow mold =
Typhula incarnata
gray snow mold or
Typhula ishikariensis
Typhula blight
Typhula ishikariensis var. canadensis
Cochliobolus sativus [teleomorph]
Spot blotch Bipolaris sorokiniana [anamorph]
= Helminthosporium sativum
Phaeosphaeria avenaria f.sp. triticae
Stagonospora avenae f.sp. triticae [anamorph]
= Septoria avenae f.sp. triticea
Stagonospora blotch
Phaeosphaeria nodorum
Stagonospora nodorum [anamorph]
= Septoria nodorum
Puccinia graminis
Stem rust = black rust
= Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici (Ug99)
Aspergillus spp.
Storage molds Penicillium spp.
and others
Puccinia striiformis
Stripe rust = yellow rust
Uredo glumarum [anamorph]
Take-all Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici

16
 Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

Gaeumannomyces graminis var. avenae

Tan spot = yellow leaf Pyrenophora tritici-repentis
spot, red smudge Drechslera tritici-repentis [anamorph]
Phyllachora graminis
Tar spot
Linochora graminis [anamorph]
Wheat Blast Magnaporthe grisea
Lagena radicicola
Ligniera pilorum
Zoosporic root rot
Olpidium brassicae
Rhizophydium graminis

Viral diseases

African cereal streak Maize streak

Agropyron mosaic
Australian wheat striate mosaic
Barley stripe mosaic
Barley yellow dwarf
Barley yellow streak mosaic
Barley yellow striate mosaic
Barley yellow stripe
Rymovirus, Agropyron mosaic virus
(AgMV)
Chloris striate mosaic
Hordeivirus, Barley stripe mosaic virus
(BSMV)
Luteovirus, Barley yellow dwarf virus
(BYDV)
Barley yellow streak mosaic virus
Cytorhabdovirus, Barley yellow striate
mosaic virus (BYSMV)
Barley stripe mosaic

Brome mosaic Bromovirus, Brome mosaic virus (BMV)

Cereal northern mosaic
Cereal tillering
Chloris striate mosaic
Cocksfoot mottle
Eastern wheat striate
Cytorhabdovirus, Cereal northern mosaic
virus (NCMV)
Cereal tillering virus
Monogeminivirus, Chloris striate mosaic
virus (CSMV)
Sobemovirus, Cocksfoot mottle virus
(CoMV)
Eastern wheat striate virus

Enanismo Probable virus or phytoplasma

Probable virus. Vectored by wheat curl
High plains disease
mite, Aceria tosichella
Monogeminivirus, Maize streak virus
Maize streak
(MSV)
Cytorhabdovirus, Cereal northern mosaic
Northern cereal mosaic
virus (NCMV)

17
 Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

Oat sterile dwarf Fijivirus, Oat sterile dwarf virus (OSDV)

Fijivirus, Rice black-streaked dwarf virus
Rice black-streaked dwarf
(RBSDV)
Rice hoja blanca Tenuivirus, Rice hoja blanca virus (RHBV)
Cytorhabdovirus, Russian winter wheat
Russian winter wheat mosaic
mosaic virus (WWRMV)
Seedborne wheat yellows Seedborne wheat yellows viroid
Tobamovirus, Tobacco mosaic virus
Tobacco mosaic
(TMV)
Nucleorhabdovirus, Wheat American
Wheat American striate mosaic
striate mosaic virus (WASMV)
Wheat chlorotic streak = Wheat
Barley yellow striate mosaic
chlorotic streak mosaic
Monogeminivirus, Wheat dwarf virus
Wheat dwarf
(WDV)
Tenuivirus, Wheat European striate
Wheat European striate mosaic
mosaic virus (EWSMV)
Wheat rosette stunt Cereal northern mosaic
Furovirus, Wheat soil-borne mosaic virus
Wheat soilborne mosaic
(SBWMV)
Wheat soilborne yellow mosaic Wheat soil-borne yellow mosaic virus

Wheat spindle streak mosaic a strain of Wheat yellow mosaic virus

Wheat spot mosaic Probable virus or phytoplasma

Rymovirus, Wheat streak mosaic virus
Wheat streak mosaic
(WSMV)
Wheat striate mosaic Wheat American striate mosaic
Closterovirus, Wheat yellow leaf virus
Wheat yellow leaf
(WYLV)
Wheat yellow mosaic virus = Wheat
Wheat yellow mosaic
spindle streak mosaic virus

List of most important wheat pests

Cereal Cyst Nematode

Nematodes Root Knot Nematode
Root Lesion Nematode
Seed Gall Nematode
Insect pests
Aphids
Stink Bugs
Armyworms, Cutworms
Cereal Leaf Beetle

18
 Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

List of most important wheat pests

Thrips
Hessian Fly
Wheat Stem Maggot
Sawfly
Grasshoppers
White Grubs
Wireworms
Mites
Other pests Snails and Slugs
Rodents and Birds

19
Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

20